CHAPTER VII

NEORNITHES CARINATAE _CONCLUDED_

BRIGADE II–LEGION II (CORACIOMORPHAE _CONCLUDED_)

ORDER: PASSERIFORMES

ORDER XIV. PASSERIFORMES.

This Order contains about five thousand five hundred species, being more than half the birds yet known. Their classification is attended with much difficulty, and the anatomy of many more forms must be investigated before anything approaching a satisfactory–not to say final–scheme can be proposed. The earlier taxonomers often based their systems largely on European genera, and were therefore obliged to interpose others, or even to recognise new Families, as their knowledge extended, among the many new discoveries, to various American and Australian forms.

The foundation of recent arrangements of the group, depending on the number or position of the song-muscles, was laid between 1845 and 1847 by Johannes Müller, who divided the then generally accepted Order _Insessores_ into three tribes: (1) _Oscines_ or _Polymyodi_ [Song-birds, or those with many (usually five or seven) pairs of song-muscles]; (2) _Tracheophones_ [where the bronchi take no part in the formation of the voice-organ]; and (3) _Picarii_ [corresponding in the main to Nitzsch's _Picariae_]; the two former of which included most of the Passerine forms. Simultaneously with Müller, Cabanis proposed a system grounded on similar principles; while in 1867 Huxley recognised of his group _Coracomorphae_ the divisions _Polymyodae_, _Tracheophonae_, and _Oligomyodae_ [birds with few song-muscles]. About ten years later Garrod, who was followed between 1880 and 1882 by W. A. Forbes, divided the Passeres into _Desmodactyli_, with a band joining the muscles of the {467}hallux to the front toes, and _Eleutherodactyli_, where the hind toe is free. The former contained only the _Eurylaemidae_; the latter the _Mesomyodi_ (where the syringeal muscles join the bronchial semi-rings in their middle or lateral portion), and the _Acromyodi_ (where they are attached to the extremities). The subdivisions need not be discussed here; but it should be noticed that, as opposed to Müller, the attachment, and not the number, of muscles was the point relied upon. Want of space forbids an account of the subsequent labours of Mr. Sclater,[264] Professors Newton[265] and Fürbringer,[266] and others; but the last-named no doubt influenced considerably the views of Dr. Gadow, mainly accepted below. This author[267] takes into consideration not only the attachment, but also the disposition of the muscles of the syrinx, and distinguishes his _Passeriformes_ as (1) _Passeres anisomyodae_, where the syringeal muscles are unequally inserted, either in the middle, or upon the dorsal or ventral end only, of the bronchial semi-rings; (2) _Passeres diacromyodae_, where some of the muscles are attached to the dorsal, and some to the ventral ends. The former of these groups may be subdivided into A. _Subclamatores_ and B. _Clamatores_; the latter into C. _Suboscines_ and D. _Oscines_. Even the groups (1) and (2) are expressly stated not to rise to the rank of Sub-Orders, while the _Oscines_ and other equivalent divisions are of hardly more than Family value.

The great number of species in the Order _Passeriformes_ makes it necessary to treat the various sections less fully than has been the case in the foregoing portion of the work, while the Families are not, of course, on the same level here as elsewhere.

1. PASSERES ANISOMYODAE.

A. _Subclamatores._

Fam. EURYLAEMIDAE.–The Broad-bills, a curious Old World group, have been by various authors regarded as allied to the Rollers or to the Flycatchers. They are distinguished from all other Passerine forms by the fact that the hallux is connected with the front toes by a vinculum or band joining the deep plantar tendons, and is thus incapable of independent motion. The beak is very {468}broad, while it is comparatively small in _Calyptomena_; _Corydon_, and to a less extent _Eurylaemus_ and _Sarcophanops_, have a decided terminal hook to the maxilla. The metatarsus is scutellated in front and smooth behind (laminiplantar); the hallux is weak; the third and fourth toes are distinctly united, the claws are very short. The moderate wings have ten primaries in _Calyptomena_, eleven elsewhere, _Eurylaemus_ having the eleventh very small; the secondaries are nine or ten; the tail of twelve rectrices is usually long and rounded, but is graduated in _Psarisomus_, short and square in _Calyptomena_. The adults have no aftershaft or down, the tongue is sagittate, and _Sarcophanops_ has naked orbits. The plumage in _Calyptomena viridis_ of the Indo-Malay countries is bright green, with a large black post-auricular and a yellow pre-ocular spot, three black bars on the wing-coverts, and blackish wing- and tail-quills. The duller female has no black spots or bars. The dense frontal feathers project forward over the beak. _C. whiteheadi_ of Borneo has a black throat. These somewhat inactive birds inhabit thin jungles, utter soft whistles, and feed on fruit; the rest of the Family eat little but insects, though _Cymborhynchus macrorhynchus_, the Rain-bird of the Malays, enjoys berries.

[Illustration: FIG. 98.–Broad-bill. _Calyptomena viridis._ × 7/16.]

_Eurylaemus javanicus_ is blackish, with yellow markings on the back, tail, and wings; the head, neck, and under parts being vinous purple, with a black crescentic chest-band, which is absent in the hen. _Corydon sumatranus_ is black, with a white alar bar and a buffish-white throat and fore-neck. They cover much the same area as _Calyptomena_. _Cymborhynchus_ shews black and crimson colours, while the beautiful _Psarisomus dalhousiae_, found from the Eastern Himalayas to Borneo, has a green back and under {469}surface, black and blue head and wings, yellow face and throat, and blue tail becoming black below. _Serilophus_ contains two grey-brown species with chestnut rumps, ranging from Sikkim to Tenasserim. _Sarcophanops_ is peculiar to the Philippines.

The quiet and solitary Broad-bills inhabit forests, thickets, and gardens, flying little, sitting sluggishly on the branches, taking insects on the wing, and uttering whistling or metallic notes. They make large roughish oval nests, with a large entrance near the top often protected by an overhanging roof, while a sort of tail is commonly added; these are suspended from low branches or plants close to water; the materials being twigs, roots, tendrils, moss, or leaves, felted together and smoothly lined with green foliage, flags, bamboo-spathes, or grass, sometimes renewed when dry. From three to five eggs are laid, pale yellowish in _Calyptomena_, white or rarely spotted with red in _Psarisomus_, and pinkish, buff or white elsewhere, with markings varying from black to rufous.

B. _Clamatores._

This group includes the _Pittidae_, _Philepittidae_, _Xenicidae_, _Tyrannidae_, _Oxyrhamphidae_, _Pipridae_, _Cotingidae_, _Phytotomidae_, _Dendrocolaptidae_, _Formicariidae_, _Conopophagidae_, and _Pteroptochidae_.

Apparently the furcula is U-shaped; the tongue varies; the aftershaft is small, if present; the down is sparing or absent.

Fam. I. PITTIDAE.–The members of this Old World Family, nearly fifty in number, range from India to North China, East Australia, New Guinea, and New Britain; while one species is West African. They are stout, strong-billed forms, with short rounded wings and tail, the long metatarsus being more or less scutellated all round; the primaries number ten–the outer being decidedly long–the secondaries eight, the rectrices twelve. The plumage exhibits vivid scarlet, blue, and green tints, in addition to yellow, purple, black, brown, and white; elongated neck-feathers occur in _Anthocincla_, erect frontal plumes in _Coracopitta_. The tail in _Pitta_ is nearly square, but is pointed in _Eucichla_, and _Coracopitta_. The habits seem to be fairly uniform, all the species haunting thickish jungle or dense scrub, whether in the rock-strewn glens of India, or the damp Malayan, Australian, and Papuasian forests. The birds are more often heard than seen, though the plaintive, oft-repeated double whistle of the smaller forms, or the mournful, triple cry of the larger, is seldom audible in the mid-day heat, both being recognisable by the long-drawn final syllable.

{470}[Illustration: FIG. 99.–_Pitta brachyura._ × 3/7.]

They are chiefly terrestrial, and jump from rock to rock or branch to stump with great agility; their apparently leisurely movements being really so quick that a mere glimpse is usually obtained through some opening in the foliage, while their habits are consequently difficult to observe. The quiet watcher may, however, hear the birds pattering over the beds of leaves, and see them hunting for molluscs and insects, or digging for worms and ants, but the slightest movement causes them to depart with long rapid hops, exchanged under pressure for a low, direct noiseless flight of short duration. Pittas are habitually, though not invariably, solitary, and are especially shy when breeding. _P. moluccensis_ ascends the trees to call, _P. oatesi_ occasionally whistles at night, while _P. novae guineae_ flirts its tail like a Wagtail. The exposed nest, with its lateral entrance, is frequently placed on the ground at the foot of a tree or shrub, but sometimes amongst undergrowth or in very low forks; it is a rounded fabric of twigs, roots, bark, moss, leaves, and grass, often cemented with earth; the larger species making a clumsier and looser structure, the smaller a more compact mass. Unspotted eggs are rare, the usual colour being creamy-white with brown, reddish, grey, or purplish-black spots or scrawls; the number is from three to six. _Anthocincla phayrii_ and _Pitta cucullata_ are said occasionally to build a platform of sticks before their doorway, and the latter a projecting roof over it. The former species, which inhabits Burma, is brown with a black coronal streak, black and white superciliary stripes, white throat, and pink vent; _Pitta caerulea_ is bright blue above, with black occiput and nape, but an otherwise ashy head; it is greyish-buff below, with a partial black collar. The female {471}has a brown back, and a buffish head, with black cross-bars and collar. This very large form ranges from Tenasserim to Sumatra and Borneo; the smaller _P. cyanea_ of Bhutan, Burma, and Siam is somewhat similar, but has a scarlet nape, and bluish under parts with black bars. _P. maxima_ of Gilolo is glossy black, with blue wing-coverts, a white alar bar, green edges to the secondaries, white lower surface, black chin, and crimson belly. _P. granatina_ of Borneo is purplish-black, with scarlet occiput and nape, blue superciliary stripe, some blue on the wing, purplish throat, and scarlet belly. _P. baudi_ of the same island is crimson above, with blue crown and tail, black nape, and white alar bar; the lower parts being black, with purple and blue abdomen: the female is dull brown below. _P. cyanoptera_, reaching from Burma and Borneo to South China, is dull green above, with a dark central stripe and a black margin to the brownish crown; the black wing shews a white bar, and azure on the coverts; the tip of the black tail and the rump are blue; the lower surface is buff, with crimson on the belly. Several species have green under parts, a blue pectoral band, or no blue on the rump and wings. _P. angolensis_ inhabits West Africa, _P. nympha_ North China and Tsu-shima Island, _P. iris_ and _P. strepitans_ Australia; the latter reaches New Guinea, where it meets, among other forms, the entirely black _Coracopitta lugubris_, as well as _P. mackloti_, which extends to New Britain.

[Illustration: FIG. 100.–_Philepitta jala._ × ⅜.]

Fam. II. PHILEPITTIDAE.–This contains only the two species of _Philepitta_, peculiar to Madagascar, which have bare orbits surmounted by a green caruncle in the male, and metatarsi with a regular series of scales behind (taxaspidean). _P. jala_ is black, with yellow at the bend of the wing; the female is olive-green with yellow markings below. _P. schlegeli_ is green above and yellow below in {472}both sexes, the male having a black head, the female white streaks on that part. The outward form and habits recall those of _Pitta_, but the latter are more arboreal. The young are apparently spotted, unlike those of the Pittidae, which resemble the adults.

Fam. III. XENICIDAE.–This contains the genera _Acanthidositta_ and _Traversia_, each with one species, and _Xenicus_ with two; they are remarkable New Zealand forms, in which the weak syringeal muscles only reach the lowest tracheal ring. The slender metatarsi are almost smooth, the claws acute and elongated; the short rectrices number ten, and the tenth primary is nearly equal to the next; the secondaries are eight. The tongue is lanceolate and horny. The stout-billed, long-legged _Xenicus longipes_ has dark green upper parts, a brown crown, a yellowish rump and sides, black cheeks, whitish superciliary stripes and throat, and silky, bluish-grey under parts. The female is chiefly brown. _X. gilviventris_ is olive-brown on the back and cheeks, and purplish-brown beneath, with some rufous and a black spot on the wing. Both forms inhabit the South Island, and are called "Bush-Wren" and Rock-Wren respectively. The former frequents dark sub-alpine forests, restlessly searching the trees for insects, their chrysalids and larvae, and uttering a weak note or a trill. It is seldom seen on the ground, yet flies but little, as might be expected from its short, rounded wings. The compact domed nest of moss, placed in low forks or in tree-roots, contains five or six white eggs with pink blotches; when built in holes it is open. The other species lives among débris high up the hills, being almost entirely terrestrial, skulking round the boulders, and eating dragonflies, lepidoptera, and insects generally, with scraps of fat from any traveller's camp. The nest of roots, twigs, and leaves, lined with feathers, is placed in crevices, and contains some five white eggs. The similar _Traversia lyalli_ of Stephens Island is said to be nocturnal. _Acanthidositta chloris_, the Rifleman, is dull green above with yellower rump, and fulvous white below; the moderate wings are blackish, with green edgings and yellow bars; the eye-stripe is white; the short rounded tail is black with light tip. The female has an olive upper surface with brown markings, a yellow rump, and buffish under parts. This species inhabits the hill-forests of both the main islands of New Zealand, where it actively searches the trees for food with quivering wings, and utters a feeble "cheep." The more or less bottle-shaped nest, placed in holes in trees, {473}buildings, and so forth, is formed of bents, roots, and feathers, and contains from three to five white eggs.

Fam. IV. TYRANNIDAE.–This comprises some four hundred species, chiefly of an olive or black-and-grey coloration, which is occasionally relieved by bright scarlet as in _Pyrocephalus_, orange-red as in _Muscivora_, or yellow as in _Todirostrum_; but these hues are not necessarily common to whole genera. _Agriornis_ and _Megarhynchus_ are exceptionally large forms, but the majority are small, and in habits and appearance resemble the Old World Flycatchers, or even Shrikes. From the former, however, they are easily distinguished by their normal outer primary and the exteriorly scutellated back of the metatarsus (exaspidean). Dr. Sclater[268] recognises four Sub-families, _Taeniopterinae_, _Platyrhynchinae_, _Elaineinae_, and _Tyranninae_.

The curved bill, varying in length and stoutness, is compressed and bristly at the gape in the Taeniopterinae, hardly bristly in the Elaineinae, depressed and decidedly bristly in the Platyrhynchinae and Tyranninae; while the culmen is most strongly hooked in the larger species, being much curved in _Oncostoma_, particularly broad and flat in _Platyrhynchus_, _Megarhynchus_, _Muscivora_, _Todirostrum_, and _Euscarthmus_, swollen and very wide in _Rhynchocyclus_. In the first and last of the Sub-families the metatarsus is strong and often long; in the remainder it is comparatively weak; _Centrites_ has an extremely elongated hallux, correlated with Lark-like habits. The wing is usually short, but is often long in the Taeniopterinae and Tyranninae; the outer of the ten primaries are at times acuminate in _Tyrannus_, _Hapalocercus_, _Cnipolegus_, and _Taenioptera_, whereas in _Colopterus_ and _Alectrurus_ these quills are unusually reduced. The secondaries are nine. The tail, normally of twelve rectrices, varies much in length, and is very deeply forked and graduated in _Milvulus_, _Muscipipra_, and three members of _Tyrannus_, moderately divided in _Contopus_ and certain species of _Taenioptera_, and so forth; it is not infrequently nearly square; while it is long and rounded in _Capsiempis_ and the like; long and graduated, with only ten narrowly-barbed feathers in _Culicivora_; of the same shape in _Cybernetes_; and excessively reduced in _Orchilus ecaudatus_. _Copurus_ possesses two very long median rectrices; the male of _Alectrurus tricolor_ has the two fairly long outer feathers with their inner webs abnormally developed, and that of _A. risorius_ has them enormously lengthened and broadened.

{474}The Taeniopterinae, which are generally black, grey, and white, frequent the open parts of wooded districts, river-sides, or exceptionally marshes, in South America, a few of them extending north of Panama; the Elaineinae and Platyrhynchinae are olive, grey, brown, and yellow, and inhabit dense forests from South Mexico to Patagonia, _Ornithion imberbe_ ranging as far north as Texas; the Tyranninae–with many large species–normally exhibit olive, grey, yellow, or white in varying proportions, and include most of the Nearctic genera, such as _Contopus_, _Empidonax_, _Myiarchus_, and _Tyrannus_, as well as many Neotropical forms, and the entirely Antillean _Blacicus_ and _Lawrencia_. Erectile crests occur in some cases in _Tyrannulus_, _Cnipolegus_, _Colopterus_, _Pseudotriccus_, _Lophotriccus_, _Machetornis_, _Muscivora_, _Empidonax_, _Anaeretes_, _Elainea_, _Pyrocephalus_, _Myiobius_, and _Mitrephanes_; white eye-rings are found in _Euscarthmus zosterops_, _E. orbitatus_, and _Capsiempis orbitalis_; a fleshy yellow caruncle surrounds each eye in _Lichenops_; and in the breeding male of _Alectrurus risorius_ the throat and cheeks shew bare orange skin.

The following are examples of the coloration, which is often similar in both sexes. _Tyrannus pipiri_, the King-bird of temperate North America, ranging to Peru in winter, is dark grey, with a concealed orange patch on the black crown, black and white wings and tail, and white under parts. _Pyrocephalus rubineus_, of South America north of Buenos Aires, is dark cinereous with crimson head and lower surface, the female being grey above, and chiefly white below with grey stripes. _Muscivora regia_ of Guiana and Amazonia is brown, with a scarlet crest tipped with purplish, and has ochraceous under parts with brownish bars. The crest is yellower in the hen. _Megarhynchus pitangua_, of Central and South America to Paraguay, is brown, with yellow lower surface, a black head, white superciliary streaks joining on the nape, a concealed orange coronal patch, and a white throat. _Elainea pagana_, ranging from South Mexico to Brazil, is dull olive above, and greyish-white below with yellow belly; a spot on the crown and two alar bars being white. _Cyanotis azarae_ of La Plata, Chili, and West Peru has bronzy-green upper and yellow lower surface, with a partial black band beneath and a crimson vent; the head is black with a crimson spot, the wings and tail are black and white. _Todirostrum cinereum_ of Central America and eastern South America is greyish above and yellow below, with black crown, wings, and tail, the primaries having yellow edges and {475}the tail a white tip. _Taenioptera dominicana_, of South-East Brazil and Argentina, is white with the wings and tail mainly black; _Cnipolegus unicolor_ of Upper Amazonia is uniform black.

Tyrants are active and restless birds, chiefly met with near rivers or marshes, where they are constantly seen sitting alone on the branches of trees, bushes, dead thistles, and giant pampas-grasses, or more rarely, as in the Chat-like _Muscisaxicola_, on clods and boulders; thence they dart, like Flycatchers, upon their prey. _Centrites_ frequents bare plains and loves the ground; _Serpophaga_ and _Sayornis_ haunt streams, and flirt the tail like a Wagtail; _Fluvicola_, _Alectrurus_, and _Cyanotis_ inhabit reed-beds, and climb about the bending stems in Tit-like fashion; the Taeniopterinae are mainly terrestrial, and often form flocks, _Myiotheretes_ running and flying like a Thrush, and even accompanying bands of Plovers; _Machetornis_ searches the backs of cattle for insects, and dusts itself like a Lark. Many members of the family are decidedly shy, but the majority are otherwise, and in especial the Tyranninae, which are excessively bold and pugnacious when breeding, attacking even the Carrion-Hawk (_Milvago_), and bullying their smaller relatives. In a fair number of species the sexes are usually observed apart; in others they are as invariably in company. The range extends to ten thousand feet or more in the Andes, _Muscisaxicola macloviana_ being found at that altitude, as well as down to the sea-coast in Patagonia; while in some cases semi-migratory movements take place at certain times of year. The powers of wing are commonly great, especially in the agile King-bird and its congeners; _Taenioptera_ and _Agriornis_ can fly as well as hop; _Centrites_, though of terrestrial habits, moves swiftly or circles easily in the air; _Pitangus_ and _Empidonax minimus_ quarter the ground for food with undulating movements. _Pyrocephalus rubineus_ soars with upraised vibrating wings to a considerable height, with many a rise and fall; _Alectrurus tricolor_ goes slowly and vertically up with rapid pulsations of the pinions, and then comes slanting down; while the graceful Scissor-tail (_Milvulus_) twists and turns about in the air, alternately opening and shutting its long forked rectrices, or whirling aloft at will to dart earthwards again like a rocket.

{476}[Illustration: FIG. 101.–Scissor-tail. _Milvulus tyrannus._ × 2/7.]

The usual note is shrill, piercing, and often harsh or angry, as in _Tyrannus_, _Myiarchus_, and _Machetornis_; it is loud, grating, and rarely mellow, in _Pitangus_ and _Cybernetes_; a low plaintive whistle or pipe is uttered by _Myiotheretes_, _Cyanotis_, and most of the Taeniopterinae, _Sayornis_ having a ringing cry, _supposed_ to resemble "Phoebe," which name it bears in North America, and _Fluvicola_ and _Cnipolegus_ giving vent to clicking sounds. Many species twitter, chirp, or chatter, while _Pyrocephalus rubineus_, _Hapalocercus flaviventer_, _Ornithion imberbe_, _Contopus ardesiacus_, and _Empidonax flaviventer_ are stated to have a pleasant trill approaching a song. These notes may be uttered by the birds either when soaring in the air or when stationary. The food normally consists of insects, caught upon the wing with an audible snap of the bill; but _Taenioptera_ often, instead of hawking from a perch, pounces upon crawling beetles, grasps them in its claws, and devours them upon the earth. _Pitangus bolivianus_ and some other forms even eat mice, young birds, small snakes, lizards, fishes, frogs, spiders, molluscs, worms, and insect-larvae, beating the larger creatures upon a branch to kill them. _Elainea strepera_, _Myiarchus crinitus_, and some species of _Tyrannus_, will eat berries and seeds. A bulky nest is often fashioned of rough twigs, moss, grass, straws, wool, hair, and rags; which may be open as in _Tyrannus_, or domed as in _Pitangus bolivianus_, and placed in trees in either case: or it may be beautifully felted with moss, lichens, and spiders'-webs, and lined with hair and feathers, as in _Elainea_ and _Serpophaga_. _Sayornis_ commonly makes a foundation of mud pellets, adding coarse materials above with feathers for bedding, the fabric being fixed to rocks or buildings. Again, many species build slight or fairly compact nests of grass, twigs, and softer materials {477}in bushes, forks, or outgrowths of trees. _Copurus_, _Taenioptera_, _Machetornis_, and _Myiarchus_ commonly use old holes of Woodpeckers; _Todirostrum_ and _Fluvicola_ often make hanging purse-like structures; _Cyanotis_ attaches its conical nest of papery reeds to the stems of those plants; _Serpophaga_ frequently suspends its domicile to twigs, roots, or _grasses_ overhanging water; _Alectrurus_, _Lichenops_, _Hapalocercus_, and _Centrites_ build in rush- or grass-tufts, and _Muscisaxicola_ under stones. _Taenioptera_ and _Machetornis_, moreover, will lay in the "ovens" of _Furnarius_, or in the nests of _Anumbius acuticaudus_ (pp. 486, 487). _Muscivora mexicana_ makes a curious hanging spindle-shaped nest, surrounded by loose materials. The eggs are usually whitish, salmon- or cream-coloured, and may be unspotted, or dotted and ringed with red, purple, or brown; those of _Pyrocephalus rubineus_ have black and grey markings, those of _Machetornis_ dense brown stripes or spots, those of _Myiarchus_ tangled purple or red-brown lines and marblings, while those of _Centrites niger_ are plain bluish-green.

Fam. V. OXYRHAMPHIDAE.–The members differ from the _Tyrannidae_ in the straight bill, and the serrated outer web of the tenth primary of the male. The sole genus _Oxyrhamphus_ has three greenish forms, with red crests, and black-spotted yellow or white lower parts.

Fam. VI. PIPRIDAE.–The Manakins, often considered a sub-section of the Cotingidae, are for the most part small thick-set birds, though _Heteropelma_ and some other genera have greater dimensions. The seventy or more species may be divided into the Sub-families, _Piprinae_, with brilliant males, and _Ptilochlorinae_, where the sexes are usually dull-coloured and similar;[269] the former ranging from South Mexico to North Argentina, the latter to South-East Brazil. The curved bill is generally short and wide at the base in the Piprinae, with an indistinct terminal notch; but is somewhat elongated, much compressed, decidedly notched, and usually provided with rictal bristles in the Ptilochlorinae. The metatarsus is exaspidean (p. 473)–though nearly smooth in _Metopothrix_ and _Masius_–and is comparatively slender in most of the Piprinae, stronger in the Ptilochlorinae, _Piprites_, and _Ceratopipra_; the outer and mid-toes being partially united. The exterior of the ten primaries is always short, while the wing is much elongated in _Chloropipo_; the secondaries are nine or ten. {478}In the males of some forms the remiges differ from those of the females; thus the shafts of the primaries are thickened and pointed in _Chiroxiphia_, similar but incurved in _Helicura_ and _Chiromachaeris_, with much attenuated barbs in the latter; in _Ptilochloris_ the seventh primary is modified and bends outwards. In _Machaeropterus_ the wing-bones are flattened; the secondaries have thick stems bending inwards towards the tip, and shew reduced vanes, save the eighth and ninth, while the sixth and seventh have the shaft terminally developed into a horny excrescence. The tail is usually short and square, but is long in _Chloropipo_ and _Metopia_, rounded in the latter and _Masius_, graduated in _Metopothrix_ and _Heterocercus_. The outer of the twelve feathers are much elongated in _Cirrhopipra_, being acuminate in _C. heterocerca_, curved and filiform in _C. filicauda_; the two median rectrices are lengthened in _Helicura_; while in three species of _Chiroxiphia_ they are also long, or even linear in _C. linearis_. Frontal crests occur in _Metopia_, _Masius_, and _Metopothrix_; vertical crests in _Pipra serena_, _P. suavissima_, and four species of _Chiroxiphia_; _Ceratopipra_ has a peculiar extended nuchal tuft, _Chiromachaeris_ an elongated beard.

[Illustration: FIG. 102.–Manakin. _Pipra mentalis._ × ½.]

As examples of coloration we may take the following:–_Chloropipo flavicapilla_ has a yellow head, neck, and under parts, a green back, and brownish wings; _Xenopipo atronitens_ is uniform black; _Ceratopipra cornuta_, black with scarlet head, neck, and thighs; _Cirrhopipra filicauda_ similarly coloured, with yellow forehead and lower surface. _Pipra leucocilla_ is black with a white crown; _P. velutina_ has a blue cap, _P. suavissima_ an erect white vertical crest, lilac rump, and orange mid-abdomen. _Machaeropterus regulus_ exhibits green upper parts, a scarlet crown, slaty wing- and tail-quills, and white, green, and rufous under surface. _Chiroxiphia pareola_ is black, with blue mantle and crimson crest; _Chiromachaeris aurantiaca_ is also black, with orange nuchal band, cheeks and breast, green rump, and yellow abdomen. The females are green, with yellowish or whitish tints below. {479}_Ptilochloris squamata_ is in both sexes olive-green, with blackish cap and wings, and yellowish under parts marked with black; others again of the Ptilochlorinae are chiefly olive or rufous,[270] three species of _Heteropelma_ having concealed coronal patches of yellow.

Manakins as a rule inhabit deep forests, or thick undergrowth near marshes, where they incessantly creep about the branches like Tits, and take short flights after passing insects. _Chiroxiphia caudata_ is called in Brazil the "Fandango-bird," from the fact that one individual often sits and sings, while its fellows dance up and down to the music. Two males of _C. linearis_ have been seen skipping before a female, and uttering meanwhile their cry of "to-le-do." _Chiromachaeris_ makes a sound like a whip cracking, followed by a continuous rattle–possibly caused by the wings; but this noise seems peculiar to the genus, the usual cry being loud and whistling. Fruits of all sorts, especially berries and seeds, and occasionally insects, form the food. _Chiromachaeris manacus_ and _Chiroxiphia caudata_ hang loose, shallow nests of grass–the latter with slight additions of wool, hair, tendrils, and leaves–from the forks of low shrubs; the two eggs being reddish-or yellowish-white, thickly blotched with red or brown.

Fam. VII. COTINGIDAE.–This group, divided by Mr. Sclater[271] into the Sub-families _Tityrinae_, _Lipauginae_, _Attilinae_, _Rupicolinae_, _Cotinginae_, and _Gymnoderinae_, contains more than a hundred species; but the _Attilinae_ are sometimes placed in the Tyrannidae or the Formicariidae, _Iodopleura_ and _Calyptura_ in the Pipridae. The range extends from South Mexico to Argentina, _Carpodectes_ being restricted to Costa Rica and Nicaragua, _Phoenicocercus_, _Haematoderus_, and _Gymnocephalus_ to Guinea and Amazonia, _Doliornis_ to Central Peru, _Tijuca_, _Phibalura_, and _Calyptura_ to South Brazil.

The bill varies from strong, elongated, compressed, and curved, as in _Tijuca_, the Tityrinae and Attilinae, to short and broad, as in _Phibalura_, _Querula_, and _Chasmorhynchus_; the culmen being particularly elevated in _Gymnoderus_, and much hooked in the Attilinae. The metatarsus, scutellated in front, and usually covered with small round scales behind (pycnaspidean), is especially strong in _Pyroderus_ and _Rupicola_, partly feathered in the latter, and posteriorly corrugated in _Lipaugus_; while _Attila_ and other kindred forms have the outer toes somewhat {480}connected. The wings may be long, as in _Carpodectes_ and _Iodopleura_, or short as in _Phoenicocercus_ and _Calyptura_; the ten primaries, of which the outer is small, are much reduced and twisted in _Chirocylla_–particularly in the male; in that sex of _Rupicola_ some have the inner web cut away at the tip, while the external secondaries have the outer vanes filamentous; the Tityrinae have the ninth primary abbreviated and often scimetar-shaped; the seventh has a terminal horny process in the male of _Phoenicocercus_. The secondaries are ten or eleven. In _Xipholena_ the greater coverts are stiff and elongated. The tail of twelve rectrices is usually moderate and square; though very short in the Cotinginae, long in _Tijuca_, deeply forked in _Phibalura_, and nearly hidden by its coverts in _Cotinga amabilis_. Bristles surround the gape in the Lipauginae and Attilinae, but vary elsewhere; _Rupicola_ has a large compressed crest, _Cephalopterus_ (Fig. 103), one like an umbrella, _Phoenicocercus_, _Doliornis_, _Heliochera_, _Calyptura_, and _Phibalura_ moderate tufts. Wattles and naked areas occur in _Chasmorhynchus_ and _Cephalopterus_; some species of _Tityra_ have the lores and orbits bare; _Gymnoderus_ has the sides of the head and the whole neck, _Gymnocephalus_ the entire head unfeathered.

The plumage is ordinarily plain rufous, green, or grey; the females being nearly always dull, though many of the males are very brilliant. Among these _Tityra_ exhibits black and white hues, _Hadrostomus_ is chiefly grey or black, with a rosy band below in three cases, _Pachyrhamphus_ is green, black, yellow, rufous, or grey, sometimes varied with white. _Lathria streptophora_ has a pink collar, _Aulia_ irregular black spots below. _Phoenicocercus carnifex_ is dark brown, with scarlet crown, rump, most of the tail and under parts; _Rupicola crocea_, the well-known Cock of the Rock, is bright orange, with brown and white wings and partly blackish rectrices; _Phibalura flavirostris_ is black and yellow with concealed scarlet crest; _Tijuca_ is black, with yellow on the wing; _Ampelion_ is green, relieved by brown, black, and yellow; _Pipreola_ is green, with black, scarlet, yellow, or orange markings on the throat or breast; _Cotinga_ exhibits splendid blue and purple tints; _Xipholena pompadora_ has an unusual reddish-purple hue, coupled with almost white wings. _Carpodectes_ is snowy white, with leaden-coloured or yellow bill; _Heliochera_ has black, grey, white, or yellow coloration, with a chestnut crest; _Iodopleura_ shews a lilac tuft on each side of the breast; and _Calyptura_ {481}is chiefly greenish-yellow, with a scarlet, black-edged crest. Of the peculiar Gymnoderinae, _Haematoderus_, which has elongated head-, neck-, rump-, and breast-feathers, is crimson with brown wings and tail, the female having brown on the back; _Querula_ is dull black with a red collar of lengthened plumes; _Pyroderus_ is black with crimson throat and fore-neck. _Cephalopterus ornatus_, the Umbrella-bird, is entirely black, with a huge expanded umbrella-like crest of bare-shafted incurved feathers, and a long flattened and feathered gular wattle; _C. penduliger_ has this appendage extraordinarily long and cylindrical; _C. glabricollis_ a bare orange throat with a terminal tuft on the red outgrowth. _Chasmorhynchus niveus_ is white, with a spiral erectile process on the forehead, thinly covered with white feathers: _C. nudicollis_ has the cheeks and throat naked and bristly, but lacks the excrescence; _C. variegatus_ is white, with a brown head, black wings, and bare papillose throat; _C. tricarunculatus_ is chestnut, with a white head bearing three caruncles, on the forehead and at the gape. In this genus the females are green above and chiefly yellow below. The bill may be orange or red in the Family, while _Gymnoderus_ alone has large white powder-down patches on the flanks.

[Illustration: FIG. 103.–Umbrella-bird. _Cephalopterus ornatus._ × ⅕.]

{482}[Illustration: FIG. 104.–Bell-bird. _Chasmorhynchus niveus._ × 2/7. (From _Waterton's Wanderings_.)]

The habits of these woodland birds are comparatively little known, but most of them frequent high trees, though some prefer low bushes; such forms as _Lipaugus_ and _Heteropelma_ haunt dense forests, _Pipreola_ and _Phibalura_ more open situations, while small flocks often occur at considerable elevations, _Heliochera_ reaching ten thousand feet. _Cephalopterus ornatus_ loves islands in rivers, _Chasmorhynchus_ and _Xenopsaris_ marshy glades or even sedge-growth. The flight, usually of short duration, is heavy and noisy in _Pipreola_ and elsewhere, Swallow-like in _Phibalura_; insects are often captured on the wing, and not only these but spiders, molluscs, and even lizards, are occasionally sought upon the ground. Berries, seeds, and the like, however, constitute the chief food. _Cephalopterus_ and _Hadrostomus_, at least occasionally, beat their prey upon a branch before swallowing it. The members of this Family are usually somewhat shy and dull, but the males of _Rupicola_ were observed by Schomburgk to dance in turn with outspread wings before an assembled flock, strutting and parading with frequent leaps. This bird is credited with a voice like a monkey; _Chasmorhynchus niveus_ is termed Campanero or Bell-bird from its clear, bell-like note, uttered with the caruncle erected, while its congeners have also ringing cries; _Cephalopterus_ gives vent to long deep "lowings" at sunrise and sunset. _Tityra semifasciata_ utters frog-like sounds, _Pachyrhamphus_ a loud whistle, and other species notes resembling those of Tanagers, Tyrants, or Wrens. _Rupicola_ fastens a nest of mud, surmounted by twigs and lined with moss, to projections of rocks {483}in damp, sunless caves, laying two buff eggs with reddish-brown and lilac spots; _Pyroderus orenocensis_ deposits similar eggs on platforms of sticks placed in tree-forks; _Tityra semifasciata_ lines holes in decayed limbs with dry grass to receive its white eggs; _Hadrostomus niger_, _H. homochrous_, and some species of _Pachyrhamphus_, hang big nests of such materials as leaves, plant-stalks and wool, with side entrances, from low branches; the two to four eggs, where known, being chocolate, faintly marked or unspotted; _Phibalura_ fixes a cup of lichens in the crotch of a large tree, laying twice annually two greenish-blue eggs with neutral markings; _Cephalopterus_ is said to make a rough nest of sticks; and _Pipreola riefferi_ to deposit pale salmon-coloured eggs, sparingly spotted with reddish-brown.

Fam. VIII. PHYTOTOMIDAE.–The Plant-cutters constitute a single genus _Phytotoma_, of four Finch-like species, having strongly serrated bills and pycnaspidean (p. 479) metatarsi. The primaries number ten, the secondaries nine, the rectrices twelve. _P. rara_ of Chili is brown and black, with red crown and lower surface, white margins to the wing-coverts, and red-banded lateral tail-feathers; the female has yellowish-brown under parts streaked with black, and a brown crown. _P. raimondii_ of North-West Peru is somewhat like, but has only a narrow red frontlet; _P. angustirostris_ of Bolivia is greyer, with white on the secondaries and tail, and a browner breast; the hen being chiefly greyish, with black striations above and spots below; _P. rutila_ of Argentina and North Patagonia is very similar. Flocks or pairs of Plant-eaters are found in dry open situations, the former often consisting solely of the comparatively unsuspicious males; they sit aloft on bushes, but hide when alarmed. The flight is whirring with sudden short undulations; the food consists of seeds and other fruits, tender shoots, buds and leaves; while the voice is decidedly harsh, the alarm-note of the male resembles the bleating of a kid, and the female's cry is cricket-like. The slight, shallow nest of twigs and fibres is placed in thick bushes, and contains four bluish-green eggs, flecked with brown. The birds are said to cut plants off close to the ground without apparent object.

The four Families that follow are often classed as _Tracheophonae_, and have loud voices owing to their tracheal syrinx (p. 22).

Fam. IX. DENDROCOLAPTIDAE.–This group, with over 200 species, occupies the Neotropical Region, excluding the Antilles, {484}and is divided by Mr. Sclater[272] into the Sub-families _Furnariinae_, _Synallaxinae_, _Philydorinae_, _Sclerurinae_, and _Dendrocolaptinae_.

The extremely variable bill is short and straight in _Geobates_ and _Henicornis_, Warbler-like in the Synallaxinae, stouter and Shrike-like in the Philydorinae, extremely strong in _Hylexetastes_, short and incurved in _Xenerpestes_ and _Phacellodomus_, short with upturned genys in _Glyphorhynchus_, _Xenops_, and _Pygarrhicus_, very long, thin, and decurved in _Xiphorhynchus_, very long, but only slightly curved in _Nasica_, and so forth. It is much hooked in _Ancistrops_. The endaspidean[273] metatarsus may be long and slender, as in _Sylviorthorhynchus_; stronger, as in the terrestrial Furnariinae and Sclerurinae; or shorter, as in the scansorial Dendrocolaptinae, which usually have large toes and sharp claws. The scales are almost obsolete in _Furnarius_ and _Lochmias_; the outer and middle toes are partially connected in the Sclerurinae and Dendrocolaptinae. The wings, which have ten primaries and about nine secondaries, are long in _Pseudocolaptes_, moderate in _Xenerpestes_, short and rounded in _Lochmias_, and frequently decidedly abbreviated. The variable tail, normally of twelve rectrices, is often graduated; the shafts of the quills are stiffened and spiny in the Sclerurinae and Dendrocolaptinae, the latter of which climb and feed in Woodpecker fashion; in the Synallaxinae it is generally long, with pointed but comparatively soft feathers; in the Philydorinae it is short, _Anumbius_ having particularly sharp rhachides. It is also short, though rounded, in _Xenerpestes_, _Coryphistera_, and _Limnophyes_, similar but longer in _Clibanornis_, while it has the shafts projecting beyond the vanes in _Homorus_, _Oxyurus_, and _Sittosomus_. _Schizoeaca_ and _Synallaxis_ have only ten rectrices, and _Sylviorthorhynchus_ apparently possesses but six, the outer being very short and the inner excessively long with narrow decomposed webs. _Limnornis_, at least, has the tongue bristly towards the end.

The coloration is chiefly brown of various shades, often with the tail chestnut–or, rarely, the body, as in _Homorus_; spots, striations, or cross-bars, of white, fulvous, or black occur frequently, and _Margarornis_ has pearl-like markings below. The rump or under parts may be white, and the throat occasionally exhibits a black, rufous or yellow patch, or the breast a chestnut band; while black, rusty, brown, or grey caps are not uncommon, that of {485}_Siptornis albiceps_ being white. The bill may be red, or exceptionally the feet white, as in _Furnarius leucopus_. Crests are found in _F. cristatus_, _Synallaxis semicinerea_, _Coryphistera_, and _Homorus_. The sexes, as far as known, are similar. The large _Drymornis bridgesi_ is over a foot long, but many forms are not half that size, and most are comparatively small.

[Illustration: FIG. 105.–Nest of Oven-bird (_Furnarius_). × ⅕.]

The habits are extremely diverse. _Geositta cunicularia_ flits along low and swiftly, like a Wheatear, with the tail in motion, or crouches and runs before the pedestrian, uttering a note resembling piti-piti, varied by a ringing trill. It frequents bare spots, and bores oblique tunnels in biscacha burrows, sandy banks, or mud walls, ending in cavities lined with soft grasses, where it lays five white eggs. The food consists of seeds, insects, and their larvae, the bill being commonly used to dig. _Lochmias nematura_ fills a similar hole with a large-domed nest of twigs and roots, lined with leaves, which contains two white eggs. The Oven-birds (_Furnarius_) run or hop unconcernedly among the wayfarers with the head thrown back, or pause with one foot uplifted; they utter incessant and loud, but not unmelodious, cries with the beak outstretched, which are even heard at night.[274] Worms, {486}insects and their larvae are sought upon the ground, and both sexes incubate, the pairs keeping together throughout the year. The curious nest (Fig. 105) is placed in exposed situations on branches, in forks of trees or shrubs, on posts, rocks, or house-roofs; it has thick walls, almost unbreakable when dry, of clayey mud and dung mixed with a little hair or dry grass, a lining of the same materials underlying the three to five white eggs. This massive structure has an inner chamber with an outer passage running partly round it, and is generally the work of several months, the materials being only procurable in damp weather. The above refers at least to _Furnarius cinnamomeus_, _F. minor_, and _F. rufus_ (the "Hornero" or Baker); but White[275] states that _F. figulus_ builds a stick nest, and E. Bartlett[276] that _F. torridus_ deposits four creamy white eggs on twigs and bents in holes in banks. _Upucerthia_, resembling _Geositta_ in general habits, ranges to an altitude of nine thousand feet. The lively _Cinclodes_ recalls both the Wheatear and the Dipper, as it runs with upturned tail from stone to stone, takes short, low flights, or hunts for crustaceans, molluscs, and insects in the water, equally happy on the streams of the Andes, or the desolate lake-sides of Patagonia. The note is a sharp trill, while three white eggs are laid on a bed of grass and fur in holes. _Sclerurus_ frequents damp forests, scratching among the leaves, and crouching, when startled, on some trunk. _Phloeocryptes_ flies weakly, but hops actively about reed-beds in pursuit of flies, uttering reiterated grating notes; it attaches its Wren-like nest of grass or rushes and mud, lined with feathers, moss and hair, to a few of the reed-stems, and builds a projection over the entrance. The two or three oval eggs are glossy blue. The shrill-voiced _Leptasthenura_ clings to the branches in search of insects like a Tit, and lays from three to six pointed white eggs on soft materials in holes in trees, sometimes utilizing nests of _Furnarius rufus_, _Siptornis sordida_, and other species. _Synallaxis_, usually seen in pairs searching for food upon the bushes, has a persistent harsh double call or a cat-like cry; it forms a loose, oval structure, which would fill an ordinary wheel-barrow, of thorny sticks and twigs in forks of trees, lining it with hair, feathers, woolly leaves,and the like, and often capping it with more leaves. This generally possesses a lower chamber connected by a vertical or horizontal passage with the entrance, itself protected by a tubular fabric; while more than {487}one nest is often found in the same tree. The three or four eggs are pale greenish-blue or whitish. _Siptornis sordida_ appears to have similar habits, but several of its congeners run like mice; or conceal themselves in herbage or holes, the marsh-loving species uttering very whirring notes. _S. sulphurifera_ fabricates a domed nest of grass among rushes, and lays two white eggs; that of _S. maluroïdes_ is open, and lined with feathers and wool, though the site is similar; that of _S. striaticeps_ resembles the last-mentioned, but is placed in a tree-fork and contains four or five white eggs. _S. hudsoni_ arches the grass over a hollow in the ground in open spots, and deposits five pale buff eggs on a little powdered dung; its flight is Pipit-like, and its cry melancholy. _Phacellodomus_, usually found in hot dry valleys, is sluggish, and has a shrill, harsh voice; the nest, containing four white eggs, being hung from the end of a branch, and recalling that of _Synallaxis_. _Xenops_, _Sittosomus_, _Picolaptes_, _Xiphorhynchus_, _Pseudocolaptes_, and many other forms are denizens of damp forests, and run up the tree-trunks spirally like Creepers, searching for prey and tapping the bark as Woodpeckers do; the cries are plaintive or noisy, and the white eggs, apparently two in number, are laid in holes. Large insects are sometimes battered upon the branches. _Anumbius acuticaudus_, the "Thorn-bird" or "Firewood Gatherer," makes a bulky nest some two feet high of thorny sticks, and places it in isolated trees. From an entrance near the top a spiral or zigzag passage leads to a lower cavity lined with grass, hair, feathers, and wool, where five pointed white eggs are deposited; while sometimes an upper roosting chamber is added. This bird utters ticking chirps or trills, and feeds mainly upon the ground, regaining the branches with difficulty. _Homorus lophotes_, the "Cachalote," with its strikingly white eyes and blue beak, haunts plains with scattered trees or bushes, being decidedly shy and quick of foot, though weak of flight; it eats insects, and turns up the earth with its bill or claws. Rasping cries are often emitted in concert; while the nest–even larger than that of _Anumbius_–is a loose mass of similar structure, placed on some low branch or in a bush, the three or four white eggs occasionally shewing through the bottom. _Drymornis_, again, has Woodpecker-like habits, whereas _Limnornis_ and _Limnophyes_ creep about dense reed-beds, and only appear now and then to utter jarring or chattering sounds.

{488}Fam. X. FORMICARIIDAE.–The so-called "Ant-birds"–not known to live on ants–are plentiful in the forests of northern South America, whence the numbers decrease to Central America, Chili and Argentina. Of the two hundred or more species none inhabit the Antilles, but three occur in Trinidad and one in Tobago. Mr. Sclater[277] allows as provisional Sub-families the strong _Thamnophilinae_, the weaker _Formicariinae_, and the long-legged _Grallariinae_.

The beak is strong, compressed, hooked, and terminally toothed in the Thamnophilinae, being exaggerated in _Batara_, large and swollen in _Cymbilanius_, and exceptionally hooked in the former genus and _Pygoptila_; _Cymbilanius_, _Neoctantes_, and _Clytoctantes_ have the genys upturned. In the Formicariinae the bill is weaker and but slightly hooked, being very long and thin in _Rhamphocaenus_; in the Grallariinae it is usually elevated and compressed, though broad in _Pittasoma_. The taxaspidean metatarsus (p. 471) is moderate or short in the Thamnophilinae, and remarkably long in the Grallariinae, where it may be very strong, as in _Pittasoma_; among the Formicariinae it is short and thick in _Rhopoterpe_ and _Formicivora_, long and thin in _Psilorhamphus_ and _Formicarius_, and so forth. In _Phlogopsis_, _Psilorhamphus_, _Rhamphocaenus_, _Heterocnemis_, _Myrmeciza_, _Hypocnemis_, _Pithys_, and _Gymnopithys_ the scutes are nearly fused. The outer and middle toes are joined towards the base. The wings, which have ten primaries and nine secondaries, are normally short and rounded, though longer in _Rhopoterpe_; the tail is commonly long and broad in the Thamnophilinae, varies greatly in the Formicariinae, and is very short and square in the Grallariinae. It may be rounded or graduated in the first two Sub-families, and _Terenura_ has it remarkably thin; _Cercomacra_, _Formicivora caudata_, and _F. ferruginea_ have only ten rectrices in place of the usual twelve. _Thamnomanes_ has well-developed rictal bristles, _Rhamphocaenus_ has the nostrils in a groove and partly covered by a membrane.

The sexes are similar, and mainly reddish-brown, in _Rhamphocaenus_, _Phlogopsis_, and the Grallariinae; but generally the males are black and white, black, grey and brown, or uniform black; and the females ferruginous, more or less relieved by black and white. Cross-bars, spots, and striations are not uncommon, the white often shewing as a band on the tail, an edging to the wing-coverts, or exceptionally, as in _Pygoptila margaritata_, as {489}round spots on both wing and tail; while the yellowish lower parts of _Myrmotherula pygmaea_, _Herpsilochmus rufimarginatus_ and three species of _Terenura_ exhibit the brightest tints found in the Family. Black or dark-hued caps are not infrequent; crests occur in _Batara_, _Pithys_, and many members of _Thamnophilus_; the rump-feathers are often dense and elongated, as in _Thamnistes_, _Pygoptila_, _Chamaeza_, _Cercomacra_, and _Thamnomanes_; those of the flanks are much developed in _Thamnocharis_; those of the lores are short and erect in _Pyriglena_. Bare red or bluish orbits are found occasionally; _Gymnocichla_ has most of the head naked and blue; and the irides may be red, white, or brown. _Batara_ is quite fourteen inches long, _Myrmotherula pygmaea_ about three.

The usually shy and retiring Formicariidae either skulk among dense undergrowth in hot tropical forests, or frequent more cultivated districts; they creep about silently, singly or in pairs, seeking spiders, insects and their larvae, on the twigs and foliage of trees, or on parasitical plants or grasses; while they habitually keep near the ground, though sometimes joining flocks of other birds in their higher flights. Many carefully search the lower surface of the leaves for food with the head downwards, and occasionally eat seeds. The Grallariinae appear to be entirely, and the Formicariinae to a great extent terrestrial, hops being the characteristic mode of progress; the tail is commonly carried erect or in motion, as in the case of _Formicarius_, and is often much abraded by the thorny thickets. _Thamnophilus albinuchalis_ and some other species choose dry situations, but generally the vicinity of water is preferred. The ordinary note in the Family is deep and powerful, and is said to have the effect of ventriloquism; it consists of monotonously repeated sounds, like ke-ke-ke or ko-ko-ko, varied by more rasping tones or trills. The nest, a slight shallow structure, generally hung from the lower twigs of a tree or bush, is composed of straws, fibres, roots, and hair, or occasionally of leaves, moss, and wool; it contains two or three white, bluish, or rufous-brown eggs, usually spotted, streaked, or zigzagged with red-brown, but more rarely with grey.

Fam. XI. CONOPOPHAGIDAE.–These curious birds, and their equally remarkable allies the _Pteroptochidae_, differ from all other Passeres in having two incisions posteriorly on each side of the sternum. The _Conopophagidae_, extending from Colombia to Bolivia and Brazil, include the genus _Conopophaga_, and probably {490}_Corythopis_. The head is large, the bill depressed in the first-named, longer and more compressed in the last; the exaspidean metatarsus (p. 473) is thick and long in the one, with broad curved hind-claw, but is thinner, with straighter and weaker hallux, in the other. The outer and middle toes are basally connected. The wings are moderate and rounded, as in the next Family; the tail is very short in _Conopophaga_, which has long, lax rump-feathers. The general coloration is brown, with a white mark behind the eye in the last-named genus; the head may be black, or chestnut with black sides; the throat black; the breast banded with chestnut, black or grey; or the central abdomen white. _Corythopis_ has black striations below.

Fam. XII. PTEROPTOCHIDAE.–This group ranges from Costa Rica to Patagonia, occurring up to an altitude of nine or ten thousand feet. The bill is comparatively long and thin in _Scytalopus_ and _Merulaxis_, stronger in _Liosceles_, _Pteroptochus_, _Hylactes_, and _Rhinocrypta_, being much arched in the last-named; the culmen expands into a peculiar oval plate in _Acropternis_ and _Triptorhinus_; while a membrane partially covers the nostrils. The taxaspidean metatarsus (p. 471) is generally elongated and strong, with long claws, the hallux being long and incurved in _Hylactes_, and similar but straighter in _Acropternis_; the whole foot is shorter in _Rhinocrypta_, more slender in _Pteroptochus_, while the scutes are fused in front in _Liosceles_. The short, rounded wings have ten primaries and eight secondaries; the tail varies in length, and may be graduated, as in _Merulaxis_ and _Acropternis_, or short and more even, as in _Triptorhinus_. _Hylactes_ has fourteen rectrices in place of twelve. The colour is blackish, dark grey, or brown, often barred or scalloped with black; the crown, rump, breast, or belly are at times chestnut or rufous, the lower parts varied with white, or even banded with orange. _Merulaxis_ has long, stiff loral plumes, _Rhinocrypta lanceolata_ a crest, and several forms elongated rump-feathers. In _Acropternis_ the back and abdomen are ocellated with white. The sexes are nearly similar.

These peculiar birds are commonly shy and retiring, hopping actively about with erect tails, or running like mice, but rarely flying, except between the boughs and the ground. They are decidedly difficult of observation, though they follow up the pedestrian under cover, betraying their position by their scolding cries. Many species, such as _Hylactes tarnii_, the "Guid-guid," _Pteroptochus rubecula_, the "Cheu-can," and _Triptorhinus paradoxus_, the {491}"Cheu-gui," inhabit damp, gloomy forests; others often frequent dry plains, or stony and bushy hill-sides, as _H. megapodius_, "El Turco," and _P. albicollis_, the "Tapaculo"; while _Scytalopus magellanicus_ prefers thick woods, but also haunts grass-lands in the Falkland Islands. _Rhinocrypta lanceolata_, the "Gallito," or Little Cock, lives in thickets and hedges, and struts in the open like a Fowl. The food, chiefly obtained upon the ground, consists of insects, seeds, and buds. The noisy and generally harsh notes vary considerably, _Hylactes tarnii_ yelping like a dog, _Pteroptochus albicollis_ sometimes uttering a sound like a coo, _Triptorhinus paradoxus_ a reiterated frog-like croak, _Rhinocrypta lanceolata_ a hollow chirrup or a scolding cry. The nest, commonly situated near the ground, is said in some cases to be made of sticks; _Rhinocrypta_ forms a domed structure of grass in a bush, and lays four eggs; _Scytalopus magellanicus_ is recorded as using a mass of moss upon a bank to contain its set of two; _Hylactes_ and _Pteroptochus_ are reported to nest in burrows. The eggs are white, at least in the first three.

2. PASSERES DIACROMYODAE.

C. _Suboscines._

This group contains only the two Families _Menuridae_ (Lyre-birds) and _Atrichornithidae_ (Scrub-birds), each with one genus, _Menura_ and _Atrichornis_ respectively. The former possesses three pairs of vocal muscles, the latter only two pairs;[278] _Menura_, moreover, has a peculiarly long sternum, constricted towards the middle, while _Atrichornis_ has but rudimentary clavicles, being thus unique among the Passerine forms.

Fam. I. MENURIDAE.–Lyre-birds have a stout bill; very long and powerful metatarsi, with robust elongated straight claws; and somewhat short rounded wings, with eleven primaries and ten secondaries. The tail has sixteen rectrices, and in the males of two species has the exterior pair of feathers curved like a lyre, with very narrow outer and very broad inner webs; the next six pairs have very distant barbs and no barbules, except towards the base; while the two median plumes have narrow inner and no outer webs, and after crossing below, curve boldly outwards. The tongue is sagittate, the furcula U-shaped, the after-shaft rudimentary; the adults have no down. _M. superba_ of New South Wales and South Queensland, some thirty-three inches long, is {492}dull brown, with a slaty tinge above, and more rufous throat, wings, and tail-coverts; while the outer rectrices exhibit regular notch-like transparent or blackish markings on the chestnut inner webs, caused by the absence of barbules. The naked orbits are bluish or lead-coloured. The female has a long, broad, normal tail, the median feathers exceeding the rest. _M. victoriae_, of Victoria, is darker, with more boldly marked outer rectrices. _M. alberti_, of Queensland, and the Richmond and Clarence River districts of New South Wales, is redder above, and has the tail less lyrate, the outer feathers being shorter, with no transparent notches.

[Illustration: FIG. 106.–Lyre-Bird. _Menura superba._ × ⅒.]

{493}Lyre-birds haunt precipitous sandy gullies in thick forests with tangled undergrowth, whether inland or near the coast; and, though able to fly, live chiefly upon the ground, whence they leap, when scared, to branches even ten feet high. They run with the tail horizontal, and scratch among fallen leaves for insects–especially coleoptera–myriapods, worms, and molluscs; the solitary individuals or pairs which are usually observed being particularly shy. Each cock has a walk or playground, and scrapes little hillocks or hollows for dancing places, where he struts or pirouettes with erect tail and drooping wings, scratching, pecking, and singing at intervals. Apparently, however, he is not polygamous. The normal cry is a loud, liquid, gurgling sound; but the Pheasants, as the Colonists term them, are clever mockers, imitating a cock's crow, a hen's cackle, a dog's bark or howl, the Laughing Jackass's note, or even the setting of a saw. The tail-feathers are said to be shed after breeding, and to be fully developed only by the fourth year, when males begin to sing. The oval, domed nests, placed on ledges of cliffs, on tops of old stumps, in forks of trees, or by fallen logs, are loose bulky masses of sticks, bark, grass, leaves, ferns, and moss, lined with roots and the bird's feathers. The one large egg has a stone-grey, brown, or dark purple ground-colour, blotched, dotted, and streaked with purplish or blackish-brown. The chicks are said to be covered with black down in _M. victoriae_, white in _M. alberti_, and brownish in _M. superba_; and to remain six weeks in the nest. The hen sits with her tail curled sideways or forwards. The flesh is dark, tough, and unpalatable.

Fam. II. ATRICHORNITHIDAE.–_Atrichornis_ has a large bill; moderate scutellated metatarsi; extremely short wings with eleven primaries, the outer of which is very small, and some eight secondaries; and a long, broad, graduated tail with twelve rectrices. The tongue is sagittate, the aftershaft rudimentary, and no down is present on adults. _A. clamosa_ of Western Australia, about eight and a half inches in length, is brown above, barred with dusky, and reddish-white below, with a black pectoral patch; _A. rufescens_ of New South Wales has the lower parts like the upper. The females appear to be unknown. These very shy birds haunt dense scrub, or grassy and bushy tracts, being very difficult of observation; they mimic the notes of other species cleverly, and also utter a peculiar noisy cry. They scratch in the ground, probably for insect-food.

{494}D. _Oscines._

Of this group, or the true singing birds, the anatomy is even less worked out than that of the _Suboscines_, and consequently the relationships are in many cases extremely doubtful. The _Hirundinidae_ stand distinctly apart, with no other Families near them, though some similarity of habits, and possibly of structure, may be recognised in certain _Muscicapidae_ (especially if _Artamus_ be included among them), and to a less extent in a few _Sturnidae_; yet almost as much resemblance may be perceived in some _Tyrannidae_, which (not being Oscinine) can have no affinity to the _Hirundinidae_. The likeness is therefore probably one of analogy only, and, if so, of no taxonomic value. Here again it must be stated that the _Oscines_ hardly attain more than the rank of a Family, and that in the Passeriformes the Families have not the same value as in the foregoing Orders.

The _Alaudidae_ are generally recognisable by the casing of their metatarsi (p. 496), but in other respects they seem to shew an affinity to the _Motacillidae_ (_Anthinae_) on the one hand, and to the _Fringillidae_ on the other. The wing-characters, on which reliance was formerly placed, prove to be wholly untrustworthy.

As to the rest of the "Families" of _Oscines_, it is impossible to indicate their probable relations by placing them in sequence, or even at present to group more than a few of them with any degree of assurance. Some have not yet been defined at all, and few of them sufficiently for anyone to be confident as to their limits. Thus in the _Muscicapidae_ hardly any two systematic ornithologists will agree as to which genera should be included and which excluded. If restricted to Old World forms, there is still no defined boundary between them and the _Campephagidae_, while there is perhaps even less distinction between them and the _Sylviidae_ (or _Sylviinae_, if these last be included among the _Turdidae_). Moreover, by some taxonomers the _Mniotiltidae_ have been referred to the _Muscicapidae_, and though there is an obvious distinction between them in the number of the primaries, the instance of the _Alaudidae_ (already mentioned) shews that this may be of very slight importance.

Some other "Families" may perhaps be grouped with less risk of error. The _Troglodytidae_, _Certhiidae_, _Sittidae_ and _Paridae_ are possibly such; but the limits of the last-named are {495}certainly not laid down, and it would be hard to give a good reason either for admitting or refusing to admit into it genera like _Liothrix_ or _Chamaea_, while the puzzle is still greater in regard to some forms from Australia and New Zealand.

The two latest writers on the subject, Dr. Gadow and Professor Newton, abstain from offering any scheme of Classification of the _Oscines_, the latter limiting himself to the declaration, already expressed by the late W. K. Parker, that the Corvidae should stand as the highest group. As regards their predecessors it will be enough here to enumerate the "Families" in the order in which they were arranged by Dr. Stejneger[279] in 1885, and Dr. Sharpe[280] in 1891; the scheme of the last author, however, being reversed to harmonize with the plan of the present volume, in which the lower groups are assigned priority. The _order_ of Dr. Stejneger, which is based on both anatomy and morphology, is that subsequently followed, but his Families are not invariably adhered to.

DR. STEJNEGER. DR SHARPE. _Alaudidae._ _Hirundinidae._ _Motacillidae._ _Muscicapidae._ _[H]Enicuridae._ _Campophagidae._ _Timaliidae._ _Pycnonotidae._ _Leiotrichidae._ _Timeliidae._ _Muscicapidae._ _Mimidae._ _Turdidae._ _Troglodytidae._ _Cinclidae._ _Cinclidae._ _Troglodytidae._ _Turdidae._ _Chamaeidae?_ _Sylviidae._ _Mimidae?_ _Vireonidae._ _Hirundinidae._ _Ampelidae._ _Campephagidae._ _Artamidae._ _Dicruridae._ _Laniidae._ _Ampelidae._ _Regulidae._ _Artamidae?_ _Paridae._ _Laniidae._ _Zosteropidae._ _Vireonidae?_ _Dicaeidae._ _Paridae._ _Nectariniidae._ _Oriolidae._ _Meliphagidae._ _Paradiseidae._ _Certhiidae._ _Corvidae._ _Mniotiltidae._ _Sturnidae._ _Motacillidae._ _Meliphagidae._ _Alaudidae._ _Nectariniidae._ _Fringillidae._ _Dicaeidae._ _Coerebidae._ _Certhiidae._ _Tanagridae._ {496} _Coerebidae._ _Ploceidae._ _Mniotiltidae._ _Icteridae._ _Tanagridae._ _Oriolidae._ _Ploceidae._ _Dicruridae._ _Icteridae._ _Eurycerotidae._ _Fringillidae._ _Eulabetidae._ _Sturnidae._ _Ptilonorhynchidae._ _Paradiseidae._ _Corvidae._

As regards structure, the _Oscines_ have one posterior incision or fenestra on each side of the sternum; the furcula is U-shaped; the tongue is variable, as is the syrinx (pp. 13, 21, 22, 467); the nostrils may be pervious or impervious; an after-shaft is nearly always present, though comparatively weak; down occurs sparingly on the blind young, and is absent, or only found on the unfeathered spaces, in adults. The primaries number ten or eleven; the secondaries nineteen, twenty, or even more; the rectrices normally twelve. The form of the bill, wings, and tail are discussed under the different Families; the metatarsus exceptionally is smooth in front, but is ordinarily scutellated, while behind it is smooth and generally compressed, except in the Alaudidae, which, having it scutellated posteriorly, are termed scutelliplantar, as opposed to laminiplantar (with one horny growth behind). The hallux is the strongest toe.

Of fossil forms of Oscines, Osteornis (_Protornis_) of the Lower Eocene of Glarus in Switzerland may be Passerine; _Palaegithalus_ (Sylviinae) and _Laurillardia_ (Sturnidae) have been found in the French Upper Eocene; _Palaeospiza_ (Fringillidae) in the Oligocene of Colorado; _Motacilla_, _Turdus_, _Lanius_, _Corvus_, _Fringilla_, and _Loxia_ in the French Miocene or in the Breccia of Italy; _Scolephagus_ and _Corvus_ in the Pliocene of Oregon; _Palaeocorax_ in the Chatham Islands; an extinct _Foudia_ (Fringillidae) in Réunion.

Fam. I. ALAUDIDAE.–The Larks inhabit the Palaearctic, Indian, and Ethiopian Regions, only one genus (_Otocorys_), with many races, being found in America, and one (_Mirafra_) in the Australian Region. Of the former, _O. peregrina_, occurs as far south as Bogota, while the latter is found in Australia and Flores. _M. hova_ is peculiar to Madagascar, _M. javanica_ to Borneo and Java, _Spizilauda_ deva to India. _Alauda arvensis_, the Sky-Lark, and _Lullula arborea_, the Wood-Lark, alone breed in Britain: but _Otocorys alpestris_, the Shore-Lark, is a regular winter-visitor {497}to our shores; while _Galerita cristata_, the Crested Lark, _Calandrella brachydactyla_, the Short-toed Lark, and _Melanocorypha sibirica_, the White-winged Lark, occur occasionally. The Sky-Lark has been introduced into Long Island, N.Y., Australia, and New Zealand.

[Illustration: FIG. 107.–Sky-Lark. _Alauda arvensis._ × ½.]

The bill is long and curved in _Certhilauda_ and _Alaemon_, shorter and slender in _Alauda_, similar but more robust in _Galerita_, abbreviated and conical in _Calandrella_, _Pyrrhulauda_, and _Melanocorypha_, and extraordinarily stout in _Rhamphocorys_, with a gap between the maxilla and mandible. The metatarsus is elongated, and may be more slender as in _Certhilauda_, or stouter as in _Galerita_ and _Melanocorypha_; the hind-claw is generally much lengthened and straight, but may be short and curved, as in _Calandrella_, _Pyrrhulauda_, and _Alaemon_. The wing varies much in length, many forms having the outer primary almost aborted, though in _Mirafra_ and elsewhere it is of fair size; the inner secondaries are nearly as long as the primaries in _Calandrella_. The tail is moderate or short, and may be rounded, nearly square, or emarginate. The normal coloration is light-brown with darker longitudinal streaks, the under parts being whitish and frequently spotted anteriorly; desert forms, however, often have uniform pale buff or rufous plumage–for example, _Galerita isabellina_ and _Ammomanes_. _Melanocorypha yeltoniensis_ is nearly black in the male; others of the same genus have a black gorget; the black-cheeked _Rhamphocorys_, _Alaemon alaudipes_ and _Melanocorypha sibirica_ exhibit white wing-patches; while _Otocorys_ has a projecting black tuft on each side of the occiput, black cheeks, lores, and bands on the crown and breast, the {498}rest of the face and throat, or even the lower parts, being yellowish. _Tephrocorys cinerea_ and _Mirafra apiata_ have a rufous crown and breast respectively. _Pyrrhulauda_ is chiefly black below, and varies above from grey to chestnut, relieved by black and white. Ordinarily the sexes in Larks are similar. Crests are not uncommon.

_Certhilauda_, _Alaemon_, and _Ammomanes_ inhabit deserts or arid plains, _Alaudula raytal_ frequents sandy islets, and _Otocorys_ often selects uplands; but most forms only require open country, being chiefly ground-birds and seldom found near woods. _Lullula_, however, loves heaths and the outskirts of copses, and _Mirafra_ bushy spots. Larks often flock together, and are not usually shy, since they will even enter villages; the desert species are particularly quick runners, while the flight is exceptionally weak in _Ammomanes_, _Calandrella_, and some others, though as a rule sufficiently strong. Perching is not an uncommon habit, _Lullula_ and _Mirafra_ habitually settle on trees or tall bushes, and several forms squat to avoid detection. In general dusting takes the place of washing. The food consists of insects and their larvae, seeds, worms, small molluscs, crustaceans, or even berries. Most Larks soar while uttering their pleasing trills, and plaintive calls are often heard; _Lullula_ has a more flute-like song, _Pyrrhulauda_ utters a shrill chirp. _Galerita cristata_ and _Melanocorypha calandra_ imitate other birds successfully when caged. The cup-shaped nest of bents, lined with finer grasses, fibres, or hair, is placed in herbage or in some depression in the soil–wool, cotton, rags, or even sticks being exceptionally added; but two or three species of _Mirafra_ build a domed structure, occasionally placed on bare rocks or roofs of houses. The eggs are generally whitish, closely spotted or zoned with purplish-grey or brown; some specimens, however, are thickly freckled with yellowish or marked with reddish. The number varies from two in _Pyrrhulauda_, and about three in _Ammomanes_, to five, six, or even seven. Both sexes incubate in some cases, while two or more broods are often reared in the season. Thousands of Sky-Larks are netted annually for the table.

Fam. II. MOTACILLIDAE.–This group comprises the Sub-families _Motacillinae_, or Wagtails, and _Anthinae_ or Pipits. The bill is thin and more or less elongated, with a slight notch, the culmen being decidedly curved in _Oreocorys_. The metatarsus is very long in Wagtails, variable but shorter in Pipits; it is usually slender, with the hind claw well developed and slightly {499}curved; though it is stout, with very long hallux, in _Macronyx_, _Xanthocorys_, and _Neocorys_. The wing is commonly elongated and pointed, with the inner secondaries reaching nearly to the end of the primaries, but it is shorter and more rounded in some species of _Anthus_. The tail is very long in Wagtails, but moderate in Pipits, being generally somewhat emarginate.

Wagtails range over the Old World, but are lacking in Australia and Polynesia; two species extend to the extreme north-west of America, one is accidental in Greenland, and one is restricted to Madagascar. Pipits are almost cosmopolitan, though not found in Polynesia; only two forms, however, inhabit North America, while one is peculiar to New Zealand, and another to Australia; _Anthus bogotensis_ is exclusively Andean, _A. antarcticus_ occurs in South Georgia, _A. bertheloti_ occupies Madeira and the Canaries.

[Illustration: FIG. 108.–Yellow Wagtail. _Motacilla raii._ × ⅜. (From _Natural History of Selborne_.)]

Wagtails are generally black and white, grey and white, grey with yellow breast (or even head), greenish with yellow lower {500}parts and greyish or black heads, or almost entirely yellowish. Most Pipits are brown above, with dark streaks, and light edges to the feathers, and are buff, whitish, or rufous below, with triangular brown spots. The outer rectrices are usually more or less white, as are sometimes part of the others. _Limonidromus_, however, is an olive-brown Wagtail with two black crescentic marks below, _Anthus chloris_ a Pipit with a yellow patch on the breast. _A. rosaceus_ has yellow axillaries; _A. tenellus_, has the wings, tail, cheeks, and under surface chiefly yellow, with a black pectoral band. The curious genus _Macronyx_, to its mainly brown coloration adds orange, yellow, or pink lower parts with a black gorget, while it shews a marvellous resemblance in other respects to _Sturnella_ (p. 580)–_M. crocea_ to _S. magna_, _M. ameliae_ to _S. defilippii_. The bill and feet are usually black in Wagtails; the former is brown, with paler mandible and yellowish gape in Pipits, where the feet are brown, yellowish, or reddish. The females are duller, and in the Motacillinae the young are usually browner.

Wagtails frequent streams and stagnant waters, as in the case of the Pied, White, and Grey Wagtails, _Motacilla lugubris_, _M. alba_, and _M. melanope_; or they haunt fields of corn and meadows, as in the Blue-headed and Yellow Wagtails, _M. flava_ and _M. raii_. All the above breed in Britain, but the White and Blue-headed species rarely. The Grey and the Yellow Wagtails both have yellow breasts, but the former has a grey, the latter an olive, back.

Pipits prefer open places with rough herbage, as for instance the Meadow-Pipit, _Anthus pratensis_; rocky shores, as the Rock-Pipit, _A. obscurus_; or open parts of woods and banks, as the Tree-Pipit, _A. trivialis_. These nest commonly with us, while the Red-throated Pipit, _A. cervinus_, the Tawny Pipit, _A. campestris_, Richard's Pipit, _A. richardi_, and the Water-Pipit, _A. spipoletta_, visit us occasionally. Flocks are rarely seen, but a few individuals often congregate on the sea-beaches in winter; the flight is easy, though jerky, and not protracted; that of Wagtails being distinctly undulating. _Neocorys_ soars like a Sky-Lark, and the Tree-Pipit in particular hovers above his perch while singing. The songs of the last-named, and of _Motacilla vidua_ are more Finch-like; that of _Neocorys_ Lark-like; those of other species shrill, and less frequent than their repeated call- or alarm-note of chit-chit (Pipits) or chis-sic (Wagtails). The food consists of seeds, insects, worms, small molluscs and crustaceans, usually procured upon the ground, {501}Wagtails hunting for flies round cattle, and being very commonly seen wading. Pipits make their nests almost entirely of grass, _Anthus correndera_ and _A. rufulus_ occasionally adding an overarching cover; Wagtails use moss, grass, and roots, with a bedding of hair and feathers. The four to six eggs are bluish white or brownish, with grey, blackish, or brown spots in the Pied Wagtail and its similarly coloured allies, yellowish-white with yellowish and greenish-brown markings in others of the Sub-family; in Pipits they are commonly greyish or yellowish-white with brown and grey mottlings, sometimes covering the whole shell; while in the Tree-Pipit they vary from grey with dark brown spots and streaks to reddish-white, with rich brown, claret-colour, or bright red markings or close frecklings. A black line or two is a common feature throughout the Family. Wagtails choose for nesting sites ledges of rocks, crevices, holes in trees or walls, tops of pollarded willows, stony banks, or–in the Yellow Wagtail group–hollows in the soil among herbage. Pipits prefer the ground, or even spots shaded by trees, as in the Tree-Pipit.

Fam. III. HENICURIDAE.–The Fork-tails, a group of doubtful affinity, generally placed near the Motacillidae, extend from the Himalayas and the hills of South and West China to Burma and the Great Sunda Islands, one of the species–some dozen in number–reaching Samarcand westwards. They are black and white birds, with stout, straight, and usually elongated bills, long, strong metatarsi without scutellation, moderate rounded wings, extraordinarily long forked and graduated tails–except in _Henicurus scouleri_, where the shape is square and the feathers short–and well-developed rictal bristles. The outer pair of rectrices are white. _H. ruficapilla_ has an orange-chestnut crown and hind neck, nearly the whole back being chestnut in the female; that sex of _H. velatus_ has a brown head; two species have the upper parts spotted with white, and two the back slate-coloured. Several of them have crests. The bill is black, the feet whitish. These active unsuspicious birds haunt forest-streams or hill-torrents, and hunt for molluscs, insects and their larvae, near or in the water. They often wag the tail when perched on stones or branches. The large nest is formed of fibres, roots, and moss, and is placed on rocks or tree-stumps; the three or four eggs are greenish-white, with scattered brownish spots.

Fam. IV. TIMELIIDAE.–In this Old World assemblage are {502}included by Dr. Sharpe[281] many genera rather referable to the Turdidae, Pycnonotidae, Troglodytidae, and Paradiseidae; but the Family may be taken to contain most of that author's _Crateropodes_ and _Timeliae_,[282] the Tit-like _Liotriches_, and perhaps _Clitonyx_, _Chaetobias_, and _Myiophoneus_. The whole question, however, is very doubtful, and no decision can yet be arrived at. The supposed diagnostic points are the rounded wings curved to fit the body, the lax, soft plumage, the comparatively large outer primary, the similarity of the unspotted females and young, and the Thrush-like bill. This bill, however, may be very strong and hooked, as in _Myiophoneus_ and _Gampsorhynchus_; stout, deep, and wide, with festooned maxilla, as in _Paradoxornis_; similar but smaller, as in _Chleuasicus_ and _Suthora_; short and blunt, as in several of the _Liotriches_; extremely elongated, slender and decurved, as in _Pomatorhinus_; or extraordinarily so, as in _Xiphorhamphus_. It is not infrequently notched. The metatarsi are typically strong or even clumsy, and vary considerably in length; in _Liothrix_, however, they are slender; while _Cholornis_ has only two anterior toes (p. 10). The tail, often broad and much graduated, may be very long, as in _Sibia_, or no longer than the upper coverts, as in _Oligura_; the rectrices being obliquely truncated in _Siva_, curved outwardly in _Liothrix_, and frequently pointed or somewhat spiny. Elongated rictal bristles are not uncommon; several species have crests, that of _Grammatoptila_ being exceptionally large; rigid shafts occur in the head- and mantle-feathers of _Acanthoptila_, on the forehead in _Dumetia_, _Timelia_, and _Chaetops_; hair-like plumes decorate the back of _Macronus_; the inner secondaries are much produced in _Cinclorhamphus_; the cheeks are bare in _Aethocichla_.

The sexes are commonly alike, the plain rufous coloration being often relieved by black, white, and grey; _Liothrix_ and _Clitonyx_, however, shew tints of red or yellow; _Myiophoneus_ of purple, blue, and black, and in some cases maroon; _Brachypteryx_ of indigo. _Hyperergus_ is partly olive-green, while _Trochalopterum chrysopterum_ and _T. phoeniceum_ exhibit respectively golden and crimson hues, not to mention other instances.

Many of the forms are found from the Indian Region to New Guinea, New Caledonia, and New Britain, one reaching Fiji and two New Zealand; others occur in the Ethiopian countries, whence a species of _Argya_ extends to Morocco and Tripoli, and {503}a second to Arabia and the Jordan. _Crossleyia_, _Bernieria_, _Mystacornis_, _Xanthomixis_ and _Oxylabes_ are peculiar to Madagascar.

[Illustration: FIG. 109.–"Babbling Thrush." _Timelia maculata._ × 5/11.]

Most members of the Family inhabit woods near water with thick undergrowth, or more rarely stony hills, scrubby gullies, and rocky torrents; _Cinclorhamphus_ haunts grassy plains; _Crateropus kirki_ prefers reeds. The majority are decidedly terrestrial, skulking warily among the bushes and grass, either singly or in small companies, while some are inquisitive and active. The flight is low, short, undulating, and laboured; but the birds hop and climb well, bounding over the ground or clinging to the trees. The Japanese and Chinese "Hill-Robin" (_Liothrix lutea_) and its allies are more arboreal, as are _Paradoxornis_, _Suthora_, and so forth. _Orthonyx_ is said to dance like a Lyre-bird (p. 493). Many species scratch up the soil or dead leaves in search of insects and their larvae, which, with seeds, constitute the chief food; fruit, however, or even small reptiles, crabs, worms, and molluscs are occasionally eaten. The tail is often carried erect; _Cinclosoma_ rises with a whirring noise; _Cinclorhamphus_ hovers in the air. Several members of the Family are comparatively silent, _Sittiparus_ and _Alcippe_ twitter, _Stachyridopsis_ utters clear, bell-like tones, _Timelia_ slowly repeated cries, _Myiophoneus_ a fine whistle; but usually harsh chattering or screaming noises alternate with chuckles, croaks, clucks, or a laughing chorus. _Psophodes_ is called the "Coach-whip bird," from its notes ending like the crack of a whip. The habits of _Clitonyx_ are said to resemble those of the Meliphagidae. The nest is commonly a rough structure of leaves, moss, herbage, and the like, often lined with roots, which is placed in low trees, bushes, reeds, grass, holes in trees, or banks, by _Garrulax_, _Argya_, and _Turdinus_; in crevices of rocks, by _Chaetops_; or on crags near torrents, by _Myiophoneus_. It may consist of somewhat softer {504}materials, frequently bedded with fur, wool, or feathers, as in _Crateropus_, _Paradoxornis_, and _Trochalopterum_–several pairs of the last-named occasionally using the same tree; or it may be a domed mass of grass, leaves, bark, and moss, situated on or near the ground, as in _Timelia_, _Orthonyx_, _Pomatorhinus_, _Pellorneum_, and _Rhopocichla_. _Lioptila_ and some of its nearest allies build a mossy cup, adorned with cobwebs, in high firs or other trees. The eggs of _Crateropus_ and _Argya_ are deep greenish-blue, glossy and spotless; those of _Garrulax_ are similar, or pale blue or white; those of _Dryonastes_ light blue; those of _Pomatorhinus_, _Stachyris_, _Orthonyx_, and _Xiphorhamphus_ white; those of _Paradoxornis_ whitish, with yellow-brown and purple markings. The ground-colour is frequently greenish-blue, olive, brown, salmon, creamy, or white, and shews scattered or dense spots, streaks, freckles, blotches, or even hieroglyphics, of reddish, purplish, chocolate, olive, grey, or occasionally black. The coloration, however, is by no means constant in each genus, while the number varies from two to five or six. The Australian Pomatorhini fashion large domed nests, after the manner of Magpies, of twigs lined with bark and feathers, and add a spout-like entrance, while several are commonly found at the ends of the branches of the same tree; their buff or purplish eggs, clouded with brown and purple, and streaked with black hair-lines, number from four to ten.

Fam. V. PYCNONOTIDAE.–The Bulbuls, often included among the Timeliidae, have a fairly long bill, usually somewhat stout and curved, which is Finch-like in _Spizixus_, very long and thin in _Phyllostrephus_, and so forth. The maxilla is generally notched, being minutely serrated in _Andropadus_, and decidedly hooked in _Tricholestes_, _Aethorhynchus_, and _Trichophoropsis_; while strong or weak rictal bristles are ordinarily present. The abbreviated metatarsi lack scales in several genera. The wings are normally short, rounded, and concave–though more pointed in _Hypsipetes_ and _Irena_ (if these really belong to the Family), _Hemixus_, _Alcurus_, and _Ixocincla_ or even long in _Tylas_–the secondaries are much elongated in _Aethorhynchus_. The tail is sometimes square or graduated, but is commonly rounded, being rarely forked, as in _Hypsipetes_; in _Irena_ and _Micropus_ the coverts are much lengthened, while they nearly equal the rectrices in _I. crinigera_. Crests occur frequently, the constituent feathers in _Alcurus_ being obtuse, in _Criniger_ long and pointed, in _Otocompsa_ somewhat recurved. {505}Most of the Family are characterized by long, fluffy rump-plumage and conspicuous nuchal or dorsal hairs, the latter reaching their highest development in _Tricholestes_. The feathers hide the nostrils in _Irena_ and _Spizixus_; _Poliolophus_ has a yellow circumocular wattle, and several species of _Pycnonotus_ possess fleshy eyelids of black, red, or grey.

The usual coloration is olive-brown, olive-green, or olive-yellow, commonly with wholly or partially yellow, white, greyish, or even orange, rufous, and buff under parts; _Hypsipetes perniger_ is entirely black, _Micropus melanoleucus_ black with white wing-spots, and many species are mottled with yellowish or white. _Trachycomus_ has a yellow cap of decomposed bristly feathers; while elsewhere the head or the throat is often more or less black, brown, chestnut, grey, and rarely yellow or white. The tail and rump may be rufous, yellow, or orange, occasionally barred with black; and white or yellow markings frequently adorn the wings. _Otocompsa_ shews crimson or scarlet ear-tufts, and crimson or yellow under tail-coverts; certain species of _Pycnonotus_ have the latter scarlet, orange, or yellow; _Rubigula_ has loose, stiff, scarlet plumage on the throat, and an orange under surface. _Chloropsis_ is green and yellow, relieved by orange, blue, purple and black, and exhibits a conspicuous blue, purple, or emerald shoulder-patch, except in _C. cyanopogon_ and _C. flavipennis_; _Aegithina_ and _Aethorhynchus_ are green, black, and yellow; while _Irena_ (the Fairy Blue-bird) is either brilliant turquoise, with black wings, tail, and under parts, or purple-blue, varied by cobalt above, with or without a black mantle and under surface. The bill and legs range from brown, black, or plumbeous, to coral red, orange, yellow, or whitish. The sexes are similar, except in _Aegithina_, _Aethorhynchus_, _Chloropsis_, and _Irena_.

From their headquarters in the Indian and Indo-Malay countries, the Pycnonotidae extend to China, Hainan, Formosa, and the Moluccas, _Hypsipetes_ even reaching Japan; they also occupy the whole Ethiopian Region, with Madagascar and the neighbouring islands. To these latter _Ixocincla_ and _Tylas_ (p. 533) are peculiar; while _Pycnonotus_, _Criniger_ and _Xenocichla_ inhabit both of the above Regions, and the first is found from Morocco to the Cyclades, Rhodes, Cyprus, and Palestine.

Bulbuls are gregarious arboreal birds of feeble flight, rarely seen upon the ground, where they move with awkward shuffles or short hops. The majority are sociable, and frequent gardens, {506}orchards, forests, and low jungles; they feed chiefly upon fruits, including berries and seeds, but also upon insects, which _Aethorhynchus_, _Aegithina_, and _Chloropsis_ in especial seek among the leaves and branches of the trees. The ordinary note is a mellow cheerful whistle, becoming a pretty song in such species as _Pycnonotus haemorrhous_, and _P. xanthopygus_, the Ceylon and Palestine Nightingales; chattering and chirping sounds are, however, often heard, while _Criniger_, _Phyllostrephus_ and _Hypsipetes_ habitually utter reiterated jarring or croaking cries, particularly when roosting in company. The flimsy, or occasionally bulky, nests of twigs, fibres, grass, moss, and cobwebs are placed in low trees, bushes, creepers, or bamboo-clumps; _Aegithina_, _Chloropsis_, and _Irena_ generally laying two or three white or greenish eggs with brown streaks or spots, and the remaining forms from two to four, of a pinkish white or salmon colour, with markings of various reds and purples. The nest of _Iole_ is suspended by the rim like that of an Oriole. The Perso-Arabic Bulbul of poets is probably _Daulias hafizi_, a true Nightingale.

Fam. VI. MUSCICAPIDAE.–The Old World Flycatchers are a group of somewhat vague definition, _Hemipus_ appearing closely allied to the _Laniidae_, _Cryptolopha_ to the _Sylviinae_, _Lioptilus_ to the _Timeliidae_. Connexion with the _Turdinae_ is implied by the more or less spotted plumage of the young, though the metatarsus is usually scutellated anteriorly. Typically the bill is broad and flat, with stiff rictal and prominent nasal bristles; it is extremely wide, with the culminal ridge strongly developed in _Machaerorhynchus_, _Myiagra_, _Bias_, and _Smithornis_; _Sisura_ has it longer and more slender; _Chelidorhynx_ short, with a pronounced hook; and the diminutive _Smicrornis_ exceptionally small; while many species have it much less robust. The feet, usually weak, may be stronger, as in _Chloropeta_; the wings, ordinarily elongated and pointed, and especially so in _Hemichelidon_, are at times abbreviated and rounded, as in _Niltava_, whereas the secondaries in _Platystira_ and _Newtonia_ nearly equal the primaries, of which the outer is very short. The tail is also short in _Diaphorophyia_, but is usually moderate or long, and frequently much graduated, as in _Rhipidura_ (Fantail), _Elminia_, and _Terpsiphone_, the males of the last having the two median feathers twice the length of the body. _Terpsiphone_, _Cyanomyias_, _Bias_, _Trochocercus_, and so forth, have fine crests, shorter in the female; while fleshy wattles, round or {507}above the eye, of scarlet, blue, or yellow, are found in _Terpsiphone_, _Zeocephus_, _Diaphorophyia_, _Platystira_, and _Arses_. The bill is sometimes reddish or blue, and the inside of the mouth green or yellow, as in certain Birds of Paradise.

The males of our summer visitors, the Spotted and Pied Flycatchers, _Muscicapa grisola_ and _M. atricapilla_, are respectively brown with whitish under parts streaked with dusky, and black and white; the hen-bird being similar in the former case, but in the latter olive-brown, with the frontlet, wing-patches, and lower surface buff instead of white. _M._ (_Erythrosterna_) _parva_, which is brown with grey head, and has a reddish-orange fore-neck that becomes rufous in the female, occurs accidentally in Britain. _Platystira_ is glossy bluish- or greenish-black above with white markings, and white beneath with a black pectoral band, the female having greyer upper parts, and sometimes a maroon chest; _Erythromyias_ is black and white, with an orange-rufous breast or back; _Pseudogerygone_ is olive-green, brown, or grey above–dark crimson in _P. rubra_–with an admixture of black, buff, rufous, yellow, or white, and has similar or yellow tints below; _Chasiempis_ is brownish, relieved by black, white, and bay; _Culicicapa_ is greenish-yellow with a bright yellow lower surface, the head being grey in one species. The hen-bird in these four genera, where known, resembles the male. That sex of _Niltava_ is blackish or purplish, varied with rich cobalt, especially on the neck, the under parts being orange-rufous or purplish-grey; the female is chiefly olive, often with a blue or lilac neck-patch. _Malurus_ commonly shews a fine mixture of blue, purple, and velvety-black, with a little brown and white; one of its members is chiefly brown, but has a blue tail, and a lilac crown with black centre; a second is vermilion, black and brown above, and black below; a third has crimson in the place of vermilion; a fourth is bluish-black and white. The hen-birds are mainly brown, often with a blue, or even a green, tail. _Piezorhynchus_ has two metallic black species, while _P. chrysomelas_ is orange-yellow and black; _Metabolus_ is almost white, with black face and throat; and lastly, _Terpsiphone_ (or _Tchitrea_), well known on Chinese and Japanese screens and fans, contains several long-tailed and finely crested white birds, with glossy greenish-black head and throat, and with black markings on the wings and tail in _T. paradisi_, the Paradise-Flycatcher. The female is rich bay above, with similar head, but grey cheeks and throat. In {508}other species the males are said to be maroon, cinnamon, chestnut, blue-grey, or glossy-black above. _T. mutata_ of Madagascar may be dimorphic. Nuchal collars, elongated silky flank-feathers, and spots or stripes below, are not infrequent in the Family.

[Illustration: FIG. 110.–Paradise Flycatcher. _Terpsiphone paradisi._ × ⅓.]

Flycatchers are common in the Ethiopian, Indian, and Australian Regions; and several species are Palaearctic, four or five reaching Europe. Most of them are migratory, the Spotted Flycatcher nesting northwards to Tromsö and Archangel, the Pied Flycatcher nearly as far. They love wooded districts, and _Gerygone_ even gloomy forests; while they are usually silent and solitary, feeding on little but insects, which are habitually caught upon the wing with an audible snap of the bill, though also procured upon the boughs or by darting to the ground. The graceful, undulating, or zigzag flight, and the sudden dash into the air, followed by a quick return to the perch, are especially characteristic, as is a frequent quivering of the wings and tail; _Rhipidura motacilloïdes_ is Wagtail-like in habits; while _Sisura inquieta_, the "Grinder" of Australia, runs along the river-sides, or hovers like a Kestrel, making a grinding sound in the air, whence it descends vertically to secure its prey. Other species of _Rhipidura_ pick flies off cattle, and rise and fall perpendicularly in the air, opening the fan-shaped tail or tumbling completely over. _Malurus_ runs quickly, or bounds along with rapid hops. Most Flycatchers are tame, but several are pugnacious; _Lanioturdus_ is stated to be gregarious; _Parisoma_ creeps about thick bushes; {509}_Smicrornis_ clings to the branches like a Tit; _Niltava_ and other forms eat berries and the like in late summer; _Eopsaltria_ and _Gerygone_ are very fond of insect-larvae. The voice is usually faint, but is harsh in _Terpsiphone_, _Smithornis_, and _Batis_, croaking in _Piezorhynchus_ and _Lanioturdus_; _Sisura_ whistles; _Gerygone_, _Malurus_, and our Pied Flycatcher, have pleasing Redstart-like songs; while that of _Microeca_, which often soars aloft when singing, is said to resemble the strain of the Chaffinch. The neat nest, usually formed of grass, moss, leaves, bark, fibres, or hair, and not infrequently decorated with lichens or cobwebs, is placed in low forks or cavities of trees, if not among creepers or outgrowths on banks, _Terpsiphone_ preferring higher situations. _Gerygone_ builds a covered pear-shaped structure, with or without a protecting porch, of like materials, lined with fur or feathers, and suspends it in shrubs; _Malurus_ and _Smicrornis_ make rounder fabrics; while that of _Ochromela_ is somewhat similar, but is composed of grass and ferns, and usually placed in low vegetation. The eggs, in number from two to six, are greenish- or buffish-white, with red, brown, or rarely grey, spots and blotches; exceptionally they are uniform light blue, as in _Muscicapa atricapilla_; white, as in _Chelidorhynx_; apple-green, green-blue, or whitish, with reddish-brown, yellowish, or lilac markings, as in _Eopsaltria_; or white, with red or purplish spots, as in _Malurus_, _Chasiempis_, and _Gerygone_.

Fam. VII. TURDIDAE.–This group is here divided into five Sub-families, (1) _Turdinae_ or Thrushes and their allies; (2) _Myiodectinae_; (3) _Sylviinae_ or Warblers; (4) _Polioptilinae_; and (5) _Miminae_ or Mocking-birds. The first and third of these are often considered separate Families, but they are so closely connected by the Saxicoline and Ruticilline forms that they can hardly lay claim to such rank, while the _Accentorinae_ and _Regulinae_ of certain authors seem unnecessary. The _Miminae_ shew some affinity to the Wrens (_Troglodytidae_).

Sub-fam. 1. _Turdinae._–In this section the bill is usually rather long and stout, being notched but hardly curved, with few, if any, basal bristles; it is somewhat hooked in the so-called genus _Geocichla_–where it is much lengthened in five species, and abbreviated in _G. princii_; large, broad, and arched in _Turnagra_ (a doubtful member of the Family); comparatively short and slender in _Sialia_, _Ruticilla_, _Erithacus_, _Saxicola_, and so forth; more robust in _Accentor_. The metatarsus is long in _Catharus_, _Calliope_, and _Notodela_, but {510}is usually moderate, being

## particularly strong in _Geocichla_, _Nesocichla_, _Zoothera_, and

_Turnagra_; in _Saxicola_, _Erithacus_, and _Daulias_ it is at once slender and elongated. Generally the anterior scales are fused together, forming an ocreated covering (p. 10), but the opposite sometimes occurs, as in _Accentor_, _Nesocichla_, and _Thamnobia_. Typically the wing is fairly long and broad, with abbreviated outer primary, the next feather being emarginated in some species of _Myrmecocichla_; but in Dr. Sharpe's group Thamnobiae,[283] it is generally abbreviated and more rounded, in _Sialia_ it is pointed. The tail may be long and wide, as in _Turnagra_, or comparatively short, as in _Monticola_ and _Pratincola_, but is usually of medium length; it is normally square or rounded, though emarginated in _Sialia_, and much graduated in _Copsychus_ and _Cittocincla_, while in _Cossypha natalensis_ it has pointed feathers. _Turdus_ (_Geocichla_) _varius_, _T. horsfieldi_, and _T. hancii_ have fourteen rectrices.

The coloration is ordinarily plain black or brown, more or less varied with grey, white, rufous, or chestnut, occasionally in the form of a collar; many Thrushes, moreover, exhibit the characteristic white breast spotted with brown. The bill is frequently orange or yellow. As examples of the genus _Turdus_ we may take our native Blackbird, Mistletoe- and Song-Thrushes _T. merula_, _T. viscivorus_, and _T. musicus_; our summer visitor the Ring-Ousel, _T. torquatus_; our winter immigrants the Redwing and Fieldfare, _T. iliacus_ and _T. pilaris_; the American "Robin," _T. migratorius_; and the Ground-Thrushes ("_Geocichla_,") with their light patch under the wing. The sexes are commonly alike, but black or grey males have usually brownish females. A bushy crest occurs in _Catharus_.

Of some ten Rock-Thrushes (_Monticola_), _M. saxatilis_ occurs exceptionally in Britain. It has a cobalt and blackish-blue head, neck, and upper back, a nearly white mid-back, brown remiges, chestnut lateral rectrices and lower surface. _M. cyanus_ is almost entirely blue. The browner hens are generally spotted and barred below. _Cochoa viridis_ is green and black, with blue-green under parts, and blue on the head, tail, and wings; _C. purpurea_ has the bright colours replaced by purplish-brown and lavender; _C. azurea_ is mainly rich blue, becoming purple below. The females are duller. Blue-birds (_Sialia_) are bright blue, often with chestnut breast or back, the males being the most brilliant; _Grandala caelicolor_ is indigo, with blackish wings and tail.

{511}[Illustration: FIG. 111.–Mistletoe Thrush. _Turdus viscivorus._ × 7/11.]

In _Saxicola_ (Wheatear) the rump-region is white, except in some seven species, where it is entirely or partly chestnut or buff; the plumage exhibits various combinations of jet black, chestnut, brown, grey, and white, the black shewing especially upon the breast, quill-feathers, throat, lores, or ear-coverts. The females may be similar to the males or browner. _Pratincola rubetra_, our Whinchat, is mottled with brown and buff above and is buff below, having a superciliary streak and wing-bar of whitish; _P. rubicola_, the Stonechat, is blacker on the back, and has the head and throat black, but the breast rufous, while the hen lacks the black head. Other species have white rumps or tails, and the breast or even most of the plumage black. _Oreicola_ has three black members with white under parts; _Myrmecocichla_ eight, which are grey or brown, relieved by black, white, and buff. The Australian and Pacific Robins (_Petroeca_), of very doubtful affinity, are blackish or greyish, with scarlet or pink breasts, and some white above; one having a red head. Our Redstart, _Ruticilla phoenicurus_, is grey, with brown wings, chestnut breast, rump, and lateral rectrices, black face and throat; the hen being brownish above and buff below, with less brilliant chestnut tints. The Black Redstart is dark grey, with brighter rufous rump and tail, black lower parts, {512}and a white wing-patch; brown replacing the grey and black in the female. Some species are blacker above, one has a chestnut back and no black throat, another has both rump and tail black, and three have blue on the forehead and crown, one of these again having a white gular mark. _R. moussieri_, linking the Redstarts to the Chats, is black, with orange-rufous rump, tail, and lower surface, a white alar spot, and white extending from the forehead to the face. The Robin,[284] _Erithacus rubecula_, needs no description; the Persian _E. hyrcanus_ hardly differs; the similar Japanese Robin, _E. akahige_, has a grey belly; the Corean _E. komadori_ is orange-chestnut above, black and white beneath. The Blue-throat, _Cyanecula suecica_, is brown, except for a white superciliary streak, bay tail-coverts, and a bright blue throat with a central rufous spot, to which succeed black, white, and rusty bands, and a whitish belly. _C. wolfi_ lacks the gular spot, _C. leucocyana_ has it white. _Calliope camtschatcensis_, _C. pectoralis_, and _C. tschebaiewi_, are brown or dark grey, with grey or black breasts, white abdomens, some black and white on the face, and glossy scarlet throats. _Daulias luscinia_, our summer visitor the Nightingale, and the larger eastern _D. philomela_ are russet-brown in both sexes, with redder rump and tail, and whitish lower parts. _D. hafizi_ of Persia is intermediate (_cf._ p. 506).

[Illustration: FIG. 112.–Redstart. _Ruticilla phoenicurus._ × ½.]

Our Hedge-sparrow, _Accentor modularis_, is brown streaked with blackish, and shews bluish-grey on the head, throat, and breast; but the Alpine Accentor, _A. collaris_, which rarely visits Britain, has a white throat spotted with black, and flanks mottled with chestnut; while their congeners exhibit rufous lower parts or pectoral bands, black throats, or whiter wings and tails. _Ephthianura_ is grey, brown, black and white above, with the crown, rump, and breast crimson in one species and yellow in two; {513}of the latter one has a black mark on the breast, as has a fourth form with a white lower surface.

In the Thamnobiae the sexes are alike, or the females duller. The colour, as in _Callene_ and _Copsychus_, may be dull blue and cobalt, purplish- or bluish-black, or bluish-grey, often with white rump; or, as in _Cossypha_ and _Thamnobia_, grey, brown or blackish, with orange-chestnut or rufous rump, tail, and abdomen. Stripes of black and white often adorn the face, the ruddy hue occasionally tinges the breast, nape, or wing, while a blue alar patch or a white head occur exceptionally. _Cittocincla_ is intermediate in coloration; _Alethe_ is chiefly chestnut or rufescent-olive above, but grey and white or creamy buff below, with orange crown in two cases. _Turnagra_ has brown upper parts with reddish tail, and the lower surface either grey with white throat, or whitish with dusky stripes; _Cichladusa_ is similar, or has buff under parts, with black spots and gular crescent. All the above frequently exhibit white on the wings or tail. _Lamprolia_ is velvety-black, with blue spangles on the head and neck, and white rump-region; _Tarsiger_ is either blue above, varied with black, white, olive, or yellow, and with more or less orange below, or lacks the blue entirely. _Aedonopsis_ and _Phaeornis_ are brown, with grey and white under parts.

In the Turdinae the young are constantly spotted, as opposed to the Sylviinae.

Sub-fam. 2. _Myiodectinae._–These birds differ from the _Turdinae_ in their short, somewhat depressed bills, and strong rictal bristles. _Myiodectes_ and _Cichlopsis_ are in both sexes fairly uniform brown, grey, or blackish, with a grey lower surface, and occasionally chestnut or orange throat and belly; one species of the former, however, is cinnamon, with black head and under parts, and a white band across the cheeks.

Sub-fam. 3. _Sylviinae._–Besides the typical Warblers are here included most of Dr. Sharpe's groups _Bradypteri_ and _Cisticolae_,[285] but not, of course, the American "Warblers" (_Mniotiltidae_). They differ from the Turdinae in being smaller, with the bill usually weak and slender, though it is very stout in _Rhopophilus_ and _Arundinax_; a few genera shew strong rictal hairs; while _Regulus_ has the nostrils covered by one or more peculiar bristly feathers. The metatarsus is sometimes scutellated anteriorly; the wings are comparatively {514}short and broad. The tail, which in some twenty genera contains but ten feathers, varies from square to rounded, being rarely emarginated, but not uncommonly graduated, as in _Locustella_, _Cisticola_, and elsewhere; it is much lengthened and widened in _Laticilla_, broad and soft in _Bradypterus_, and so forth. In _Sphenoeacus_, _Dromaeocercus_, and the still longer-tailed _Stipiturus_ the rectrices are spiny with curiously decomposed webs; in _Orthotomus_ the median pair are elongated during summer in the male; in _Sylviella_ the rump-feathers nearly hide the tail itself.

The usual coloration in both sexes is plain greyish or brown, with rufous, buff, white, or yellowish lower parts, and frequently spots, stripes, and streaks. Many forms, however, shew more or less black or red hues, often in the form of a cap; others, as _Cryptolopha_, _Habrornis_, _Tickellia_, and _Phyllergates_ exhibit brilliant yellows and greens, relieved by grey, black, chestnut, and white; _Orthotomus_ and some species of _Prinia_, _Hapalis_, and _Euprinodes_ are hardly duller; while _Phylloscopus_, _Acanthopneuste_, _Regulus_, _Hypolais_, _Neornis_, and _Acanthiza_ vary from yellow-green to brown and buff above. _Regulus_, _Phyllergates_, and certain members of _Cisticola_, have red, orange, or yellow crowns; _Acanthiza_ has scaly frontal feathers; the male of _Stipiturus_ a blue throat; _Myiomoira_ is black and white, with a yellow and orange breast in one case; _Stiphrornis_ has an orange throat in two; _Leptopoecile_ shews a blue wash on the rump and lower surface.

Sub-fam. 4. _Polioptilinae._–The Gnatcatchers, with the sole genus _Polioptila_, have very slender bills, moderate rictal bristles, metatarsi scutellated anteriorly, shortish wings, and graduated tails. They are blue-grey above, with black rectrices, externally marked with white; and are greyish or white below. White shews occasionally on the wing, and some males have black heads.

Sub-fam. 5. _Miminae._–The American Mocking-birds have fairly long bills, which are little decurved except in _Harporhynchus_, but are frequently notched, and bristly at the gape. The metatarsi are usually strong and distinctly scutellated in front, though more slender in _Oreoscoptes_ and _Melanoptila_, and sometimes quite smooth in the latter and _Galeoscoptes_; the wings are shortish and rounded, with well-developed outer primary; the tail is rather long and is generally broad and much graduated, but is narrower and squarer in _Oreoscoptes_. The usual coloration is dull brown, rufous, and grey, varied by white on the remiges and rectrices, and by an occasional {515}black cap or chestnut vent; _Melanoptila_, however, is uniform purplish- or bluish-black, _Rhodinocincla_ rosy or rufous below in the male and female respectively, with superciliary streak to match. _Oreoscoptes_, _Mimus_, _Cichlherminia_, and _Harporhynchus_ often shew spots beneath and _Donacobius_ dusky bars, _Mimus trifasciatus_ has a dark chest-band.

The Turdidae occupy the whole globe, being characteristically, though not invariably, migratory.[286] Of the Turdinae, Thrushes abound in the Neotropical Region, and–if we include the Ground-Thrushes–are common in the Ethiopian, Indian, and Australian, but the Palaearctic and Nearctic are poorly supplied: Chats, Robins, Redstarts, Nightingales, Hedge-sparrows, and their nearest allies are mainly Palaearctic, Ethiopian, and Indian; though _Sialia_ reaches America, _Pratincola_ Celebes, and _Petroeca_ Samoa. _Nesocichla_ is restricted to Tristan da Cunha, _Turnagra_ to New Zealand, _Phaeornis_ to the Sandwich Islands; while Madagascar possesses peculiar forms both of this Sub-family and of the Sylviinae. The last-named, however, are chiefly Palaearctic, and visit the southern Old World in winter; yet two species of _Acrocephalus_ breed in Australia, _Miro_ and _Myiomoira_ occupy New Zealand, _Tatare_ and _Psamathia_ are Polynesian, one species of _Phylloscopus_ reaches Alaska, _Regulus_ occurs thence to Panama, and so forth. The Polioptilinae and Miminae inhabit North and South America; the Myiodectinae range from the more western United States to Bolivia and Brazil. Of the last groups several forms are confined to the Antilles, and of the Miminae three to the Galápagos.

Thrushes inhabit wooded country, and reach an altitude of twenty thousand feet in some latitudes; they feed chiefly on the ground, where they hop about scratching or searching for worms, molluscs, and insects. Snails are habitually cracked on some favourite stone by the Song-Thrush, and fruit is also eaten. The strong rapid flight is undulating and frequently low, but flocks cover vast distances on migration; Ground-Thrushes are naturally more terrestrial and resident, while the solitary Rock-Thrushes haunt stony hills, rocks, and ruins. This Sub-family comprises some of our very finest songsters, the Song-Thrush or Mavis vying with the Nightingale, which gladdens both day and night, and the Blackbird uttering delightfully mellow notes; but chirping sounds and harsher screams are common. _Phaeornis_ {516}sings prettily. The typical Turdine nest is a massive cup of grass, cemented with mud and inlaid with finer herbage; but other materials are constantly added, while mud, dung, or rotten wood constitutes the lining in the case of the Song-Thrush, and occasionally elsewhere. It is usually placed in trees or bushes, but not infrequently in cavities in trunks, walls or rocks, and sometimes on the ground in heather, banks, and so forth. The eggs may be greenish or bluish with reddish-brown or purplish spots and streaks, or glossy blue with or without black or brown markings; Rock-Thrushes have them light blue with faint stains, or pinkish with rusty freckles, _Turnagra_ whitish with black-brown spots.

As regards the Saxicoline and Ruticilline forms attention should be drawn to the jerky, flitting flight, the "chacking" alarm-note and the rarer song of our Wheatear, the similar habits of our Stonechat and Whinchat, not to mention other allied forms; as well as to the pleasant notes of Redstarts, Redbreasts, Blue-throats, and Hedge-sparrows, and the common habits of hopping, flirting the tail, and drooping the wings. The nests of Chats consist of grass and moss, often lined with hair, feathers, or fur, and are usually placed in holes of various descriptions, or in rough herbage; the four to seven blue, greenish, or even whitish eggs being spotted or zoned with rufous, except in a few instances, such as our Wheatear, where markings are rare. Deserts and stony or furzy flats are favourite haunts. _Petroeca_ adds bark, fibres, cobwebs, or lichens, and chooses sites in forks, or holes in trees and walls; the greenish or buffish eggs being marked with purplish, brown and grey. _Cyanecula_ and _Nemura_ select hollows in marshy spots, building with moss, grass, and leaves, like Robins; but the former, instead of reddish-white eggs with rufous spots, has them olive-coloured or dull greenish with faint rusty markings, as have the Nightingales, which place their fabric of oak or beech leaves on the ground or in low shrubs. _Copsychus_, _Cossypha_, _Catharus_, and _Thamnobia_ nest as Robins do, in holes in banks, trees, or walls, and have similar eggs; Redstarts deposit five or six, which are light blue or white and very rarely spotted, in a structure of grass, moss, roots, hair, and feathers, placed in cavities of trees or masonry; _Tarsiger_ and _Notodela_ prefer hollows in banks and rocks, and lay blue and salmon-pink eggs respectively. _Hodgsonius_ and _Larvivora_ also have them blue. _Chimarrhornis_ and _Rhyacornis_ nidificate like Redstarts, but their eggs are greenish-white with rufous or yellowish spots; the shy {517}_Cittocincla_ haunts thick woods, and deposits four oily-green eggs, with brown and purplish spots and dashes, on a bed of leaves and grass in holes in trees; the unsuspicious _Sialia_ utilizes cavities in stumps or buildings, the nest and its contents resembling those of a Redstart. The breeding habits of the Hedge-Sparrow need no description, and those of the Alpine Accentor differ little, except that rocky sites are chosen.

In the above section the number of eggs varies from four to seven. The flight is feeble as compared with that of Thrushes, most species feeding chiefly upon the ground and being more insectivorous, though Redstarts and Chats will take insects on the wing.

The habits of the active Sylviinae are much more uniform; they seldom fly far, except on migration, and a few flit about like Wrens; while _Amytis_, _Stipiturus_, _Sphenura_, and some species of _Aedon_ run, or hop among the herbage, with upturned tail. They frequent trees, bushes, long grass or reeds, seldom flocking as does _Regulus_, and live on insects and their larvae, small molluscs and fruit, the first-named being either caught in the air or sought upon the leaves and branches. The song is usually clear and sweet, though often plaintive, metallic, or whistling; the Willow- and Wood-Warblers (_Phylloscopus_) trill: the Black-cap and Garden-Warblers (_Sylvia_) have beautiful songs, as well as grating alarm notes; the Cataract-bird (_Origma_) runs along rocky water-courses emitting shrill cries; the Reed- and Sedge-Warblers (_Acrocephalus_), the skulking _Cettia_, and other marsh- and grass-frequenting forms, utter more or less jarring sounds, generally from some bush, whence they quickly drop to cover; while the Grasshopper-Warblers (_Locustella_) have a peculiar cricket-like note.

The nest may be a thin or fairly substantial cup of grasses, bed-straw (_Galium_) and the like, occasionally lined with hair, and placed in bushes or rank herbage, as in the Black-cap, Garden-Warbler and White-throats (_Sylvia_); or a firmer structure, including wool, moss, feathers, reed-flowers, or even lichens, built on the ground, in shrubs, in sedge, or between reed-stems, as is the case in _Locustella_, _Acrocephalus_, _Aedon_, and _Hypolais_. _Phylloscopus_, as well as some African and many Indian and Australian members of the Sub-family, fashion a round ball of grass and a little moss, lined with finer grasses, hair, down, or feathers, and generally place it close to the earth; _Regulus_ hangs a cup of moss and spiders' webs, bedded with feathers, below the end of a conifer or other {518}branch, or even builds it in creepers. Savi's Warbler (_Locustella luscinioïdes_) makes a Rail-like nest of broad grass-blades (_Glyceria_) in sedges, _Myiomoira_ one of bark, grass, wool, moss, and fibres in holes in trees, _Miro_ a similar fabric on their branches, _Acanthiza_ a domed hanging structure of like materials, _Origma_ a ragged pendent mass of moss and roots, lined with fur or feathers, under rocks. _Orthotomus_ (Tailor-bird) and some species of _Franklinia_, _Prinia_, and _Cisticola_ stitch together the edges of a leaf or leaves to sustain their nest of grass, cotton, wool, and hair.

The number of eggs is generally from three to six, but as many as twelve are found in _Regulus_. The colour is buffish-white with brownish and violet-grey spots in Savi's Warbler; pinker with delicate red-brown freckling in the Grasshopper-Warbler; rich red-brown in _Cettia_ and _Chthonicola_; similar or varying to blue, green, white or pinkish, with or without red or brown spots, in _Prinia_–even in the same species; little different in _Cisticola_; bronzy-brown in _Pyrrholaemus_; white or purplish with dark markings in _Sericornis_; white in _Origma_ and _Cryptolopha_. In _Sylvia_ the eggs are greenish- or yellowish-white with olive, brown, green, or reddish spots; in _Acrocephalus_ they are decidedly greener; in _Aedon_ greyer with brown and dull violet markings; in _Phylloscopus_ and _Acanthiza_ white, usually with dark red or purplish spotting; in _Hypolais_ lilac-pink with blackish or brown blotches or streaks; in _Regulus_ white, freckled or entirely suffused with yellowish or ruddy dots.

_Myiodectes_ frequents woods and thickets, and has somewhat Thrush-like habits; the voice is powerful, clear and metallic; while the food consists chiefly of berries, though insects are hawked for in the air. The nest, placed on bushes, stumps, banks or rocks, is made of sticks lined with soft materials, or of twigs, roots, and moss, and contains from three to six eggs, not unlike those of the Redbreast.

_Polioptila_ haunts tall trees or shrubs in pairs or small companies; the habits are restless, the flight is quick, the food consists of gnats and so forth, commonly captured on the wing. The purse-like nest is felted with bark, fibres, and down, and decorated with lichens; it is woven to boughs, stems, or creepers, and contains four or five greenish- or bluish-white eggs, marked with red-brown, lilac, and grey.

Of the Miminae, _Mimus polyglottus_ is the Mocking-bird in {519}chief; the natural song being rich, varied, and powerful, and the imitations ranging from the yelp of the Eagle to the noises of the farm-yard. It is found from the United States to Mexico and the Antilles, where in isolated trees, hedges, or brambles it makes a bulky platform of rough twigs to support the cup of roots, wool, and so forth, which contains the four to six pale greenish-blue–or rarely buffish–eggs, with brown and purplish markings. The movements are energetic but graceful, the flight Thrush-like; the food consists of insects, often taken in the air, and fruit. _Mimus modulator_, the "Calandria," of Argentina, Brazil, and Bolivia, feeds chiefly on the ground, and can hardly be said to mock, though _M. triurus_ of the same countries does so. _Galeoscoptes carolinensis_, the Cat-bird, besides an attractive song, utters clucks, whistles, and mewing sounds; it feeds chiefly on insect-larvae, and deposits from three to five deep greenish-blue eggs in a nest of twigs, bark, and plant-stalks lined with grass. _Oreoscoptes_, of the North American sage-brush districts, resembles _Mimus_ in its habits, nest, and eggs, but is no mimic; nor, it may be added, are the shy Thrashers (_Harporhynchus_), which commonly haunt arid situations, placing their large, flattish nest of coarse twigs, leaves, fibres, bark, grass, and moss, lined with softer materials, in low trees or thorny scrub. Their three to six eggs are white, bluish, greenish, or buff, with yellowish, purplish, or red-brown spots or specks, those of the more terrestrial _H. crissalis_ being uniform pale greenish-blue. _Donacobius_ frequents reeds, but possibly does not belong to this group; _Melanoptila_ has a harsh or mewing note, and lays blue eggs, as does _Melanotis_.

Fam. VIII. CINCLIDAE.–The Dippers or Water-Ousels form a single genus, _Cinclus_, probably more akin to the Wrens than to the Thrushes. The bill is moderate and straight, without bristles at the gape, the maxilla being slightly curved and notched; the smooth metatarsi are fairly long and strong; the wings are abbreviated, rounded, and concave; the tail is extremely short, and the whole body peculiarly squat-looking. The colour above is normally greyish-black or brown, _C. ardesiacus_ being, however, delicate grey; the lower parts are similar or white, commonly with a black belly, while a chestnut band crosses the breast in the British _C. aquaticus_ and in _C. albicollis_. White spots often occur above and below the eye; _C. leuconotus_ and _C. leucocephalus_ have nearly white heads, and the former shews white on the back. {520}The sexes are alike, but the young are spotted. Both plumage and down are close and nearly impervious to water.

These birds range throughout the Palaearctic Region, just reaching the southern slopes of the Himalayas, China, and Formosa. One species occupies the Atlas Mountains, while others occur along the heights of Western America, and the Andes southwards to Peru. Individuals of a dark form from Northern Europe occasionally stray to Britain, but such migration is exceptional.

[Illustration: FIG. 113.–Dipper. _Cinclus aquaticus._ × 5/13.]

Dippers frequent rapid streams in hill-country, which seldom freeze, and appear as cheery in winter as in summer; their flight is powerful, rapid, and direct, with quick wing-strokes and sudden descent; their cry upon the wing is loud and clear, their song when stationary Wren-like. They sit on stones in the water, bobbing up and down and jerking their tails, while they use both legs and wings below the surface, whither they dive noiselessly in search of insects, their larvae and pupae, or molluscs. Fish-spawn has not been found in the stomach. The domed, but flattened, nest is composed chiefly of moss or grass, with an inner bed of dry materials, which are generally oak or beech leaves, though in India sometimes ferns and roots. It is affixed to rock-faces, ledges, or boulders in streams, placed in crevices of masonry, or even built in holes in the soil or in débris caught on bushes, common situations being behind water-falls, under bridges, or beside mill-wheels. _C. albicollis_ seems to make an open fabric in Italy. From four to seven dull white eggs are laid very early in the season, two or even three sets being often produced–occasionally in the same nest. This the young sometimes leave by the end of March, being able to swim before they are fully fledged.

{521}Fam. IX. TROGLODYTIDAE.–The Wrens have their headquarters in Tropical America, but even reach Greenland, Patagonia, and the Falkland Islands. Four genera with some eight species inhabit the Himalayas, the hills of West China, the Burmese countries, Sumatra and Java; while _Troglodytes_, including the common Wren, occupies most of the Palaearctic and Nearctic Regions. An altitude of eleven thousand feet is attained in certain cases.

The bill is generally moderate, slender, and somewhat arched; being, however, stouter and almost hooked in _Thryothorus_ and _Campylorhynchus_, much elongated in _Catherpes_, _Salpinctes_, and _Microcerculus_, high and compressed in _Cyphorhinus_, remarkably conical, straight, and pointed in _Sphenocichla_. The maxilla may be notched, but rictal bristles are almost entirely absent. The long robust metatarsi are scutellated anteriorly, except in _Pnoëpyga_; _Salpinctes_ shews scales behind; _Cistothorus_ has a very large hind claw. The wings are rounded and concave; the tail is usually short and graduated, though it is exceptionally long in _Cinnicerthia_, _Sphenocichla_, and _Urocichla_, and is hardly visible in three species of _Pnoëpyga_. The last-named genus has only six rectrices, _Urocichla_ has ten. The coloration is ordinarily brown, with a great tendency to barring; spots, stripes, and streaks are not uncommon; chestnut, bay, orange, and grey often relieve the dulness; _Troglodytes formosus_, _Catherpes_, and _Henicorhina_ exhibit white spots above or even below; and two species of _Microcerculus_ have a white alar bar.

[Illustration: FIG. 114.–Wren. _Troglodytes parvulus._ × 4/7.]

Wrens frequent marshy, as well as dry or rocky localities, being familiar and yet wary; they habitually hop about with upturned tails, fly sharply from cover to cover, and hunt for insects, their larvae, and spiders, among fallen leaves, in crevices of rocks, and so forth, while they occasionally eat worms, small molluscs, crustaceans, and seeds. The characteristic note is shrill and Warbler-like, though harsher sounds accompany it, but _Cyphorhinus cantans_, the {522}Organ-bird of the Amazons, _Troglodytes domesticus_ (_aedon_), _Microcerculus_, and other American forms utter melodious flute-like strains. The nest is usually a domed structure of ferns, grass, moss, leaves, or even twigs, often lined with hair or feathers, which is placed in bushes, hedges, cacti, reeds, and cavities of masonry, or on trees, rocks, banks, and the like; _Salpinctes_, _Catherpes_, _Urocichla_ and sometimes _Pnoëpyga_ make no covering; _Campylorhynchus_ fashions a large purse-like structure, with a long passage for entrance. The eggs vary in number from three to nine, and are white, with or without spots or freckles of red, purplish, or brownish; in _Thryophilus pleurostictus_ they are said to be blue.

Fam. X. CHAMAEIDAE.–This contains only _Chamaea fasciata_ and _C. henshawi_ of California, which by various American authorities have been referred to the Wrens or the Tits, though not agreeing closely with either. This is the only _Family_ of land birds peculiar to the Nearctic Region. In both sexes the lax plumage is brown above and buffish below, with faint tail-bars and pectoral streaks; the bill is short, straight, and compressed, and is furnished with rictal bristles; the metatarsi are stout and nearly smooth; the wings are rounded and concave; the tail is graduated. _Chamaea_ inhabits dry plains and bushy hill-sides, flits about or searches for insects with elevated tail, utters a Wren-like trill, and builds a nest of twigs and grass in low bushes, adding hair or feathers to the lining, and laying three or four pale greenish-blue eggs.

Fam. XI. HIRUNDINIDAE.–The Swallows and Martins compose a well-defined cosmopolitan Family, certainly far removed from the Swifts (p. 420), with which they used to be joined. The latter have ten tail-feathers, and hardly any scutellation on the legs, the former twelve rectrices, and an anteriorly scutellated metatarsus. The bill is short, broad, and usually much depressed, being notched at the tip and split nearly to the eyes. The feet are very small and weak, with the middle digit more or less adherent to its neighbours; _Tachycineta_ has a stoutish hallux, _Chelidon_ feathered toes, and _Cotile riparia_ a tuft at the back of the metatarsus. The wings are extremely long and pointed, while the exterior margin of the outer primary has hooked barbs in the males of _Psalidoprocne_ and _Stelgidopteryx_. The tail varies in length, and is often very deeply forked, _Petrochelidon_, _Stelgidopteryx_, _Chelidon dasypus_ and _Psalidoprocne_ nitens having it {523}exceptionally square; while the lateral feathers may be almost linear, as in _Hirundo rustica_, or even wire-like, as in _H. smithii_.

_Chelidon_ is purplish- or bluish-black, or brown, having a white rump occasionally barred with black, and white or buffish under parts; _Tachycineta_ is similar, or greener and somewhat bronzy, in certain cases lacking the white rump, in others shewing white mottlings above. _Hirundo_ is glossy metallic black, with a variable amount of chestnut or rufous on the head, rump, or lower surface; the last of these regions exhibiting much white or having a black pectoral band, while streaky markings are not uncommon. _Cheramoeca_ is blue, black, white, and brown above, and white below with a black breast-patch; _Procne_ is either entirely blue-black or has some white beneath, _P. tapera_ alone being brown, with a longitudinal band of the same colour on the white lower surface. _Atticora_ is blue-black or greenish above, black and white or brown underneath; _Petrochelidon_ is steel-blue with concealed white striations, the forehead, nape, rump, and most of the lower surface being chestnut, rufous, or buff, with or without stripes; _Psalidoprocne_ is uniform blue, green-black, or sooty, _P. albiceps_ having a white crown and chin. _Cotile_, _Phedina_, and _Stelgidopteryx_ are dull brown above, the first being white, grey, brown, or rufous below, the second white with longitudinal brown streaks, and the third white and rufous with yellow middle to the breast and abdomen in two species. The plumage of most Swallows is very metallic, and white spots are often prominent on the tail feathers in _Hirundo_, _Chelidon_, _Cotile_, and _Petrochelidon_. The female is duller than the male in _Procne_ only.

The range of _Hirundo_ and _Cotile_ is practically worldwide, reaching from beyond the Arctic Circle in summer to South Africa, India, and Brazil in winter, not to mention resident southern species; no Swallow, however, occurs in New Zealand, nor is _Cotile_ found in the Australian Region. Four species of _Petrochelidon_ are found in America, two in Southern Africa, two in the Australian Region, and one in India–a remarkable distribution. _Psalidoprocne_, _Phedina_, and _Cheramoeca_ are Ethiopian, Mascarene (with Madagascar), and Australian respectively: _Tachycineta_ and _Procne_ extend over the New World from its Arctic portions to Patagonia, _Atticora_ from that country to Guatemala, _Stelgidopteryx_ from Canada and British Columbia to Bolivia and Brazil. _Chelidon_ is confined to the Old World, migrating in autumn to Central {524}Africa, Borneo, and Burma. The summer migrants to Britain are _Hirundo rustica_, the Swallow, _Chelidon urbica_, the Martin, and _Cotile riparia_, the Sand-Martin. Swallows traverse immense distances on their periodical journeys, while all perhaps shift their quarters to some extent for the winter.

[Illustration: FIG. 115.–Swallow. _Hirundo rustica._ × ½.]

Hardly any sort of country comes amiss to these birds, though the neighbourhood of water is preferred, and for some species seems necessary. Spending their life chiefly in the air and alighting comparatively little, they rapidly dart, twist, double, sail aloft, or skim the water's surface in company, at times chasing each other in sport or even fighting savagely. Insects, which form the whole of their sustenance, are habitually taken on the wing, and the young are sometimes fed, or building materials snatched up, in full flight. A few species not uncommonly perch on trees, as _Hirundo rustica_, _Tachycineta albiventris_, _Petrochelidon nigricans_, _Psalidoprocne nitens_ and _Procne tapera_; the last-named, moreover, is exceptional in being non-gregarious, while it flits about with depressed wings and slow butterfly-like flight when not hawking. The majority are rarely seen on the ground, unless they are procuring mud for nidification; but many roost on reeds or in their nests, and just before migration they settle in crowds on branches, fences, wires, and ridges of roofs. _Hirundo_, _Chelidon_, and _Psalidoprocne_ bask in the sun on gravelly places. The twitter or warble of Swallows–uttered on the wing or at rest–and their squeaks of anger or alarm, are well-known; the scream of _Procne_ and the chirp of _Stelgidopteryx_ being somewhat exceptional; when excited, however, the bill is not uncommonly snapped noisily. The nest may be cup-shaped as in our Swallow, _Cotile rupestris_, _C. fuligula_, and {525}_C. concolor_, and made of agglutinated pellets of mud with a lining of straw, chaff, leaves, or feathers; it may be similarly constructed but semi-ovate, with a hole near the top, as in the Martin; or retort-shaped with a tube for entrance at the side, as in several members of the genera _Hirundo_ and _Petrochelidon_: in these cases it may be placed inside buildings, under eaves, against rocks or walls. _Procne_–when not accommodated with a box–some species of _Tachycineta_, _Petrochelidon nigricans_, and other forms, not uncommonly prefer holes in trees, lining them as usual, if at all; while many species of _Cotile_, _Psalidoprocne_, and _Cheramoeca_ tunnel in banks, or, more rarely, choose holes in masonry. _Procne furcata_ utilizes the holes of _Conurus patachonius_; _P. tapera_ the nests of _Furnarius rufus_ in Argentina; _Tachycineta leucorrhous_ occasionally that of _Anumbius_; _Atticora cyanoleuca_ that of the Dendrocolaptine _Geositta_, itself within that of a biscacha. The eggs are from four to seven in number, generally pure white in Martins, and whitish with reddish-brown, grey, and lilac markings in Swallows; but the cases are occasionally reversed. Two or even three broods are reared in a season, and tended with the greatest care. Colonies are frequently formed, especially by Bank- and Cliff-Swallows. In Britain the Sand-Martin arrives first, but the Swallow comes early in April, while individuals have even been obtained in winter.

Fam. XII. CAMPEPHAGIDAE.–The "Cuckoo-Shrikes" are commonly placed near the _Laniidae_, but are possibly connected with the _Muscicapidae_ or the _Corvidae_. The bill is usually strong, and of moderate length, being hooked, arched, and wide at the base; it is especially stout in _Artamides_, decidedly weaker in _Campephaga_, long and thin in _Edoliisoma_. The metatarsus may be elongated and comparatively robust as in _Pteropodocys_, _Lalage_, and _Symmorphus_, or short and less powerful, as in _Pericrocotus_; the wings are normally long and pointed, and more

## particularly so in _Pericrocotus_, _Lalage_, _Symmorphus_, and _Graucalus_.

The tail is also fairly long, and frequently rounded, though it may be forked, as in _Pteropodocys_, and to a less extent in _Campechaera_, or graduated as in _Pericrocotus_, _Campephaga_, and _Graucalus_. The plumage is soft, with characteristically stiff shafts on the lower back; the nostrils are nearly concealed by the feathers; the rictal bristles are feeble. The usual coloration is either bluish-grey with a certain amount of black and white, or chiefly black and white. The black has generally a purplish or {526}a greenish gloss; while barring occurs occasionally in the cocks, and much more commonly in the hens, where the tints are duller, the grey lighter, and the hue in some cases brown or even rufous. The Mascarene _Oxynotus_ is almost unique among Birds in having the males of the two species alike, the females very different. Shaft-streaks on the feathers are fairly frequent; two species of _Lalage_ have a chestnut lower surface, and one the rump similar; while _Symmorphus_ is either brown above and whitish below, or black and white with buff rump and under parts. _Campechaera_ is green and golden-yellow in both sexes, but shews some black, white, and grey as well; _Lobotus_ is olive-yellow with dark green head and throat, orange-chestnut rump and breast, greenish tail, and an orange lobe at the gape. _Pericrocotus_ is usually black, adorned with lovely scarlet, crimson, orange, or yellow markings, and with a little white, but two species lack the brilliant tints, and others replace the black by brown or grey; the females in this genus usually have yellow where the males have red, though they also shew red in two cases. Three African species of _Campephaga_ vary from the ordinary grey or blackish coloration in being glossy bluish-black, with scarlet, orange, and yellow shoulder-patches respectively, and one in being steel-green, with purple face and neck, and steel-blue lower surface. In these forms the females have yellow markings. Finally, _Graucalus azureus_ is azure and black, with a shade of cobalt.

The restless and active members of this Family are generally seen in small flocks in wooded country, gardens, orchards, and hedge-rows. They are found up to an altitude of ten thousand feet throughout the Ethiopian, Indian, and Australian Regions, and even reach Amurland; _Graucalus_ inhabits all three Regions, but _Oxynotus_ is peculiar to Mauritius and Réunion. The flight is easy, undulating, and strong, though of brief duration; while the birds hop and frisk about the branches, or move briskly from tree to tree, as they examine the crevices of the bark or the leaves, and occasionally pluck the fruit. They may occasionally be noticed darting to the earth to secure caterpillars, of which they are extremely fond, or sallying into the air after insects, like Flycatchers. _Pericrocotus_ is said to hang to the boughs like a Tit; _Pteropodocys_ lives chiefly on the ground. The mellow and lively notes are of a whistling or twittering nature, varied by jarring sounds; but all the species are rather silent. The nest, {527}composed of twigs and grass, or of moss and leaves, is usually very shallow, and is covered with lichens and spiders' webs; it is placed on slender branches of trees, or more rarely in bushes. The two to five Shrike-like eggs are brownish, whitish, or apple-green, with markings of brown, rufous, or purple. Those of the isabelline-coloured _Hypocolius ampelinus_, which possibly belongs to the Ampelidae, are white with plumbeous spots.

[Illustration: FIG. 116.–Grey "Coly-Shrike." _Hypocolius ampelinus._ × 5/12. (From _Nature_.)]

Fam. XIII. DICRURIDAE.–The Drongos, usually associated with the _Laniidae_, range throughout the Ethiopian, Indian, and Australian regions, as far east as New Britain and New Ireland {528}(_Dicranostreptus_). _Chibia bracteata_ is the only species in Australia, while _Buchanga leucogenys_ is said to reach Japan; _B. waldeni_ is peculiar to Mayotte, and _Edolius forficatus_ to Madagascar and Joanna Island. Both sexes are typically black, with a metallic gloss of blue, purple, or green, though a few are greyer or browner, or have a little white below. The variable bill is usually large and more or less curved, with a hooked tip, a notched maxilla, and fairly strong rictal bristles–much developed in _Chaetorhynchus_. The metatarsi are short, the toes small, the wings long. The tail has only ten rectrices, and is generally very deeply forked, though less so in _Dicrurus_, _Chibia_, and _Chaetorhynchus_. In _Chibia_ the two outer feathers are slightly elongated and turned up, in _Dissemuroïdes_ they are produced and recurved at the tip, in _Dicranostreptus_ they are extraordinarily lengthened and turned to face one another. In _Bhringa_ and _Dissemurus_ the long bare shafts terminate in racquets, and have a twist that brings the upper side inwards in the former, and one in the racquet itself in the latter. On the forehead a large, erect tuft occurs in _Edolius_, a still more extensive recurved crest in _Dissemurus_, a bunch of long, silky hairs in _Chibia hottentotta_. A few similar hairs are found in _C. pectoralis_, and scanty plumes in _C. bimaënsis_; _Dissemuroïdes_ having the one or the other. Various species exhibit a tendency to lanceolate hackles on the head and neck, while the feathers of the former are scaly-looking in _Chaetorhynchus_. The bill and feet are black; the eyes red, white, or brown.

[Illustration: FIG. 117.–Drongo. _Dissemurus paradiseus._ × 2/9.]

These wary, active birds frequent gardens, open country, and forests up to at least eight thousand feet, more usually in pairs {529}than in companies; their flight is strong and rapid, but undulating and not sustained, while they are often seen perched on bushes or exposed branches, and occasionally hover like a Kestrel. The song or whistle is ringing and melodious, varied by harsh chattering or creaking sounds; the food consists of insects of all kinds, which are captured on the ground, on leaves or flowers, on the backs of cattle, or at times upon the wing, individuals often returning to their perches like Flycatchers. Drongos are good mimics, fight viciously, and are very courageous, mastering even Hawks and Crows. The nest is a shallow cup of twigs, roots, leaves, fine grass, lichens, hair, and cobwebs, often so slight that the contents can be seen from below: it is usually woven into a horizontal fork like that of an Oriole, but may be fixed among bamboos, and often overhangs water. The eggs, rarely more than three or four in number, are sometimes plain white, but usually pink, buff, or white, with red, brown, claret, purplish, or grey spots and blotches. Not uncommonly a second set is found in a nest whence the first has been taken. A curious instance of "unconscious mimicry" is that of _Buchanga atra_ and the Indian Cuckoo _Surniculus dicruroïdes_, the plumage being exactly the same, though the feet distinguish them at once.

Fam. XIV. AMPELIDAE.–In this group most forms have a short, depressed bill, though it is longer with bristly gape in _Phaenoptila_, and stouter in _Dulus_; they have abbreviated metatarsi, not scutellated in _Phaenoptila_; the wings are long and pointed in _Ampelis_, shorter and roundish elsewhere; the tails vary from short and even in _Ampelis_ to long and rounded in _Phaenopepla_, or cuneate with elongated median feathers in _Ptilogenys caudatus_.

Both sexes of our irregular winter-visitor the Waxwing (_Ampelis garrulus_) are silky greyish-brown, with blackish wings, and tail relieved by yellow and white; a black forehead, eye-stripe, and throat; chestnut under tail-coverts and basal margin of the erectile crest; and, in the adults, flattened wax-like tips to the shafts of the secondaries or even the rectrices. The young are streaked below. Breeding near the Arctic Circle, and changing its quarters erratically, it occurs in the New as well as in the Old World, while in winter it migrates southwards to at least lat. 43° N. The flight is easy, graceful, and often high; the notes are of a trilling or of a chirping nature; the food consists of insects, berries, and other fruit. The nest of twigs and fibrous lichens, or {530}of grass and bark, is placed on firs or birches, and contains from five to seven purplish-grey or drab eggs, with spots of black, brown, or lilac. The smaller North American _A. cedrorum_ lacks the yellow and white on the wing; _A. phoenicoptera_, of Japan, North China, and East Siberia, has red, but not wax-like, tips to the remiges and rectrices.

_Dulus dominicus_, of San Domingo, is dark brown, varied with greenish and yellow, the yellowish-white lower surface shewing broad brown streaks. Several pairs often join their nests of twigs into a circular mass. _Phaenoptila melanoxantha_, of the Costa Rican hill-valleys, is glossy black, having an olive rump-band, and similarly coloured under parts with yellow sides and grey middle. The female is olive above with black crown. _Phaenopepla nitens_, of Mexico and the Southern United States, is bluish-black, with white on the primaries and vent-region; it has an erectile occipital crest. The hen is dark grey, with brown abdomen and a different distribution of white. This shy, active bird has the graceful movements of a Flycatcher, with a habit of jerking the tail; the song is plaintive or whistling; the food consists of insects and fruit. The flat nest, of fibres, grass, and down, contains from two to five greyish eggs, speckled with brownish-black and neutral tints: _Ptilogenys cinereus_, of the highlands of Central America, is plumbeous, with black remiges, black and white rectrices, loose broad lavender crest-plumes, and yellow under tail-coverts and flanks; the female is chiefly brown.

[Illustration: FIG. 118.–Waxwing. _Ampelis garrulus._ × ⅓. (From _Bird Life in Sweden_.)]

Fam. XV. ARTAMIDAE.–The "Wood-Swallows" constitute a group of very doubtful position, ranging from the Australian to the Indian Region and in one case (_Pseudochelidon_) to West Africa. In the last-named the bill is broad, but elsewhere it is {531}long, pointed, and slightly curved, with wide gape. The metatarsi are short and strong; the wings are much elongated; the tail is short and occasionally emarginate, with soft, exserted shafts to the rectrices in _Pseudochelidon_, which is glossy greenish-black with red beak and feet. _Artamus_, where powder-down patches occur on the sides, thighs, and lower back, exhibits black, brown, rufous, or grey tints, relieved by white–especially below, or towards the tip of the tail; the bill is blue with black extremity, the feet are greyish. The sexes hardly differ.

These woodland birds often float nearly motionless in the air, occasionally moving ahead with a few strokes of the wing; at other times they wheel and twist about like Swifts. They hawk for insects, or sally after them from their perches, feeding also upon the ground, on the larvae and on seeds. Congregating like Swallows, they have in Australia a curious habit of hanging in ball-like masses from the branches; the note is plaintive or chirping. The nests, often found in close proximity, are placed in forks of trees, on their side-shoots, in holes, behind loose bark, in deserted habitations of other birds, or in bushes; the outer materials being twigs and grass, those of the lining fibres and feathers. From two to four white, greenish, or flesh-coloured eggs are deposited, spotted and streaked with umber, red-brown, grey, lilac, or occasionally black.

Fam. XVI. LANIIDAE.–Few Families are more difficult to define than this. A typical Shrike is easily recognised; but such forms as _Pachycephala_ and _Hemipus_ are closely connected with the _Muscicapidae_; _Calicalicus_ and _Neolestes_ with the _Pycnonotidae_; _Gymnorhina_ and its allies with the _Corvidae_; while some authors include the _Campephagidae_. Dr. Gadow[287] recognises five Sub-families: (1) _Gymnorhininae_, (2) _Malaconotinae_, (3) _Pachycephalinae_, (4) _Laniinae_, and (5) _Vireoninae_; but the last-named is here allowed Family rank, while _Prionopinae_ is admitted in its place.

The bill is stout, notched, and often strongly hooked, while it is either curved or straight; in _Falcunculus_ it is more than usually compressed, in _Rhectes_ the maxilla has the edge finely serrated, in _Xenopirostris_ the mandible is upcurved, leaving a distinct gap above it. In the _Gymnorhininae_ the culmen is long, straight, and slightly rounded, with slit-like nostrils near {532}the middle. The variable metatarsus is very strong in the larger forms, and much weaker in the _Prionopinae_; it is perhaps shortest in the _Malaconotinae_, where–as in all the Family–the scutes tend more or less to fuse. In _Calicalicus_ and _Nicator_ the basal joints of the third and fourth toes are united. The wings–usually moderate–may be very long and pointed, as in _Gymnorhina_ and _Pityriasis_, or abbreviated and much rounded, as in _Telephonus_ and _Laniarius_; the rather short tail is rarely emarginate, but frequently has acuminate feathers; while it may be square or rounded, or at times graduated, as in _Laniarius_, _Laniellus_, _Paeoptera_, _Telephonus_, _Ptererythrius_, some species of _Lanius_, and still more _Urolestes_, where the two median rectrices are exceptionally elongated. _Falcunculus_ and _Oreoeca_ have well-developed erectile crests; _Rhectes_, _Sigmodus_, _Pseudorhectes_, and _Melanorhectes_ also exhibit lengthened head-plumes; _Platylophus_ has these feathers broad and extraordinarily long; while _Prionops_ has in addition frontal feathers overhanging the nostrils. _Pityriasis_ has a bare yellow crown, the ear-coverts and lower throat being covered by brown bristles with red bases: _Leptopterus_, _Prionops_, and _Sigmodus_ have a fleshy wattle round the eye. Rictal and nasal hairs may be highly developed or absent. The sexes are generally similar, except in the Pachycephalinae, and to some extent in the Prionopinae.

Sub-fam. 1. _Gymnorhininae._–The remarkable red and black _Pityriasis gymnocephala_ inhabits Borneo; the black and white _Gymnorhina_ Australia, with Tasmania; the black, white, and grey _Strepera_ the same countries, _Cracticus_ Papuasia also. _Gymnorhina_ and _Cracticus_ have the beak bluish-white. _Strepera_ occurs in parties in open wooded districts or swamps, feeding chiefly upon the ground on insects, their larvae, and a little fruit; while it runs, hops, or leaps from branch to branch with great agility, but generally flies low and feebly. It is a bold bird with a shrill, ringing, oft-repeated cry. The nest, as large as that of a Crow, is placed in the fork of a low tree, and is formed of sticks and twigs with a lining of bark, grass, leaves, wool, or hair; three or four pale chocolate- or reddish-brown eggs, with faint red or lilac markings, being deposited. _Gymnorhina_, the Piping Crow, resembles _Strepera_ in habits, though its single, clear notes are somewhat different, and it can be taught to whistle or mimic. _G. hyperleuca_ of Tasmania is called the Organ-bird, as _Cyphorhinus_ (p. 522) is in Amazonia. The eggs vary from brown to whitish, {533}bright green, or sky blue, with smears, dashes, spots, or freckles of lilac and brown. The shy _Cracticus_ is more arboreal, and eats mice, young birds, lizards, and even crabs, in addition to insects, upon which _C. destructor_ darts like a Flycatcher, impaling its prey subsequently after the fashion of a Shrike. The cry in this genus bears a general resemblance to that of the above forms; the eggs are equally variable, and may have zonal markings.

Sub-fam. 2. _Malaconotinae_.–These African and Indian birds are commonly black, white, and chestnut; _Laniarius_, however, is chiefly red, green, and yellow; _Nicator_, _Neolestes_, and several species of _Ptererythrius_ shew much yellow and green; while _Artamia leucocephala_ is greenish-black, and _A. bicolor_ chiefly cobalt, both having the head and under parts white. The feathers of the back are very broad, soft, and fluffy. _Vanga_, _Artamia_, _Xenopirostris_, and _Calicalicus_ are peculiar to Madagascar; unless _Clytorhynchus pachycephaloïdes_ of New Caledonia and the New Hebrides be referred to _Xenopirostris_. Between _X. polleni_ and _Tylas eduardi_ (Pycnonotidae) a most curious instance of "unconscious mimicry" exists. The retiring members of this Sub-family are commonly seen hopping or climbing about thick undergrowth in search of insects and their larvae, or hunting for worms and spiders on the ground; they run well and fly fairly, while some forms, as _Dryoscopus cubla_ and _D. rufiventris_, puff out their feathers until the body resembles a black and white ball. The voice of _Laniarius rubiginosus_ has been compared to that of a Nightingale, and other species utter ringing notes, sweet or melancholy whistles, or at times loud, discordant cries or "churrs." The nest–where known–consists of twigs, grass, wool, hair, and feathers, and contains from three to five greenish-white eggs with brown spots; it is placed in a bush, or among close-growing plants. The male occasionally incubates.

Sub-fam. 3. _Pachycephalinae_.–This group, which extends from most of Polynesia and Australia to Tenasserim and the Great Sunda Islands, shews brown, black, white, grey, yellow, and olive hues, the yellow being somewhat characteristic. The majority of the members hop actively about leafy trees, or search the ground for insects, their larvae, and berries; _Falcunculus_ takes short, quick flights, clings to the boughs like a Tit, and often tears off the bark; while _Pachycephala simplex_ prefers swampy ground, and behaves like a Flycatcher. Some species have a low, mournful, reiterated note, others a continuous whistle, often ending with a {534}smacking sound, others again have a sweet song. The nest of _Pachycephala_ is a neat, though sometimes frail, cup of twigs, roots, and grasses, often placed on horizontal boughs, and containing three or four creamy or brownish eggs, with scattered or zonal umber markings and a few lilac spots; _Falcunculus_ usually selects a gum-tree, and uses bark, grass, and cobwebs, laying two or three elongated whitish eggs, with olive, black, and greyish dots or lines; those of _Oreoeca_ are bluer.

[Illustration: FIG. 119.–Great Grey Shrike. _Lanius excubitor._ × 5/13.]

Sub-fam. 4. _Laniinae._–The Shrikes proper extend over the Palaearctic, Indian, and Ethiopian Regions, and alone of the Family occur in the New World, _Lanius borealis_ and _L. ludovicianus_ inhabiting North America. The lax plumage is either black, grey, and white, or is varied with rich red-brown. _Urolestes_ has the feathers of the crown and neck lanceolate, and those of the sides long and fluffy; _Laniellus_ is exceptional in being spotted. The young are browner, and are often transversely barred below, a fact also true of the _Gymnorhininae_. In the large genus _Lanius_ are included all the British Butcher-Birds, _L. excubitor_, _L. minor_, _L. pomeranus_, _L. collurio_, the Great Grey, Lesser Grey, Woodchat {535}and Red-backed Shrikes, of which only the last-named breeds in our island. The Sub-family contains many of these quarrelsome, rapacious birds, often seen perched on the tops of bushes, or chasing each other along the hedge-rows. The flight is strong and rapid, but undulating and brief; the food, which may be taken on the wing, or procured upon the ground, consists of small mammals and birds, insects, snakes, lizards, frogs, or even crabs and fruit, the creatures not devoured at once being impaled on thorns or spiky leaves. The larders are usually near the nest, which is a bulky mass of twigs, grass, and the like, with a softer lining, placed in a thick bush or fairly high up a tree; the four to seven eggs vary from green to reddish-buff or whitish, and are spotted, blotched, and generally zoned, with brown, red, olive, green, or a little grey. Sometimes the male incubates. The usual note is harsh and grating, but shriller cries or sweeter songs are not uncommon, while certain species are good mimics. Pellets of the indigestible portions of the food are ejected after eating, as in Birds of prey, and elsewhere.

Sub-fam. 5. _Prionopinae._–The "Wood-Shrikes" are usually dull in colour, though some have the normal browns, greys, and blacks relieved by bright chestnut, fawn, or yellowish-white, and several are black and white, or uniform black. They frequent trees and bushes, and eat molluscs and fruit; but live chiefly upon insects captured on the branches or on the ground, if not by darting into the air from a perch. Their flight, rapid but short, is commonly performed with quivering wings; they hop easily upon the ground; while their notes take the form of a rather pleasing Thrush-like song or a harsh chatter. The slight, loose nest, built in a low fork, in the hollow of a stump, or even on a rocky ledge, is made of moss, grass, bark, roots, wool, feathers, lichens, cobwebs, or downy seeds; the three eggs being white, greenish, or buff, often with brown, black, and grey blotches, dashes, freckles, or zones.

_Grallina_, the "Magpie-Lark" of Australia and New Guinea, doubtfully placed here, possesses vocal organs abnormal for an Oscinine bird.[288] Graceful and tame, it frequents homesteads, stream-sides, and swamps, having a heavy, flapping flight, uttering a shrill, plaintive whistle, and plastering a nest of mud and grass on some horizontal bough. The three or four eggs are white or pinkish, marked or zoned with red, brown, and lilac.

The Helmet-bird of Madagascar (_Euryceros prevosti_), a purplish-black {536}and chestnut species, with a compressed, swollen and hooked steel-blue beak exhibiting a pearly interior, should perhaps stand in a separate Family, _Eurycerotidae_, and not with the Shrikes.

Fam. XVII. VIREONIDAE.–The small group of "Greenlets" ranges from Winnipeg and Nova Scotia to Argentina. The compressed or depressed beak varies from stout and strongly hooked, as in _Vireolanius_ and _Cyclorhis_, to small and comparatively weak as in _Hylophilus_; both mandibles being notched, and the gape bristly. The metatarsi are usually short and robust with slightly united anterior toes, but are longer and more feeble in _Vireo_; the wings may be elongated and pointed, as in _Vireosylvia_, or abbreviated and roundish, as in _Vireo_ and _Neochloe_; the tail is normally short and even, with narrow feathers, but is rounded in _Neochloe_. The frontal feathers are somewhat erect. The coloration is olive, or green and grey above–with a black, brown, ashy, or reddish cap–and is grey, whitish, or yellow beneath; the wing frequently exhibits white bands, and the head white, dusky, or rufous stripes. White or yellow orbital rings occur in _Lanivireo_, a red-brown tail in _Hylophilus ochraceiceps_, a blue crown in _Vireolanius pulchellus_, a chestnut pectoral band in _V. melitophrys_. The bill and feet are sometimes red; the eyes white, red, or yellow. The sexes frequently differ in colour.

These active and fearless birds inhabit forests up to an altitude of ten thousand feet, as well as ravines, swamps, or even streets of towns; they are usually observed in pairs among the higher branches of trees, creeping and hanging to the twigs, or chasing one another about in play. Seldom do they seek the ground, but they take fairly long flights, and dart out after passing insects, which, with the larvae and a few berries and seeds, form the diet. The continuous song consists of loud, reiterated, flute-like notes, supposed in one case to resemble "Whip-Tom-Kelly"; some forms also utter harsher chirps or mews. The nest, a deep, firm cup of leaves, grass, bark, lichens, spiders'-webs and cottony materials, lined with fibres, fir-needles, delicate stems, or rarely down, is supported by some horizontal fork, over which the rim is commonly turned; the four or five eggs are white, generally spotted with red-brown, black, or purplish.

Fam. XVIII. SITTIDAE.–The Nuthatches, though closely allied to the _Paridae_, show a certain affinity to the _Certhiidae_ (p. 571). Typically they are stout little birds with long, pointed wings, and short nearly square tails; the bill is fairly long and strong, and is straight and awl-like, being notched only in _Sitella_ and _Hypositta_, and slightly upcurved in the former.

{537}[Illustration: FIG. 120.–Nuthatch. _Sitta caesia._ × 4/11. (From _Natural History of Selborne_.)]

Bristles usually occur at the gape, while the nostrils are concealed by the same or feathers. The metatarsi are short and powerful, the scutes being fused in _Hypositta_; the hind toe is unusually developed; the claws are long, curved, and sharp. The colours in _Sitta_, which ranges over nearly all the Palaearctic and Indian Regions, and throughout North America to Mexico, are slaty-blue and rusty-red of various shades, relieved by black and white; the slaty tints shewing chiefly above, often in combination with a black or brown cap. _Dendrophila_ and _Callisitta_, of the Indian Region and Timor, are blue and black, with creamy or ochreous lower parts. _Sitella_, of Australia and New Guinea, exhibits brown, grey, black, rufous, and white, often having a white head, or a rusty or white wing-patch; _Daphoenositta_, of the latter country, adds to these hues pink at the base of the bill and on the graduated tail; _Hypositta_ of Madagascar is greenish-blue, with browner head and under surface, and coral-red bill.

{538}Nuthatches are quiet, non-migratory birds, which frequent forests or open country with old timber, where they may be seen darting quickly from tree to tree with undulating flight, or creeping jerkily in Tit-like fashion up and down the trunks or over rocks. They seldom seek their food upon the ground, but search every cranny, and dig in rotten wood for insects, their larvae, and so forth, or collect nuts, acorns, beech-mast, and seeds; while the nuts are cracked by fixing them in chinks and hammering them with the whole weight of the body, which swings backwards and forwards from the hip-joint. In winter they are exceedingly tame. The spring call is a noisy, querulous "whit-whit," recalling that of the Wryneck, but sibilant sounds and sweeter cries are not uncommon, few persons being aware that the British species (_Sitta caesia_) has at least four sets of notes, one of which is very Thrush-like. _Sitella_ has a weak, piping voice. In England the nesting-cavity is usually chosen in a tree, but occasionally in a wall, haystack, or the like; this is commonly lined with scales from conifer trunks, and the entrance blocked up with a plaster of clay pierced by a round hole: abroad, however, holes in rocks are often utilized, and nests made of moss, bark, hair, and feathers. The Indian species do not always plaster up their holes, and the American apparently never do so. _Sitella_ forms a curious funnel-shaped nest with a very thin rim, in forks or on branches, using as materials bark, moss, down, cobwebs, and lichens, the bark being applied externally like shingles. The three or four greenish or bluish-white eggs, with blackish, grey, or lilac markings, are very unlike those of _Sitta_, which are white, with fine pinkish-red and lilac spots or blotches, and number from five to eight.

Fam. XIX. PARIDAE.–The Tits usually have a moderate and slightly decurved bill, though it is elongated in _Sphenostoma_ and _Certhiparus_, abbreviated with roundish outline in _Acredula_, _Psaltria_, and _Psaltriparus_, more pointed in _Aegithalus_ and _Auriparus_; the maxilla having little trace of a notch, or the gape of bristles. The metatarsi are short, except in _Acredula_, where the legs are longer and the scales tend to fuse; the robust front toes are partially united, and possess strong claws. The wings are rounded and abbreviated, especially in _Aegithalus_; the tail varies considerably, being short and nearly square in _Parus_, long and graduated in _Acredula_ and _Psaltriparus_, intermediate in _Psaltria_ and _Sphenostoma_, and emarginate in _Aegithalus_. The nostrils, generally hidden {539}by bristly feathers, are exposed in _Xerophila_ and _Sphenostoma_. Crests occur in the last-named and at times in _Parus_.

The colour of the soft, lax plumage is commonly dull; but _Parus_ may be glossy greenish-black and yellow, as in the Sultan-bird (_P. sultaneus_); black with white on the wings, tail, or lower parts, as in _P. niger_ and a few other African species; blue and white, with a little black and grey or a yellow fore-neck, as in _P. cyanus_ and _P. flavipectus_; blue, black, greenish, yellow, and white, as in the British Great and Blue Tits (_P. major_ and _P. caeruleus_); olive, brown, or grey, varied with black, white, chestnut, or buff, as in our Crested Tit (_P. cristatus_); or lastly, the tints while including but little yellow or blue, as in our Coal and Marsh Tits (_P. britannicus_ and _P. palustris_), may be greyish or olive on the back, with a black head, white cheeks, and buffish-white under parts, the former species having a white nuchal patch. _Psaltria_ is brown, grey, white, and buff; _Psaltriparus_ is similar; _Xerophila_ and _Sphenostoma_ are brown, with yellowish-white, buff, or brown and white lower surface; _Certhiparus_ is red-brown, with a grey nape and dull white breast. _Acredula_, containing the Long-tailed Tits, is black and white with a more or less pronounced rosy wash, or may be rufous, or brown and grey, with pinkish or fawn under parts, two species having chestnut heads. _Aegithalus_ and _Auriparus_ are rufous-brown, yellow-green, or greyish above, with black and white, orange-red, or yellow heads; and are commonly rufous and white, yellow, or whitish below, occasionally with bay marks. The sexes are very similar, the young often yellower.

[Illustration: FIG. 121.–Great Titmouse. _Parus major._ × ⅝.]

Titmice are ordinarily non-migratory, _Parus_ occupying most of the globe, except South America and the Australian Region east of Lombok and Flores; _Psaltria_ is confined to Java, _Acredula_ to the Palaearctic and Indian countries, _Aegithalus_ to {540}the same with the Ethiopian Region, _Psaltriparus_ and _Auriparus_ to North America, _Xerophila_ and _Sphenostoma_ to Australia, _Certhiparus_ to New Zealand.

These familiar birds, active and often noisy, are found in flat or hilly, open or wooded districts, up to an altitude of ten thousand feet or more. They are decidedly arboreal, seldom frequenting the ground, and usually combining into flocks, except when breeding. The food consists mainly of insects, their eggs, larvae, and pupae, but at times of conifer-seeds, acorns, beech-mast, nuts, and the like; while in winter a suspended meat-bone, fat, or crumbs, prove great attractions. No doubt a certain amount of fruit is eaten in summer, and buds are plucked in spring; but the latter commonly contain injurious grubs. The Great Tit will kill smaller birds. The flight is weak and undulating, but on the trees the birds hop, climb, cling head downwards, and pry into the crannies in most workman-like style. _Xerophila_ is, however, more terrestrial. The sharp reiterated notes are varied by sibilant sounds, those of the Blue Tit being fairly representative; yet some are harsher; others, as in the Long-tailed Tits, softer; while certain Crested Tits are credited with a song. The nest is normally a mass of moss–and sometimes grass–with a felted lining of wool, hair, or fur, containing from five or six to twelve or more white eggs, which are in most cases spotted or freckled with various shades of red, but rarely with purplish or chocolate-colour. Sometimes more than one is laid in a day. The fabric is placed in holes in trees, stumps, rocks, walls, or the ground; pumps, post-boxes, and so forth are frequently selected: nooks behind loose bark, deserted habitations of other birds, or the foundations of those of Hawks and Crows are sometimes chosen; while _Sphenostoma_, and occasionally _Xerophila_, build open nests in shrubs. _Acredula_, _Aegithalus_, and _Psaltriparus_ make a purse-shaped structure with an entrance near the top; the first-named, thence called Bottle-Tit, placing it in hedges, bushes, undergrowth, forks of trees, or even ivy, and using as materials, moss, wool, lichens, and cobwebs, with a thick feather-lining; the two latter generally suspend it to branches and fashion it of grass, fibres, and leaves, often adding twigs externally or down internally. _Aegithalus_ occasionally makes a tubular passage. _Auriparus_ deposits in a similar or bulkier nest pale bluish or greenish eggs with red-brown specks, while those of _Sphenostoma_ are blue with blackish {541}markings. _Acredula_ apparently incubates with its tail over its back. The hen's bravery when sitting, her hissing challenge, and her speedy return when driven off, are characteristic of Tits.

Fam. XX. PANURIDAE.–Family rank is now pretty generally accorded to _Panurus biarmicus_, the "Bearded Tit" or "Reed-Pheasant," though its affinities are still doubtful. Dr. Gadow,[289] judging from the internal structure, inclines to the view that it is akin to the Finches, but others place it next to the Tits. The bill is short, curved, rather conical, and without a notch; the metatarsus is long and scutellated anteriorly; the wings are short and rounded, the tail is extremely long and graduated. The plumage is orange-brown above, with a grey crown and a black streak from the lores down the cheeks, where the feathers are elongated and point backwards; the wings are varied with black and white; the throat is greyish, the breast pinkish; the abdomen coloured like the back; the under tail-coverts are black, the bill is yellow. The hen has a buff head, while she lacks the black "moustache" and under tail-coverts.

[Illustration: FIG. 122.–Reed Pheasant. _Panurus biarmicus._ × ½.]

This pretty species, which ranges through most of Europe, except Scandinavia and Northern Russia, and reaches Central Asia, may be seen to advantage on the Norfolk Broads, where it is resident, and still breeds in diminished numbers. In windy weather the separate pairs keep hidden, but at other times, though shy, a quiet observer may see them flitting above the reeds, uttering their clear "ping-ping," or clinging to the flowering tops. Insects and small molluscs, with seeds in winter, constitute the food. From April to August a nest of broad grasses, sedges, and the like, lined with reed-flowers, or exceptionally with vegetable-down, {542}is built in aquatic herbage, or rarely in moderately high plants, to contain the round creamy eggs with sparing brownish-black lines and scrawls. These number from four to eight, or even ten, should two hens lay together. The alarm-note is plaintive. Towards autumn the adults and young form large flocks.

[Illustration: FIG. 123.–Golden Oriole. _Oriolus galbula._ × 3/7.]

Fam. XXI. ORIOLIDAE.–The Old World Orioles, not to be confounded with the so-called "American Orioles" (_Icteridae_), inhabit the Palaearctic, Indian, and Australian Regions, reaching eastward to Turkestan, China, and Papuasia. The bill is strong, rather long, straight, and notched, or, in _Sphecotheres_, curved; the metatarsus is short, the toes are small, the wings are long, the tail is moderate and slightly rounded. _Sphecotheres_ has naked lores and orbits. The Golden Oriole (_O. galbula_) which breeds exceptionally in England, is orange-yellow, with black lores and mainly black wings and tail; the similar Indian Mango-bird (_O. kundoo_), has a black post-ocular streak; other species shew black napes or heads. _O. viridis_ and its allies are olive-yellow or brownish, often with dusky streaks, _O. steerii_ being white beneath with broad black stripes; _O. cruentus_ is blue-black, with crimson wing-bar and mid-breast; _O. ardens_ chiefly crimson, with black head and fore-neck; _O. trailli_ maroon, with black head, throat, and wings; _O. hosii_ black, with {543}chestnut under tail-coverts. The bill is crimson, pinkish, or bluish. _Sphecotheres_ is yellow-green or olive-yellow, at times brighter below, and is relieved by black, grey, and white, the orbits being yellowish or flesh-coloured, the bill blackish.

These shy, restless, and quarrelsome birds frequent gardens, groves, and mangrove swamps, avoiding the ground, flying heavily but swiftly from tree to tree, and hopping among the higher branches. They eat insects and fruit; and utter flute-like notes, varied by mewing calls or "churrs" of alarm. The nest is a pocket of bark, grass, and fibres, with the rim woven over two forking twigs–leaves, moss, and hair being occasionally added. The three to five white or salmon-coloured eggs have dark purplish or brown-pink spots, and more rarely streaks; those of _Oriolus viridis_ being more dusky with brown and lilac markings. _Sphecotheres maxillaris_ makes a shallow nest of twigs, and lays three olive or green eggs, blotched or zoned with red-brown.[290]

Fam. XXII. PARADISEIDAE.–The Birds of Paradise have no rivals in splendour, unless it be the Humming-birds, among which, however, there is no such marvellous development of accessory plumes. They are undoubtedly allied to the Corvidae, as is evidenced in particular by _Lycocorax_ and _Manucodia_, while these also connect the more typical forms with the comparatively plainly garbed Bower-birds, often placed in a separate Family, _Ptilorhynchidae_. Few species are as large as Crows, and some are not bigger than Thrushes. Whether known to earlier traders or not, the first undoubted account of Birds of Paradise published in Europe was that of Maximilianus Transylvanus (1523), followed by that of Antonio Pigafetta, both relating to a couple of birds brought by Magellan's company from Batchian,[291] where they were called Manukdewata, or "Birds of the gods." Natives when preserving the skins used to cut off the wings and the feet, a fact which gave rise to absurd stories of Paradise-birds (_Paradisea apoda_) never perching, gazing perpetually at the sun (_passaros de sol_), suspending themselves by the tail-feathers, and so forth. The hen was also said to lay her eggs on the back of her spouse.

{544}[Illustration: FIG. 124.–D'Albertis' Bird of Paradise. _Drepanornis albertisi._ × ⅖. (From _Nature_).]

The bill is usually short and stout, but is Crow-like in _Manucodia_ and _Lycocorax_, long and decurved in _Ptilorhis_, _Paryphephorus_, _Ianthothorax_, _Seleucides_, and _Falcinellus_, and becomes slender and sickle-shaped in _Drepanornis_; the maxilla is in some cases notched, and in _Scenopoeetes_ bidentate. The metatarsi are strong and fairly long, the outer and middle toes are slightly united, and the hallux is large. The wings are moderate or short, being especially rounded in Bower-birds; the tail may be enormously elongated and graduated, as in both sexes of _Falcinellus_, _Astrapia_, and _Paradigalla_; less graduated and shorter, as in _Drepanornis_; of medium length, {545}and square or rounded, as in many forms; or much abbreviated, as in _Cicinnurus_. _Astrapia stephaniae_ has the two median rectrices concave and decurved over; those feathers in the males of _Paradisea_, _Cicinnurus_, _Diphyllodes_, _Schlegelia_, _Paradisornis_, and _Uranornis_ exhibiting more or less wire-like shafts, which terminate in large racquets in _Cicinnurus_, smaller discs in _Paradisornis_. They are broader, convex above, wavy, and horny in _Uranornis_, and are curled outwardly in _Diphyllodes_ and _Schlegelia_, while they cross each other twice in the last, but once in _Cicinnurus_. _Pteridophora_ has an extraordinary streamer behind each eye. That these however, are by no means the only remarkable developments, will be seen from the following descriptions of the most striking species, all of which are confined to Papuasia and Australia, except the Moluccan genera _Semioptera_ and _Lycocorax_. The feathering often extends over part of the bill.

_Manucodia_ and _Phonygammus_ are the only Passerine birds known to have a convoluted trachea.[292]

_Ptilorhis paradisea_, the Rifleman-bird,[293] is velvety-black with a purple gloss, having the head, throat, and median rectrices green, the abdomen bronzy; the crown-feathers are scale-like, and the silky flank-plumes considerably elongated. _P. magnifica_ is somewhat similarly coloured, with a stiff pectoral shield of metallic green; _Ianthothorax_ and _Paryphephorus_, with erectile nuchal collars, are near allies. _Seleucides ignotus_ the Twelve-wired Bird of Paradise, which has six long, recurved and filiform appendages to the lax, projecting feathers of each side, is black, with purplish head, wings, and tail, bronzy back, broad erectile breast-plumes margined with emerald, yellow sides and belly. _Drepanornis albertisi_ is rufous-brown, with green throat and ante-ocular region, white belly and dusky breast; the sides of the last exhibit dark-edged bronzy plumes, which can be expanded like a fan, succeeded by long grey decomposed feathers with lilac margins; and small bluish tufts surmount the bare orbits and post-ocular region. _Falcinellus speciosus_ is black with rainbow-like reflexions; the broad plumes of the sides of the upper breast being banded with metallic blue and green, and having wide tips which open upwards into a fan; while the long pointed flank-feathers compose similarly coloured tufts.

{546}[Illustration: FIG. 125.–Long-tailed Bird of Paradise. _Falcinellus speciosus._ × ⅐. (From _Malay Archipelago_.)]

_Astrapia nigra_, the Paradise-Pie of old authors, is bronzy-black above and green below, with golden-green occiput and nape, purplish black throat, coppery fore-neck, and violet tail, the feathers round the head forming an erectile frill. _A. stephaniae_ has the head and neck bluer, the breast purplish-bronze. The smaller _A. splendidissima_ has a more brilliant nape-region, red fore-neck, and much buff on the tail. _Macgregoria pulchra_ is black, with mainly orange-buff primaries, and an orange wattle covering most of the face. _Paradigalla carunculata_ is black, with green and bronzy sheen above; the front of the head being naked, with three wattles on each side–one broad and yellow above the bill, another moderate and blue at the gape, a third small and red below it. _Paradisea apoda_, the Great Bird of Paradise, is rich brown, becoming purplish beneath; the head and neck are pale yellow, the forehead, lores, cheeks, and throat metallic green. The wiry median rectrices have very slight apical and basal webs, while long, thick, extensile tufts of delicate decomposed golden-orange feathers, tipped with brown, grace the sides. Of its congeners, _P. minor_ has the mantle straw-coloured; _P. raggiana_ has a light yellow gorget, and red lateral plumes like those of _P._ (_Uranornis_) _rubra_, the Red Bird of Paradise. _P._ (_Paradisornis_) _rudolphi_ is greenish-blue and dusky above, with blackish head, neck, and under surface, and a purplish occipital patch. From the sides of the body spring two series of elongated, decomposed feathers; the outer and stiffer being ultramarine, changing terminally to lilac with a brown external tinge, the inner smaller and deeper blue. Below these come a row of short chestnut plumes and finally a set of black. The two long median rectrices are violet-black with small blue racquet-tips.

{547}[Illustration: FIG. 126.–Magnificent Bird of Paradise. _Diphyllodes magnifica._ × 3/7. (From _Malay Archipelago_.)]

_Cicinnurus regius_, the King Bird of Paradise, hardly seven inches long, is glossy crimson, with a metallic green band dividing the throat from the white lower parts. An expansible fan of ashy plumes tipped with emerald arises from each side, while the long median tail-wires have the terminal green inner webs coiled into discs. The feathering reaches far down the orange bill; the feet are cobalt, contrasting with the black, yellowish, or fleshy tints usual in the Family. _Diphyllodes gulielmi tertii_ is orange-red with mainly dusky wings and tail; the long nuchal ruff being orange, the lateral neck-tufts purplish-brown, the pectoral shield green edged with emerald, the long side-plumes brown with green ends, the belly purple. _D. magnifica_ has a brown head and under surface, green throat and breast-shield, orange-brown back surmounted by a double cape of straw-yellow upon red-brown, and long, curved steel-blue tail-wires. _Schlegelia respublica_ is remarkable for its naked blue head, with two lines of brown feathers crossing each other at right angles, and for its blue feet. The upper parts are successively green, yellow, crimson, black, and brown; the silky gular shield is green, with metallic blue spots above and coppery marks below; the lateral breast-plumes shew coppery and green hues. _Parotia sexpennis_, the Six-wired Bird of Paradise, is bronzy- and purplish-black, having scale-like golden throat- and breast-feathers with green and blue reflexions. A satiny white {548}patch crosses the forehead; the occiput is green, blue, and purple, having two lateral tufts, from each of which spring three wires terminating in small black discs; while large, soft, erectile masses of black adorn each side of the body. _Semioptera wallacii_, the Standard-wing, is mouse-coloured, with somewhat bronzy back and violet head; the pectoral feathers have green edges; the green shield on the fore-neck extends in lateral tufts to the flanks; and two long, narrow white plumes, erected at will, adorn the bend of each wing. _Lophorhina superba_ is black, with blue, green, and bronzy gloss on the head and neck; the bluish-green breast-shield is prolonged at the sides, and a metallic black erectile ruff graces the nape. _Lamprothorax_ has coppery, green, purple, rosy, and brownish hues, and two long blue-green median rectrices. _Phonygammus jamesi_ is purplish-violet, with blue-green head, under surface, lanceolate neck-feathers, and acuminate occipital tufts. The extraordinary _Pteridophora alberti_ possesses a wonderful streamer behind each eye, twice as long as the body. This has, on the outer side only, about thirty-seven thin quadrangular enamel-like lobes, which are light blue with dusky backs. The plumage is black, with olive rump-region and ochraceous lower parts, the head and neck shewing elongated plumes.

[Illustration: FIG. 127.–Six-wired Bird of Paradise. _Parotia sexpennis._ × ⅙. (From _Malay Archipelago_.)]

_Manucodia atra_ is steel-green and black, with purple reflexions; _M._ (_Eucorax_) _comrii_ has the head and neck-feathers curly, _M. chalybeata_ those of the fore-neck. The Crow-like _Lycocorax pyrrhopterus_ is greenish-black with brown wings; _Xanthomelus aureus_ is orange-yellow, and has a deeper-coloured crested head and neck, black throat, tail, and part of wings and back, and a cape of hackled plumes falling over the last.

Of the Bower-birds, _Prionodura newtoniana_ is bright orange, olive, and brown; _Cnemophilus macgregori_ is golden-yellow above and black below, with brownish wings and tail; the thin recurved {549}crest merging into a compressed frontal ridge, whence chestnut feathering extends over the culmen. _Loria loriae_ is chiefly purplish-black with an iridescent violet nasal shield of scale-like feathers. _Loboparadisea sericea_ is rufous-brown and yellow, with a wattle, apparently bluish, extending upwards from the gape on each side. _Amblyornis inornata_ and _A. subalaris_ are respectively olive and reddish-brown, with a huge orange-red crest. _A. flavifrons_ has the crest yellower. _Sericulus melinus_, the Regent-bird, is black, with orange head, neck, and most of the remiges; _Ptilorhynchus violaceus_, the Satin-bird, is purplish-black, with much feathered culmen; _Scenopoeetes dentirostris_ is olive-brown above, and fulvous with dusky streaks below. _Aeluredus viridis_, the Cat-bird, not to be confounded with that of America (p. 519), is bright green, with a blue wash on the back, and with white streaks, bars, or spots on the nape, wings, tail, and yellowish under parts. Other species of the genus have mainly black or brown heads, while some have white throats with black markings. _Chlamydodera nuchalis_ has grey-brown plumage above with whitish tips, a lilac nuchal band backed by stiff feathers, and a yellow-grey lower surface.

[Illustration: FIG. 128.–Satin Bower-bird. _Ptilorhynchus violaceus._ × ⅓.]

Female Paradise-birds generally have brown upper parts with lighter markings, though they are occasionally blacker, as in _Astrapia_ {550}and _Paradigalla_; below the colour is rufous, buff, grey, yellowish or white, with bars, stripes, or chevrons of blackish or brown. In the female of _Schlegelia_ the bare head is duller than in the male, while a little red and gold shews above; the hen of _Ptilorhynchus_ exhibits grey-green and brown tints; the sexes are almost alike in _Phonygammus_, _Manucodia_, _Lycocorax_, and _Aeluredus_; in _Paradisornis_ the female has blue wings and tail. Young birds usually resemble their mother; but with regard to their progress to maturity, the elongation and abrasion of the webs of the median rectrices, and the growth of the decorative tufts, the works of Mr. Wallace,[294] Dr. Guillemard,[295] and Mr. Rothschild[296] should be consulted.

Except in the Bower-birds the habits vary but little. Paradise-birds are lively and active, shy though curious, taking refuge in the thick foliage when disturbed; small flocks are not unfrequently observed, usually of one species, while for considerable periods the males appear to live apart. Closely wooded hills and ravines are the chief resorts, _Falcinellus_, _Astrapia_, _Lophorhina_, _Diphyllodes_, and the like preferring the inland heights of New Guinea up to an altitude of about nine thousand feet; _Parotia_ of that country and _Scenopoeetes_ of Queensland range to about four thousand feet; but such forms as _Cicinnurus_, _Xanthomelus_, _Phonygammus_, _Ptilorhis_, and the Australian Cat-birds and Bower-birds, occupy lower elevations on the coast or elsewhere. _Falcinellus_, _Astrapia_, _Paradisea_, _Parotia_, _Ptilorhis_, _Sericulus_, and doubtless others, love high tree-tops; _Semioptera_, _Cicinnurus_, and so forth, live nearer to the ground. The brief flight is rapid, though undulating and often heavy; in _Cicinnurus_ it is noisy, in _Ptilorhis_ the sound produced resembles the rustling of silk. Most species hop constantly about the boughs; _Paradigalla_ often rests on dead trees; _Drepanornis_, _Seleucides_, _Semioptera_, and _Ptilorhis_, search under the bark for insects, and move about like Creepers. The pugnacious males of _Paradisea_ collect to "dance" on favourite trees at the breeding season, when they fly about with elevated and vibrating plumes; while in the Family generally the cock courts the hen in Pigeon-like fashion, _Diphyllodes_ making meanwhile a complete circle of its expanded mantle- and throat-plumes. _Parotia_ scratches and rolls in the dust like a Fowl.

The voice may be a shrill reiterated "wake-wake," as in _Paradisea_; a harsh or sonorous cry, as in _Falcinellus_, _Chlamydodera_, {551}_Phonygammus_, _Ptilorhynchus_, _Sericulus_, _Seleucides_, and _Semioptera_; a long, grating or triple sound, as in _Ptilorhis_; a mewing or flute-like note, as in _Cicinnurus_; or a sharp whistle, as in _Aeluredus_; the last-named and _Amblyornis_ being especially excellent mimics. The diet consists largely of berries, seeds, fruits of _Pandanus_, and _Freycinetia_, the fig, nutmeg, and so forth; frogs, lizards, worms, snails, and caterpillars, however, are also eaten; insects are in great request; and _Seleucides_ sucks honey from the flowers. The nest and eggs of several species have now been discovered; the former being a loose, open fabric of sticks and leaves in _Ptilorhis_, _Ptilorhynchus_, _Sericulus_, and _Phonygammus_; or of twigs, roots, moss, and grass in _Eucorax_, _Chlamydodera_, _Prionodura_, _Aeluredus_, and _Drepanornis_; it is placed in bushes, if not in low or even high trees. The eggs are glossy reddish-buff, with dark rufous or chestnut blotches and streaks, and a few black spots, in _Paradisea apoda_, _P. augustae victoriae_, _P. raggiana_, and _Ptilorhis victoriae_; similar or whiter, often with purplish or purplish-grey markings in _Eucorax, Manucodia_, and _Drepanornis cervinicauda_; yellower with additional wavy scrolling in _Ptilorhynchus violaceus_; yellowish-grey with pale brown freckles and blotches in _Prionodura newtoniana_; bluish or greenish-white, with or without red-brown dots and lines, in _Aeluredus maculosus_ and _Ae. viridis_; greenish-white with a network of narrow brown and black lines in _Chlamydodera maculata_ and _C. cerviniventris_; pale lavender with sienna and lilac spots and scrawls in _Sericulus melinus_. The number of eggs found varies from one to three.

_Parotia lawesi_, _Aeluredus viridis_ and _Scenopoeetes dentirostris_, though not said to form bowers, make clear spaces where from six to eight males meet to sport, the last two species decorating them with green or coloured leaves, berries, and flowers. _Prionodura_ fashions a bower or play-place of from four to six feet high by eight broad, piling sticks round two trees and roofing over the intervening space with creepers; white moss, ferns, and green fruit serving as ornaments. Small structures of over-arching grass capped with twigs are often observable close by. _Amblyornis inornata_ heaps a cone of moss round a sapling, leaving a circular gallery between this and an outer conical cover of sticks two feet high, covered with orchid sprays. Before the entrance lies a bed of green moss decked with bright flowers and berries, which are renewed daily, the withered decorations being piled at {552}the back. _A. subalaris_ fashions a domed bower of sticks and moss, with one or two openings, round a shrub which is itself entwined with twigs; the centre of the floor shewing a cheese-like mass of moss ornamented with flowers and seeds. _Sericulus melinus_ builds a run about a foot long on a platform of sticks, composing it of arched twigs and decorating it with shells, berries, and leaves. _Ptilorhynchus violaceus_ makes a like structure of twigs and grass, which scarcely meet above, and adorns it with bright feathers; scattering other feathers, bones, shells, rags, berries, and the like over the space which Bower-birds habitually clear in front. In _Chlamydodera nuchalis_ the similar bower, about three feet long, is lined with grasses, a large heap of ornaments lying before each entrance.

Paradise-birds are shot with blunt arrows, snared, caught in nets, in cloths, or with bird-lime; they have been kept in captivity by the Zoological Society of London, and in Italy.

Fam. XXIII. CORVIDAE.–The Crows and their kin compose a fairly uniform tribe, often divided into the Sub-families _Corvinae_ (Crows), _Garrulinae_ (Magpies and Jays), and _Fregilinae_ (Choughs).

The bill is generally stout and fairly straight, with no distinct notch, being very strong in _Corvultur_ and _Corvus corax_, but more or less curved in _Gazzola_, _Microcorax_, _Macrocorax_, _Urocissa_, _Garrulus_, _Callaeas_ (_Glaucopis_), _Struthidea_, and _Pyrrhocorax_; while in the last-named and _Heterocorax_ it is exceptionally long and slender, and in _Nucifraga_ subulate and of diverse proportions. The metatarsus is usually strong; the wings are long and pointed in Crows and Choughs, shorter in Jays and Magpies, and decidedly rounded in _Corcorax_, _Callaeas_, and _Struthidea_. The variable tail is very long and much graduated in _Pica_, _Cyanopica_, _Urocissa_, _Cryptorhina_, _Dendrocitta_, _Crypsirhina_, _Cissa_, and _Calocitta_, the two median rectrices often exceeding the others; but it is usually moderate, though at the same time graduated in some Jays.

Crests occur in _Cyanocitta_, _Platysmurus_, _Cyanocorax_, _Uroleuca_, and _Calocitta_, those of the last two being recurved, and _Calocitta_ having the plumes widened; sometimes the crown-feathers are dense and erectile, as in _Garrulus_. The head of _Picathartes_ is bare and yellow, with a broad black patch behind each eye; _Gymnocorax_ shews a large yellowish or whitish naked space on the face; the adult Rook (_Corvus frugilegus_) has whitish skin over the forehead, lores, and throat; in _C. pastinator_ the throat is feathered. _Pica mauritanica_ has a blue, and the yellow-billed {553}_P. nuttalli_ a yellow, ear-patch; _Cissa_ a fleshy vermilion orbital outgrowth; _Callaeas_ an orange rictal wattle with blue base in one species, a blue wattle in the other.

This Family occupies nearly all the globe, except the Australian Region east of the Sandwich Islands, New Caledonia, and New Zealand; while the members are less plentiful in America, and from Panama to Uruguay only a few genera akin to the Jay occur. The sexes are similar, the young usually duller.

True Crows are generally black with a purplish or greenish gloss, and frequently with white at the base of the feathers; some, however, are browner, while the silvery-grey hind-neck of the Jackdaw and the grey back and lower parts of the "Hooded" Crow are well known. The Chinese _Corvus torquatus_ and the Ethiopian _C. scapulatus_ have white collars behind, and white on the breast; in _Gazzola_ of Celebes that colour extends further; but the African _Corvultur_ has the white collar only. The throat sometimes exhibits hackles, and in the Antillean _Microcorax leucognaphalus_ the feathers have hair-like extremities. Our visitor the Nutcracker (_Nucifraga caryocatactes_) is brown, with whitish dorsal and pectoral spots, and blackish quills; three or four other species of the genus, with most variable bills, inhabit conifer woods in the Palaearctic Region; and a near ally (_Picicorvus columbianus_) those of the western Rocky Mountains. Choughs (_Pyrrhocorax_), which occur in the Palaearctic and the extreme north of the Ethiopian Region, are glossy black, with brilliant red feet, and red or yellow bill.

_Pica rustica_, the well-known Magpie, needs no description, nor do its black and white congeners, _P. mauritanica_, distinguished by a naked blue spot behind the eye, and _P. nuttalli_ with this spot and the beak yellow. _P. rustica_ extends through the Palaearctic Region, and reaches Formosa and North America; the other species are found respectively in Algeria and Morocco and in California. _Platysmurus aterrimus_ of Borneo, and _Temnurus truncatus_ of Cochin China are instances of uniform glossy black forms in this section; _Psilorhinus_, from the centre of America, is a dull brown Jay. _Cyanopica cooki_, of Southern Spain, represented in Eastern Asia and Japan by _C. cyana_, is a blue Magpie, having cobalt wings and tail, an ashy body, and a black head; while the Indo-Chinese and Sumatran genus, _Dendrocitta_, shews brown, orange, buff, and grey tints, mingled with black and usually white. _Cissa_ contains three species from India, Burma, {554}Sumatra, and Java, of lovely green and blue, or cobalt and ultramarine hues, with some red-brown on the wing, a white tip to the tail, coral-red bill and feet, and–in two cases–a black nape. Our soft-plumaged Jay (_Garrulus glandarius_), with its black and white crest and wings, black tail, reddish-fawn upper and buff under parts, and patch of blue, white and black bars on the wing-coverts, may represent a genus ranging over the Palaearctic Region, and through the Himalayas, to the Burmese districts and Formosa. In Japan alone four species are found. _Aphelocoma_ and _Calocitta_ of the central parts of the New World; the Blue Jays (_Cyanocitta_) of North America; _Urocissa_, a Magpie with red or yellow bill and feet, from India, Burma, and China; and the Central and South American _Cyanocorax_, all shew more blue than _Garrulus_, not uncommonly on the under surface. _Perisoreus infaustus_, the Siberian Jay, is brown, grey, and olive, with much chestnut on the wings, tail, and abdomen, its congeners being plain brown, grey, and white. Lastly, _Xanthura luxuosa_, the Green Jay of South Texas and Mexico, is green, with yellow on the abdomen and lateral rectrices, and a black and blue head; some species of the genus, which reaches southwards to Venezuela and Bolivia, having the lower surface entirely yellow or black, and others being almost blue with black on the head.

[Illustration: FIG. 129.–Magpie. _Pica rustica._ × ⅙. (From _Poachers_.)]

The habits of the cunning voracious Crows, the gregarious Rooks, the astute but bold Magpies and Jackdaws, and the more shy or retiring Jays and Choughs are well known; yet the habit of posting sentinels in the Rook, the tumbling in mid-air of that bird, the Raven, and the Jackdaw, the scolding pursuit of intruders by Magpies and Jays, and the breaking of clams, bones, and the like by dropping them from aloft, by the Raven, Carrion-Crow, and _Corvus caurinus_ require passing mention.

{555}[Illustration: FIG. 130.–Raven. _Corvus corax._ × 3/17.]

Crows generally inhabit wooded country, but also bare moorlands or sea-coasts; the Nutcracker requires pine-forests–commonly at considerable elevations; and Magpies haunt woods, yet not so invariably as Jays. The whole Family hop, and most forms, except perhaps Jays, walk or run also. All are active birds and fly well, the Chough, Jay, and Nutcracker in more undulating fashion: while soaring is a common practice. Ravens have very deep voices, and croak, "bark," or "grunt"; Jackdaws utter a clear jake-jake; Choughs a ringing, metallic note or a hoarse "chough-chough"; Nutcrackers a "churr-churr"; Magpies a continuous rattle or "chatter." Jays vary their harsh, grating utterances by mimicking other species, the American Blue Jays being notorious adepts, and exhibiting meanwhile fantastic contortions of the head, wings, and tail. Many species, such as Ravens, Magpies, and Jackdaws, learn to imitate sounds when tamed. The Corvidae {556}are almost omnivorous, Ravens and other strong species even attacking weakly ewes or lambs, and preying on small mammals, birds, and reptiles; Hooded and Carrion Crows, Rooks, Magpies. Jackdaws, and Jays suck eggs; while Rooks, though undoubtedly beneficial, also grub up seed-corn and potatoes. An immense amount of insect-life is, however, destroyed, and the larger forms dispose of carrion; the American _Corvus ossifragus_ and _C. corone_, moreover, will catch living fish. Magpies and Jays feed largely upon the ground, and eat slugs, snails, worms, insects, nuts, acorns, grain, seeds of conifers, and other fruits; Nutcrackers devour quantities of the last; _Corvus tropicus_, _Macrocorax_, and _Gymnocorax_ relish fruit. Jays store provisions, and Jackdaws pick insects off cattle. The nests of Crows and Nutcrackers are bulky structures of sticks, lined with soft materials; the rough domed fabric of the Magpie is neatly lined with roots upon a layer of clay; the slighter nests of Choughs and Jays are inlaid with roots and fibres–more rarely with moss, hair, or wool–and every variety is found between these limits. The larger species build in forks and holes in trees, in crevices of rocks and masonry, or rarely in or on the ground; the Chough never chooses trees; Jays nest comparatively low, and often in bushes. Crows' eggs are normally greenish, mottled with darker green, olive, or brownish, but _Heterocorax capensis_ has them pinkish with red spots, while other Crows, Ravens, and _Dendrocitta_ sometimes shew a similar tint. Jackdaws' eggs are bluish-green or white, with dark olive or black markings interspersed with grey; those of Magpies and Nutcrackers have a like ground-colour with greenish-olive and faint brownish spots respectively; those of Jays are greenish, or even bluish, with close olive-green frecklings or zones, and occasional black scrawls at the larger end; those of Choughs are yellowish-white, with light brown and grey markings. The number laid varies from two or three, to as many as nine in Magpies, but is usually four or five. The hens sit rather closely. Ravens sometimes will even attack man at the nest.

{557}[Illustration: FIG. 131.–Huia. _Heterolocha acutirostris._ × ⅓. (From _Nature_.)]

Of genera doubtfully included in the Family, _Picathartes_ of the Gold Coast is slaty-grey, with brown quills, white under parts, and bare yellow head, shewing black behind each eye; it builds among rocks near forest-streams, and feeds upon reptiles and molluscs. The egg is whitish, clouded and dotted with brown. _Callaeas_ (_Glaucopis_) _cinerea_, which is blue-grey, with black on the head, and an orange and blue rictal wattle, and its congener _C. wilsoni_, with entirely blue wattle, inhabit the lower hill-forests of the South and North Islands of New Zealand respectively. They have deep, rich, long-drawn notes, diversified by "cackles," mews, or "bell-like" sounds, the male performing antics when courting. The food consists of fruit, flowers, and insects; the flight is feeble. The large nests of twigs, moss, and grass are placed in trees; the two or three eggs being purplish-grey with brown blotches or frecklings. _Corcorax_ and _Struthidea_ are peculiar to Australia, the former being glossy black with white on the wing, the latter brownish-grey with black tail.[297] _Corcorax_ haunts open forests, brook-sides, and lagoons in little flocks, running about actively, or leaping upon the boughs with motile, outspread tail. The food consists of insects; the note is grating or mournful; while {558}the male courts the female like a Pigeon. The nest, a sort of basin of mud with a straw lining, is fixed on a horizontal branch, and contains from four to seven yellowish-white eggs with olive and purplish-brown markings. _Struthidea_ frequents pine tracts, and has similar habits and nest, the eggs being white with red-brown and grey blotches. In _Heteralocha[298] acutirostris_, the New Zealand Huia, the female has a remarkably long, curved bill, that of the male being short, stout, and nearly straight. The plumage is greenish-black, with a white-tipped tail; the bill is whitish, the feet are blue-grey, the large rictal wattles orange. This bird frequents wooded gullies in the North Island, seldom flying above the foliage, but bounding or hopping along the ground or upon the branches. Natives attract and noose it by imitating the whistling note. The cock chisels away the decayed bark, and the hen probes the crevices for insects; "huhu" caterpillars and berries varying the main diet. The nest, of dry grass, leaves, and stalks, is placed in hollow trees, the eggs being apparently whitish, with or without brown and grey spots. _Creadion carunculatus_, the Saddle-back of the same country, is black, with chestnut back, rump, wing- and tail-coverts, and small yellow or red gape-wattles. It haunts wooded hills, hopping actively or moving spirally up the trunks and branches, while the flight is short, rapid, and laboured. The notes may be soft and sweet, or noisy and shrill; the food resembles that of _Heteralocha_. The nest of dry leaves, ferns, fibres, moss, and bark is built in hollow trees or large ferns, the three or four greyish-white eggs shewing purplish-brown markings.

_Podoces_ includes four desert species, with elongated, strong, curved, and pointed bills; long, stout legs; short, rounded wings; and moderate square tails. The colour is fawn, grey, and brown, generally with black and white wings and black tail; _P. hendersoni_ and _P. biddulphi_ have a black cap, the former shewing white spots on it, _P. panderi_ has a black throat-patch, _P. humilis_ is brown with whitish nape and lower parts. They haunt sand-hills covered with saxaul (_Anabasis ammodendron_) or tamarisk, from Transcaspia to Tibet, running swiftly, occasionally flying like a Jay, feeding on the ground upon insects, their larvae, and seeds, uttering harsh reiterated Woodpecker-like cries, and making a nest of twigs lined with bark, grass, and hair in low trees, bushes, or rarely holes in the ground. The four eggs are greenish-grey {559}with olive spots. _P. humilis_ frequents more grassy ground up to eleven thousand feet.

Fam. XXIV. STURNIDAE.–The Starlings, apparently connecting the _Corvidae_ and the _Icteridae_, are divided by Mr. Oates[299] and Dr. Sharpe[300] into _Eulabetidae_ (Tree-Starlings) with rictal bristles, more arboreal habits, and usually spotted eggs, and _Sturnidae_ (Starlings proper) where the contrary holds good.[301] To these _Buphaga_ may be added for the present, in default of a better position.

The bill is generally long and pointed–especially in _Sturnopastor_,–but is exceptionally slender in _Cinnamopterus_, shorter and stouter in _Basilornis_, _Buphaga_, _Pastor_, _Pholidauges_, and _Aplonis_; being curved in the last three, and also in _Fregilupus_ and _Necropsar_; where it is longer. The anteriorly scutellated metatarsus is ordinarily strong, and is shortest in the Tree-Starlings. The wing is usually moderate, with small first primary, though it is more elongated and pointed in _Sturnus_ and _Dilophus_, rounded in _Sturnopastor_, _Temenuchus_, and so forth, short in _Coccycolius_ and _Buphaga_; the secondaries have long filamentous basal appendages in _Psaroglossa_, and loose hair-like exterior webs in _Onychognathus_. The tail varies from short to long, from square to much graduated; it is forked in _Sturnia_, and may have acuminate feathers; while _Macruropsar_ and _Lamprotornis_ possess exceptionally developed rectrices, _L. caudatus_ having the broad median pair longer than the body. Lanceolate feathers commonly adorn the neck and breast; bushy crests occur in _Pastor_ and _Temenuchus_, smaller tufts in _Sturnia_, _Basilornis_, _Enodes_, _Fregilupus_, _Graculipica_, _Sturnornis_ and _Acridotheres cristatellus_; recurved plumes may cover the nostrils, as in _Acridotheres_, _Ampeliceps_, and _Basilornis_; while bare chins, orbits, or ear-patches of brown, yellow, and the like are frequent. _Charitornis_ has the throat and cheeks naked; _Dilophus_ the head and throat bare, with two erect wattles above and one below; _Sarcops_ dull-red naked orbits, and merely a narrow feathered line down the crown; _Eulabes_ a yellow post-ocular lappet forking to the back of the eye and the eyebrow, and a yellow patch below; _Enodes_ a broad, superciliary wax-like red line; and _Scissirostrum_ similar crimson feathers on the rump.

{560}[Illustration: FIG. 132.–Starling. _Sturnus vulgaris._ × ½. (From _English Illustrated Magazine_.)]

Most of the brighter species exhibit purple, coppery, blue and green reflexions, our familiar Starling (_Sturnus vulgaris_) being iridescent black, with buff marks above, and, after the autumn moult, white spots below. The female is duller, but in this Family the sexes usually differ little. _S. unicolor_ is unspotted. _Spodiopsar burmanicus_ has grey upper and pinkish under parts, with brownish wings and tail, white head, and white-tipped rectrices; _Sturnopastor contra_ is blackish-brown and white above, and greyish beneath, with green-black head and throat and white cheeks; _Pastor roseus_, which wanders to Britain, is glossy black, with pink back and abdomen; _Graculipica melanoptera_ is almost pure white, with black or bronzy remiges and rectrices. _Eulabes religiosa_, the Myna,–a name also popularly applied to _Acridotheres_ (sacred to the god Ram Deo) and several other Indian forms,–is black, with purple and green reflexions, and a white patch on the wing-quills; _Cinnamopterus tenuirostris_ is more highly coloured, with mainly chestnut primaries; _Melanopyrrhus orientalis_ adds to its metallic black hue an orange head, neck, rump, and breast; _Lamprotornis_ and the shorter-tailed _Lamprocolius_ exhibit lovely greens, purples, and peacock-blues, relieved by golden-bronze; _Coccycolius_ is golden-green with purple cheeks and abdomen. _Pholidauges leucogaster_ is rich purplish-violet with white belly, {561}the female being brown and buff above, and whitish below with dusky striations; _Calornis_ and _Aplonis_ are usually dullish green; while the extinct _Fregilupus varius_ was ashy-brown, grey, and white. _Falculia_ is white with blue-black back, wings, and tail. It frequents trees or streams, and utters plaintive, melodious notes. _Buphaga_ is dull-brown, with fulvous rump and lower surface. The bill is commonly black throughout the group, but is sometimes red, pinkish, bluish, greenish, orange, or yellow; the feet also vary in colour. Albinos are rather frequent.

This Family occupies almost all the Old World, but not America proper, though _Sturnus vulgaris_ has strayed to Greenland; the headquarters lie in the Indian and Ethiopian Regions, wherein several forms have a very restricted distribution. Instances of this are _Charitornis_ of the Sula Islands, _Scissirostrum_, _Enodes_, and _Streptocitta_ of Celebes, _Hagiopsar_ of the Dead Sea and Sinaitic districts, _Hartlaubius_ and _Falculia_ of Madagascar, _Sarcops_ of the Philippines, _Mino_ of Papuasia, _Melanopyrrhus_ and _Macruropsar_ of New Guinea and its islands, _Aplonis_ of the Pacific and the Tenimber group. _Fregilupus_, of which only a few examples exist in collections, was confined to Réunion, _Necropsar_ is an extinct form from Rodriguez. _Calornis_ alone inhabits Australia.

_Lamprotornis_, _Spodiopsar_, and the Eulabetidae in general, rarely leave the trees they haunt; on the other hand, some forms, as our Starling, spend much time upon the ground, or roost in huge flocks on shrubs, reeds, and the like. The habits are wary, and seldom as sociable as those of our British species, hills being often preferred to more wooded districts or the neighbourhood of houses. _Aethiopsar_ reaches an altitude of seven thousand feet. The flight is strong, straight, and rapid, though heavier in _Buphaga_; while flocks of Starlings turn, sweep along, and gyrate in remarkable fashion, and soaring is not uncommon. The more terrestrial forms walk and run excellently, often stopping suddenly to probe the soil for worms or larvae, which, with insects generally, and molluscs, provide the chief sustenance. A large amount of fruit is also consumed, including berries and seeds; frogs and, as some say, callow nestlings are also devoured; _Pastor_, _Dilophus_, and _Acridotheres_ destroy locusts; _Eulabes_ and its allies prefer vegetable food; _Buphaga_ is termed Ox-pecker or Rhinoceros-bird, from clearing ticks off those animals. Certain species disgorge nutriment for their young. The voice is commonly varied and pleasing, becoming {562}a rich song in _Eulabes_; but most forms whistle, chatter, or utter harsh sounds; and many are extraordinary mimics, or even talk, like the Starling and the Myna, under tuition. By the more typical forms a rough nest of straw, twigs, rags, wool, or feathers is placed in holes in trees, walls, or banks; under eaves; in burrows or stone-heaps: from four to seven uniform light blue or whitish eggs being deposited. _Sturnopastor_, alone or in societies, affixes a huge structure to the outer branches of trees or bushes; _Dilophus_ makes a neater cup in similar situations; _Calornis_, which usually forms colonies, suspends from the boughs a bulky bottle-shaped structure with a side-entrance, and so forth. Even our Starling at times builds an open nest. The Eulabetidae generally lay spotted eggs, _Dilophus_ occasionally; _Calornis_ has them greenish with reddish-brown marks.

Fam. XXV. DREPANIDIDAE.–According to the latest views, namely those of Dr. Gadow,[302] this group contains only the curious forms below, which are all peculiar to the Sandwich Islands. In most of them the semi-tubular tongue is dorsally frayed out into a single brush, but in several thick-billed species it is but slightly tubular, and is split or frayed. The non-serrated beak varies greatly, being elongated and arched in _Vestiaria_; very long and curved with projecting maxilla in _Drepanis_ and _Hemignathus_; and similar, but with the upcurved or straight mandible only about half as long as the maxilla in _Heterorhynchus_. In _Himatione_, _Oreomyza_, _Loxops_, _Palmeria_, _Ciridops_, and _Chrysomitridops_ it is much shorter and little decurved; in _Psittacirostra_, _Loxioïdes_, _Chloridops_, and _Rhodacanthis_ it is stout, Finch-like, and hooked, being enormously developed in the last two; in the extraordinary _Pseudonestor_ it is Parrot-like. In _Loxops_ the mandible is twisted indifferently to either side, possibly by constant use. Over the nostrils an operculum is often present; but bristles of all kinds are absent. The scutes of the moderate metatarsus shew a tendency to fusion; the wings are of medium length, with a hardly visible outer primary. The tail is rather short and nearly square, having pointed rectrices in _Vestiaria_ and _Drepanis_; and exhibits a tendency to forking. Fluffy feathering constantly characterizes the back, flanks, or axillary region. There is a more or less {563}decided crop, as in many Finches. In some species the females appear to have shorter bills.

[Illustration: FIG. 133.–Mamo. _Drepanis pacifica._ × ½. (After Wilson and Evans, _Aves Hawaiienses_.)]

_Drepanis pacifica_ is black, with golden rump, upper and under tail-coverts, tibiae, and bend of wing, a little white shewing on the wings and tail; _D. funerea_ is almost entirely black. _Vestiaria coccinea_ is vermilion, with black remiges and rectrices, and some white on the wing-coverts; the bill and feet being red. _Hemignathus_ and _Heterorhynchus_ are greenish-olive above, with black lores, brownish remiges, and usually yellowish or creamy lower surface; but the head is occasionally yellow. _Palmeria dolii_ has blackish plumage with scarlet or orange tips, a brilliant scarlet-orange nape, an orange space round the eye, similarly coloured tibiae, a grey throat, and a dirty white crest curving over the culmen. _Himatione_ is generally yellow-green, with browner wings, yellow under parts, and sometimes black lores; the very closely allied _Oreomyza_ may be duller or greyer, with buff and white below. _H. sanguinea_ is crimson, with black and red wings, and black tail. _Loxops_, which in one species is dimorphic, is scarlet or orange, with brown on the remiges and rectrices; _Chrysomitridops_ is yellowish-olive, with yellow crown and lower surface, black on the wings and tail, and bluish bill. _Psittacirostra_ is greenish with yellow head; _Rhodacanthis_ is reddish-orange with browner back, or in one case yellow head, while the female is green. _Ciridops_ is red, with black throat, tail, and most of the wings, grey nape and cheeks; it approaches _Cyanospiza ciris_ (p. 585) in colour.

{564}Hens are ordinarily duller (often brownish or green), except in _Vestiaria_ and _Himatione sanguinea_; the young are greenish-yellow relieved by black in _Vestiaria_, brown and buff in _Palmeria_ and _Himatione sanguinea_, and assume the red or orange gradually.

These forms now chiefly haunt high damp hill-forests, though _Vestiaria_ still occurs near the coast; they fly comparatively little, but spend much of their time creeping quietly and rapidly over the trunks and branches of acacia, "ohia," "mamane," and other trees, where they hunt for insects below the bark or on the leaves. None habitually seek the ground. The long-billed species delight in probing the decayed wood, and insert their mandibles into the crevices in search of food, which consists partly of lepidopterous larvae and spiders. Fruit is largely eaten, pods being split to obtain seeds, and honey is sucked either for its own sake or for the insects it attracts. The stomach at times contains grit. Most forms have a sweet song, the call-note being a reiterated "tweet" or metallic chirp; _Rhodacanthis_, moreover, whistles. _Himatione virens_ makes a nest of roots and decayed leaves in trees, _Loxops aurea_ apparently does the same; the former lays whitish eggs freckled and streaked with purplish-brown, but little is known of the reproduction. The splendid feather-cloaks of the Hawaiian kings, the "leis" (wreaths), waist-bands, and mask-decorations, were of old chiefly composed of the plumage of the "Mamo" (_Drepanis pacifica_), and the Iiwi (_Vestiaria coccinea_); but when the former became scarce, the lighter yellow tufts (p. 565) of the O-o (_Acrulocercus_) were utilized to pay the feather tax, though the cloaks were still called "Mamo." _Himatione sanguinea_ was also laid under contribution, as was in later times the domestic cock.

Fam. XXVI. MELIPHAGIDAE.–The Honey-eaters, seldom bigger than a Thrush, are remarkable for their extensile quadruple or multiple tongue, which is frayed out latero-dorsally. They occupy the Australian Region, from which _Ptilotis limbata_ alone crosses Wallace's line (p. 16) to Bali, and often have very restricted ranges. Two Sub-families may be recognised, _Myzomelinae_ and _Meliphaginae_. The thin curved bill is commonly long, with prominent culmen and wide base; _Melithreptes_ and _Plectrorhynchus_, however, have it short, and the latter straight. The maxilla is nearly always notched and serrated, several species of _Philemon_ exhibiting a basal protuberance. The metatarsi may be long, as in _Acrulocercus_, or abbreviated as in _Manorhina_, the short anterior toes being partially {565}connected; the wings are variable in length, _Melithreptes_ possessing comparatively small secondaries, _Anthornis_ an abruptly narrowed second primary. The tail also varies in size; it is much rounded in _Melidectes_ and _Meliphaga_, square in _Acanthorhynchus_, emarginated in _Anthornis_, and particularly long and graduated with pointed rectrices in _Acrulocercus_ and _Chaetoptila_–_A. nobilis_ having the median pair produced and spirally twisted, _A. apicalis_ the ends upturned. _Pogonornis_ has strong rictal bristles.

The _Myzomelinae_ are usually habited in scarlet and black, as in the Soldier-bird of Australia (_Myzomela sanguinolenta_), with or without white or yellowish below; some, however, are chiefly or entirely olive or greyish-brown, while the females generally differ from the males, and the former occasionally shew red when the latter do not. A second genus, _Acanthorhynchus_, or Cobbler's Awl, is brown, chestnut, buff, black, and white. In the _Meliphaginae_ the sexes are commonly alike, and exhibit a mixture of brown, olive, yellow, black, white, grey, rufous, and buff; the under parts frequently, and the upper rarely, being streaked or spotted. Metallic hues are rare, but _Anthornis_ has a purplish gloss on the head. _Leptornis_, _Entomyza_, _Philemon_, _Melitograis_, and _Pycnopygius_ are instances of dusky or olive coloration with lighter lower surface; _Prosthemadera_ and _Certhionyx leucomelas_ are black and white; _Plectrorhynchus_ is brown and white; _Meliphaga_ is yellow and black, spotted and barred below. The Hawaiian _Acrulocercus_ is black or brownish, with a little white on the wings or tail, and possesses yellow axillary tufts and under tail-coverts, save in _A. braccatus_, where the tufts are grey-buff, the tibiae are yellow, the throat is barred with white, and the lower parts are streaky. _A. bishopi_ has yellow ear-tufts. Their close ally, _Chaetoptila_, of the same islands, is light brown and yellowish above, with white spots, and a black cheek-stripe; the under surface being white with brown streaks, and the rump and flanks ochreous. The neck- and breast-plumage is lanceolate and decomposed. Many species of _Ptilotis_ have white or yellow ear-tufts; the male of _Pogonornis_ possesses white erectile post-ocular feathers; that of _Prosthemadera_ two gular patches of curled white filamentary plumes, which give it the name of Parson-bird, as well as pointed white feathers curving forward from the sides of the neck. In two members of _Meliornis_ white fan-like shields spring from the cheeks; _Glycyphila albifrons_ has a white circum-ocular ring; while many forms have peculiar {566}cheek-feathers, fluffy chests, rumps or sides, and lanceolate or bristly plumage on the neck, cheeks, or throat. Naked blue, green, scarlet, yellow, lilac, pink, or whitish areas on the head, and pendant rictal or facial wattles, are frequent, especially in _Meliphaga_, _Ptilotis_, _Entomyza_, _Philemon_, _Melidectes_, _Acanthochaera_ (Wattle-bird) and _Melirrhophetes_. The bill and feet vary from black to red, yellow, blue, or green.

[Illustration: FIG. 134.–Warty-faced Honey-Eater. _Meliphaga phrygia._ × ½. (From _Nature_.)]

The habits are fairly uniform, though certain species are comparatively shy. Small flocks often gather together, the haunts being dense forests, or open wooded country whether inland or littoral; some forms prefer the tree-tops, others low bushes and shrubs. These active, pugnacious birds dart about in zigzag fashion, or take powerful undulating flights, the tail meanwhile being frequently thrown back or expanded; at times they hover, or fall from aloft with closed wings.

{567}[Illustration: FIG. 135.–Tui. _Prosthemadera novae zealandiae._ × ⅓.]

Constantly seen hopping among the boughs, or climbing and hanging to the twigs, in search of the insects which constitute so much of their diet, they occasionally feed upon the ground–especially in the case of _Ptilotis_; while _Meliornis_ and _Entomophila_ will dart after their prey like Flycatchers. Figs and bananas, with other fruits and buds, are also eaten; honey is sucked from the flowers of _Eucalyptus_, _Acacia_, _Epacris_, and the like, in considerable quantities, the insects it attracts being perhaps the chief object; and _Philemon_ batters large insects upon the branches before swallowing them. The voice is commonly loud, rich, and shrill, but varies from a whistle or a pipe to a chirp; some species, however, are more quiet, others give vent to slow, plaintive cries, quickly reiterated notes, or comparatively harsh sounds. The Tui, or Parson-bird, utters a wild song, laughs, coughs, sneezes, and mimics generally; _Acrulocercus_ gets the name of O-o from its harsh double call; _Pogonornis_ that of Stitch-bird from its clicking cry, though it also whistles; while _Philemon corniculatus_ is sometimes called "Four-o'clock," "Poor Soldier," or Pimlico, from its note. _Anthornis_, the New Zealand "Bell-bird," usually heard in chorus, has a voice like the tinkling of a silver bell.[303] The nest, normally a slight structure of twigs, roots, bark, grass, and spiders' webs, lined with woolly materials, fur, or feathers, is placed in bushes, trees, or even tall grass, and generally has the rim woven over a supporting fork. A few species, however, including the New Zealand forms, _Pogonornis_, _Anthornis_, and _Prosthemadera_, build a solid fabric of twigs and rough materials {568}among the branches. The eggs, two, three, or rarely four in number, are buffish-white, salmon-coloured or, exceptionally, olive, with spots, freckles, zones, and occasionally lines, of red-brown, rufous, bright red, blackish and grey. Two or three broods are reared annually. _Entomyza cyanotis_, the Blue-eye, re-lines deserted birds' nests, or utilizes the top of that of _Pomatostomus_; _Glycyphila modesta_ and _G. fasciata_ make hanging domed fabrics. The mimicry between _Philemon_–called Friar-bird, Monk, or Leather-head, from the bare head and ruff of some species–and _Mimeta_ has been already noticed (p. 543). Cloaks are fashioned from the Stitch-bird's feathers, as well as from those of the O-os (p. 564).[304]

Fam. XXVII. ZOSTEROPIDAE.–The "White-eyes," so denominated from the white ring usually surrounding the eye, form a single genus, _Zosterops_, of doubtful position. They range through parts of the Ethiopian Region, with Madagascar and the Comoros, and occupy most of the Indian and Australian Regions, whence they reach to Amur-land and Japan. The straight or slightly curved bill has the maxilla serrated and nearly always notched; the metatarsus is of medium length; the outer and middle toes are partially united; the wings are rather short with little or no exterior primary; the tail is moderate, broad and square, or even emarginated. Dr. Gadow[305] pronounces the protractile tongue to be forked and smooth in _Z. lateralis_; Mr. Beddard[306] finds the margins folded, and the tip frayed out in _Z. simplex_ and _Z. japonica_. The sexes are alike, the coloration being principally olive and yellow, relieved by brown, grey, fawn, or white. The habits are similar to those of the Meliphagidae; the eggs, however, are pale blue. _Z. caerulescens_, the New Zealand "Blight-bird," destroys the "American Blight" (_Schizoneura lanigera_), a scale-insect.

Fam. XXVIII. NECTARINIIDAE.–The Old World Sun-birds, recalling the non-Passerine Humming-birds by their brilliant metallic coloration, are actually given the latter name in India, whence they extend through Southern Asia to Papuasia and North Australia. They also occupy the whole Ethiopian Region, while _Cinnyris osea_ inhabits Palestine, _C. brevirostris_ Baluchistan and South Persia, and an undetermined species the Muskat district in Arabia. _Promerops_ is a doubtful member of the Family.[307]

{569}[Illustration: FIG. 136.–Splendid Sun-bird. _Cinnyris splendidus._ × ½.]

The long slender bill, without bristles of any kind, is much produced and curved in _Neodrepanis_; both mandibles being terminally serrated, except in _Promerops_ and _Chalcoparia_, of which the former has the maxilla notched. The extensible tongue is bifid, with each half frayed out medio-ventrally, save in _Promerops_, where it is a semi-canal with dorso-laterally frayed edges. The metatarsi are moderate, the claws curved and acute. _Arachnothera_ has both the bill and the feet stouter. The more or less rounded wings are of medium length; the tail varies from square or nearly so to graduated, and has two narrow elongated median rectrices in the males of _Hedydipna_, _Nectarinia_, _Anthobaphes_, _Aethopyga_, _Urodrepanis_ and _Drepanorhynchus_. That of _Promerops_ is extraordinarily long and graduated in both sexes. _Arachnothera chrysogenys_ has the loral region naked, and the male of _Neodrepanis_ bluish circum-ocular wattles.

It is impossible to describe shortly the diverse coloration of the various species; some shew much green, black, brown, or olive; nearly all exhibit brilliant, if not metallic, red, blue, lilac, copper, yellow, or orange tints; a few are chiefly purple; many are longitudinally streaked below; in others the breast is white, or exhibits red or orange bands, while the fore-neck may be vermilion striped with lilac. The sides of the back frequently possess long downy feathers, and pectoral tufts are common. In _Arachnothera_ both sexes are greyish or greenish, relieved by a little yellow or orange. Females, however, are usually sombre, the young being similar. The bill is black or brown, the feet vary in hue.

These small graceful forms, restless, though not shy, are rarely seen in companies, but usually in pairs; they frequent groves and forests up to an altitude of about a thousand feet, resorting to more open country and gardens when the shrubs are flowering. The food consists mainly of insects–sometimes taken on the {570}wing–with their larvae and spiders; while the birds hop actively about, and cling to the branches and trunks of trees, like Tits or Creepers, or even to bushes and grass. They rarely hover before flowers as Humming-birds do, though frequently sucking honey. When feeding or singing the wings are often opened and shut alternately. The quick, direct flight is accompanied by rapid pulsations of the pinions, and the males chase their rivals angrily. The shrill, but pleasing and varied notes recall those of the Willow-Warbler. The pear-shaped or oval nests, woven or attached by cobwebs to the ends of boughs, to the under surfaces of leaves, or more rarely to reed-stems, are composed of grass, moss, roots, and the like, lined with hair, feathers, and down, and usually have a projecting porch. Beneath are attached as decorations leaves, twigs, lichens, shreds of bark, paper, and cloth, wood-borings, or caterpillars' excreta. _Arachnothera magna_, at least occasionally, builds an open nest. The two or three eggs are commonly greenish- or brownish-grey, with purplish, reddish-brown, yellowish, or dusky dots and spots; some, however, are whiter, with blackish markings, dark zones, or hair-streaks; while those of _Arachnothera magna_ are brownish, very thickly speckled with purplish-black. _Promerops cafer_ makes a cup of grass, fibres, and softer materials in forks of bushes, and lays creamy eggs like those of Buntings, with wavy lines or irregular blotches of dark brown or purplish.

Fam. XXIX. DICAEIDAE.–The "Flower-peckers" inhabit the Indian and Australian Regions as far eastwards as the Low Archipelago, a few possibly kindred species occupying West Africa. The bill is usually short, broad, and depressed, but is especially slender in _Pholidornis_, stout and Finch-like in _Prionochilus_; while both mandibles shew minute terminal serrations. Feathers cover the nostrils in _Pardalotus_, and in life _Lobornis_ has three small white rictal outgrowths. The tongue is separated into four semi-tubular fringeless projections. The metatarsus is never long; the wings are fairly so; the tail is generally short and even, but is rounded in _Prionochilus vincens_, longer in most Papuasian forms, and sometimes graduated, as in _Pristorhamphus_. Many species exhibit vivid combinations of blue or purple with black, relieved by a scarlet or an orange head, rump, or chest-patch, the lower surface being yellow, greyish, or greenish-white; some, however, replace the blue shades by green, brown, or olive; others are quite plain; and _Melanocharis unicolor_ is perfectly black. The {571}Diamond-bird (_Pardalotus_) has scattered white dots above, and scarlet or yellow tips to the primary coverts; _Dicaeum_ often shews a longitudinal black band below; while bars and streaks occur not infrequently. The bill is blackish, or in _Dicaeum erythrorhynchum_ reddish. The female is almost invariably duller.

These small birds frequent woods and gardens, the little flocks often haunting lofty trees near rivers; they hop briskly among the boughs, dart from bush to bush, creep about and cling like Tits, and utter a long, low warble, or in _Pardalotus_ a harsh monotonous piping note. The food consists of insects, varied by spiders, fruit, buds, seeds, and perhaps honey. _Dicaeum_ and _Prionochilus_ suspend from some twig a domed, pear-shaped nest of white cottony material, frequently covered with grass or moss, and decorated with caterpillars' excreta; _Pardalotus_ chooses old Swallows' nurseries, or holes in trees and walls, or even tunnels a short way into banks, making within a spherical fabric of roots, grass, bark, and feathers. The two to five eggs are commonly white, but in _Prionochilus_ (_Piprisoma_) _squalidus_ they are redder, with dense brown-pink or claret-coloured blotches or specks.

Fam. XXX. CERTHIIDAE.–The Creepers, a small, though widespread group, occupy most of the Palaearctic and Nearctic Regions; Africa from Benguela to Mashona-Land; Australia and New Guinea. The bill is long and generally decurved, but shorter and straighter in _Climacteris_; while nasal and rictal bristles are absent. The metatarsi are of medium length and slender, though stouter in _Salpornis_; _Tichodroma_ and _Climacteris_ have the scutes fused; and the toes–especially the hallux–have long, curved claws. The wings vary from moderate and rounded to elongated and pointed; the tail is usually short and square, or very nearly so, but has stiff, graduated, acuminate feathers in _Certhia_. The coloration of both sexes is brown, black, rufous, buff, grey, and white, except in _Tichodroma_, which exhibits crimson wing-patches on its grey, black, and white plumage. Bars and spots are frequent, particularly beneath.

The majority are tame birds, inhabiting thinly wooded districts, often close to dwellings; but the European and Asiatic _Tichodroma muraria_, which has strayed to Britain, haunts mountain cliffs, and, when on migration, walls also. They utter shrill cries, or, more commonly, low reiterated notes, which in our Creeper (_Certhia familiaris_) are varied by a sweet and fairly loud song; {572}the food consists of insects and their larvae, ants, and spiders. Beginning at the bottom of a trunk the birds work actively but jerkily upwards in zigzags or spirals, flitting from the higher branches to the base of another tree; sometimes, however, they take protracted, undulating flights, or accompany flocks of Tits in winter. _Certhia_ uses the rigid rectrices as Woodpeckers do (p. 457), though the soft-tailed forms also climb well, while _Climacteris_ is exceptional in spending much time hopping or shuffling along the ground. Seeds of conifers occasionally vary the diet. The nest, composed of twigs, with the addition of grass or moss, and lined with bast, hair, wool, or feathers, is placed behind loose bark, under tiles, in crevices of trees or walls, in piles of bricks, hollow branches, or even the base of large birds' habitations. The three to nine eggs are ordinarily white with red and lilac spots; but in _Climacteris_ the ground-colour is sometimes reddish, in _Salpornis_ the spots are blackish. The last-named fixes a cup-shaped fabric of leaves, bark, and cobwebs to some horizontal bough.

[Illustration: FIG. 137.–Tree Creeper. _Certhia familiaris._ × 7/12.]

Fam. XXXI. COEREBIDAE.–The Quit-quits have the extensible tongue bifid, and frayed out terminally. The bill may be conical, but is usually slender, with a notch and sometimes with rictal bristles, while the long maxilla is hooked in _Diglossa_ and _Diglossopis_; the metatarsi, wings, and tail are moderate, the last being sometimes forked. These small, active, and restless birds frequent bushy places and the outskirts of forests, from South Florida to the Bolivian Andes and South-East Brazil, several species being peculiar to the Antilles, and _Certhidea_ to the Galápagos. Though companies are seldom formed, the flight and habits are Tit-like, and individuals are often seen hopping about or clinging to the branches in search of the insects which, with fruit, form the usual food. They probe the flowers in company with Humming-birds, and probably suck the honey, while some forms dart after flies like Flycatchers. Several have a fine voice, but the common note is a feeble "quit-quit." The domed {573}nest, made of grass, moss, roots, and fibres, occasionally has a projecting porch, and is frequently lined with down or feathers; the two to four eggs being white or greenish-blue, with dull-red or yellowish-brown blotches or specks. In the Antilles _Certhiola_ weaves a domed structure of similar materials, hair, and spiders' webs, between the outermost twigs of bushes. Many nests are built without being used.

[Illustration: FIG. 138.–Sugar-bird. _Certhiola flaveola._ × ½.]

The coloration varies from black, grey, or purplish, relieved by rufous and white, to brilliant blue, purple, or green, with the quills only black, or with further yellow, chestnut, and exceptionally scarlet, decorations. Uniform black, or olive and brown hues are unusual, save in females, which, however, are often bright green, with the addition of a little blue or yellow.

Fam. XXXII. MNIOTILTIDAE.–The "American Warblers," almost replacing the _Sylviinae_ in the New World, are a somewhat heterogeneous assemblage of rather small birds, of which _Granatellus_ is perhaps Tanagrine. They frequent localities of all descriptions in North and South America, being commonest in the middle portions. _Teretistris_ is peculiar to Cuba, _Leucopeza_ to St. Lucia and St. Vincent; _Ergaticus_ occupies the Central American highlands, while two or three species wander to Greenland.

The bill is usually slender and straight, but varies in length and curvature, that of _Setophaga_ and _Myiodioctes_ being broad and depressed with bristly gape, that of _Icteria_ (doubtfully referred here) very stout and compressed, and so forth. Other species also exhibit bristles, or have notched beaks. The tongue is frequently bifid and fringed in _Dendroeca_, and in _D._ (_Perissoglossa_) _tigrina_ is semitubular. The metatarsi are naturally longest and strongest in the more terrestrial forms, such as _Geothlypis_ and _Siurus_; _Icteria_ has partly feathered legs, _Mniotilta_

## particularly long toes. The wings may be concave and roundish, as in

_Leucopeza_ and _Geothlypis_, or elongated and pointed, as in _Protonotaria_ and _Peucedramus_; the moderate tail is square, rounded, or emarginate, or, as in _Setophaga_, broad and graduated. The general coloration is {574}olive-green, grey, or slaty-blue, with yellow or rarely orange under parts; chestnut marks, white wing-bands, and the like, occasionally relieving the plumage. The head is often particularly dark or streaky. _Mniotilta_ exhibits black and white stripes; _Ergaticus_ shews chiefly crimson and white; _Granatellus_ is grey, black, and white above, but red and white with black collar below. _Setophaga_, the "American Redstart," is mainly red and black, or red and plumbeous; _Cardellina_ is grey, black, and white with crimson cheeks and throat; _Siurus_ has olive-brown upper, and whitish under parts, with dusky striations. The bill is black or brown, commonly with pinkish, yellowish, or bluish mandible.

[Illustration: FIG. 139.–Black-and-White Warbler. _Mniotilta varia._ × ½.]

These active, restless, and often shy birds either seek their food, consisting chiefly of insects and their larvae, worms, spiders, and even molluscs, upon the ground or upon the bark of trees. Many forms resemble Tits in their actions; _Mniotilta_ and others ascend the trunks spirally like Creepers; _Setophaga_ and its allies–and exceptionally _Dendroeca_–sally after insects like Flycatchers; _D. palmarum_ and _Siurus_ run along with the tail in motion, the former recalling a Titlark, the latter gaining, from its appearance and habit of wading, the name of Water-Thrush. The flight is usually swift, easy, and graceful, yet brief and frequently undulating; _Myiodioctes_ and _Setophaga_ flit about alternately opening and closing the rectrices. Fruits, including conifer- and grass-seeds, vary the diet. Small parties collect in winter. A few species, such as _Basileuterus_, _Setophaga_, _Myiodioctes_, and _Siurus_ have fine clear songs, but the usual utterances are feeble warbles, sweet whistles, reiterated "chirrups," or mournful trills. The majority build their cup-shaped nests in trees, bushes, and thickets generally, _Dendroeca_ in some districts choosing a fir; they are {575}made of grass, bark, leaves, roots, moss, hair, fur, lichens, and spiders' webs, or even twigs, sedges, and feathers, and contain from two to six creamy or, exceptionally, greenish or purplish eggs, more or less spotted or blotched with red-brown, grey, and lilac, or sometimes, as in _Myiodioctes_, scrawled with black.

Fam. XXXIII. TANAGRIDAE.[308]–The Tanagers form a New World group, hardly distinguishable from the _Fringillidae_, except by their more feeble conformation and their exposed nostrils. The coloration is often

## particularly gorgeous, but their habits are comparatively little known. The

bill varies much in length and thickness, the hooked tip being highly developed in _Lamprotes_ and _Sericossypha_, while _Procnias_ has a wide Swallow-like gape. The metatarsi are short and stout; the toes are large, with sharp curved claws in _Lamprotes_ and _Sericossypha_; the wings are moderate and somewhat pointed, being unusually long in _Procnias_; while the tail may be very short as in _Euphonia_, but is rarely long and graduated as in _Cissopis_, and only occasionally forked.

These birds are characteristic of the forests and wooded country of the Neotropical Region, whence four species of _Pyranga_ extend to the United States, and two reach Canada and British Columbia respectively; several forms, moreover, are peculiar to the Antilles. They are chiefly of small size, _Euphonia_ possessing the least and _Pitylus_ or _Saltator_ the largest members of the Family; the sexes are commonly similar, but the female is often duller, or even quite different from the male, as in _Rhamphocoelus_ and _Pyranga_. A short crest occurs rarely, as in _Eucometis_ and _Stephanophorus_. The prevailing colours are black and red or uniform red in _Pyranga_, _Phlogothraupis_, and most species of _Rhamphocoelus_ and _Calochaetes_; blue or purplish-black and yellow in _Buthraupis_, _Iridornis_, and their nearest allies; blue and black in _Procnias_ and _Pseudodacnis_; orange or yellow, with black and white in _Spindalis_ and _Lanio_; black and white in _Lamprospiza_ and _Cissopis_; olive and brown in _Chlorospingus_; chestnut and brown in _Orchesticus_; grey, olive, yellow, or green, with more or less blue in _Thraupis_ (_Tanagra_). _Buarremon_ and several other forms are comparatively dull; _Tanagra_ (_Calliste_) exhibits a beautiful mixture of all the above hues; _Euphonia_ is also varied, but lacks scarlet tints; _Chlorochrysa_ is brilliant green, relieved by orange, chestnut, blue, and black. The bill may be red, black, yellow, {576}leaden or horn-coloured. Roughly speaking, _Tanagra_ contains sixty species, _Euphonia_, _Chlorospingus_, and _Buarremon_ each over thirty.

The flight of these bold, lively, and restless birds–often met with in small parties–is Finch-like and not uncommonly brief; the song, frequently heard in chorus, is mellow and pleasing, accompanied by chattering, whistling, and chirping notes; the diet consists of insects and fruits, even the latter being occasionally snatched upon the wing; while worms, larvae, and molluscs are eaten, and some species scratch for food among fallen leaves. The nests are usually shallow fabrics of grass, roots, fibres, moss, and lichens, lined with hair or down; twigs, broad leaves, or fern-stems being commonly added below: they are sometimes placed in forks of trees or bushes, if not at the ends of branches; sometimes in masses of creepers, or even upon the ground; that of _Pyrrhuphonia_ is domed, while that of _Rhamphocoelus brasilius_ is built in tall grass in marshy places. The two to four eggs are white, bluish, greenish, grey, salmon-coloured, or rich brown, being at times uniform, but generally blotched, spotted, freckled, lined, or scrolled with brown, lilac, red, purple, or black. _Procnias_ is said to lay three or four white eggs in holes in trees or in the soil, upon a bed of roots and plant-stems.[309]

[Illustration: FIG. 140.–Brazilian Tanager. _Rhamphocoelus brasilius._ × 9/20.]

Fam. XXXIV. PLOCEIDAE.–The Weaver-birds, closely allied to the above, and hardly to be distinguished from the _Fringillidae_ except by the tenth primary being distinctly developed, may be divided[310] into the Sub-families _Viduinae_, occurring in the Ethiopian, Indian, and Australian Regions, in which this quill is small {577}and falcate, and _Ploceinae_, peculiar to Africa and its islands–with the exception of the genera _Ploceus_ and _Ploceëlla_ of the Indian Region–in which it is larger. The former group includes the long-tailed Widow-birds, the red-beaked Wax-bills, and so forth; the latter the more typical Weaver-birds; Africa furnishing by far the greatest number of species. The bill is normally strong and conical, but is unusually long and slender in _Emblema_, and

## particularly stout with ridged culmen in _Amblyospiza_; the maxilla may be

toothed, as in _Pyrenestes_, or festooned, as in _Spermestes_. The metatarsus is moderate, and the hind claw sometimes lengthened, as in _Icteropsis_. The rounded or pointed wings have very long secondaries, and the tail shews a slight fork; while in the breeding season the four median rectrices in the males of _Vidua_ and several allied genera are extraordinarily elongated, being then either broad or tapering, and reduced to threads at the extremity, or bare-shafted with racquet tips.[311] Crests are uncommon, hair-like plumes on the nape more frequent, while _Pyromelaena_ and _Urobrachya_ have a neck-frill in summer.

[Illustration: FIG. 141.–Weaver-bird. _Pyromelaena flammiceps._ × 7/12.]

The coloration of these rather small birds is most striking, though the females are usually much duller than the males, which have in some cases a sober winter garb. _Vidua principalis_ is black and white; _Penthetria ardens_ is black with scarlet gorget; _Philetaerus socius_ is brown, buff, black, and white; _Zonaeginthus bellus_ is brown above, with transverse black lines and crimson rump, but silver grey below with black bars; _Hypochera ultramarina_ is entirely purplish-blue; _Sporaeginthus amandava_, the Amadavat, is chiefly crimson with white dots; _Munia oryzivora_, the "Java Sparrow," is blue-grey and black with white cheeks. _M. punctulata_, the Cowry- or Nutmeg-bird, is brown, {578}with white streaks above and spots below, a yellow rump, and a white middle to the under parts. _Poëphila mirabilis_, one of the Grass-finches, shews a beautiful combination of pale green, blue, lilac, scarlet, yellow, black, brown, and white; _Neochmia phaëton_ is crimson, brown, and black; _Foudia_ is generally crimson and black; _Hyphantornis cucullatus_ is golden-yellow, black, and chestnut; _Ploceus baya_ is yellow and brown; _Textor albirostris_ is entirely black. The bill is not uncommonly coral-red, as in _Estrelda_ and other "Wax-bills;" but it varies from red to horn-coloured in _Vidua_, and may be whitish, as in _Textor albirostris_, as well as black, grey, rose-tinted, brownish, orange, or nearly blue. The feet may also be red, brown, purplish, dusky, or flesh-coloured.

Weaver-birds are generally tame, and often approach habitations; the larger species frequenting woods and gardens, open country, sugar-cane fields, or reed-beds, but many of the smaller preferring grassy flats, bushy places, or even stony hills. They are usually social, and frequently pugnacious. The flight, though somewhat brief and heavy, is fairly rapid; _Chera_ and _Vidua_ rise with arched tail, and hover with flapping wings, at times soaring almost out of sight to descend again with great velocity. _Sycobrotus_ climbs especially well, _Donacicola_ hangs to the reeds like a Bunting, and indeed it is doubtful whether the Australian forms are not really generalized Finches. The usual utterance is a harsh churr, a shrill piping cry, a chattering or a twittering noise, often preceded by a single mournful note; but some species sing fairly well in chorus. The food, generally procured upon the ground, consists mainly of seeds, but is varied by insects–occasionally taken on the wing,–fruits, and flowers; while the birds play havoc with rice and other crops, often clinging to the stems until they have eaten every grain from the head.

The nest is almost invariably a large mass of roughish grass or flags, bristling with the thicker ends of the stalks; it is usually lined with finer stems, but sometimes with feathers, down, and wool, while sticks, twigs, roots, and the like may be added exteriorly. The fabric is normally "retort-shaped," that is to say, globular with a "spout" or tubular passage, which curves downwards either from the middle or from the top of one side; but some of the structures resemble flasks placed horizontally; others have little or no spout, or hang by a sort of rope; and occasionally the materials do not quite meet above. Weaver-birds, especially the more typical {579}species, commonly build in colonies, the most remarkable instance being that of _Philetaerus_, where an umbrella-shaped mass of sticks and straw is formed among the branches of a tree, and in its flat under surface holes for as many as three hundred nests are excavated. _Textor_ makes a somewhat similar joint fabric. In certain cases the hen is said to sit in the roughly-fashioned shell, and to receive the thin ends of the straws from her mate, as he, clinging to the outside, pushes them through with his beak; she then passes them through to him again, and so the process is repeated in true webster fashion. An inner partition is often made to prevent the eggs from rolling out. The structures are placed in trees or bushes, frequently overhanging water, in sugar-canes, reeds, foundations of Eagles' eyries, or–especially by the smaller species–in long herbage. Exceptionally they are found under eaves. _Ploceipasser mahali_ makes two "spouts," _Ploceus baya_ counterpoises its pensile nursery with lumps of clay. The males add to the fabric after their consorts begin to incubate, and are asserted to make nests to sit in; the hens occasionally lay together, though the cocks are not proved to be polygamous. _Munia_, _Stictospiza_, _Sporaeginthus_, and in fact most Indian and Australian forms, deposit from five to seven dull white eggs; _Ploceus_ lays two of a like description; _Ploceëlla_ two, which have a whitish or greyish ground with brown frecklings; the Ethiopian species about five, either plain white, blue, or green, or of the same colours, spotted and blotched with red or purplish-brown. In nests of _Hyphantornis_ and _Pyromelaena_ very diverse specimens are often found.

Fam. XXXV. ICTERIDAE.–This New World group comprises the "American Orioles" or "American Starlings," which are certainly not Orioles, though analogous to the Starlings, and allied through _Dolichonyx_ to the Buntings. From the _Fringillidae_ they are distinguished by the more elongated bill, which has no notch, and by the absence of rictal bristles. Dr. Sclater[312] recognises five Sub-families: _Cassicinae_, with long, straight, and often large bills, widening to a frontal shield; _Agelaeinae_, where they are conical with flattened culmen, being shortest in _Dolichonyx_ and _Molobrus_; _Sturnellinae_, where they are more slender; _Icterinae_ and _Quiscalinae_, where the culmen is rounded, the length and curvature varying more than elsewhere. _Aphobus_ and _Curaeus_ have grooved mandibles, _Gymnostinops_ a naked space at their base, _Clypeïcterus_ {580}a horny swelling there. The legs are stout, being long in the terrestrial Agelaeinae, Sturnellinae, and Quiscalinae, and not much shorter in the Icterinae and Cassicinae; _Dolichonyx_ has the middle toe, and the Sturnellinae the hallux elongated. The wings are long or moderate, being often pointed with far-extended outer secondaries in the Sturnellinae. The tail varies in length and form, but is much graduated in the Quiscalinae (Boat-tails), which usually carry it in flight with the outer feathers uppermost; it has acuminate rectrices in the Sturnellinae, _Leistes_, and _Dolichonyx_, while in the last-named it is forked. _Cassiculus_, _Eurycorystes_, and some species of _Ostinops_ have crests, the male of _Cassidix_ a neck-frill, _Lampropsar_ erect frontal plumes, the Sturnellinae bristly crown-feathers, _Hypopyrrhus_, _Curaeus_, and _Aphobus_ lanceolate feathers on the head. _Gymnomystax_ possesses naked orbits.

The _Cassicinae_, or Cassiques, are sometimes uniform black, sometimes black relieved by chestnut, yellow, green, or scarlet; the bill being frequently white, instead of the usual black or brown. The Agelaeinae are generally black, varied with red and yellow, _Dolichonyx oryzivorus_, the Bobolink, being, however, black, brown, buff, and white, with a duller plumage in winter. The Sturnellinae are brown, variegated with black; having scarlet or canary yellow under parts, and in _Sturnella magna_, the "Meadow-Lark," a black gorget. The Icterinae (all but one of which belong to the extensive genus _Icterus_) are glossy black, with yellow, bay, or orange patches–especially upon the rump and lower surface–and often some white on the wing. The Quiscalinae are black, occasionally with metallic gloss, and scarlet or brown markings. The females are commonly similar to the males, especially in the Cassicinae, but are sometimes comparatively sombre. _Agelaeus phoeniceus_, the "Red-winged Starling," several males of which have been captured in Britain, _Icterus baltimore_, the "Baltimore Oriole" and _Quiscalus versicolor_, the "Crow-Blackbird," are good examples of their respective groups. The curious resemblance of _Sturnella_ and _Macronyx_ has already been mentioned (p. 500).

{581}[Illustration: FIG. 142.–"Baltimore Oriole." _Icterus baltimore._ × ½.]

Some of the Family are large birds for Passeres, _Gymnostinops_, for instance, being the size of a Rook; they are commonly gregarious, and frequent forests or wooded country, the Agelaeinae and Sturnellinae in

## particular preferring open grassy places and marshes, and all seeming fond

of the neighbourhood of water. The Cassicinae only range from South Mexico to Paraguay and Bolivia; but the other Sub-families occupy most of America, except the extreme north, the Quiscalinae extending to Chili and Argentina, the Sturnellinae to Patagonia. Several species are peculiar to the Antilles. The flight is sufficiently strong and swift, flocks of _Agelaeus_ and _Quiscalus_ performing evolutions like Starlings; while these forms, _Dolichonyx_, _Scolephagus_, _Xanthocephalus_, and others roost in huge companies on migration. These lively, active, and fairly tame birds differ considerably in habits, _Dolichonyx_ sitting continually on fences, clinging to plant-stems, or hovering in the air, _Sturnella_ sailing or fluttering with jerky movements, the Icterinae and Cassicinae being

## particularly accustomed to perch, and many forms walking well or even

gracefully. The members of the genus _Icterus_ have melodious voices, those of _I. vulgaris_ and _I. baltimore_ being especially rich and varied; they are therefore favourite cage-birds. _Dolichonyx_, perhaps the finest of American songsters, often sings in chorus; _Sturnella_ produces tuneful, wild, but not powerful notes; the Cassicinae utter loud discordant cries or sweeter strains; while many forms chatter, chuckle, squeak, scream, or whistle more or less harshly, whether in the air, in the trees, or on the ground. The food in the breeding season consists almost entirely of insects, their larvae, and small molluscs; but fruit is also eaten, and havoc wrought in maize- and corn-fields, _Quiscalus_ even pulling up the shooting blades. The terrestrial species often {582}scratch amongst the soil, but the Icterinae and Cassicinae rarely feed upon the ground.

The Agelaeinae build cup-shaped nests of grass, sedge, or rushes, sometimes lined with hair, in bushes or reeds, generally in damp or marshy spots; and lay five or six white, drab, greenish, bluish, or reddish eggs, with purple, black, red, or brown blotches, dots, and lines: the Quiscalinae deposit similar eggs in rougher structures of twigs, grass, and the like, placed in tree-forks or bushes. Both these groups often form societies. _Sturnella_ hides its deep fabric in grass or rushes, the eggs being speckled rather than spotted; the Icterinae, or "Hang-nests," usually weave pensile nests of plant-stems, tendrils, grasses, or even rags, lined with wool, down, and so forth, which are rarely domed, and generally contain five or six eggs of a more delicate colouring than those of their kindred, varied by marblings, zigzags, streaks, and spots of brown, purple, black, or red. The Cassicinae commonly join in colonies and hang their elaborate, purse-like nurseries of grass or palm-fibres, _Tillandsia_, _Bromelia_, or lichens, lined with feathers, from branches above water; the two to five eggs are plain white, or greenish- bluish- or reddish-white, blotched, dotted, dashed, or scrawled with purplish- or reddish-brown and black.[313]

The gregarious Cow-birds (_Molobrus_), included in the Agelaeinae, lay eggs varying from white to pinkish, greenish, bluish, or brownish, often spotted or streaked with red, brown, and grey; one or more of these are by most species foisted in Cuckoo fashion upon other birds, the young of which disappear at an early date. It is a curious fact that _M. rufo-axillaris_ is ordinarily parasitic on its congener _M. badius_, which itself seizes and uses other birds' nests. Many eggs are destroyed by the males, or are dropped promiscuously by the females, several of the latter often laying together. Cow-birds perch on cattle or follow the plough for insects, and utter ringing screams in concert.[314]

Fam. XXXVI. FRINGILLIDAE.–The Finches are small birds very closely allied to the _Tanagridae_ and the _Ploceidae_; while the Buntings are here included in the Family, though often separated as _Emberizidae_. The most evident points of distinction in the {583}last-named are the considerable deflection of the posterior portion of the angular gape and the bony knob often present on the palate; a gap, moreover, commonly occurs between the edges of the maxilla and the mandible. Extreme forms are thus easily recognised, but it seems almost impossible to draw an exact line of demarcation, even when the more Lark-like nest of Buntings and their streaky eggs are taken into consideration. The _Fringillidae_ predominate in the Palaearctic Region, but are fairly plentiful elsewhere, except in the Australian Region, whence few are as yet recorded; many forms, however, have very limited ranges; while some are peculiar to certain islands, as _Geospiza_, _Camarhynchus_, and _Cactornis_ to the Galápagos, _Passer jagoënsis_ to the Cape Verds, _Chaunoproctus_ to the Bonin Islands and _Telespiza_ to the Laysan group, _Nesospiza_ to Tristan da Cunha, _Melopyrrha_ to Cuba, _Rhynchostruthus_ and _Passer insularis_ to Socotra.

The bill is usually stout and cone-shaped, often with a notched maxilla, occasionally with a ridged culmen; it is enormous in _Geospiza_, _Camarhynchus_, _Chaunoproctus_, and some other forms, and highly developed in _Coccothraustes_, _Pyrrhula_, and elsewhere; but is at times either remarkably short, or longer and more slender, as in _Cactornis_, _Chrysomitris_, and _Carduelis_. Frequently it is curved, with overhanging tip, while a peculiar crossing of the mandibles at their extremities marks the genus _Loxia_. An excessive summer growth has been especially noticed in Redpolls, which is worn down by hard food in winter. The beak is seldom abnormal in Buntings. The metatarsus is moderate; but in _Calcarius_, _Plectrophenax_, _Nesospiza_, and _Chamaeospiza_ the hind claw is elongated, as is the mid-claw in _Phonipara_. The wings, which have a minute outer primary, vary from very long, as in _Hesperiphona_, to short as in _Passer_, and from pointed, as in _Plectrophenax_, to rounded as in _Ammodramus_; the secondaries are shaped like a bill-hook in _Coccothraustes_, while the inner are much lengthened in _Emberiza fucata_. The tail is fairly normal, but may be long or decidedly short, square, round, graduated, or forked; the rectrices are unusually acute in _Spiza_, _Coryphospiza_, and _Emberizoïdes_. Many species possess a crop. Bristles generally occur at the gape, and the nostrils are concealed by feathers or by a membrane.

{584}[Illustration: FIG. 143.–House-Sparrow. _Passer domesticus._ × ⅖. (From _English Illustrated Magazine_.)]

The sexes may be similarly coloured or very different, the hues being commonly sober, but sometimes particularly brilliant. _Cardinalis_, _Paroaria_, _Gubernatrix_, _Melophus_, _Pyrrhuloxia_, _Schistospiza_, _Lophospingus_, and _Tiaris_ have fine crests; _Catamblyrhynchus_ exhibits stiff crown-feathers. The feet are usually dull, but occasionally pinkish, as in _Embernagra_ and _Pycnorhamphus_; the bill may be blackish, yellowish, dusky, or even red, as in _Cardinalis_ (except one form). Of British species, the Greenfinch (_Ligurinus chloris_), the Goldfinch (_Carduelis elegans_), the Sparrow (_Passer domesticus_), the Chaffinch (_Fringilla coelebs_), the Brambling (_F. montifringilla_), the Linnet (_Linota cannabina_), the Redpoll (_Aegiothus rufescens_), the Bullfinch (_Pyrrhula europaea_), the Reed-Bunting (_Emberiza schoeniclus_), the Corn-Bunting (_E. miliaria_), and the Yellow Hammer (_E. citrinella_) hardly need description; while several others occur more rarely in our islands or breed with us in limited numbers, such as the Hawfinch (_Coccothraustes vulgaris_), which is bay, black and white; the Siskin (_Chrysomitris spinus_) and the Serin (_Serinus hortulanus_), which are chiefly greenish-yellow; the Pine-Grosbeak (_Pyrrhula enucleator_) and the Crossbill (_Loxia curvirostra_), which are mainly red in the adult male, and respectively yellow and greenish-orange in the female; the Ortolan Bunting (_Emberiza hortulana_), which is brown, green, and yellow; and the Snow-Bunting (_Plectrophenax nivalis_), with its black, chestnut, and {585}white plumage, that becomes black and white in summer. The Rose-Finches (_Carpodacus_) of the Eastern Palaearctic, the Nearctic, and the Indian Regions exhibit fine crimson or rosy tints; the Central and South American _Pheucticus_, and the Western North American _Hesperiphona_, much black and yellow; the Cardinals (_Cardinalis_), of North America, Venezuela, and Trinidad, bright red with black forehead and throat; _Paroaria_, which replaces the last-named genus southwards, somewhat like colours. _Guiraca_ of most of America, except the extreme north and south, is mainly blue; _Cyanospiza cyanea_, ranging from the Eastern United States to Panama, is even more brilliant; while the Painted Bunting (_C. ciris_), of similar range, shews a beautiful combination of blue, red, brown, and yellowish-green. _Volatinia_ of Central and South America is black; _Geospiza_, _Camarhynchus_, and _Cactornis_ are the same, or decidedly dull; _Petronia brachydactyla_ and _Passer simplex_, of the deserts from North Africa to Persia, resemble the sand in tint. The wild Canary (_Serinus canarius_) of Madeira, the Azores, and the Canaries–not to be confounded with the Cape Canary (_S. canicollis_)–is greenish above with brown striations, and yellowish below. Finally, many sober-hued North American genera, such as _Pipilo_, _Peucaea_, and _Junco_, lead up to the brown-streaked Bunting forms.

[Illustration: FIG. 144.–Snow-Bunting. _Plectrophenax nivalis._ × ½.]

The crimson tints exhibited by the adult male Linnet, when in breeding plumage, afford a well-known instance of seasonal change of colour. It is in consequence indifferently called the Red, Brown, or Grey Linnet.

{586}The members of this Family generally frequent wooded districts and open grassy spots, Finches on the whole preferring the former, Buntings the latter; a few occupy sandy deserts; _Petronia_ haunts rocks; _Ammodramus_ resorts to the shore. This bird clings to the reeds like a Tit, a habit well-known to be shared by various other marsh-loving species. _Camarhynchus_ and _Geospiza_ accompany flocks of Doves to dry bushy and rocky spots near the sea in the Galápagos. The majority are active and lively birds, social and seldom shy, which flock in winter to feed or roost; while the pugnacity of the Sparrow is rather exceptional. They not only dust themselves in dry spots, but bathe freely. _Montifringilla_ breeds in mountainous places, _Leucosticte_ and _Plectrophenax_ in similar situations, or on rocky Arctic shores. The flight is ordinarily strong and rapid, some species of _Sycalis_, _Phrygilus_, and _Calamospiza_ soaring, and descending with outspread wings; _Cactornis_ climbs with ease about the prickly pear (_Opuntia_), while many Finches hop well, and others run readily and swiftly. The song is often exceptionally fine, as in the Canary, Linnet, Cardinal, American Song-Sparrow (_Melospiza_), _Chondestes_, _Zonotrichia_, and elsewhere; the Bullfinch in the wild state has a plaintive pipe; while the chirp of Sparrows may be contrasted with the Cricket-like strain of _Petronia brachydactyla_, the whistling cry of the Snow-finch (_Montifringilla nivalis_), the long-drawn note of the Corn-Bunting, or the sibilant sound at times made by the Crossbill. The food consists mainly of seeds, but other fruits, buds, leaves, insects and their larvae, are also eaten, not to mention peas, crocus flowers, and the like; Crossbills and some other forms cleverly extract the seeds of fir-cones, _Camarhynchus_ and _Geospiza_ scratch about upon the ground, and _Cactornis_ devours seeds and flowers of the _Opuntia_. The nest varies from the huge, untidy domed mass of straw and feathers fashioned by Sparrows to the small compact cup of moss, wool, hair, down, lichen, and such materials, formed by the Goldfinch, Redpoll, or Chaffinch; Hawfinches and Bullfinches make shallow structures chiefly composed of twigs and lined with roots; the British Buntings build with grass and horse-hair if possible; _Phonipara_ and other species sometimes make covered fabrics; _Sycalis pelzelni_ occasionally utilizes nests of other birds. The site may be in a tree, bush, rock, building, or on the ground, some forms nidificating under cover, some in the open. Sparrows have black, grey, and white eggs; those of {587}the Linnet, the Goldfinch, and their allies are blue, bluish-white, or greenish, with reddish or brownish spots; those of Buntings are whitish, greenish, or ruddy, with brown, blackish, or rufous marks, ordinarily including streaks and scrawls; those of _Petronia brachydactyla_ are white with blackish blotches; those of the Hawfinch green with olive and umber spots or lines; those of the Snow-finch white; those of _Spiza guiraca_ and some other American species plain bluish or greenish.

With the Fringillidae this volume ends, according to the Classification which has been here adopted; but it may be well to take the opportunity of again reminding the reader that the "Families" of Oscines are not of equal rank to those of the Orders which precede them; and that, as regards the arrangement of these "Families," few writers will be found to agree; the truth being that there never can be a perfectly satisfactory linear system, since affinities point in so many different directions. When all these affinities have been finally investigated by anatomists, if ever that time should come, they may very possibly necessitate an alphabetical arrangement of the groups, with indications of their various relationships under each head.

{589}INDEX

Every reference is to the page: words in italics are names of genera or species; figures in thick type refer to an illustration; f. = and in following page or pages; n. = note.

Abbott, on Penguins, 57 n., 59 n. _Abdimia abdimii_, 99 Abdomen, 20 Abou-Hannes, 102 _Aburria_, 195; _A. carunculata_, 197 _Acanthidositta_, 472; _A. chloris_, 472, 545 _Acanthiza_, 355, 514, 518 _Acanthochaera_, 566 _Acanthopneuste_, 514 _Acanthoptila_, 502 _Acanthorhynchus_, 565 _Accentor_, 509, 510; _A. collaris_, 512; _A. modularis_, 512 Accentor, alpine, 512, 517 Accentorinae, 509 _Accipiter_, 156, 157; plumage of young, 157; _A. bicolor_, 158; _A. chilensis_, 159; _A. chionogaster_, 158; _A. cirrocephalus_, 159; _A. collaris_, 159; _A. cooperi_, 159; _A. erythrauchen_, 158; _A. erythrocnemis_, 158; _A. fuscus_, 159; _A. guttatus_, 159; _A. hartlaubi_, 158; _A. madagascariensis_, 159; _A. melanoleucus_, 158; _A. minullus_, 159; _A. nisoïdes_, 158; _A. nisus_, 157, 158; _A. ovampensis_, 158; _A. pectoralis_, 159; _A. pileatus_, 150, 159; _A. rhodogaster_, 158; _A. rubricollis_, 158; _A. rufiventris_, 158; _A. subniger_, 159; _A. tinus_, 159; _A. ventralis_, 158; _A. virgatus_, 158 Accipitres, 137 f., 140 f., 397; cere, 11; claws on manus, 48; powder-down, 147 Accipitrinae, 146, 147, 153 Accipitrine, 141, 146, 156, 157 _Aceros_, 390; _A. nipalensis_, 393 _Acestrura_, 438 Acetabulum, 9, 9 _Acomus_, 199, 215; _A. erythrophthalmus_, 215; _A. inornatus_, 215; _A. pyronotus_, 215 _Acredula_, 538-541 _Acridotheres_, 559-561; _A. cristatellus_, 559 _Acrocephalus_, 515-518 Acromyodi, 467 _Acropternis_, 490 _Acrulocercus_, 564-567; _A. apicalis_, 565; _A. bishopi_, 565; _A. braccatus_, 565; _A. nobilis_, 565 _Acryllium_, 199, 201; _A. vulturinum_, 204 _Actiornis anglicus_, fossil, 86 _Actitis hypoleucus_, 286; _A. macularius_, 286 Adams, on _Tringa maculata_, 281 n. _Adelomyia_, 427 Adjutant, 96, 97 _Aechmophorus_, 49; _A. major_, 53; _A. occidentalis_, 53 _Aechmorhynchus cancellatus_, 283; _A. parvirostris_, 283 _Aedon_, 517, 518 _Aedonopsis_, 513 _Aegialitis_, 268, 269; _A. asiatica_, 274; _A. bicincta_, 274; _A. bifrontata_, 274; _A. cantiana_, 273; _A. curonica_, 273; _A. falklandica_, 271; _A. hiaticola_, 273, 273; _A. monachus_, 274; _A. nivosa_, 274; _A. novae zealandiae_, 274; _A. placida_, 274; _A. sanctae helenae_, 274; _A. semipalmata_, 274; _A. vocifera_, 274 _Aegialornis_, fossil, 315, 426 _Aegiothus rufescens_, 584 _Aegithalus_, 538-540 _Aegithina_, 505, 506 _Aegotheles_, 415, 417, 419; _A. wallacii_, 417 _Aeluredus_, 550, 551; _A. maculosus_, 551; _A. viridis_, 549, 551 _Aepyornis_, 43 f. Aepyornithes, 26, 43 f. Aepyornithidae, structure, etc., 43 f. _Aepypodius_, 190 f.; _A. arfakianus_, 192; _A. bruijni_, 192 _Aesacus magnirostris_, 297; {590} _A. recurvirostris_, 297 _Aesalon columbarius_, 178; _A. regulus_, 177; _A. ruficollis_, 178; _A. typus_, 178 _Aethiopsar_, 561 _Aethopyga_, 569 _Aethorhynchus_, 504-506 _Aex_, 111, 112; _A. galericulata_, 114, 133; _A. sponsa_, 133 Aftershaft, of feathers, origin of, 3; absent, in Alcedinidae, 383; in _Apteryx_, 39; in Hornbill, 390; in _Mesites_, 187; in Ostrich, 27; in Owls, 399; in _Pandion_, 180; in Rheidae, 30; in Struthionidae, 27 Agami, 258 _Agamia agami_, 91 f. _Agapornis_, 364, 368; _A. cana_, 368; _A. pullaria_, 368; _A. roseicollis_, 368; _A. taranta_, 368 Agelaeinae, 579 f. _Agelaeus_, 581; _A. phoeniceus_, 580 _Agelastes_, 201; _A. meleagrides_, 205 _Aglaeactis_, 437 _Agnopterus_, fossil, 108 _Agriornis_, 473, 475 Air-cells, in _Sula_, 72 Air-sac, 21; in Tetraoninae, 201 _Aithurus_, 426, 430; _A. polytmus_, 433, 433 _Ajaja_, young, 105; _A. rosea_, 105 Ala, 21 _Alaemon_, 497, 498; _A. alaudipes_, 497 Alar bar, 21 Alaska, to which region belonging? 16 _Alauda_, 497; _A. arvensis_, 496, 497 Alaudidae, 494, 496 f.; habits, 498 _Alaudula raytal_, 498 Albatros, 59 f., 61-63, 81, 148; Wandering, 63 f., 64 Albinism, its cause, 4 n. _Alca_, 315, 320; _A. impennis_, 315, 320, 321; _A. torda_, 320 f. Alcae, 268, 315 f. Alcedinidae, 376, 382 f.; habits, 383 f. Alcedininae, 382, 386 _Alcedo_, 383; _A. beryllina_, 387; _A. ispida_, 387 Alcidae, 49, 268, 315 f.; bill-sheath and outgrowth shed, 5 n., 317 f.; habits, 315 f. _Alcippe_, 503 _Alcurus_, 504 _Alcyone_, 383, 384; toes, 10, 383; _A. azurea_, 386 Alectorides, 243 _Alectoroenas_, 326, 346; _A. madagascariensis_, 346; _A. nitidissima_, 346; _A. pulcherrima_, 346; _A. rodericana_, fossil, 350; _A. sganzini_, 346 Alectoromorphae, 182 Alectoropodes, 186 _Alectrurus_, 473, 475, 477; _A. risorius_, 473, 474; _A. tricolor_, 473, 475 _Alethe_, 513 _Aletornis_, fossil, 256 Alexandrine–see Parrot Alisphenoid, 11 Allantois, 21 Altham, E. and H., on Dodo, 330 Altrices, 21 Alucinae, 398 n. Alula spuria, 9, 20 Amadavat, 577 _Amaurornis_, 249; _A. phoenicura_, 249 _Amazilia_, 435; _A. cyanura_, 435; _A. pristina_, 435 _Amblyornis_, 551; _A. flavifrons_, 549; _A. inornata_, 549, 551 f.; _A. subalaris_, 549, 552 _Amblyospiza_, 577 Âme damnée, 66 Ameghino, on "Stereornithes," 44 _Ammodramus_, 583, 586 _Ammomanes_, 497, 498 _Ammoperdix_, 202; _A. bonhami_, 228; _A. cholmleyi_, viii; _A. heyi_, 228 Amnion, 21 _Ampeliceps_, 559 Ampelidae, 529 f. _Ampelion_, 480 _Ampelis_, 529; _A. cedrorum_, 530; _A. garrulus_, 529, 530; _A. phoenicoptera_, 530 Amphicoelous, 6 Amphimorphae, 105 _Amphipelargus_, fossil, 99 _Amurolimnas_, 244 _Amytis_, 517 _Anaeretes_, 474 Analogous, meaning, 5 _Anarhynchus_, 268; _A. frontalis_, 274, 274 _Anas_, 112; fossil, 136; _A. aberti_, 127; _A. boscas_, 114, 127; skull, 11; _A. cristata_, 128; _A. diazi_, 127; _A. fulvigula_, 127; _A. laysanensis_, 127; _A. luzonica_, 127; _A. maculosa_, 127; _A. melleri_, 127; _A. obscura_, 127; _A. poecilorhyncha_, 127; _A. sparsa_, 127; _A. specularis_, 128; _A. superciliosa_, 127; _A. undulata_, 127; _A. wyvilliana_, 127; _A. zonorhyncha_, 127 _Anastomus_, 95, 97; sifting apparatus of bill, 12; _A. lamelligerus_, 97; _A. oscitans_, 97 Anatidae, 108, 111 f.; habits, 113 f.; shed wing-quills simultaneously, 4; young, 114 Anatinae, 111, 112, 123 _Ancistrops_, 484 _Andigena_, 456; _A. bailloni_, 456; _A. laminirostris_, 453, 456 Andrews, on _Aepyornis_ and _Mullerornis_, 43 n.; on fossils from Madagascar, 136, 137 n.; {591} on "Stereornithes," 44 _Androdon_, 426; _A. aequatorialis_, 432 f. _Andropadus_, 504 Angular, 11 Ani, 359; habits, 359; White, 359 Anna, 242 _Anodorhynchus_, 364, 371 Anomalopteryginae, 42 _Anomalopteryx_, viii, 42; _A. parva_, 42 _Anomalornis_, viii _Anorhinus_, 391 _Anous_, 301, 303; _A. caeruleus_, 311; _A. cinereus_, 311; _A. galapagensis_, 311; _A. hawaiiensis_, 311; _A. leucocapillus_, 311; _A. stolidus_, 310; _A. tenuirostris_, 311 _Anseranas_, 111-113; _A. semipalmata_, 135 Anseranatinae, 111, 135 Anseres, 108 f., 110 f., 112; bill-sheath, 11; claws on manus, 48; fossil, 136; fusion of tracheal rings, 13; lamellae of bill, 12; _A. albifrons_, 132; _A. brachyrhynchus_, 132; _A. cinereus_, 132; _A. erythropus_, 132; _A. gambeli_, 132; _A. grandis_, 132; _A. indicus_, 132; _A. middendorfi_, 132; _A. rubrirostris_, 132; _A. segetum_, 132 Anseriformes, 70, 108 f. Anserinae, 111, 112, 131 f. Ant-bird, 488 f. Anterior limbs, 8 _Antigone australasiana_, 252, 254; _A. collaris_, 254 Anthinae, 494, 498 f.; habits, 500 f. _Anthobaphes_, 569 _Anthocincla_, 469; _A. phayrii_, 470 _Anthornis_, 565, 567 _Anthracoceros coronatus_, 395; _A. malabaricus_, 391 _Anthropoïdes_, 252; _A. virgo_, 255 f. _Anthus_, 499; _A. antarcticus_, 499; _A. bertheloti_, 499; _A. bogotensis_, 499; _A. campestris_, 500; _A. cervinus_, 500; _A. chloris_, 500; _A. correndera_, 501; _A. obscurus_, 500; _A. pratensis_, 500; _A. richardi_, 500; _A. rosaceus_, 500; _A. rufulus_, 501; _A. spipoletta_, 500; _A. tenellus_, 500; _A. trivialis_, 500 _Antrostomus carolinensis_, 417; _A. vociferus_, 417 _Anumbius_, 484, 487, 525; _A. acuticaudus_, 477; nest, 487 _Apatornis celer_, 49 _Aphanapteryx_, 244; _A. broecki_, fossil, 251 _Aphelocoma_, 554 _Aphobus_, 579, 580 _Aphriza virgata_, 276 _Aplonis_, 559, 561 _Aprosmictus_, 364 _Aptenodytes_, 55; _A. forsteri_, 55, 56; _A. patagonica_, 57; _A. pennanti_, 56 Apteria, or unfeathered spaces, 2 Apteryges, 26, 38 f.; finger, 9 Apterygidae, structure, etc., 38 f. Apterygiformes, of Parker, 38 _Apteryx_, 182; feathers, 41; pelvis, 9; _A. australis_, 39, 39; _A. haasti_, 39; _A. lawryi_, 39; _A. mantelli_, 39; _A. maximus_, 39; _A. occidentalis_, sub-species, 39; _A. oweni_, 39 _Aptornis_, 244; _A. defossor_, fossil, 251; _A. otidiformis_, fossil, 251 _Aquila_, 146-148, 160, 161 f.; fossil, 181; _A. adalberti_, 163; _A. chrysaëtus_, 161; _A. clanga_, 162; _A. fulvescens_, 163; _A. hastata_, 162; _A. mogilnik_, 163; _A. naevioïdes_, 163; _A. nipalensis_, 162; _A. pomarina_, 162; _A. rapax_, 163; _A. verreauxi_, 163; _A. vindhiana_, 163; _A. wahlbergi_, 162 Aquilinae, 146, 159 f. Aquiline, 147 _Ara_, 363, 364, 371; _A. ararauna_, 371; _A. chloroptera_, 371; _A. macao_, 371; _A. militaris_, 371; _A. severa_, 371 Arabia, to which Region belonging? 16 Araçari, 456 _Arachnothera_, 569; _A. chrysogenys_, 569; _A. magna_, 570 Aramidae, 243, 256 f.; habits, 257 _Aramides_, 247; _A. ypecaha_, 247 f. _Aramus pictus_, 256 f.; _A. scolopaceus_, 257 _Arboricola_, 199, 222; _A. ardens_, 222; _A. chloropus_, 222; _A. javanica_, 222; _A. torqueola_, 222 Arch of vertebra, 6 _Archaeopteryx_, 2; claws, 9; fingers, 9; rib, 6; teeth, 12; vertebrae, 6; _A. lithographica_, 23 f., 24; _A. macrura_, 25; _A. siemensi_, viii Archaeornithes, a sub-class, 23 f.; difference from Neornithes, 25 _Archibuteo_, 147, 164; _A. ferrugineus_, 164; _A. hemiptilopus_, 164; _A. lagopus_, 164; _A. sancti johannis_, 164; _A. strophiatus_, 164 Arctogaea, 15 _Arctonetta_, 114; _A. fischeri_, 119 _Ardea_, 91; fossil, 95; young, 93; _A. agami_, 91 f.; _A. alba_, 92; _A. ardesiaca_, 91; _A. asha_, 91; _A. bubulcus_, 88, 91; _A. caerulea_, 91; _A. candidissima_, 92; _A. cinerea_, 92, 93; _A. cocoi_, 93; _A. coromanda_, 91; _A. egretta_, 92; _A. garzetta_, 92; _A. goliath_, 89, 93; _A. greyi_, 91; _A. gularis_, 91; _A. herodias_, 93; _A. nigripes_, 92; _A. occidentalis_, 93; _A. pacifica_, 91; _A. pealii_, 91; _A. picata_, 91; _A. purpurea_, 93; _A. ralloïdes_, 91; _A. rufa_, 91; _A. sacra_, 91; _A. tricolor_, 91; _A. würdemanni_, 93 n. Ardeae, 70 f., 86 f. Ardeidae, 70, 86 f.; habits, 87 f. Ardeinae, 86 _Ardeola ralloïdes_, 91 {592} _Ardetta_, 87, 88, 89; _A. cinnamomea_, 89; _A. minuta_, 89 _Argillornis_, fossil, 86 _Argus_, 199; _A. ocellatus_, 208 Argus, 217 _Argusianus_, 199, 200; _A. argus_, 207; _A. bipunctatus_, 207; _A. greyi_, 207 _Argya_, 502-504 _Arses_, 507 _Artamia_, 533; _A. bicolor_, 533; _A. leucocephala_, 533 Artamidae, 530 f. _Artamides_, 525 _Artamus_, 494, 531; powder-down, 531 Articular, 11; process of vertebra, 6 _Arundinax_, 513 _Asarcornis_, 112; _A. scutulata_, 134 _Asio_, 399, 401-403; fossil, 415; _A. accipitrinus_, 400, 406 f.; _A. americanus_, 406; _A. capensis_, 406; _A. grammicus_, 406; _A. madagascariensis_, 406; _A. mexicanus_, 406; _A. otus_, 402, 406; _A. stygius_, 406; _A. wilsonianus_, 406 _Aspatha_, 380; _A. gularis_, 381 _Asthenopterus minutus_, fossil, 181 _Astrapia_, 544, 549, 550; _A. nigra_, 545; _A. splendidissima_, 545; _A. stephaniae_, 544, 546 _Astur_, 156, 166; _A. alphonsi_, fossil, 181; _A. atricapillus_, 157; _A. badius_, 156 f.; _A. brutus_, 157; _A. cinereus_, 157; _A. franciscae_, 157; _A. hensti_, 157; _A. leucosomus_, 157; _A. novae hollandiae_, 156, 157; _A. palumbarius_, 156; _A. pusillus_, 157; _A. tachiro_, 156 f.; _A. trinotatus_, 157; _A. trivirgatus_, 157 _Asturina_, 166 f.; _A. nitida_, 167; _A. plagiata_, 166 f. _Asturinula monogrammica_, 156 _Asyndesmus torquatus_, 461 _Atelornis_, 378; _A. crossleyi_, 378; _A. pittoïdes_, 378 Atlas, 5, 390 Atmore, on Secretary-bird, 142 _Atrichornis_, 491, 493; _A. clamosa_, 493; _A. rufescens_, 493 Atrichornithidae, 491, 493 _Attagis chimborazensis_, 296; _A. gayi_, 296; _A. malouina_, 296 _Atticora_, 523; _A. cyanoleuca_, 525 _Attila_, 479 Attilinae, 479 f. Audubon, on Humming-birds, 432 _Augastes_, 432; _A. lumachellus_, 432 Auk, 49, 54, 268, 315 f., 316; habits, 315 f.; Great, 315, 317, 320, 321; Little, 316, 321; Parrot, 318; Razorbill–see Razorbill Auklet, Cassin's, 318; Crested, 318; Knob-billed, 317; Least, 317, 318; Rhinoceros, 317 f.; Whiskered, 318 _Aulacorhamphus_, 453, 456 f.; _A. prasinus_, 455; _A. wagleri_, 455 _Aulia_, 480 Auriculars, 20 _Auriparus_, 538-540 Australasia, as a Region, 15 Australian Region, 15 f.; its contents, 16 Austro-Columbia, 15 Austro-Coraces, 531 n., 557 n. Autumn moult, 4 f. Aves, as a Class, 23 Avestruz, 30 Avocet, 278 _Avocetta_, 268 _Avocettula recurvirostris_, 433 Axis, 5 Azara, on Toucan, 454

Back, 20 _Badiostes_, fossil, 415 Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, on _Rhynchops_, 304 n.; on _Melanerpes_, 461 n. Baker, 486 _Balaeniceps_, 86, 87; _B. rex_, 93, 94 Balaenicipitinae, 86 _Balearica_, 251, 252; _B. chrysopelargus_, 256; _B. gibbericeps_, 256; _B. pavonina_, 255, 256 _Bambusicola fytchii_, 218; _B. sonorivox_, 219; _B. thoracica_, 219 _Baptornis_, 25, 46, 47 _Barbatula_, 450; _B. minuta_, 450; _B. pusilla_, 449 Barbet, 445, 448 f.; habits, 448 f. Barbicels, 3 Barbs, 2, 3; absence of, 3 Barbules, 2, 3 Bargander, 128 Barrel of feathers, or quill, 3 Barrère, on _Trochilus_, 426 Barrett-Hamilton, on _Sterna longipennis_, 313 n. Bartlett, A. D., on _Catheturus_, 192 n.; on Flamingo ejecting blood-like liquid, 86 n.; on Hornbill, 392 n.; on moult of Penguin, 55 n.; on _Plotus_, 81 n.; on _Rhinochetus_, 263 n., 265 n. Bartlett, E., on _Furnarius_, 486; on _Mesites_, 187 _Bartramia longicauda_, 285 f. _Baryphthengus_, 380 _Basileuterus_, 574 _Basilornis_, 559 Basitemporal, 11 Bastard wing, 9, 20 _Batara_, 488, 489 Bates, on _Eurypyga_, 266; on Humming-birds, 432 _Batis_, 509 _Batrachostomus_, 415-417, 419 _Baza_, 146, 173; _B. borneensis_, 173; _B. ceylonensis_, 173; _B. cuculoïdes_, 173; _B. erythrothorax_, 173; {593} _B. leucopais_, 173; _B. lophotes_, 173; _B. madagascariensis_, 173; _B. magnirostris_, 173; _B. reinwardti_, 173; _B. rufa_, 173; _B. subcristata_, 173; _B. sumatrensis_, 173; _B. timorlaensis_, 173; _B. verreauxi_, 173 Beak, 11 f. Bearcoot, 162 Beddard, on trachea of Paradise-bird, 545 n.; on _Zosterops_, 568 Bee-eater, 376, 387 f., 389; habits, 388; Blue-tailed, 389 Belding, on Harlequin Duck, 120 Bell-bird, 482, 482, 567, 567 n. Belly, 20 Bendire, on habits of _Canachites_, 236 _Berenicornis_, 391, 393; _B. comatus_, 393 Bergut, 162 Berlepsch, on Humming-birds, 432 _Bernicla_, 131; _B. brenta_, 131; _B. canadensis_, 131 f.; _B. hutchinsi_, 132; _B. leucopsis_, 131; _B. minima_, 132; _B. nigricans_, 131; _B. occidentalis_, 132; _B. ruficollis_, 131, 132 _Bernieria_, 503 Bevies, 221 _Bhringa_, 528 Bhund-Moorg, 208 _Bias_, 506 Biconcave vertebrae, in _Ichthyornis_, and probably in _Archaeopteryx_, 6, 49; perhaps in _Enaliornis_, 49 Bill, 11 f.; arched, 12; of _Balaeniceps_ and _Cancroma_, 86; scissor-like, 12; wedge-like, 12 Bill-sheath, 11; in _Chionis_, 268; nature of, 2 n.; shed, in Auks, 317, 318 Bird, definition, 1; differences from other Vertebrata, 1 f.; derivation from Reptiles, 14 Bird of Paradise, 543 f.; D'Albertis', 544; fables concerning, 543; habits, 550 f.; Great, 546; Long-tailed, 546; King, 547; Magnificent, 547; Twelve-wired, 545; Red, 546; Six-wired, 547 f., 548 Birds'-nest soup, 423 Birds of passage, 17 Birds of prey, 108; cere, 11; moult, 5 Birds of the Gods, 543 Bittern, 70, 90; habits, 87 f.; Common, 89; Little, 88 _Biziura_, 111, 114; fossil, 136; _B. lobata_, 117, 117 _Blacicus_, 474 Blackbird, 510, 515 Blackburn, on Cuckoo, 354 Black-Cock, 237 f. Black Witch, 359 Blake, on Flamingo, 107 Blight-bird, 568 Blind-sacs, 12 Blue-bird, Fairy, 505 Blue colour in birds, its nature, 3 n. Blue Darr, 314 Blue-eye, 568 Blue-throat, 512, 516 Boatswain-bird, 72 Boat-tail, 580 Bobolink, 580 Bob-White, 204, 232 _Bonasa_, 199, 201; _B. griseiventris_, 233 f.; _B. severtzovi_, 234; _B. sylvestris_, 233; _B. umbellus_, 233 Bontekoe, figure of _Didus borbonicus_, 330 Bonxie, 304 Booby, 74, 82 Booted, 10 _Bostrychia carunculata_, 102 _Botaurus_, 87, 88; _B. lentiginosus_, 89; _B. pinnatus_, 89; _B. poeciloptilus_, 89; _B. stellaris_, 89 Bourdons, 426 Bower-bird, 543, 548 f., 550; habits, 551 f.; Satin–see Satin-bird _Brachygalba_, 446; _B. albigularis_, 445; _B. melanosterna_, 445 _Brachypteracias_, 378; _B. leptosomus_, 378 _Brachypteryx_, 502 _Brachyrhamphus craveri_, 319; _B. hypoleucus_, 319; _B. kittlitzi_, 318; _B. marmoratus_, 318 Bradypteri, of Sharpe, 513 _Bradypterus_, 514 Brambling, 584 _Branta_, fossil, 136 Breast, 20 Breast-bone, 6 Brewer–see Baird Brigade, vi (Preface) Brisson, on _Bucco_ (including Barbet), 448; on Strigidae, 398 n. Bristle-feathers, 3 Bristles, nature of, 2 n. Broad-bill, 467; habits, 469 Broderip, on Toucan, 454 n. Brodrick–see Salvin, F. H. Bromvogel, 392 Bronchi, 13 Bronchial syrinx, 21 Bronn's Thier-reich, 14, 23 _Brontornis_, 45; _B. burmeisteri_, 45 Bronze-wing–see Pigeon Brown colour in birds, its nature, 3 n. _Buarremon_, 575, 576 _Bubo_, 398-403; fossil, 415; _B. abyssinicus_, 414; _B. ascalaphus_, 414; _B. bengalensis_, 414; _B. blakistoni_, 414; _B. capensis_, 414; _B. cinerascens_, 414; _B. coromandus_, 403, 414; _B. dorriesi_, 414; _B. ignavus_, 413 f.; _B. lacteus_, 414; _B. lettii_, 414; _B. leucostictus_, 414; _B. maculosus_, 414; _B. magellanicus_, 414; _B. milesi_, 414; {594} _B. nigrescens_, 414; _B. nipalensis_, 414; _B. orientalis_, 414; _B. philippensis_, 414; _B. poënsis_, 414; _B. shelleyi_, 414; _B. turcomanus_, 413; _B. virginianus_, 402, 414 Buboninae, 398, 404 _Bucco_, 447, 448; _B. bicinctus_, 447; _B. chacuru_, 447; _B. collaris_, 447; _B. dysoni_, 447; _B. hyperrhynchus_, 447, 447; _B. maculatus_, 447; _B. striatipectus_, 447 Bucconinae, 445, 446 f. _Buceros_, 390; _B. rhinoceros_, 395 Bucerotidae, 376, 390 f.; habits, 390 Bucerotinae, 390 _Buchanga leucogenys_, 528; _B. atra_, mimicry, 529; _B. waldeni_, 528 Buck–see Chapman Buckley, T. E., on Red Grouse, 238 n. _Bucorax_, 395 Bucorvinae, 395 _Bucorvus_, 390, 392, 393, 395; _B. abyssinicus_, 392, 395; _B. cafer_, 392, 395 Budgerigar, 367 Buffel-head, 121 _Bugeranus_, 252, 255 Bulbul, 504 f.; habits, 505 f.; of poets, 506 Bulla ossea, 13, 113 Bull-bat, 416 Buller, on Meliphagidae, 568 n.; on _Phalacrocorax_, 77; on _Spheniscus minor_, 57 n.; on _Stringops_, 367 n. Bullfinch, 584, 586 _Bulweria_, 60; _B. bulweri_, 67; _B. macgillivrayi_, 67 Bunting, 578, 579, 582 f.; Corn-, 584, 586; Ortolan, 584; Painted, 585; Reed-, 584; Snow-, 584, 585; Yellow Hammer, 584 _Buphaga_, 559 _Buphus bubulcus_, 91 Burgomaster, 306 _Busarellus_, 146; _B. nigricollis_, 168 Bustard, 170, 243, 260 f.; habits, 262 f.; Great, 261-263, 261; Little, 262, 263; Ruffed, 262 _Butastur indicus_, sub-species, 167; _B. liventer_, 167; _B. rufipennis_, 167; _B. teesa_, 167 _Buteo_, 146, 164 f., 166, 172; fossil, 181; _B. abbreviatus_, 166; _B. albicaudatus_, 166; _B. augur_, 166; _B. auguralis_, 166; _B. borealis_, 166; _B. brachypterus_, 166; _B. desertorum_, 165 f.; _B. exsul_, 166; _B. ferox_, 166; _B. galapagensis_, 166; _B. jakal_, 165, 166; _B. leucocephalus_, 166; _B. plumipes_, 166; _B. poliosomus_, 166; _B. solitarius_, 165; _B. swainsoni_, 166; _B. vulgaris_, 165, 166 _Buteogallus aequinoctialis_, 168 _Buteola brachyura_, 166; _B. leucorrhoa_, 166 Buteoninae, 146, 164 f. _Buthraupis_, 575 _Butorides_, 88-90; _B. atricapilla_, 90; _B. mauritianus_, fossil, 95; _B. virescens_, 90 _Butreron capellii_, 349 Buzzard, 146, 148, 160, 162, 164 f., 169, 170; habits, 165; Common, 165; Honey, 148, 172; Rough-legged, 164 _Bycanistes buccinator_, 393

_Cabalus_, 244-246; _C. modestus_, 246, 247; _C. (Ocydromus) sylvestris_, 245 Cabanis, classification, 14; on classification by song-muscles, 466 _Cacatua_, 362-364; _C. galerita_, 364, 372; _C. leadbeateri_, 372, 372; _C. roseicapilla_, 372 Cacatuinae, 362 f., 364, 372 f. _Caccabis_, 198, 202; _C. chukar_, 228; _C. magna_, 228; _C. melanocephala_, 228; _C. petrosa_, 228; _C. rufa_, 228; _C. saxatilis_, 228; _C. spatzi_, 228 Cachalote, 487 _Cacomantis passerinus_, 355; _C. virescens_, 355 _Cactornis_, 583, 585, 586 Caeca, 12 _Caica melanocephala_, 369 _Cairina_, 111; _C. moschata_, 134 _Calamospiza_, 586 Calamus, 3 _Calandrella_, 497, 498; _C. brachydactyla_, 497 _Calandria_, 519 Calao, 390 _Calcarius_, 583 _Calicalicus_, 531-533 _Calidris_, 269; _C. arenaria_, 282 _Callaeas_, 552, 553; _C. cinerea_, 556 f.; _C. wilsoni_, 557 _Callene_, 513 _Calliope_, 509; _C. camtschatcensis_, 512; _C. pectoralis_, 512; _C. tschebaiewi_, 512 _Callipepla_, 200; _C. squamata_, 230 _Callisitta_, 537 _Calliste_, 575 _Callocephalon galeatum_, 373 Calloo, 120 _Calochaetes_, 575 _Calocitta_, 552, 554 _Calodromas_, 183; _C. elegans_, 185 _Caloenas_, 326-328; _C. nicobarica_, 334; _C. pelewensis_, 334 Caloenatinae, 325 _Calopelia puella_, 338 _Caloperdix_, 199; _C. borneensis_, 221; _C. oculea_, 221 _Calopezus_, 182; _C. elegans_, 185 _Calopsittacus novae hollandiae_, 373 _Calorhamphus_, 448; _C. fuliginosus_, 450; _C. hayi_, 450 _Calornis_, 561, 562 {595} _Calothorax lucifer_, 438 _Calypte annae_, 438; _C. costae_, 438; _C. helenae_, 438 _Calyptomena_, 468, 469; _C. viridis_, 468; _C. whiteheadi_, 468 _Calyptorhynchus_, 364, 373 _Calyptura_, 479, 480 _Camarhynchus_, 583, 585, 586 _Camascelus_, fossil, 300 Campanero, 482 _Campechaera_, 525, 526 _Campephaga_, 525, 526 Campephagidae, 494, 525 f., 531; habits, 526 f. _Campethera_, 460; _C. punctata_, 460 _Campophilus_, 463; _C. principalis_, 463 _Camptolaemus_, 114; _C. labradorius_, 119 _Campylopterus_, 435 _Campylorhynchus_, 521, 522 _Canace canadensis_, 236 _Canachites canadensis_, 236; _C. franklini_, 236 Canary, 585, 586; Cape-, 585 _Cancroma_, 86, 87; _C. cochlearia_, 90 f.; _C. zeledoni_, 91 _Canirallus kioloïdes_, 248 Cannon-bone, 9 Cape-Hen, 67; -Penguin, 57; -Pigeon, 61, 66 Capercaillie, 202, 203, 236 _Capito_, 448, 449, 451; _C. niger_, 451; _C. salvini_, 451 Capitonidae, 445, 448 f. Capitoninae, 448 f.; habits, 448 f. Capitulum of rib, 6 Caprimulgi, 376, 398, 415 f.; toes, 415 Caprimulgidae, 172, 415, 417 f.; habits, 416 f. Caprimulginae, 415, 418; toes, 10, 415 _Caprimulgus_, operculum of nostrils, 11; _C. aegyptius_, 418; _C. europaeus_, 418, 418; _C. parvulus_, 415; _C. ruficollis_, 418 _Capsiempis_, 473; _C. orbitalis_, 474 Caracara, 152 Carancho, 152, 153 Carau, 257 _Carcineutes_, 383; _C. pulchellus_, 386 _Cardellina_, 574 Cardinal, 585, 586 _Cardinalis_, 583-585 _Carduelis_, 583; _C. elegans_, 584 _Cariama_, 44, 110, 258, 260; _C. cristata_, 258, 259 Cariamidae, 243, 258 f.; habits, 259 f. Carina, 6 Carinatae, meaning, 6; a subdivision of Neornithes, 23 f. _Carine_, 400, 401, 403; _C. bactriana_, 411; _C. brama_, 411; _C. glaux_, 402; _C. noctua_, 403, 410 f.; _C. plumipes_, 411; _C. spilogastra_, 411; _C. superciliaris_, 411 Carpal spurs in Palamedeidae, 109 _Carphibis_, 99; _C. spinicollis_, 102 _Carpococcyx radiatus_, 358, 358; _C. viridis_, 358 _Carpodacus_, 585 _Carpodectes_, 479, 480 Carpometacarpus, 8 _Carpophaga_, 327, 328, 345; _C. aenea_, 345; _C. basilica_, 345; _C. concinna_, 345; _C. cuprea_, 345; _C. griseipectus_, 345; _C. latrans_, 326, 345; _C. pacifica_, 345; _C. pinon_, 345; _C. poecilorrhoa_, 345; _C. rubricera_, 345 f.; _C. zoeae_, 345 Carpus, 8, 8, 22 Carré, on _Didus borbonicus_, 330 Carrion-Crow, 140 Carrion-Hawk, 137, 146, 151 f., 153 _Casarca cana_, 129; _C. rutila_, 129; _C. tadornoïdes_, 129; _C. variegata_, 129 Cashew-bird, 197 Casque, of Cassowary, 33 f. Cassicinae, 579 f. _Cassiculus_, 580 _Cassidix_, 580 Cassiques, 580 Cassowary, 26; feathers, 35; structure, etc., 32 f.; aftershaft, 3; breast-bone, 7; nestlings, 34 Casuariformes of Parker, 38 Casuarii (= Megistanes), 32 f.; finger, 9 Casuariidae, structure, etc., 32 f. _Casuarius australis_, 33; _C. beccarii_, 33; _C. bennetti_, 34; _C. bicarunculatus_, 33; _C. galeatus_, 33; _C. occipitalis_, 34; _C. papuanus_, 34; _C. picticollis_, 34; _C. tricarunculatus_, 33; _C. uniappendiculatus_, 34, 35 _Catamblyrhynchus_, 584 Cataract-bird, 517 Cat-bird, 519, 549, 550 _Catharista_, 140; _C. atratus_, 140 Cathartae, 137 f.; claws on manus, 48 _Cathartes_, 140 Cathartidae, 70, 137 f., 143; fossil, 140; fossil, _Dryornis_ belongs here, 44; habits, 137 f. _Catharus_, 509, 510, 516 _Catherpes_, 521, 522 _Catheturus_, 190 f.; _C. lathami_, 192, 193 _Catreus_, 203; _C. wallichi_, 212 Cedar-bird (_Ampelis cedrorum_), 530 Celeomorphae, 457 _Celeus_, 462 f.; _C. flavus_, 463 _Centrites_, 473, 475, 477; _C. niger_, 477 _Centrocercus_, 199, 200, 203; air-sacs, 201; _C. urophasianus_, 234 _Centropelma micropterum_, 53 Centropodinae, 351, 356; habits, 356 f. _Centropus_, 351, 356; _C. sinensis_, 356; _C. toulou_, 357; _C. unirufus_, 356 _Centrornis majori_, fossil, 136 f. {596} Centrum of vertebra, 6; in _Archaeopteryx_, 24 _Cephalolepis_, 431; _C. delalandi_, 437 _Cephalopterus_, 480, 482, 483; _C. glabricollis_, 481; _C. ornatus_, 481, 481, 482; _C. penduliger_, 481 _Cepphus carbo_, viii, 319; _C. columba_, viii, 319; _C. grylle_, 319; _C. mandti_, 319; _C. snowi_, viii _Ceratogymna_, 393; _C. elata_, 394 _Ceratopipra_, 477, 478; _C. cornuta_, 478 _Cercibis_, 100; _C. oxycerca_, 101 _Cercomacra_, 488, 489 Cere, 20; in Anseriformes, 109, 111; in Falconiformes, 137; in Psittaci, 362; in Strigidae, 398 Cereopsinae, 111, 133 _Cereopsis_, 111, 112; _C. novae hollandiae_, 133 _Ceriornis_, 199-201, 216; _C. blythi_, 216; _C. caboti_, 216, 217; _C. melanocephalus_, 216; _C. satyrus_, 216; _C. temmincki_, 216 _Cerorhyncha monocerata_, 317 f. _Certhia_, 457, 571, 572; _C. familaris_, 571, 572 _Certhidea_, 572 Certhiidae, 494, 536, 571 f. _Certhilauda_, 497, 498 _Certhiola_, 573; _C.flaveola_, 573 _Certhionyx leucomelas_, 565 _Certhiparus_, 538-540 Cervix, 20 _Ceryle_, 383, 387; _C. alcyon_, 387; _C. amazona_, 384, 387; _C. rudis_, 384 Cetn, 165 _Cettia_, 517, 518 _Ceyx_, 383, 384, 386; _C. euerythra_, 386; toes, 10, 383 _Chaetobias_, 502 _Chaetocercus bombus_, 438 _Chaetops_, 502, 503 _Chaetoptila_, 565 _Chaetopus_, 226 _Chaetorhynchus_, 528 _Chaetura_, 422; _C. acuta_, 423; _C. boehmi_, 423; _C. cassini_, 423; _C. caudacuta_, 422; _C. grandidieri_, 423; _C. novae guineae_, 422 f.; _C. pelagica_, 422; _C. ussheri_, 423; _C. zonaris_, 422 Chaeturinae, 420, 422 Chaffinch, 584, 586 Chajá, 109, 110 Chaka, 109 _Chalcococcyx_, 352; _C. lucidus_, 354, 355 _Chalcoparia_, 569 _Chalcopelia_, 335; _C. afra_, 339; _C. chalcospilus_, 339 _Chalcophaps_, 338; _C. chrysochlora_, 338; _C. indica_, 338; _C. mortoni_, 338; _C. natalis_, 338; _C. sanghirensis_, 338; _C. stephani_, 338 _Chalcopsittacus_, 364, 374 _Chalcurus inocellatus_, 208 _Chamaea_, 495, 522; _C. fasciata_, 522; _C. henshawi_, 522 Chamaeidae, 522 _Chamaeospiza_, 583 _Chamaepetes_, 195; _C. goudoti_, 197 f.; _C. unicolor_, 198 _Chamaeza_, 489 Channel-bill, 356 Chapman, Abel, on Flamingo, 107; on Woodpecker, 459 n. Chapman and Buck, on Bustard, 263 n.; on Egyptian Vulture, 145 n.; on nestling of _Gyps_, 143 n. Chapparal-Cock, 357 Charadriidae, 268, 272 f.; operculum _C._ nostrils, 11 Charadriiformes, 268 f. Charadriinae, 268, 269, 272 f. _Charadrius_, 268, 269; fossil, 300; _C. dominicus_, 272; _C. fulvus_, 272; _C. obscurus_, 273; _C. pluvialis_, 272 Charata, 197 _Charitornis_, 559, 561 _Charmosyna_, 364 _Chasiempis_, 507, 509 _Chasmorhynchus_, 479, 480, 482, 567 n.; _C. niveus_, 481, 482, 482; _C. nudicollis_, 481; _C. tricarunculatus_, 481; _C. variegatus_, 481 Chat, 511, 512, 515-517 _Chaulelasmus_, 111; _C. couesi_, 127; of _streperus_, 127 _Chauna_, 109; _C. chavaria_, 110; _C. cristata_, 109, 110, 110; _C. derbiana_, 110 _Chaunoproctus_, 583 Cheer, 212 _Chelidon_, 522-524; _C. dasypus_, 522; _C. urbica_, 524 _Chelidoptera brasiliensis_, 448; _C. tenebrosa_, 448 _Chelidorhynx_, 506, 509 _Chen caerulescens_, 133; _C. hyperboreus_, 133; _C. nivalis_, 133; _C. rossi_, 111, 133 _Chenalopex_, 112, 113; fossil, 136; _C. aegyptiaca_, 129; _C. jubata_, 129; _C. sirabensis_, fossil, 137 _Chenonetta jubata_, 130 Chenonettinae, 111, 112, 130 f. _Chenopis_, fossil, 136; _C. atrata_, 135 _Chenornis graculoïdes_, fossil, 136 _Chera_, 578 _Cheramoeca_, 523, 525 Chest, 21 _Chettusia gregaria_, 275 f.; _C. leucura_, 276 Cheu-can, 490 Cheu-gui, 490 _Chibia_, 528; _C. bimaënsis_, 528; _C. bracteata_, 528; _C. hottentotta_, 528; {597} _C. pectoralis_, 528 _Chicquera ruficollis_, 178; _C. typus_, 178 _Chimarrhornis_, 516 Chionididae, 268, 269, 292 f. _Chionis_, 269, 270; _C. alba_, 293; _C. minor_, 293 _Chirocylla_, 480 _Chiromachaeris_, 478, 479; _C. aurantiaca_, 478; _C. manacus_, 479 _Chiroxiphia_, 478; _C. caudata_, 479; _C. linearis_, 478, 479; _C. pareola_, 478 _Chlamydodera_, 550, 551; _C. cerviniventris_, 551; _C. maculata_, 551; _C. nuchalis_, 549, 552 _Chleuasicus_, 502 _Chloëphaga_, 113, 114; _C. hybrida_, 130; _C. inornata_, 130; _C. magellanica_, 130 f.; _C. melanoptera_, 130, 131; _C. poliocephala_, 130; _C. rubidiceps_, 131 _Chloridops_, 562 _Chlorochrysa_, 575 _Chloronerpes_, 460; _C. rubiginosus_, 460 _Chloropeta_, 506 _Chloropipo_, 477, 478; _C. flavicapilla_, 478 _Chloropsis_, 505, 506; _C. cyanopogon_, 505; _C. flavipennis_, 505 _Chlorospingus_, 575, 576 _Chlorostilbon_, 430, 433 _Cholornis_, 10, 502 _Chondestes_, 586 _Chordiles_, 416; _C. virginianus_, 416 Chorion, 21 _Chosornis praeteritus_, fossil, 194 _Chotorhea_, 450 Chough, 552-556 _Chrysococcyx_, 352; _C. cupreus_, 355; _C. smaragdineus_, 355 _Chrysoenas_, 326, 327, 347; _C. luteovirens_, 347; _C. victor_, 347; _C. viridis_, 347 _Chrysolampis mosquitus_, 434 _Chrysolophus_, 199-201; _C. amherstiae_, 210; _C. pictus_, 200, 209 f. _Chrysomitridops_, 562, 563 _Chrysomitris_, 583; _C. spinus_, 584 _Chrysophlegma_, 460 f.; _C. flavinucha_, 460 f.; _C. miniatum_, 461 _Chrysotis_, 362, 364, 370; yellow varieties, 370; _C. aestiva_, 370 _Chthonicola_, 518 Chuck-Will's-widow, 417 Chueké, 30 _Chunga_, 258, 260; _C. burmeisteri_, 259 Chuñia, 243, 259 Chupa-myrta, 426; -rosa, 426 Church, on Turacin, 360 n. _Cichladusa_, 513 _Cichlherminia_, 515 _Cichlopsis_, 513 _Cicinnurus_, 545, 550, 551; _C. regius_, 547 _Ciconia_, 95; _C. abdimii_, 96, 99; _C. alba_, 98, 99; _C. boyciana_, 99; _C. nigra_, 96, 99 Ciconiae, 70 f., 95 f. Ciconiidae, 70, 95 f.; habits, 96 Ciconiiformes, 59, 70 f., 108 Cinclidae, 519 _Cinclodes_, 486 _Cinclorhamphus_, 502, 503 _Cinclosoma_, 503 _Cinclus_, 519; _C. albicollis_, 519, 520; _C. aquaticus_, 519, 520; _C. ardesiacus_, 519; _C. leucocephalus_, 519; _C. leuconotus_, 519 _Cinnamopterus_, 559; _C. tenuirostris_, 560 _Cinnicerthia_, 521 _Cinnyris brevirostris_, 568; _C. osea_, 568; _C. splendidus_, 569 Circaëtinae, 153 _Circaëtus_, 153; _C. beaudouini_, 153; _C. cinerascens_, 153; _C. cinereus_, 153; _C. fasciolatus_, 153; _C. gallicus_, 153 _Circus_, 146, 147, 154; fossil, 181; habits, 154 f.; _C. aeruginosus_, 155; _C. approximans_, 155; _C. assimilis_, 155; _C. cineraceus_, 155; _C. cinereus_, 155; _C. cyaneus_, 155; _C. gouldi_, 155; _C. hudsonius_, 155; _C. humbloti_, 155; _C. jardinii_, 155; _C. macrosceles_, 155; _C. maculosus_, 155; _C. maillardi_, 155; _C. maurus_, 155; _C. melanoleucus_, 155; _C. ranivorus_, 155; _C. spilothorax_, 155; _C. spilonotus_, 155; _C. swainsoni_, 155; _C. wolfi_, 155 _Ciridops_, 562, 563 _Cirrhopipra_, 478; _C. filicauda_, 478; _C. heterocerca_, 478 _Cissa_, 376, 552, 553 f. _Cissopis_, 575 _Cisticola_, 514, 518 Cisticolae, of Sharpe, 513 _Cistothorus_, 521 _Cittocincla_, 510, 513, 517 _Cittura cyanotis_, 385 _Cladorhynchus pectoralis_, 278 _Clamator_, 226 Clamatores, 467, 469 f. _Clangula albeola_, 121; _C. glaucion_, 113, 121; _C. islandica_, 121 Clark, on bones of Dodo, 330 Clarke, W. E., Digest of Migration Reports, 19 n. Classification, 13 f. _Claudia squamata_, 425 Clavicle, 7, 8, 21, 187–see also Furcula Claws, nature of, 2 n.; of recent Birds, 9; serrated, 10; in _Archaeopteryx_, 9, 25; on manus of Carinatae, 48; in Grouse, 199; shed in Ptarmigan, 203; in Ratitae, 26 _Clibanornis_, 484 _Climacteris_, 571, 572 _Clitonyx_, 502, 503 {598} Clucking Hen, 256 _Clypeïcterus_, 579 f. _Clytoceyx rex_, 386 _Clytoctantes_, 488 _Clytorhynchus pachycephaloïdes_, 533 _Cnemiornis_, 133; fossil, 136; breast-bone, 7; very little keel to sternum, 26, 133 _Cnemophilus macgregori_, 548 f. _Cnipolegus_, 473, 474, 476; _C. unicolor_, 475 Coach-whip bird, 503 Cobbler's Awl, 278, 565 _Coccothraustes_, 583; _C. vulgaris_, 584 _Coccycolius_, 559, 560 _Coccystes_, 352, 355; _C. americanus_, 356; _C. coromandus_, 355; _C. erythrophthalmus_, 356; _C. glandarius_, 355; _C. occidentalis_, 356; _C. serratus_, 355 _Cochoa azurea_, 510; _C. purpurea_, 510; _C. viridis_, 510 Cock, 203 Cock of the Rock, 480 Cockatoo, 351, 364, 365, 372 f.; Great Black, 364, 373; Leadbeater's, 372, 372 Cockatoo-Parakeet, 373 Coël, 356 _Coerebidae_, 572 f. _Colaptes_, 458; _C. agricola_, 460; _C. auratus_, 460; _C. mexicanus_, 460 Colibri, 426 Colii, 376, 439 f. Coliidae, 439 f. Colin, 231 _Colius_, 440 f.; toes, 10; _C. capensis_, 440, 441; _C. castanonotus_, 441; _C. erythromelon_, 441; _C. leucocephalus_, 441; _C. leucotis_, 441; _C. macrurus_, 441; _C. nigricollis_, 441; _C. striatus_, 441 Collar-bone, 8 Collingwood, on Sooty Tern, 312 _Collocalia_, 421-423 f.; fossil, 426; _C. francica_, 424; _C. fuciphaga_, 423 f. _Colopterus_, 473, 474 Colour of feathers, 3 f. _Columba_, 328, 343; fossil, 350; _C. affinis_, 344; _C. araucana_, 344; _C. arquatrix_, 344; _C. bollii_, 343, 344; _C. grisea_, 344; _C. guinea_, 326, 344; _C. gymnophthalma_, 326, 344; _C. ianthina_, 344; _C. intermedia_, 344; _C. laurivora_, 343, 344; _C. leucocephala_, 344; _C. leucomela_, 344; _C. leuconota_, 344; _C. livia_, 344; _C. metallica_, 344; _C. oenas_, 344; _C. palumboïdes_, 344; _C. palumbus_, 343, 344; _C. phaeonota_, 328; _C. polleni_, 344; _C. rufina_, 344; _C. schimperi_, 344; _C. speciosa_, 344; _C. torringtoniae_, 344; _C. trocaz_, 343, 344 Columbae, 268, 322, 325 f.; operculum of nostrils, 11 Columbidae, 268, 325 f., 333 f.; habits, 327 f. _Columbigallina_, 325, 327, 328, 335, 340; _C. buckleyi_, 340; _C. cruziana_, 340; _C. minuta_, 340; _C. passerina_, 340; _C. rufipennis_, 340; _C. talpacoti_, 340 Columbinae, 325 f., 342 _Columbula picui_, 340 Coly, 439 f.; Cape, 440, 441 Colymbi, 49 Colymbidae, habits, 51 f.; structure, etc., 49 f. Colymbiformes, 49 f. _Colymboïdes_, fossil, 50 Colymbomorphae, 48 _Colymbus adamsi_, 50; _C. arcticus_, 50; _C. glacialis_, 50, 51; _C. pacificus_, 50; _C. septentrionalis_, 50 Coly-Shrike, 527, 527 _Comatibis_, 100; _C. comata_, 102 Comet, Sappho, 434 Compressed, 21 _Compsotis_, 262 Condor, 138, 139, 139 _Conopophaga_, 489, 490 Conopophagidae, 469, 489 f. _Contopus_, 473, 474; _C. ardesiacus_, 476 Contour-feather, 2 _Conurus_, 363, 365; _C. carolinensis_, 365, 371; _C. guarouba_, 371; _C. patachonius_, 525; _C. pertinax_, 366; _C. solstitialis_, 371 Coot, 243-246 Copper-smith, 449 _Copsychus_, 510, 513, 516 _Copurus_, 473, 477 Coraciae, 376 f. _Coracias_, 376; _C. abyssinicus_, 377; _C. garrulus_, 376 f.; _C. naevius_, 377; _C. spatulatus_, 377; _C. temmincki_, 376 Coraciidae, 376 f. Coraciiformes, 376 f. Coraciinae, 376; habits, 377 f. Coraciomorphae, 351 Coracoid, 7, 7, 8, 8; unites with furcula and scapula in _Fregata_, 72 Coracomorphae, of Huxley, 466 _Coracopitta_, 469; _C. lugubris_, 471 _Coracopsis_, 364; _C. barklyi_, 369; _C. comorensis_, 369; _C. mascarinus_, 365 f.; _C. nigra_, 369; _C. sibilans_, 369; _C. vasa_, 369 _Corcorax_, 552, 557 f. Cordeaux, W. W., on _Ibidorhynchus_, 277 n. _Corethrura_, 246, 248; _C. pulchra_, 246 _Coriphilus_, 364; _C. taitianus_, 373; _C. ultramarinus_, 373 Cormorant, 70, 75; fishing with, 79; habits, 78; Common, 75, 76; Green, 77; Pigmy, 78 Cornay, classification, 14 Corn Crake–see Crake, Corn Corneous, 11 Corvidae, 495, 525, 531, 543, 552 f.; {599} habits, 554 f. Corvinae, 552 f. _Corvultur_, 552, 553 _Corvus_, fossil, 496; _C. caurinus_, 555; _C. corax_, 552, 555; _C. cornix_, 355; _C. corone_, 556; _C. frugilegus_, 552; _C. ossifragus_, 556; _C. pastinator_, 552; _C. scapulatus_, 553; _C. torquatus_, 553; _C. tropicus_, 556 _Corydon_, 468; _C. sumatranus_, 468 _Coryphistera_, 484, 485 _Coryphoenas_, 326; _C. crassirostris_, 342 f. _Coryphospiza_, 583 _Corythaeola_, 360 _Corythaix fischeri_, 361 _Corythopis_, 489, 490 _Corythornis cristata_, 386 f. _Coscoroba candida_, 135 _Cosmonetta_, 112; _C. histrionica_, 120 _Cossypha_, 513, 516; _C. caffra_, 512 n.; _C. natalensis_, 510 _Cotile_, 523, 525; _C. concolor_, 525; _C. fuligula_, 524 f.; _C. riparia_, 522, 524; _C. rupestris_, 524 f. _Cotinga_, 480; _C. amabilis_, 480 Cotingidae, 469, 477, 479 f., 567 n.; habits, 482 f. Cotinginae, 479 f. _Coturnix_, 198-200, 202; fossil, 240; _C. capensis_, 220; _C. communis_, 220; _C. coromandelica_, 220; _C. delegorguii_, 220; _C. japonica_, 220; _C. novae zealandiae_, 220; _C. pectoralis_, 220 _Coua_, 351, 352, 357; _C. caerulea_, 357 Coucal, 356; habits, 356 f. Courlan, 257 Courser, 268, 294 f.; Cream-coloured, 294 Covert, 20, 21; Greater, 21; Lesser, 21; Median, 21; Upper, 21 Cow-bird, 582 Cowry-bird, 577 Crab-Plover–see Plover, Crab Cracidae, 186, 194 f.; habits, 195; replace Pheasants, etc., 192 Cracinae, 194-196 _Cracticus_, 532, 533; _C. destructor_, 533 Crake, 243, 246; Baillon's, 248; Corn, 245, 248; Little, 248; Spotted, 245, 248 Crane, viii, 148, 243, 251 f., 263; habits, 252 f.; trachea enters keel of sternum, 13; young, 256; Asiatic White, 253, 254; Common, 254; Crowned, 253, 255, 256; Demoiselle, 255; of Japan, 254; Kaffir, 256; Sandhill, 254; Sarus, 253, 254; Wattled, 255; Whooping, 253, 254 _Cranorhinus cassidix_, 394 f. Crapaud-volant, 419 n. Crateropodes, of Sharpe, 502 _Crateropus_, 355, 504; _C. kirki_, 503 _Crax_, 194 f.; _C. alector_, 196, 196; _C. fasciolata_, 196, 197 Crazy Widow, 257 _Creadion carunculatus_, 558 _Creciscus_, 246; _C. levraudi_, 246 Creeper, 571 f.; Tree-, 457, 572 Cretaceous epoch, Birds of, 2 _Crex pratensis_, 245, 248, 248 _Criniger_, 504-506 Crissum (vent-region), 20 Crocodile-bird, 295 _Crocopus_, 349; _C. chlorigaster_, 349 Crop, 12; in Galliformes, 186; in Humming-birds, 427; in _Opisthocomus_, 241; in Phasianidae, 200; in Sand-grouse, 322; in Thinocorythidae, 270; in Tinamidae, 183 Crossbill, 584, 586 _Crossleyia_, 503 _Crossoptilon_, 199, 200, 203, 214; _C. auritum_, 214; _C. harmani_, 214; _C. leucurum_, 214; _C. manchuricum_, 214; _C. tibetanum_, 214 _Crotophaga_, 351, 352; _C. ani_, 359; _C. major_, 359; _C. sulcirostris_, 359 Crotophaginae, 351, 359; habits, 359 Crow, 149, 175, 356, 552-556; -Blackbird, 580; Carrion-, 554, 556; Grey, 355; Hooded, 553, 556 Crown, 20 _Crypsirhina_, 552 _Cryptolopha_, 506, 514, 518 _Cryptorhina_, 552 _Cryptornis_, fossil Hornbill in France, 395 Crypturi, incisura ischiadica, 9; no pygostyle, 6 n. Crypturidae, 182 f. _Crypturus_, 183, 184; _C. tataupa_, 184, 185 Cubitals, 21, 22 Cuckoo, 351, 352 f., 353; habits, 353 f.; Hawk, 353; migration, 19; _Opisthocomus_ related to, 186; parasitic habits, etc., 354; toes, 10; Black-billed, 356; Great Spotted, 355; Radiated Ground-, 358; Yellow-billed, 356 Cuckoo-Shrike, 525 f.; habits, 526 f. Cuckoo's-mate, 465 Cuculi, 351 f., 376 Cuculidae, 351 f.; toes, 10 Cuculiformes, 351 f. Cuculinae, 351, 352; habits, 353 f. _Cuculus canorus_, 352 f., 353; _C. clamosus_, 352 _Culicicapa_, 507 _Culicivora_, 473 Culmen, 20 Cuneate, 21 Cunningham, on _Tachyeres_, 121 n. _Curaeus_, 579, 580 Curassow, 186, 194, 241; {600} habits, 195; Crested, 196 Curlew, 282, 287 f., 288; bill, 12; Eskimo, 288; Stone-, 268, 297 _Cursorius_, 269, 270, 293, 294 f.; _C. albifasciatus_, 295; _C. bicinctus_, 295; _C. bisignatus_, 295; _C. bitorquatus_, 295; _C. chalcopterus_, 270, 295; _C. cinctus_, 295; _C. coromandelicus_, 295; _C. gallicus_, 294; _C. hartingi_, 295; _C. rufus_, 294 f.; _C. seebohmi_, 295; _C. senegalensis_, 295; _C. somalensis_, 294; _C. temmincki_, 295 Cushat, 344 Cutis, 2 n. Cutting edges of bill, 20 _Cyanecula_, 516; _C. leucocyana_, 512; _C. suecica_, 512; _C. wolfi_, 512 _Cyanochen cyanoptera_, 130 _Cyanocitta_, 552, 554 _Cyanocorax_, 552, 554 _Cyanolesbia gorgo_, 434 _Cyanolyseus_, 365; _C. patagonus_, 365, 371 _Cyanomyias_, 506; _C. verticalis_, 435 _Cyanophaea caeruleigularis_, 435 _Cyanopica_, 552; _C. cooki_, 355, 553; _C. cyana_, 553 _Cyanops_, 450; _C. faber_, 449 _Cyanopsittacus_, 364, 371 _Cyanorhamphus erythrotis_, 365 _Cyanospiza ciris_, 563, 585; _C. cyanea_, 585 _Cyanotis_, 475-477; _C. azarae_, 474 _Cybernetes_, 473, 475 Cyclopsittacinae, 362 f., 373 _Cyclopsittacus_, 373 _Cyclorhis_, 536 _Cyclorhynchus_, 316; _C. psittaculus_, 318 _Cycnopsis cycnoïdes_, 111, 132 Cygninae, 111, 112, 135 f.; young, 114 _Cygnus_, fossil, 136; _C. bewicki_, 112, 135, 136; _C. buccinator_, 112, 135; _C. columbianus_, 112, 135; _C. melanocoryphus_, 111, 135; _C. musicus_, 112, 135; _C. olor_, 111, 135, 136 _Cymbilanius_, 488 _Cymborhynchus macrorhynchus_, 468 _Cymodroma_, 60, 65 _Cyphorhinus_, 521; _C. cantans_, 521 Cypseli, 376, 419 f. Cypselidae, 315 n., 419 f.; toes, 10, 420 f.; habits, 421 f. Cypselinae, 420, 424 _Cypseloïdes_, 420, 422, 423; _C. brunneitorques_, 423; _C. niger_, 423; _C. rutilus_, 423 Cypselomorphae, 419 n. _Cypselus_, 424; fossil, 426; toes, 10; _C. affinis_, 421, 424; _C. andicola_, 421, 425; _C. apus_, 424, 425; _C. caffer_, 421, 424 f.; _C. horus_, 421, 425; _C. melanoleucus_, 421 n., 424, 425; _C. melba_, 424; _C. montivagus_, 425; _C. murinus_, 424; _C. pacificus_, 425; _C. pallidus_, 424; _C. squamatus_, 424; _C. unicolor_, 424 _Cyrtonyx_, 199, 231 f.; _C. montezumae_, 231 f.

Dabchick, 52 _Dacelo_, 383, 384; _D. gigas_, 386 _Dactylortyx_, 199; _D. thoracicus_, 232 _Dafila_, 112, 114; _D. acuta_, 125; _D. eatoni_, 125; _D. spinicauda_, 125 D'Albertis, on _Macropteryx_, 421 n. Dal-riporre, 239 Dames, on _Archaeopteryx_, 23 n.; on _Scaniornis_, 108 n. Dampier, on Flamingo, 107; on _Goura_, 334 Dance of Cranes, 252 Dancing of Kagu, 265; of Sun-bittern, 266; of _Vanellus cayennensis_, 275 n. _Daphoenositta_, 537 _Daption_, 60, 61; _D. capensis_, 66 Darters, 70, 79 f.; habits, 80 f.; Indian, 80 Darwin, on breeds of Pigeons, 327 n.; on _Patagona gigas_, 430; on _Pelecanoïdes_, 69; on _Tachyeres_, 121 _Dasornis_, 45 _Dasylophus_, 352 _Dasyptilus_, 364; _D. pesqueti_, 369 _Daulias_, 510; _D. hafizi_, 506, 512; _D. luscinia_, 512; _D. philomela_, 512 De Bry, on Dodo, 329 Decomposed feather, 3 Decorative plumes, 5 _Defilippia crossirostris_, 276; _D. leucoptera_, 276 Deglutition, organs of, 12 _Demiegretta sacra_, 91 _Dendragapus_, air-sacs, 201; _D. fuliginosus_, 235; _D. obscurus_, 235; _D. richardsoni_, 235 _Dendrobates_, 462 _Dendrocitta_, 552, 553, 556 Dendrocolaptidae, 469, 483 f.; habits, 485 f. Dendrocolaptinae, 457, 484 f. _Dendrocoptes_, 462 _Dendrocopus brunneifrons_, 461 f.; _D. leuconotus_, 462; _D. major_, 458, 461; _D. medius_, 462; _D. minor_, 461, 462 _Dendrocycna_, 111-113, 129; fossil, 136; _D. arborea_, 129; _D. arcuata_, 130; _D. autumnalis_, 129; _D. discolor_, 120; _D. eytoni_, 130; _D. fulva_, 129, 130; _D. guttata_, 129; _D. javanica_, 130; _D. viduata_, 129 _Dendroeca_, 573, 574; _D. palmarum_, 574; _D. tigrina_, 573 _Dendrophila_, 537 _Dendrortyx_, 198, 230; _D. macrurus_, 230 Dentary, 11 Depressed, 21 Derma, 2, 2 n. {601} _Deroptyus_, 364 Desjardins, on Solitaire, 331 Desmodactyli, 466 f. Deviling, 424 De Vis, on "_Dinornis queenslandiae_," 42; on _Metapteryx_, 40 D'Heguerty, on Solitaire, 330 Diamond-bird, 570 f. _Diaphorapteryx_, 244; _D. hawkinsi_, fossil, 251 _Diaphorophyia_, 506, 507 _Diatryma_, 45 Dicaeidae, 570 f. _Dicaeum_, 571; _D. erythrorhynchum_, 571 _Dichoceros bicornis_, 391, 393, 395 _Dicholophus_, 44 _Dichromanassa_, young, 93; _D. rufa_, 91 _Dicranostreptus_, 528 _Dicrocercus_, 387 Dicruridae, 353, 527 f.; habits, 528 f. _Dicrurus_, 528 Dididae, 268, 325 f., 328 Di-dric, 355 Didunculidae, 268, 325 f., 331 _Didunculus_, 325, 326, 328; _D. strigirostris_, 331 f., 332; habits, 332, 333 _Didus_, breast-bone, 7; coracoid and scapula fused, 8; little keel to sternum, 26; _D. borbonicus_, 328, 330; _D. ineptus_, 328 f., 329 Digestion, organs of, 5 f., 12 Digits, 8, 8; of foot, 8 _Diglossa_, 572 _Diglossopis_, 572 _Dilophus_, 559, 561, 562 _Dinornis_, 42; _D. maximus_, 42; "_Dinornis queenslandiae_," 42 Dinornithes, 26, 41 f. Dinornithidae, 41; structure, etc., 42 Dinornithinae, 42 _Diomedea_, 63; fossil, 69; _D. albatrus_, 64; _D. anglica_, fossil, 69; _D. bulleri_, 65; _D. cauta_, 65; _D. chionoptera_, 64; _D. chlororhyncha_, 65; _D. culminata_, 63, 65; _D. exulans_, 61, 63 f., 64; _D. immutabilis_, 65; _D. irrorata_, 64; _D. layardi_, 65; _D. melanophrys_, 65; in England and Faeroes, 65; _D. nigripes_, 64; _D. regia_, 64; _D. salvini_, 65 Diomedeinae, 59, 60, 63 _Diphlogaena iris_, 434 _Diphyllodes_, 545, 550; _D. gulielmi tertii_, 547; _D. magnifica_, 547, 547 Diplopterinae, 351, 358 _Diplopterus_, 352; _D. naevius_, 358 f. Dipper, 519 f., 520 Disconnected web, 3 _Discura_, 427 _Dissemuroïdes_, 528 _Dissemurus_, 528; _D. paradiseus_, 528 _Dissodectes ardesiacus_, 174; _D. dickinsoni_, 174; _D. zoniventris_, 174 _Dissura_, 96; _D. episcopus_, 98 f.; _D. maguari_, 97, 99 Distal, 21 Diver, 54, 267; habits, 51 f.; structure, etc., 49 f.; Black-throated, 50 f.; Great Northern, 50, 51; Red-throated, 50 f. _Docimastes ensifer_, 436 Dodaars, 329 Dodo, 325, 328 f., 329; breast-bone, 7; habits, 330 _Dolichonyx_, 579-581; _D. orizivorus_, 580 _Doliornis_, 479, 480 Dollar-bird, 377 _Donacicola_, 578 _Donacobius_, 515, 519 Dormant action of formative substance of feather, 4 Dorsal, 21 Dorsum, 20 Dotterel, 272; Ring-, 273 Double moult, 4 f. Dove, Beetle-wing, 338; Cinnamon-, 337; Collared Turtle-, 328; Cordillera-, 339; Cuckoo-, 343; Emerald-, 338; Ground-, 328, 340; Lemon-, 337; Mountain-, 342; Mourning, 342; Pea-, 342; Ring-, 344; Rock-, 327, 328; Scaly, 341; Stock-, 328, 344; Turtle-, 327, 341 Dowitcher, 289 Down-feather, 2 Down of young suppressed, 3 Drepanididae, 562; habits, 564 _Drepanis_, 562; _D. funerea_, 563; _D. pacifica_, 563, 563, 564 _Drepanoptila_, 325, 326; _D. holosericea_, 346 f. _Drepanorhynchus_, 569 _Drepanornis_, 544, 550, 551; _D. albertisi_, 544, 545; _D. cervinicauda_, 551 Dresser, on Bustards, 263 n.; on Double Snipe, 291 n.; on Francolin, 226 n.; on Grouse, 240 n.; on _Pelecanus onocrotalus_, 83; on Quail, 221 n. Dromadinae, 296 Dromaeidae, 36; structure, etc., 32 f. _Dromaeocercus_, 514 _Dromaeus_, 182; _D. ater_, extinct, 38; _D. gracilipes_, fossil, 38; _D. irroratus_, 36; _D. novae hollandiae_, 36, 37; _D. patricius_, fossil, 38 _Dromas_, 269, 270, 292; _D. ardeola_, 296 _Dromococcyx_, 352, 359 _Dromornis australis_, fossil, 38 Drongo, 353, 527 f., 528; habits, 528 f. Dronte, 329 Drumming or booming of Grouse, 233-238; of Snipe, 291; of Woodpeckers, 458 f. Drum-stick, 9 _Drymornis_, 487; _D. bridgesi_, 485 _Dryolimnas cuvieri_, 248 {602} _Dryonastes_, 504 _Dryornis_, 44, 140 n. _Dryoscopus cubla_, 533; _D. rufiventris_, 533 _Dryotomus pileatus_, 463 _Dryotriorchis_, 154 Du Bois, on _Didus borbonicus_, 330 Duck, 114; habits of, 113 f.; fusion of tracheal rings, 13–see Sheld-Drake; Black, 119; Blue, 116; Brahminy, 129; Buffel-head, 121; Canvas-back, 122; Eider, 118 f.; Gadwall, 127; Garganey 125; habits, 126; Golden-Eye, 121; Harlequin-, 114, 120; King-Eider, 118 f.; Lake-, 117; Logger-head, 121; Long-tailed, 120 f.; Mallard, 127; Mandarin-, 114, 133; Muscovy, 134; Musk-, 117, 117, 134; Pied, 119; Pink-eyed, 124; Pink-headed, 114; Pintail, 125; Red-crested, 123; Shoveller–see Shoveller; Spectacled Eider, 119; Steamer-, 113, 121; Summer-, 133; Teal, habits, 126; Torrent-, 116; White-eyed, 122; Wigeon, 126; Wild, 127; skull, 11 _Dulus_, 529; _D. dominicus_, 530 _Dumetia_, 502 Dunbird, 122 Dunlin, 279 Durnford, on _Creciscus_, 249 n.

Eagle, 137, 146, 148-150, 160, 161 f., 179; Bald, 164; Black, 161; Bonelli's, 161; Booted, 161; Chilian Sea-, 167; Golden, 148, 151, 162, 163, 165; habits, 161 f.; Harrier–see Harrier Eagle; Hawk-, 160; Imperial, 163; in Falconry, 162; Pondicherry, 168; Sea-, 149, 161-163; Spotted, 162; Steppe-, 162; Tawny, 163; White-shouldered, 163 Ear, in Owls, 399 Ear-coverts, 20 Eaton, on Penguins, 57 n.; on Petrels, 65 n., 67 n. _Eclectus_, 364, 369; bright colour of hen, 4, 369; _E. pectoralis_, 369 Eclipse, in Anatidae, 4, 113 _Ectopistes_, 326, 328; _E. migratorius_, 342 _Edoliisoma_, 525 _Edolius_, 528; _E. forficatus_, 528 Eggs, burnished in Tinamidae, 183 Egg-tooth of embryo, 12 Egret, 88; Little, 92 Egypt, to which region does it belong? 16 Egyptian Goose, 129 Eider–see Duck _Elainea_, 474, 476; _E. pagana_, 474; _E. strepera_, 476 Elaineinae, 473 f. _Elanoïdes_, 146, 147, 171; _E. furcatus_, 170 f. _Elanus_, 146, 147; _E. axillaris_, 171; _E. caeruleus_, 171; _E. hypoleucus_, 171; _E. leucurus_, 171; _E. scriptus_, 171 _Elaphrocnemus_, fossil, 251 _Elasmonetta_, 111; _E. chlorotis_, 125 Eleutherodactyli, 467 Elliot, on Birds of Paradise, 543 n.; on Grouse, 240 n.; on Humming-birds, 432 _Elminia_, 506 El Turco, 491 Ema, 30, 36 Emarginate bill, 12 _Emberiza citrinella_, 584; _E. fucata_, 583; _E. hortulana_, 584; _E. miliaria_, 584; _E. schoeniclus_, 584 Emberizidae, 582 _Emberizoïdes_, 583 _Embernagra_, 584 _Emblema_, 577 Embryo, 21 Emeinae, 42 Emen, 26, 36, 37, 170; aftershaft, 3; breast-bone, 7; structure, etc., 32 f. _Emeus_, 42 _Empidonax_, 474; _E. flaviventer_, 476; _E. minimus_, 475 _Enaliornis_, vertebrae, 25; _E. barretti_, 47; _E. sedgwicki_, 47 Enaliornithes, 25, 46 Endaspidean, 484 _Engyptila_, 336 _Enodes_, 559, 561 _Entomophila_, 567 _Entomyza_, 565, 566; _E. cyanotis_, 568 _Eopsaltria_, 509 _Eos_, 364, 374; _E. fuscata_, 374 _Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis_, 98 _Ephthianura_, 512 f. Epidermis, 2, 2 n. Epops, fables concerning, 396 _Ereunetes pusillus_, 282 _Ergaticus_, 573, 574 _Eriocnemis_, 426, 437 f.; _E. cupreiventris_, 438 _Erismatura_, 111, 112, 117; _E. aequatorialis_, 118; _E. australis_, 118; _E. dominica_, 118; _E. ferruginea_, 118; _E. jamaicensis_, 118; _E. leucocephala_, 118; _E. maccoa_, 118; _E. vittata_, 118 Erismaturinae, 111, 112, 117 _Erithacus_, 509, 510; _E. akahige_, 512; _E. hyrcanus_, 512; _E. komadori_, 512; _E. rubecula_, 512 Erne, 163 Erythrism, 4 n. _Erythrobucco_, 449 _Erythrogonys cinctus_, 272 _Erythromachus_, 244; _E. leguati_, fossil, 251 _Erythromyias_, 507 _Erythropus_, 147; _E. amurensis_, 176; _E. vespertinus_, 176 _Erythrosterna parva_, 507 {603} _Erythrotriorchis radiatus_, 159 _Estrelda_, 578 Ethiopian Region, 15 f. Ethmoid, 11 _Eucichla_, 469 _Eucometis_, 575 _Eucorax_, 548, 551 _Eudocimus_, 100; young, 103; _E. albus_, 100; _E. ruber_, 100 _Eudromias_, 270; male incubates, 271; _E. australis_, 272; _E. modestus_, 272; _E. morinellus_, 272; _E. veredus_, 272 _Eudynamis_, 355; _E. honorata_, 356; _E. melanorhyncha_, 356 _Eudyptes_, 55, 57 f.; _E. antarcticus_, 57, 59; _E. antipodum_, 59; _E. atratus_, 59; _E. chrysocome_, 58, 58; _E. chrysolophus_, 58; _E. pachyrhynchus_, 59; _E. schlegeli_, 59; _E. sclateri_, 59; _E. serresianus_, 59; _E. vittatus_, 59 _Eudyptula minor_, 57 _Eugenes fulgens_, 435; _E. spectabilis_, 435 f. _Eulabeornis_, 244 _Eulabes_, 559, 561, 562; _E. religiosa_, 560 Eulabetidae, 496, 559, 561, 562 _Eulampis_, 427; _E. holosericeus_, 433 f.; _E. jugularis_, 429, 434 Euler, on _Procnias_, 576 n. _Eumomota superciliaris_, 381 _Eunetta_, 112, 114; _E. falcata_, 127 Euornithes, 46 _Eupetomena macrura_, 435 _Euphonia_, 575, 576 _Euplocamus_, 198, 213 n. _Eupodotis_, 260; _E. arabs_, 262; _E. australis_, 261, 262; _E. edwardsi_, 261, 262; _E. kori_, 261-263 _Euprinodes_, 514 _Eupsychortyx cristatus_, 231 _Euptilotis_, 441, 442; _E. neoxenus_, 444 _Euryceros prevosti_, 535 f. Eurycerotidae, 496, 536 _Eurycorystes_, 580 Eurylaemidae, 467; habits, 469 _Eurylaemus_, 468; _E. javanicus_, 468 _Eurynorhynchus_, 268; bill, 12; _E. pygmaeus_, 282 _Eurypyga_, 186, 263, 265 f.; _E. helias_, 265 f., 266; _E. major_, 265 f. Eurypygidae, 243, 265 f. _Eurystomus_, 376, 377; _E. australis_, 377; _E. glaucurus_, 377; _E. orientalis_, 377 _Euscarthmus_, 473; _E. orbitatus_, 474; _E. zosterops_, 474 _Eustephanus fernandensis_, 428, 435; _E. galeritus_, 427, 428, 434 f.; _E. leyboldi_, 428, 435 _Eutoxeres_, 430, 435 _Eutriorchis_, 154 _Eutrygon_, 335; _E. leucopareia_, 335; _E. terrestris_, 335 Evans–see Wilson Evolution, 15 Exaspidean, 473 _Excalphatoria_, 199, 200, 218 n., 219; _E. adansoni_, 219; _E. lepida_, 219; _E. sinensis_, 202, 219 Excrescence on bill shed by _Pelecanus erythrorhynchus_, 83 Exoccipital, 11 Eyelashes, distinct in _Opisthocomus_, 241; in Hornbills, 3, 390

Facets of vertebra, 6 Fachach, 63 Faisan, 198 _Falcinellus_, 544, 550; _F. speciosus_, 545, 546 _Falcipennis_, 199; _F. hartlaubi_, 236 _Falco_, 175, 177; fossil, 181; plumage of young, 178; see _Gennaea_ and _Hierofalco_; _F. atriceps_, 179; _F. babylonicus_, 178; _F. barbarus_, 178; _F. biarmicus_, 179; _F. cassini_, 178; _F. ernesti_, subspecies, 178; _F. feldeggi_, 179; _F. melanogenys_, sub-species, 178; _F. minor_, 178; _F. peregrinator_, 179; _F. peregrinus_, 178 f.; _F. punicus_, 178; _F. tanypterus_, 179 Falcon, 137, 146, 148, 149, 178; for nomenclature of parts, 20; skeleton of trunk, 7; flown at Herons, 89; Arctic, 180; Desert-, 179; Finch-, 147, 173; Gentle, 156; Greenland-, 180; Gyr, 180; Iceland, 180; Jer, 180; Peregrine, 148, 174, 178-180; Prairie-, 179 f.; Red-footed, 147, 176; Royal, 179; Stone-, 177 Falconidae, 137, 146-150; habits, 147 f.; markings of young, 147 Falconiformes, 108, 137 f. Falconinae, 146, 147, 173 f. Falconine, 156 Falconry, 148 n., 178, 179; use of Eagles in, 162 _Falculia_, 561 _Falcunculus_, 531-534 False rib, 6 Fandango-bird, 479 Fantail, 506 Father John, 102 Feathered spaces or pterylae, 2 Feathers, nature, growth, etc., 2 f. Female, and young duller in most birds, 4; brighter and larger than male in _Rhynchaea_, 270 f.; in _Turnix_, 188; in _Phalaropus_, 278; larger than male in _Apteryx_, 33; in Cassowaries, 33; in Emeus, 33; in Falconiformes, 137 Femur, 8, 9 Fenestrae, 8 Fern-Owl, 418 Festooned bill, 12 Fibula, 8, 9 {604} Fieldfare, 510 Filoplumes, 21 Finch, 355, 578, 582 f.; habits, 586; see Chaffinch, Bullfinch, Hawfinch, Serin; Gold-, 584, 586, 587; Grass-, 578; Green-, 584; Rose-, 585; Snow-, 586, 587 Finfoot, 243, 267 f.; habits, 267 Fingers, 8 Fireback, 214 f. Fire-wood gatherer, 487 Fjeld-riporre, 240 Flamingo, 70, 105 f., 106 Flanks, 21 Flicker, 460 Flight, speed of, 20 Flightless, Birds, 25; state, of Anatidae, 4, 113, 125; of Dodo, 328; of Great Auk, 315, 321; of Moorhen, 4; of Phoenicopteridae, 4, 107; of Rails, 4, 245 f. Florican, 262; Lesser, 262 _Florida caerulea_, 91; young, 93 _Florisuga mellivora_, 436 Flower, on Hornbill, 392 n. Flower-pecker, 570 f. _Fluvicola_, 475-477 Flycatcher, 467, 473, 506 f.; habits, 508; Paradise-, 507, 508; Pied, 507-509; Spotted, 507, 508 _Foetopterus ambiguus_, fossil, 181 Foot, 9 Foramen, 9; for optic nerve, 11; for trigeminal, 11 Forbes, H. O., on Frigate Bird, 82 n.; on _Phalacrocorax_, 77 n. Forbes, W. A., on classification, 14; on Barbets and Toucans, 448; on classification of Petrels, 59 n.; on Galbulidae, 445; on _Mesites_, 186 f.; on _Metopidius_ and _Hydralector_, 269 n.; on trachea of Paradise-bird, 545 n.; on Passeres, their song-muscles, 466; on _Plotus_, 72 n., 81 n. Fore-arm, 8 Forehead, 20 Fore-neck, 20 Foreteller, by day, 357; at night, 356 Fork-tail, 501 Formicariidae, 469, 479, 488 f.; habits, 489 Formicariinae, 488 f. _Formicarius_, 488, 489 _Formicivora_, 488; _F. caudata_, 488; _F. ferruginea_, 488 Fossil Birds, viii, 1 f. _Foudia_, 578; fossil, 496 Four-o'clock, 567 Fowl, 186, (_Gallus_) 203 Francolins, called Pheasants, 226; Naked-throated, 225 _Francolinus_, 198, 202, 226 f.; _F. adspersus_, 227; _F. albigularis_, 227; _F. levaillanti_, 226; _F. pondicerianus_, 227; _F. sinensis_, 227; _F. vulgaris_, 226 _Franklinia_, 518 _Fratercula arctica_, 317; _F. corniculata_, 317; _F. glacialis_, 317 Freeman and Salvin, on Falconry, 148 n.; on fishing with Cormorants, 79 n. _Fregata_, 70-72; coracoid and scapula fused, 8; habits, 81 f.; _F. aquila_, 81, 82; _F. minor_, 81 Fregatidae, 55, 70, 81 Fregilinae, 552 f. _Fregilupus_, 559, 561; _F. varius_, 561 Friar-bird, 568 Frigate-bird, 70, 82; habits, 81 f. Fringe lost, in feathers, 5 _Fringilla_, fossil, 496; _F. coelebs_, 584; _F. montifringilla_, 584 Fringillidae, 439, 494, 575, 576, 579, 582 f.; fossil, 496; habits, 586 Frog-mouth, 419 Frons, 20 Frontal, 11 _Fulica_, 244, 246, 250 f.; _F. alai_, 250; _F. americana_, 251; _F. atra_, 250 f.; _F. australis_, 251; _F. cornuta_, 244, 251; _F. cristata_, 244, 251; fossil, 251; _F. gigantea_, 245, 251; _F. lugubris_, 251; _F. minor_, fossil, 251; _F. newtoni_, fossil, 251; _F. prior_, fossil, 251 Fulicariae, 243 _Fuligula_, 112, 121; fossil, 136; habits, 123; _F. affinis_, 122; _F. collaris_, 122; _F. cristata_, 122; _F. marila_, 121 f.; _F. novae zealandiae_, 122, 123 Fuligulinae, 111-114, 118 Fulmar, 61-63, 65 _Fulmarus_, 60, 61; _F. glacialis_, 65; _F. glupischa_, 65; _F. rodgersi_, 65 Fürbringer, on classification, 14; on classification of Passeres, 467 Furcula, 7, 8; absent in Apterygidae, 39; absent in Dinornithidae, 42; absent in Rheidae, 30; absent in Struthionidae, 27; ancylosed with sternum in Gruidae, 252; in Otididae, 261; in Heliornithidae, 267; coalesces with coracoids in _Fregata_, 72; ossifies with keel of sternum, 8–see also Clavicle Furnariinae, 484 f. _Furnarius_, 477, 484, 485; nest, 485; _F. cinnamomeus_, 486; _F. cristatus_, 485; _F. figulus_, 486; _F. leucopus_, 485; _F. minor_, 486; _F. rufus_, 486, 525; _F. torridus_, 486

_Gabianus pacificus_, 306 Gadow, on classification, 14, 23; on classification of Passeres, 467; on classification of Petrels, 59 n.; definition of Bird, 1; on skeleton, 5 f.; on Archaeornithes and Neornithes, 25; on Bucerotidae and Upupidae, 390; {605} on Columbae, 325; on Cuculiformes, 351; on Drepanididae, 562; on Gallinaceous Birds, 198; on Laniidae, 531; on _Mesites_, 187; on Nightjars, 417 n.; on Odontornithes, 46; on _Opisthocomus_, 186; on Oscines, 495; on Owls, 397; on _Palaelodus_, 70; on _Panurus_, 541; on Pici, 445; on Psittaci, 362; on Pterylosis, 2; on Ratitae, 26 n.; on Sand-Grouse, 322; on Steganopodes, 70 n.; on "Stereornithes," 43 f.; on Tinamidae, 182; on _Zosterops_, 568; see Newton, E. Gadwall–see Duck _Galbalcyrhynchus_, 445; _G. leucotis_, 446 _Galbula_, 446; _G. albirostris_, 445, 446; _G. chalcothorax_, 446; _G. cyaneicollis_, 445 Galbulidae, 445 f.; habits, 446 Galbulinae, 445 _Galeoscoptes_, 514; _G. carolinensis_, 519 _Galerita_, 497; _G. cristata_, 497, 498; _G. isabellina_, 497 Galli, 186, 190, 322; claws on manus, 48 _Gallicrex_, 244, 246; _G. cinerea_, 249 Galliformes, 186 f. Gallinaceous Birds, 186 Gallinae, early attain power of flight, 4 _Gallinago_, 268, 290; fossil, 300; _G. aequatorialis_, 291; _G. aucklandica_, 291 f.; _G. australis_, 291; _G. bernieri_, 291; _G. caelestis_, 290 f.; _G. delicata_, 291; _G. frenata_, 291; _G. gallinula_, 292; _G. gigantea_, 291; _G. imperialis_, 291; _G. jamesoni_, 291; _G. macrodactyla_, 291; _G. major_, 291; _G. megala_, 292; _G. nemoricola_, 291; _G. nigripennis_, 291; _G. nobilis_, 291; _G. paraguaiae_, 291; _G. sabinii_, 290; _G. solitaria_, 291; _G. stenura_, 292; _G. stricklandi_, 291; _G. undulata_, 291; _G. wilsoni_, 291 Galline Birds, habits, 202 f. Gallinita, 451 _Gallinula_, 244, 246, 249; _G. angulata_, 249; _G. chloropus_, 249; _G. comeri_, 244, 249; _G. dionysiana_, 249; _G. frontata_, 249; _G. galeata_, 249; _G. nesiotis_, 244, 249; _G. peralata_, fossil, 251; _G. pyrrhorhoa_, 249; _G. sandvicensis_, 249; _G. strenuipes_, fossil, 251; _G. tenebrosa_, 249 Gallinule, 243-245, 249 f.; Purple, 245 _Gallirex_, 359, 360; _G. chlorochlamys_, 360 Gallito, 491 _Galloperdix_, 218; _G. bicalcarata_, 218; _G. lunulata_, 218; _G. spadicea_, 218 _Gallophasis_, 213 n. _Gallus_, 199-201, 203, 204, 208; fossil, 241; _G. bankiva_, 208 f.; _G. ferrugineus_, 208 f.; _G. lafayettii_, 209; _G. sonnerati_, 209; _G. stanleyi_, 209; _G. varius_, 209 Game-birds, 186 Game-fowl, Black-breasted, 208 _Gampsonyx swainsoni_, 171 _Gampsorhynchus_, 502 Gannet, 70, 73, 74, 75; habits, 75–see Goose, Solan Gare-fowl, 321;–see Auk, Great Garganey–see Duck Garrod, on classification, 14; on Barbets and Toucans, 448; on Galbulidae, 445; on Passeres, their song-muscles, 466; on _Tantalus ibis_, 96 _Garrodia_, 60, 65 _Garrulax_, 503, 504 Garrulinae, 552 f. _Garrulus_, 552, 554; _G. glandarius_, 554 _Garzetta_, 92 _Gastornis_, 45; _G. edwardsi_, 45; _G. klaasseni_, 45; _G. parisiensis_, 45 Gätke, on speed of flight, 20 _Gauropicoïdes rafflesi_, 461 _Gazzola_, 552, 553 _Gecinus_, 458; _G. viridis_, 458, 460 Geese, 105, 107; habits, 113 f.; Black, 131; habits, 131; Grey, 132; habits, 132; Pigmy, 134; Spur-winged, 134 Geikie, on head of _Ichthyornis_, 48 Gelinotte, 233 _Gelochelidon anglica_, 314 Genera of Birds, 15 _Gennaea_, 179; _G. hypoleuca_, 180; _G. jugger_, 179; _G. lanarius_, 179; _G. mexicana_, 179 f.; _G. milvipes_, 179; _G. polyagnis_, 179 f.; _G. sacer_, 179; _G. subnigra_, 180 _Gennaeus_, 199, 200, 203, 213; _G. albicristatus_, 213; _G. andersoni_, 213; _G. edwardsi_, 213; _G. horsfieldi_, 213; _G. leucomelanus_, 213; _G. lineatus_, 213; _G. melanotus_, 213; _G. muthura_, 213; _G. nycthemerus_, 200, 213; _G. swinhoii_, 213 Gentoo, 57 _Genyornis newtoni_, fossil, 38 n. Genys (γενυς = jaw) or Gonys (γονυ = knee and hence = bend), 20 _Geobates_, 484 _Geobiastes_, 378; _G. squamigera_, 378 _Geocichla_, 509, 510; _G. princii_, 509 _Geococcyx_, 351, 353; _G. mexicanus_, 352; habits, 357 f. _Geocolaptes_, 458; _G. olivaceus_, 460 Geographical distribution, 15; variations, 15 _Geopelia_, 328; _G. cuneata_, 341; _G. humeralis_, 341; _G. maugii_, 341; _G. striata_, 341; _G. tranquilla_, 341 _Geophaps_, 327, 328; _G. scripta_, 337; _G. smithi_, 337 _Geopsittacus_, 364; _G. occidentalis_, 367 _Geositta_, 486, 525; {606} _G. cunicularia_, 485 _Geospiza_, 583, 585, 586 _Geothlypis_, 573 _Geotrygon_, 336; _G. chrysia_, 336; _G. cristata_, 336; _G. linearis_, 336; _G. montana_, 336; _G. violacea_, 336 _Geranoaëtus melanoleucus_, 167 _Geranopsis_, fossil, 256 _Geranospizias_, 156; _G. caerulescens_, 156; _G. niger_, 156 _Geronticus_, 100; _G. calvus_, 102 _Gerygone_, 355, 508, 509 Gibson, on _Chauna_, 109 n.; on _Myiopsittacus_, 371 n.; on _Rostrhamus_, 171 Gizzard, 12 _Glareola_, 268-270, 293 f.; _G. cinerea_, 294; _G. emini_, 294; _G. grallaria_, 294; _G. isabella_, 294; _G. lactea_, 294; _G. megapoda_, 294; _G. melanoptera_, 294; _G. nordmanni_, 294; _G. nuchalis_, 294; _G. ocularis_, 293 f.; _G. orientalis_, 293; _G. pratincola_, 293 Glareolidae, 268, 270, 293 f. Glareolinae, 293 f. _Glaucidium_, 401, 407; _G. brodiei_, 407; _G. capense_, 407; _G. castanonotum_, 407; _G. castanopterum_, 407; _G. cobanense_, 400, 407; _G. cuculoïdes_, 407; _G. ferox_, 407; _G. gnoma_, 407; _G. jardinii_, 407 f.; _G. nanum_, 408; _G. pardalotum_, 407; _G. passerinum_, 407; _G. perlatum_, 407; _G. pumilum_, 408; _G. radiatum_, 407; _G. siju_, 407; _G. sylvaticum_, 407; _G. whitelyi_, 407 _Glaucopis_, 552, 556 Glead, Fork-tailed, 168 Glenoid cavity, 7 _Globicera_, 325, 345; _G. myristicivora_, 328 _Glycyphila albifrons_, 565; _G. fasciata_, 568; _G. modesta_, 568 _Glyphorhynchus_, 484 Gnatcatcher, 514 Goatsucker, 415, 418 Godwit, 286 f.; Bar-tailed, 287; male incubates, 271; Black-tailed, 286 f.; Marbled, 287 Goeldi, on _Cassidix oryzivora_, 582 n.; on _Nyctibius_, 417 n. Goiemare, figure of Dodo, 330 Golden-eye–see Duck Goldfinch, 584, 586 Gom-Paauw, 263 Gonys–see Genys Goosander, 114-116 Goose, Bean-, 132; Bernacle-, 131; Brent, 131; Cape Barren, 133; Chinese, 132; Emperor-, 114, 132; Grey-lag, 132; Kelp-, 130; Pink-footed, 132; Red-breasted, 114, 131, 132; Solan, 73, 75, 302; Upland, 130; White-fronted, 132 _Gorsachius goisagi_, 90 Goshawk, 156, 178 Gosling, specimen of Dodo, 330 Gosse, on _Aramus_, 257; on Humming-birds, 429, 432; on _Mellisuga_, 431; on _Nyctibius_, 417 n. Gould, on Darter, 81; on Humming-birds, 430, 432; on Odontophorinae, 230 n.; on _Rhynchaea_, 292 n.; on subfamilies of Humming-birds, 435 _Goura_, 326-328, 334; _G. albertisi_, 334; _G. beccarii_, 334; _G. cinerea_, 334; _G. coronata_, 333, 334; _G. scheepmakeri_, 334; _G. sclateri_, 334; _G. victoria_, 334 Gourinae, 325 f., 334 _Graculipica_, 559; _G. melanoptera_, 560 Graduated, 21 Grallariinae, 488 f. _Grallina_, 535; abnormal vocal organs, 535 _Grammatoptila_, 502 _Granatellus_, 573, 574 _Grandala caelicolor_, 510 Grand Duc, 413 Grandidier, on _Leptosoma_, 379 n.; on _Margaroperdix_, 224 n.;–see Milne-Edwards Grant, Ogilvie, on Gallinaceous Birds, 198; on the Partridge, 224 n.; on Perdicinae, 218 n.; on Petrels, 63 n., 65 n.; on _Phaëthon_, 72 n.; on _Pithecophaga_, 160; on _Platalea_, 104 n.; on Red Grouse, 238; on _Turnix_, 188 n. _Graptocephalus_, 99, 100; _G. davisoni_, 102 _Graucalus_, 525, 526; _G. azureus_, 526 Grebe, 54, 267; habits, 53 f.; structure, etc., 49 f.; Eared, 53; Great Crested, 53; Little, 52, 52 f.; Red-necked, 53; Slavonian, 53 Green colour in Birds, its nature, 3 n. Green, on _Collocalia_, edible nests, 423 Greenfinch, 584 Greenlet, 536 Greenshank, 284 Grey Hen, 237 Griffon, 151–see Vulture Grifo, 151 Grinder, 508 _Griphosaurus_, fossil, 23 Grosbeak, Pine-, 584 Grouse, 198-200, 202, 203; disease, 203; hybrids, 237, 237 n.; American, 200, 203; Black, 237; Blue, 235; Canada-, 236; Dusky, 235; Hazel-, 203, 233; Pallas's Sand-, 323, 324; Pine-, 235; Pin-tailed Sand-, 322; Red, 202, 204, 238 f., 239; habits, 238 f.; hybrids, 224; Ruffed, 233; Sage-, 235; Sand-, 268, 321 f.; toes, 10, 322; habits, 322 f.; Sharp-tailed, 234; Willow-, 238-240 Gruidae, 243, 251 f.; habits, 252 f.; trachea enters keel of sternum, 13; young, 256 Gruiformes, 186, 243 f.; {607} _Phororhachos_ and others of the "Stereornithes" perhaps belong here, 44 _Grus_, fossil, 256; _G. americana_, 254; _G. australasiana_, 254; _G. canadensis_, 254; _G. carunculata_, 255; _G. collaris_, 254; _G. communis_, 254; _G. japonensis_, 254; _G. leucauchen_, 254; _G. leucogeranus_, 254; _G. lilfordi_, 254; _G. melitensis_, fossil, 256; _G. mexicana_, 254; _G. monachus_, 254; _G. nigricollis_, 254; _G. paradisea_, 255; _G. primigenia_, fossil, 256; _G. sharpii_, 254; _G. virgo_, 255 f. Guácharo, 415, 419 Guainumbi, 426 Guan, 194; habits, 195 _Gubernatrix_, 583 Guid-guid, 490 Guillemard, on Bird of Paradise, 550 Guillemot, 316; Black, 316, 319; Common, 319; Ringed, 319 Guinea-fowl, 198, 203, 204; habits, 205 f.; its specific name, 206 n. _Guira_, 352; _G. piririgua_, 359 _Guiraca_, 585 Gula, 20 Gull, 49, 148, 268, 300-304; habits, 302 f.; Black-headed, 308; Bonaparte's, 302, 309; Common, 307; Glaucous, 304, 306; Great Black-backed, 301, 302, 307; Great Black-headed, 309, 309; Herring, 306, 307; Hooded, 308; Iceland, 306; Ivory, 303, 306; Kittiwake, 301, 302, 305 f.; Laughing, 309; Lesser Black-backed, 307; Little, 304, 309 f.; Peewit, 308; Sabine's, 310; Wedge-tailed, 310 Gullet, 12 Gundlach, on _Aramus_, 257 n. Gurney, on _Astur_, 156; on Circaëtinae, 153 _Guttera_, 200, 201, 204; _G. cristata_, 204; _G. eduardi_, 204; _G. plumifera_, 204; _G. pucherani_, 204; _G. verreauxi_, 204 _Gygis_, 301, 303; _G. candida_, 310; _G. microrhyncha_, 310 _Gymnasio_, 400 _Gymnobucco_, 448; _G. calvus_, 450 _Gymnocephalus_, 479, 480 _Gymnocichla_, 489 _Gymnocorax_, 552, 556 _Gymnocrex rosenbergi_, 247 Gymnoderinae, 479 f. _Gymnoderus_, 479, 480; powder-down patches, 481 _Gymnoglaux lawrencii_, 409; _G. nudipes_, 409 _Gymnomystax_, 580 _Gymnopelia_, 326; _G. erythrothorax_, 340 _Gymnophaps_, 326; _G. albertisi_, 344 _Gymnopithys_, 488 _Gymnorhina_, 531, 532; _G. hyperleuca_, 532 Gymnorhininae, 531 f.; habits, 532 f. _Gymnoschizorhis_, 360; _G. leopoldi_, 361; _G. personata_, 361 _Gymnostinops_, 579, 580 Gypaëtinae, 146, 150 f. _Gypaëtus_, 146, 147, 149; _G. barbatus_, 150, 150; habits, 151; _G. meridionalis_, 151; _G. ossifragus_, 151 _Gyparchus papa_, 137, 139 _Gypohierax_, 146, 148; _G. angolensis_, 151 _Gypoictinia_, 149; _G. melanosternon_, 170 _Gypopsittacus vulturinus_, 369 _Gyps_, 143; nestling, 143; _G. fulvus_, 144; _G. himalayensis_, 144; _G. indicus_, 145; _G. kolbi_, 144; _G. melitensis_, fossil, 145; _G. pallescens_, 145; _G. rüppelli_, 144 _Gypsornis_, fossil, 251

_Habroptila_, 243, 245, 246; _H. wallacii_, 244, 248 _Habrornis_, 514 Hackles, 3, 21 _Hadrostomus_, 480, 482; _H. homochrous_, 483; _H. niger_, 483 Haemal spine, 6 _Haematoderus_, 479, 481 _Haematopus_, 268-270; _H. ater_, 277; _H. durnfordi_, 277; _H. frazari_, 277; _H. galapagensis_, 277; _H. leucopus_, 277; _H. longirostris_, 277; _H. moquini_, 277; _H. niger_, 277; _H. osculans_, 276; _H. ostralegus_, 276; _H. palliatus_, 277; _H. unicolor_, 277 _Haematortyx_, 200; _H. sanguiniceps_, 221 f. _Hagedashia_, 99, 100; _H. hagedash_, 102 _Hagiopsar_, 561 Hairs, nature of, 2 n. _Halcyon_, 383; _H. coromandus_, 385; _H. cyaniventris_, 385; _H. lindsayi_, 386; _H. nigrocyaneus_, 386; _H. saurophagus_, 386; _H. semicaeruleus_, 385 Halcyoninae, 382, 385 _Halcyornis_, fossil, 315 _Haliaëtus_, 146, 147; fossil, 181; _H. albicilla_, 163; _H. leucocephalus_, 164; _H. leucocoryphus_, 164; _H. leucogaster_, 164; _H. vocifer_, 164; _H. vociferoïdes_, 164 _Haliastur_, 148; _H. indus_, 168; _H. sphenurus_, 168 Hallux, 1, 10, 20 _Halobaena_, 60, 61; _H. caerulea_, 66 _Halocyptena microsoma_, 67 Hammer-head, 86 f., 94, 95; habits, 95 Hamuli, 3 Hancock, on Cuckoo, 354 Hand, 8 Hang-nest, 582 _Hapalarpactes_, 441, 442; _H. mackloti_, 443; _H. reinwardti_, 443 _Hapalis_, 514 _Hapalocercus_, 473, 477; _H. flaviventer_, 476 _Hapaloderma_, 441, 442; _H. constantia_, 443; _H. narina_, 443; {608} _H. vittatum_, 443 _Hapaloptila castanea_, 447 _Haplopelia_, 327, 336 f.; _H. bronzina_, 337; _H. inornata_, 337; _H. johnstoni_, 337; _H. larvata_, 337; _H. principalis_, 337; _H. simplex_, 337 _Harelda_, 112, 114; _H. glacialis_, 120 Harfang, 412 Hargitt, on Woodpeckers, 458 _Harpa novae zealandiae_, 174 _Harpactes_, 441, 442, 443; _H. duvauceli_, 442; _H. kasumba_, 443; _H. orescius_, 443 _Harpagornis moorii_, fossil, 181 _Harpagus_, 146, 173; _H. bidentatus_, 173; _H. diodon_, 150, 173; _H. fasciatus_, 173 _Harpiprion cayennensis_, 101 _Harporhynchus_, 514, 515, 519; _H. crissalis_, 519 Harpy, 159 _Harpyhaliaëtus_, 146, 147; _H. coronatus_, 168; _H. solitarius_, 168 _Harpyopsis novae guineae_, 159 Harrier, 146-149, 165; habits, 154 f.; -Eagles, 153; Hen-, 155; Marsh-, 155; Montagu's, 155 Harry, on Dodo, 330 Hartert, on Humming-birds, 432 Harting–see Mosenthal _Hartlaubius_, 561 Harvie-Brown, on _Diomedea melanophrys_, 65 n. Hawfinch, 584, 586, 587 Hawk, 137, 146, 148, 149, 175, 353; Blue, 178; Bush-, 174; Fish-, 180; Hunting, 178; Pigeon-, 178; Quail-, 174; Red, 178; Red-tailed, 166; Singing, 156; Sparrow-, 157, 158; Sparrow-, of America, 149, 176–see Goshawk Heath-hen, 235 Hedge-sparrow–see Sparrow _Hedydipna_, 569 Heilprin, on Geographical Distribution, 15 _Heleothreptus_, 418; _H. anomalus_, 418 _Heliactin cornuta_, 439 _Helicura_, 478 _Heliochera_, 480, 482 _Heliodilus_, 398, 400; _H. soumagnii_, 404 _Heliopais_, 267; _H. personata_, 268 _Heliornis_, 243, 267; _H. fulica_, 267 Heliornithidae, 243, 267 f.; habits, 267 _Heliothrix_, 431, 432 Helmet, 12; -bird, 535; -crest, 437 _Helornis_, fossil, 108, 300 _Helotarsus_, 146, 147; _H. ecaudatus_, 153; _H. leuconotus_, 154 _Hemicercus_, 464 _Hemichelidon_, 506 _Hemignathus_, 562, 563 _Hemilophus pulverulentus_, 464 _Hemiphaga chathamensis_, 345; _H. novae zealandiae_, 344; _H. spadicca_, 344 f. Hemipode, 188 _Hemipodius_, 187 _Hemipus_, 506, 531 _Hemixus_, 504 Hen, 203 _Heniconetta_, 114; _H. stelleri_, 119 _Henicopernis infuscatus_, 173; _H. longicaudatus_, 172 f. _Henicophaps albifrons_, 338 _Henicorhina_, 521 _Henicornis_, 484 Henicuridae, 501 _Henicurus ruficapilla_, 501; _H. scouleri_, 501; _H. velatus_, 501 Hermit, 430, 435 Hern, 87 _Herodias alba_, 92 Heron, 70, 86 f., 90, 251, 263; habits, 87 f.; Boat-billed Night-, 90 f.; Buff-backed, 88, 91; Common, 87, 92, 93; Great White, 92; Green, 88; in Falconry, 89; Night-, 88, 90; Purple, 93; Squacco, 91 _Herpetotheres cachinnans_, 153 _Herpsilochmus rufimarginatus_, 489 _Hesperiphona_, 583, 585 _Hesperornis_, 45 f.; no keel to sternum, 26; no pygostyle, 6 n.; quadrate bone, 26; restoration, 46; teeth, 12; _H. crassipes_, 46; _H. regalis_, 46 Hesperornithes, 25; structure, etc., 46 f. _Heteractitis incanus_, 285 _Heteralocha acutirostris_, 557, 558 _Heterocercus_, 478 _Heterocnemis_, 488 Heterocoelous, 6 _Heterocorax_, 552; _H. capensis_, 556 Heterodactylous, 10, 441 _Heteroglaux_, 400 _Heteronetta atricapilla_, 123 _Heteropelma_, 477, 479, 482 _Heterorhynchus_, 562, 563 _Heterospizias meridionalis_, 168 _Heterotetrax_, 262 Heuglin, v., on Toucans, 449 _Hieracidea berigora_, 174; _H. brunnea_, 174; _H. ferox_, 174; _H. novae guineae_, 175; _H. novae zealandiae_, 174; _H. orientalis_, 175 _Hierococcyx_, 353 _Hierofalco_, 180; _H. candicans_, 180; _H. gyrfalco_, 180; _H. islandus_, 180; _H. labradorus_, 180 Hilling, of Ruff, 285 Hill-Robin, 503 _Himantopus_, 268, 269, 277 f.; fossil, 300; _H. brasiliensis_, 278; _H. candidus_, 277; _H. knudseni_, 278; _H. leucocephalus_, 278; _H. melas_, 278; _H. mexicanus_, 277 f.; _H. pectoralis_, 278 _Himantornis_, 243; _H. haematopus_, 248 _Himatione_, 562, 563; _H. sanguinea_, 563, 564; _H. virens_, 564 Hind-head, 20; {609} -neck, 20; -toe, 10 Hirundinidae, 494, 522 f.; habits, 524 f. _Hirundo_, 523, 524, 525; _H. rustica_, 523, 524, 524 _Histrioniphaps histrionica_, 337 f. Hoatzin, 186, 241 f., 242; habits, 242 Hobby, 176, 177 _Hodgsonius_, 516 Hoefnagel, figure of Dodo, 330 Holarctic, 16 Homologous, meaning of, 5 _Homolopus_, fossil, 465 _Homorus_, 484, 485; _H. lophotes_, 487 Homrai, 393 Honey-eater, 564 f.; habits, 566 f.; Warty-faced, 566 Honey-guide, 445, 448, 451; habits, 452 f. Hoopoe, 376, 390, 390 n., 395 f., 396; habits, 395 f.; Wood-, 390, 397; habits, 397 Hooting, of Owls, 401 _Hoplopterus_, 269, 270; _H. cayanus_, 276; _H. speciosus_, 276; _H. spinosus_, 276, 295; _H. ventralis_, 276 Hornbill, 376, 390 f., 391; bill, 11, 390 f.; habits, 390; Helmet-, 393; Plait-billed, 394 Hornero, 486 Horns, 12; in Auks, 315 f., 317, 318 _Houbara_, 260; _H. fuerteventurae_, 262 n.; _H. macqueeni_, 262; _H. undulata_, 262 _Houbaropsis_, 260; _H. bengalensis_, 262 Hudson, on _Aramides_, 248; on _Chauna_, 109 n.; on Cow-bird, 582 n.; on Oven-bird, 485 n.; on _Parra jacana_, 300 n.; on _Rhea_, 31 f.; see Sclater Huia, 557, 558 Humboldt and Bonpland discover Oil-bird, 419 Hume, on _Bubo coromandus_, 403 n.; on Francolins, 228 n.; on _Ibis melanocephala_, 100 n.; on _Mycteria_, 96 n. Humerus, 8, 8 Humming-bird, 419, 420, 426 f., 429, 568; breast-bone, 6 f.; habits, 428 f.; nature of iridescent feathers, 4; operculum of nostrils, 11; Bee-, 438; King-, 436; Long-tailed, 433; Ruby-and-Topaz, 434 Hurst, on _Archaeopteryx_, 23 n. Hutton, on Wandering Albatros, 63 f. Huxley, classification, 14; on Amphimorphae, 105; on Cathartidae, 137 n.; on Coracomorphae and their song-muscles, 466; on Cypselomorphae, 419 n.; on Gallinaceous Birds, 186, 198; on Geographical Distribution, 15 f.; on _Palaeeudyptes_, fossil, 59 n.; on Picidae, 457; restoration of _Hesperornis_, 46; Sauropsida as a division of Vertebrata, 1 Hybrids, of American Partridges, 233; of Galline Birds, 224; of Grouse, 237, 237 n., 238 _Hydralector_, 269, 299; _H. gallinaceus_, 298; _H. novae guineae_, 298 _Hydranassa_, young, 93; _H. tricolor_, 91 _Hydrochelidon_, 301, 303, 314; _H. hybrida_, 314 f.; _H. leucoptera_, 314; _H. nigra_, 314; _H. surinamensis_, 314 _Hydrophasianus_, 270; _H. chirurgus_, 299, 299, 300 _Hydroprogne caspia_, 314 _Hydropsalis_, 418 _Hyetornis_, 351, 357 _Hylactes_, 490, 491; _H. megapodius_, 491; _H. tarnii_, 490, 491 _Hylexetastes_, 484 _Hylocharis_, 427, 435; _H. sapphirina_, 435 _Hylomanes_, 380 _Hylophilus_, 536; _H. ochraceiceps_, 536 _Hymenolaemus_, 111, 113; _H. malacorhynchus_, 116 Hyoid, apparatus, 5, 21; horns, 457 _Hyperergus_, 502 _Hyphantornis_, 579; _H. cucullatus_, 578 _Hypochera ultramarina_, 577 Hypocleidium, 21 _Hypocnemis_, 488 _Hypocolius ampelinus_, 527, 527 _Hypolais_, 514, 517, 518 _Hypopyrrhus_, 580 Hyporhachis, or aftershaft of feather, 3 _Hypositta_, 537 _Hypotaenidia_, 246 f.; _H. brachypus_, 247; _H. mülleri_, 246 f.; _H. striata_, 246 f. _Hypotriorchis concolor_, 177; _H. cuvieri_, 177; _H. diroleucus_, 177; _H. eleonorae_, 177; _H. fusco-caerulescens_, 177; _H. lunulatus_, 177; _H. ophryophanes_, 177; _H. rufigularis_, 177; _H. severus_, 177; _H. subbuteo_, 176 _Hypselornis sivalensis_, fossil, 36 _Hypsipetes_, 504-506; _H. perniger_, 505

_Ianthothorax_, 544, 545 Ibididae, 70, 99 f. Ibidinae, 99, 100 _Ibidopodia_, fossil, 105 _Ibidopsis_, fossil, 105 _Ibidorhynchus_, 268, 269; _I. struthersi_, 277 _Ibis_, 70, 99, 100; fossil, 105; young, 103; _I. aethiopica_, 102; _I. bernieri_, 103; _I. melanocephala_, 100, 103; _I. molucca_, 103; Glossy, 101; Sacred, 102; Scarlet, 100; Shell-, 97; White, 100; Wood-, 70, 97 _Ibycter_, 152; _I. americanus_, 152; _I. ater_, 152 _Ichthyornis_, 45 f.; head, 48; quadrate bone, 26; teeth, 12; vertebrae, 6, 25; _I. dispar_, 48; _I. victor_, 48 Ichthyornithes, 25, 48 f. Ichthyornithidae, structure, etc., 48 f. _Icteria_, 573 Icteridae, 542, 559, 579 f.; habits, 580; parasitic, 582 Icterinae, 579 f. {610} _Icteropsis_, 577 _Icterus_, 580, 581; _I. baltimore_, 580, 581, 581; _I. vulgaris_, 581 _Ictinia_, 146; _I. mississippiensis_, 171; _I. plumbea_, 171 Ignoble, of Falconidae, 146 Iiwi, 564 Ilium, 6, 9, 9 Immature plumage of Birds generally, 4 Impervious nostrils, 11 Incisura ischiadica, 9 Index finger, 9 Indian Region, 15 f. _Indicator_, 451 f.; _I. archipelagicus_, 452; _I. major_, 452; _I. minor_, 452; habit of guiding to bees' nests, 452 f.; _I. sparrmani_, 452; _I. xanthonotus_, 452 Indicatorinae, 448, 451; habits, 452 f. Ingluvies, 12 _Inocotis_, 100; _I. papillosus_, 102 Insessores, 466 Integument, 2 n. Intestines, 12 Intrathoracic convolutions of trachea–see Trachea _Iodopleura_, 479, 480 _Iole_, 506 _Ipocrantor_, 463; _I. magellanicus_, 464 _Irena_, 504-506; _I. crinigera_, 504 Iridescence in feathers, cause of, 3 _Iridornis_, 575 Iron-smith, 449 Irregular migration, 17 f. _Irrisor_, 397; _I. bollii_, 397; _I. erythrorhynchus_, 397; _I. jacksoni_, 397; _I. viridis_, 397 Irrisorinae, 390, 397; habits, 397 Irruptions of Sand-Grouse, 322, 324, 325 Ischium, 9, 9 Island Hen, 244 _Ispidina_, 386; _I. madagascariensis_, 386 _Ithagenes_, 198, 200, 217; buries itself in snow, 218; _I. cruentus_, 217; _I. geoffroyi_, 218; _I. sinensis_, 218 _Ixocincla_, 504, 505 Iynginae, 457, 464 f. _Iyngipicus_, 458, 462; _I. obsoletus_, 462 _Iynx aequatorialis_, 465; _I. pectoralis_, 465; _I. pulchricollis_, 465; _I. torquilla_, 465, 465

Jabiru, 98 Jacamar, 445 f.; habits, 446 _Jacamaralcyon_, 445, 446; _J. tridactyla_, 446 _Jacamerops_, 445; _J. grandis_, 445, 446 Jaçana, 268, 297 f.; habits, 299 f.; Indian, 299 Jackass, 57, 384, 386 Jackdaw, 553-556 Jacobin, 436 Jaws, 5 f., 11 f. Jay, 552-556; Blue, 554, 555; Green, 554; Siberian, 554 Jean-le-blanc, 153 Jenner, on Cuckoo, 354; on bones of Solitaire, 331 Jerdon, on Indian Darter, 81; on _Inocotis_, 100 n.; on Pelican, 85 n. Johnny Rook, 152 Jugal, 11 Jugulum, 20 _Junco_, 585 Jungle-fowl, Red, 208 f.; Grey, 209 Jurassic System, Birds from, 2

Kagu, 243, 263 f., 264; habits, 265; operculum of nostrils, 11 Kakapo, 366, 366; breast-bone, 7 Kallege, 213 Kea, 365, 374, 375 Keel of breast-bone, 6, 7 Kelp-Hen, 247; -Pigeon, 293 Kerr, J. G., on _Erismatura_, 118 n. Kestrel, 147, 148, 175-177; Lesser, 175 _Ketupa_, 398-401; _K. ceylonensis_, 414; _K. flavipes_, 414; _K. javanensis_, 414 Kill-deer, 274 King-bird, 474 Kingfisher, 376, 382; habits, 383; Belted, 387; Racquet-tailed, 385; Stork-billed, 387; Water-, 382, 383; Wood-, 382, 384 Kirk, on Honey-guide, 452 Kirombo, 376, 378, 379 Kite, 146, 148, 155, 164, 165; habits, 168 f.; Awl-billed, 171; Black, 170; Black-winged, 171; Brahminy, 168; Everglade, 171; Mississippi, 171; Pariah, 170; Red, 168 f., 169; Swallow-tailed, 170; Whistling, 168 Kittiwake, 305; see Gull, Kittiwake Kiwi, 26, 38 f., 39; breast-bone, 7; feathers, 41; structure, etc., 38 f. Knob on bill, 12; of Anatidae, 111; of Pigeons, 325 Knot, 281 Koël (= Coël), 356

Labyrinth, 13, 113 Lacrymal, 11 _Lagopus_, 199, 200, 202, 204; fossil, 241; _L. albus_, 238 f.; _L. hemileucurus_, 240; _L. hyperboreus_, 240; _L. leucurus_, 240; _L. mutus_, 240; _L. rupestris_, 240; _L. scoticus_, 238 f., 239 _Lalage_, 525, 526 Lamellae, of bill, 12; on bill of _Anastomus_, 95; on bill of Anatidae, 111 f.; on bill of Flamingoes, 105; on bill of Petrels, 60 Lamenting Bird, 257 Laminiplantar, 468, 496 Lämmergeier, 146, 147, 150, 150, 151; habits, 151 _Lampornis_, 430, 433; {611} _L. violicauda_, 433 _Lampribis olivacea_, 101 _Lamprocolius_, 560 _Lamprolia_, 513 _Lampropsar_, 580 _Lamprospiza_, 575 _Lamprotes_, 575 _Lamprothorax_, 548 _Lamprotornis_, 559-561; _L. caudatus_, 559 Lanceolate, 21 Land-Rail–see Rail, Land- _Laniarius_, 532, 533; _L. rubiginosus_, 533 _Laniellus_, 532, 534 Laniidae, 506, 525, 527, 531 f., 567 n. Laniinae, 534; habits, 535 _Lanio_, 575 _Lanioturdus_, 508, 509 _Lanius_, 532, 534; fossil, 496; _L. borealis_, 534; _L. collurio_, 534; _L. excubitor_, 534, 534; _L. ludovicianus_, 534; _L. minor_, 534; _L. pomeranus_, 534 _Lanivireo_, 536 Lanner, 179 _Laopteryx_, fossil, 25 n. Lapwing, Cayenne, 302; Spur-winged, 276; Wattled, 274 f. Lari, 268 Laridae, 59, 268, 300 f.; young, 304 Larinae, 300, 305; habits, 302 f. Lark, 496 f.; habits, 498; moult, 5; Crested, 497; Meadow-, 580; Shore-, 496; Short-toed, 497; Sky-, 496, 497, 497, 498; White-winged, 497; Wood-, 496 Laro-Limicoline, 268 _Larus_, 301, 306; fossil, 315; _L. affinis_, 307; _L. argentatus_, 306; _L. atricilla_, 309; _L. audouini_, 307; _L. belcheri_, 308; _L. brachyrhynchus_, 307; _L. brunneicephalus_, 308; _L. bulleri_, 308; _L. cachinnans_, 307; _L. californicus_, 307; _L. canus_, 305, 307; _L. cirrocephalus_, 308; _L. crassirostris_, 308; _L. delawarensis_, 307; _L. dominicanus_, 307; _L. franklini_, 304, 309; _L. fuliginosus_, 308; _L. fuscus_, 307; _L. gelastes_, 308; _L. glaucescens_, 306; _L. glaucodes_, 308; _L. glaucus_, 306, 307; _L. hartlaubi_, 308; _L. heermani_, 308; _L. hemprichi_, 308; _L. ichthyaëtus_, 309, 309; _L. kumlieni_, 306; _L. leucophthalmus_, 308; _L. leucopterus_, 306; _L. maculipennis_, 302, 308; _L. marinus_, 307; _L. melanocephalus_, 309; _L. minutus_, 303, 309 f.; _L. modestus_, 308; _L. nelsoni_, 306; _L. novae hollandiae_, 308; _L. occidentalis_, 307; _L. philadelphia_, 309; _L. ridibundus_, 308; _L. saundersi_, 309; _L. schistisagus_, 307; _L. scopulinus_, 302, 308; _L. serranus_, 309; _L. vegae_, 307 _Larvivora_, 516 Larynx, 13 _Lathria streptophora_, 480 _Laticilla_, 514 Laughing Jackass, 384, 386 _Laurillardia_, fossil, 496 _Lawrencia_, 474 Layard, on Honey-guide, 452 n.; on _Mycteria_, 96 n.; on Phaëthon, 73 n.; on _Rhinochetus_, 265 n. Leather-head, 568 Legs, 9 Leguat, on Solitaire, 330 _Leistes_, 580 Leiotrichidae, 495 Lek, of Capercaillie, 237 _Lepidogrammus_, 352 _Leptasthenura_, 486 _Lepterodius gularis_, 91 _Leptodon_, 146; _L. cayennensis_, 173 _Leptopoecile_, 514 _Leptopterus_, 532 _Leptoptila_, 326, 335, 336; _L. jamaicensis_, 336; _L. rufinucha_, 336 _Leptoptilus_, 95, 96; fossil, 99; _L. crumenifer_, 98; _L. dubius_, 97; _L. javanicus_, 98 _Leptornis_, 565 _Leptosoma_, toes, 10; _L. discolor_, 378, 379 Leptosomatinae, 376, 378; habits, 379 _Lerwa_, 199; _L. nivicola_, 230 _Lesbia_, 427, 434; _L. victoriae_, 434 Lestrange, on Dodo, 330 _Leucopeza_, 573 _Leucophaeus_, 301; _L. scoresbii_, 306 _Leucopternis_, 167; _L. ghiesbreghti_, 167; _L. plumbea_, 167; _L. princeps_, 167; _L. schistacea_, 167 _Leucosarcia_, 328; _L. picata_, 335 _Leucosticte_, 586 L'Herminier, classification, 14 _Lichenops_, 474, 477 _Licmetis_, 364; _L. nasica_, 364 _Ligurinus chloris_, 584 Lilford, on Francolin, 226 n. _Limicola platyrhyncha_, 282 Limicolae, 260, 268 f., 322; bill, 11; habits, 271 f. Limicoline Birds, 243 _Limnaëtus_, 160; _L. alboniger_, 160; _L. caligatus_, 160; _L. cirratus_, 160; _L. gurneyi_, 160; _L. isidori_, 160; _L. kieneri_, 160; _L. lanceolatus_, 160, 172; _L. nipalensis_, 160; _L. philippensis_, 160 _Limnatornis_, fossil, 397 _Limnocorax_, 246; _L. niger_, 249 _Limnocryptes gallinula_, 292 _Limnogeranus_, 254, 256 _Limnophyes_, 484, 487 _Limnornis_, 484, 487 _Limonidromus_, 500 _Limosa_, 286 f.; {612} fossil, 300; _L. belgica_, 286 f.; _L. fedoa_, 287; _L. hudsonica_, 287; _L. lapponica_, 287; _L. melanuroïdes_, 286; _L. uropygialis_, 287 Limpkin, 243, 256; habits, 257 Lines of Flight, vi, 18 Linnet, 584-587; Brown, 585; Grey, 585; Red, 585 _Linota cannabina_, 584 _Lioptila_, 504 _Lioptilus_, 506 _Liosceles_, 490 _Liothrix_, 495, 502; _L. lutea_, 503 Liotriches, 502 Lipauginae, 479 f. _Lipaugus_, 479, 482 _Lipoa_, 190 f., 194; _L. ocellata_, 193 _Lissotis_, 260, 262 _Lithophaps ulnaris_, fossil, 350 _Lithornis vulturinus_, fossil, 181 Little Cock, 491 Lloyd, on Capercaillie, 237 n. Lobed bill, 12 _Lobiophasis_, 199-201; _L. bulweri_, 214 _Lobipes hyperboreus_, 278 f. _Lobipluvia_, 275 _Lobivanellus_, 268-270, 274 f.; _L. albiceps_, 275; _L. cinereus_, 274; _L. cucullatus_, 275; _L. indicus_, 274; _L. lateralis_, 275; _L. lobatus_, 275; _L. malabaricus_, 275; _L. melanocephalus_, 274 f.; _L. miles_, 275; _L. pectoralis_, 274; _L. senegalensis_, 275; _L. superciliosus_, 275; _L. tectus_, 275 _Loboparadisea sericea_, 549 _Lobornis_, 570 _Lobotus_, 526 _Lochmias_, 484; _L. nematura_, 485 _Locustella_, 514, 517; _L. luscinioïdes_, 518 _Loddigesia_, 426, 427, 430; _L. mirabilis_, 437; its flight, 437 Log-cock, 463 _Lophoaëtus_, 147, 160; _L. occipitalis_, 160 _Lophoceros_, 390; _L. nasutus_, 393 _Lophodytes cucullatus_, 115 f. _Lophogyps_, 143; _L. occipitalis_, 144 _Lophoictinia_, 146, 147; _L. isura_, 170 _Lopholaemus_, 326; _L. antarcticus_, 345 _Lophophaps_, 326, 327; _L. ferruginea_, 337; _L. leucogaster_, 337; _L. plumifera_, 337 _Lophophorus_, 198-200, 203, 215; _L. impeyanus_, 216; _L. l'huysi_, 216; _L. refulgens_, 216; _L. sclateri_, 200, 216 _Lophopsittacus mauritianus_, fossil, 375 _Lophorhina_, 550; _L. superba_, 548 _Lophornis_, 439; _L. ornatus_, 439 _Lophortyx_, 200; _L. californicus_, 231, 233 _Lophospingus_, 584 _Lophotibis cristata_, 101 _Lophotis_, 262 _Lophotriccus_, 474 _Lophotriorchis_, 160; _L. kieneri_, 160 _Lophura_, 199, 200, 214 f.; _L. diardi_, 215; _L. ignita_, 215; _L. nobilis_, 215; _L. praelata_, 215; _L. vieilloti_, 215 Lore, 20, 21 _Loria loriae_, 549 _Loriculus_, 362, 364, 365; _L. vernalis_, 368 Loriinae, 362-364, 373 Lorikeet, 364 _Lorius_, 364, 373 f.; _L. lory_, 374 Loro, 370 Lory, 351, 364, 365; of South Africa, 361; King-, 364; Red, 374; Swainson's, 373 Love-bird, 364, 368, 370 _Loxia_, 583; fossil, 496; _L. curvirostra_, 584 _Loxioïdes_, 562 _Loxops_, 562, 563; _L. aurea_, 564 Luggur, 179 _Lullula_, 498; _L. arborea_, 496 _Lunda cirrhata_, 317 _Lycocorax_, 543-545, 550; _L. pyrrhopterus_, 548 Lydekker, on _Actiornis anglicus_, 86; on _Colymboïdes_, 50; on _Diomedea anglica_, 69; on _Gyps melitensis_, 145 n.; on _Odontornithes_, 45 f.; on _Pseudapteryx_, 40; on "Stereornithes," 44 _Lyncornis_, 416 Lyre-bird, 491 f., 492; habits, 493 Lyrie, 68 _Lyrurus_, 199, 200, 202; _L. mlokosiewiczi_, 238; _L. tetrix_, 201, 237 f.; hybrids, 238

Macaw, 351, 364-366; Blue-and-yellow, 371; Green-and-blue, 371; Hyacinthine, 371; Red-and-blue, 371; Red-and-green, 371 Maccaroni Penguins, 57 f. _Macgregoria pulchra_, 546 _Machaeropterus_, 478; _M. regulus_, 478 _Machaerorhamphus alcinus_, 172; _M. anderssoni_, 172; _M. revoili_, 172 _Machaerorhynchus_, 506 _Machetes_, 270; polygamous, 271; _M. pugnax_, 285 _Machetornis_, 474, 475, 477 _Macrochires_, of Nitzsch, 420 _Macrocorax_, 552, 556 _Macrodipteryx_, 418; _M. macrodipterus_, 418; _M. vexillarius_, 418 _Macronus_, 502 _Macronyx_, 499, 500; _M. ameliae_, 500; _M. crocea_, 500 _Macropsalis_, 418 Macropteryginae, 420, 422 _Macropteryx_, 420, 422; _M. comata_, 422; _M. coronata_, 422; _M. longipennis_, 422; _M. mystacea_, 422; _M. wallacii_, 422 _Macropygia_, 326, 343; {613} _M. doreya_, 343; _M. leptogrammica_, 343; _M. phasianella_, 343; _M. rufa_, 343; _M. rufo-castanea_, 343; _M. tenuirostris_, 343; _M. tusalia_, 343 _Macrorhamphus griseus_, 289; _M. scolopaceus_, 289; _M. taczanowskii_, 289 _Macruropsar_, 559, 561 Madagascar, a region or sub-region, 17 Magellan, brings Bird of Paradise, 543 Magpie, 355, 552-556, 554 Magpie-lark, 535 _Majaqueus aequinoctialis_, 67; _M. parkinsoni_, 67 Malaconotinae, 531 f.; habits, 533 f. _Malacoptila_, 447 _Malacorhynchus_, 111; _M. membranaceus_, 124 Male, incubates, in Limicolae, 271, 278, 287; in Ratitae, 29, 32, 36, 38, 41–see also Female Maleo, 192 Mallard–see Duck Mallee hen, 193 Malpighian layer, 2 n. _Malurus_, 507-509 Mamo, 563, 564 Man-of-war bird, 81 Manakin, 477 f., 478; habits, 479 Manchots, 55 Mandible, 11, 20 Mango, South American, 433 Mango-bird, 542 _Manorhina_, 564; _M. melanophrys_, 567 n. Mantle, 21 Manu-meà, 331, 332 Manuals, 21 f. _Manucodia_, 543-545, 550, 551; _M. atra_, 548; _M. chalybeata_, 548; _M. comrii_, 548 Manukdewata, 543 Manus, its quills, 22; in _Archaeopteryx_, 25 Marabou feathers, 96 _Mareca americana_, 126; _M. penelope_, 126; _M. sibilatrix_, 127 _Margaroperdix madagascariensis_, 223 _Margarornis_, 484 _Marmaronetta_, 111; _M. angustirostris_, 123 Marsh, restoration of _Hesperornis_, 46; head of _Ichthyornis_, 48; on _Laopteryx_, 25 n.; on Odontornithes, 45, 49 n. Martin, 522-525; Sand-, 524, 525 Martineta, 185 Mascarene Islands, 17 _Masius_, 477, 478 Matthews, discovery of _Loddigesia_, 437 Mavis, 515 Maxilla, 11, 11, 20 Maxillopalatine process, 11 May-bird, 289 Maynard, on flamingo, 107 _Megacephalon_, 190 f., 194; _M. maleo_, 192 _Megacrex_, 243, 244; _M. inepta_, 248 _Megalaema_, 450 _Megalapteryx_, 42 _Megalestris antarctica_, 305; _M. catarrhactes_, 304; _M. chilensis_, 305; _M. maccormicki_, 305 _Megaloprepia_, 326, 327, 346; _M. formosa_, 346; _M. magnifica_, 346 Megapodes, 190-194 Megapodiidae, 186, 190 f., 194; habits, 191 _Megapodius_, 190 f., 194; _M. bernsteini_, 194; _M. cumingi_, 194; _M. duperreyi_, 194; _M. eremita_, 194; _M. forsteni_, 194; _M. freycineti_, 194; _M. geelvinkianus_, 194; _M. laperousii_, 194; _M. layardi_, 194; _M. macgillivrayi_, 194; _M. nicobariensis_, 194; _M. pritchardi_, 194; _M. sanghirensis_, 194; _M. tenimberensis_, 194; _M. tumulus_, 194; _M. wallacii_, 194 _Megarhynchus_, 473; _M. pitangua_, 474 _Megatriorchis doriae_, 159 Megistanes, 26, 32 f., 38 _Melanerpes_, 461; _M. candidus_, 461; _M. flavifrons_, 461; _M. formicivorus_, 458, 461 Melanism, 4 n. _Melanobucco_, 449 _Melanocharis unicolor_, 570 _Melanocorypha_, 497; _M. calandra_, 498; _M. sibirica_, 497; _M. yeltoniensis_, 497 _Melanoperdix_, 199, 200; _M. nigra_, 221 _Melanophoyx ardesiaca_, 91 _Melanoptila_, 514, 515, 519 _Melanopyrrhus_, 561; _M. orientalis_, 560 _Melanorhectes_, 532 _Melanotis_, 519 Meleagrinae, 198, 204, 206; habits, 206 _Meleagris_, 199, 201, 202; fossil, 241; _M. gallipavo_, 206, 206 n.; _M. ocellata_, 200, 206 _Melidectes_, 565, 566 _Melidora_, 383 _Melierax_, 148, 156; _M. canorus_, 156 _Meliornis_, 565, 567 _Meliphaga_, 565, 566; _M. phrygia_, 566 Meliphagidae, 543 n., 564 f.; habits, 566 f. Meliphaginae, 564 f. _Melirrhophetes_, 566 _Melithreptes_, 564, 565 _Melitograis_, 565 _Melittophagus_, 387-389; _M. gularis_, 390 _Mellisuga minima_, 431, 432, 438 _Melopelia leucoptera_, 342; _M. meloda_, 342 _Melophus_, 583 _Melopsittacus_, 364, 365; _M. undulatus_, 367 _Melopyrrha_, 583 _Melospiza_, 586 {614} Melville–see Strickland Membrane on bill, in _Malacorhynchus_, 111; in _Hymenolaemus_, 111, 116; in _Biziura_, 111, 117; of toes, 10 _Menura_, 491 f.; _M. alberti_, 492, 493; _M. superba_, 491 f., 492, 493; _M. victoriae_, 492, 493 Menuridae, 491 f.; habits, 493 Mercerat–see Moreno _Merganetta_, 112, 113; _M. armata_, 116; _M. columbiana_, 116; _M. frenata_, 116; _M. garleppi_, 116; _M. leucogenys_, 116; _M. turneri_, 116 Merganettinae, 111, 112, 116; habits, 116, 117 Merganser, 114; hooded, 115, 116; red-breasted, 115, 116 Merginae, 111-116; habits, 116 _Mergulus_, 315; _M. alle_, 321 _Mergus_, 111; _M. albellus_, 115; _M. americanus_, 115; _M. australis_, 115; _M. brasilianus_, 115; _M. comatus_, 115; _M. merganser_, 113, 115; _M. serrator_, 113, 115, 116 Merlin, 147, 177 Meropidae, 376, 387 f. _Meropogon_, 387-389; _M. forsteri_, 389 _Merops_, 387, 388; _M. apiaster_, 388, 389, 389; _M. natalensis_, 389; _M. nubicus_, 388, 389; _M. ornatus_, 387; _M. philippinus_, 388, 389; _M. superciliosus_, 388; _M. viridis_, 389 Merrem, on classification, 14 Merry-thought, 8 _Merulaxis_, 490 _Mesembriornis_, 44 Mesitae, 186 f. _Mesites_, 186 f.; _M. unicolor_, 187; _M. variegatus_, 187 Mesitidae, 186 f. _Mesobucco_, 450 Mesomyodi, 467 _Mesopicus goertan_, 462 _Mesopteryx_, 42 _Metabolus_, 507 Metacarpals, 8 Metacarpus, 1, 8 _Metallura_, 434 _Metapteryx bifrons_, 40 Metatarsal bones, 10; in penguins, 55 Metatarsus, 9, 20 _Metopia_, 478 _Metopiana peposaca_, 113, 123 _Metopidius_, 269, 298; _M. africanus_, 298; _M. albinucha_, 298; _M. indicus_, 298-300 _Metopothrix_, 477, 478 _Metriopelia aymara_, 339; _M. melanoptera_, 339 Mexican star, 438 Mexico, to which region does it belong? 16 Meyer, A. B., on _Cacomantis_, 355; on Celebes cuckoos, 356 n., 357 n.; on hybrid grouse, 237 n.; on _Notornis_, 250 n. Meyer, H. v., on _Archaeopteryx_, 23 _Micranous hawaiiensis_, 311; _M. leucocapillus_, 311; _M. tenuirostris_, 311 _Micrastur_, 156 _Micrathene_, 400; _M. whitneyi_, 400, 407 _Microcerculus_, 521, 522 _Microchera_, 433 _Microcorax_, 552; _M. leucognaphalus_, 553 _Microeca_, 509 _Microglossus_, 364; _M. aterrimus_, 373 _Microhierax_, 147; _M. erythrogenys_, 174; _M. eutolmus_, 174; _M. fringillarius_, 173 f.; _M. latifrons_, 174; _M. melanoleucus_, 174; _M. sinensis_, 174 _Micromonacha lanceolata_, 447 _Micropalama himantopus_, 286 _Microparra capensis_, 298, 300 _Microperdix_, 200, 223; _M. blewitti_, 223; _M. erythrorhyncha_, 223; _M. manipurensis_, 223 _Micropus_, 504; _M. melanoleucus_, 505 _Microsittace ferruginea_, 365 Migration, 17; causes, directions, mode, 18 f.; in southern hemisphere 19; Committee's reports, 19 n. Millais, on hybrid grouse, 237 n. Milne-Edwards, on _Aegialornis_, 315 n., 426; on _Mesites_, 186 n.; on Palaelodidae, 108 n.; on Strigidae, 398 n.; and Grandidier, on _Aepyornis_, 43 n.; and Oustalet, on _Dromaeus ater_, 38 n. _Milnea_, fossil, 300 _Milvago_, 147, 148, 152; _M. chimachima_, 152; _M. chimango_, 152 _Milvulus_, 473, 475 _Milvus_, 146, 170; fossil, 181; _M. aegyptius_, 170; _M. affinis_, 170; _M. govinda_, 170; _M. ictinus_, 168 f., 169; _M. melanotis_, 170; _M. migrans_, 170 _Mimeta_, mimicry, 543 n., 568 Mimicry–see _Buchanga_, _Mimeta_, _Philemon_, _Surniculus_, _Tylas_, _Xenopirostris_ Mimidae, 495 Miminae, 509, 514, 515; habits, 518 _Mimus_, 515, 519; _M. modulator_, 519; _M. polyglottus_, 518 f.; _M. trifasciatus_, 515; _M. triurus_, 519 _Mino_, 561 _Mirafra_, 496-498; _M. apiata_, 498; _M. hova_, 496; _M. javanica_, 496 _Miro_, 512 n., 515, 518 _Mitrephanes_, 474 _Mitua_, 195; _M. mitu_, 196; _M. salvini_, 197; _M. tomentosa_, 197 _Mniotilta_, 573, 574; _M. varia_, 574 Mniotiltidae, 494, 573 f.; habits, 574 Moa, 26, 41; breast-bone, 7; structure, etc., 42 Möbius, on geographical distribution, 16 {615} Mocking bird, 509, 514; habits, 518 f. Moho, 244, 250 Mollymauk, 64, 65 _Molobrus_, 579, 582; _M. badius_, 582; _M. rufo-axillaris_, 582 _Molybdophanes caerulescens_, 101 Momotidae, 376, 379 f. Momotinae, 379 f.; habits, 380 _Momotus brasiliensis_, 381, 381 _Monacha_, 447 f. Monal, 215 Monk, 568 _Monticola_, 510; _M. cyanus_, 510; _M. saxatilis_, 510 _Montifringilla_, 586; _M. nivalis_, 586 Moor-Buzzard, 155 Moor-hen (= Water-Hen), 244-246, 249 Mooruk, 36 More-pork, 409 n., 417 Moreno and Mercerat, on fossil Cathartidae, 140 n.; on fossil Penguins, 59; on "Stereornithes," 44 _Morphnus_, 147; _M. guianensis_, 159; _M. taeniatus_, 159 Moseley, on Penguins, 57 n. Mosenthal and Harting, on ostrich farming, 30 _Motacilla_, fossil, 496; _M. alba_, 500; _M. flava_, 500; _M. lugubris_, 500; _M. melanope_, 500; _M. raii_, 499, 500; _M. vidua_, 500 Motacillidae, 494, 498 f. Motacillinae, 498 f.; habits, 500 f. Mother Carey's Chicken, 67 Motmot, 376, 379 f., 381; habits, 380 Moult, 4 f. Mound-builders, 186, 190 Mounds of Megapodes, 191 f. Mountain-Cock, 244; -Witch, 336 Mouse-bird, 439 Muirfowl, 238 Mules, 203 Müller, Johannes, on classification, 14; on classification by song-muscles, 466 _Mullerornis_, 43 Mulsant, on humming-birds, 432 _Munia_, 579; _M. oryzivora_, 577; _M. punctulata_, 577 Murdoch, on _Tringa maculata_, 281 n. Murie, on classification, 14; on emeus, 37 n.; on hornbill, 392 n.; on _Rhinochetus_, 263 n. Murmures, 426 Murre, 319 _Muscicapa atricapilla_, 507, 509; _M. grisola_, 507; _M. parva_, 507 Muscicapidae, 494, 506 f., 525, 531; habits, 508 _Muscipipra_, 473 _Muscisaxicola_, 475, 477; _M. macloviana_, 475 _Muscivora_, 473, 474; _M. mexicana_, 477; _M. regia_, 474 _Musophaga_, 359; _M. violacea_, 360, 361 Musophagidae, 351, 359. f., 439; habits, 360 f.; toes, 10; the pigments turacoverdin and turacin in, 3 n., 360 Mussel-picker, 276 Mutton-bird, 63 _Mycteria_, 95, 97; _M. americana_, 98; _M. australis_, 98; _M. indica_, 96, 98; _M. senegalensis_, 96, 98 _Myiagra_, 506 _Myiarchus_, 474, 475, 477; _M. crinitus_, 476 _Myiobius_, 474 _Myiodectes_, 513, 518 Myiodectinae, 509, 513, 515 _Myiodioctes_, 573-575 _Myiomoira_, 514, 515, 518 _Myiophoneus_, 502, 503 _Myiopsittacus monachus_, 365, 370 _Myiotheretes_, 475, 476 Myna, 560, 562 _Myristicivora_, 327, 345; _M. bicolor_, 328, 345; _M. luctuosa_, 345; _M. melanura_, 345; _M. spilorrhoa_, 345; _M. subflavescens_, 345 _Myrmeciza_, 488 _Myrmecocichla_, 510, 511 _Myrmotherula pygmaea_, 489 Myrtle-sucker, 426 _Mystacornis_, 503 _Myzomela sanguinolenta_, 565 Myzomelinae, 564 f.

_Naenia_, 301, 304; _N. inca_, 311 Nail, on beak of Anseres, 11 Nandu, 26, 30 f., 31 _Nanodes_, 363 Nape, 20 Nasal, 11 _Nasica_, 484 _Nasiterna_, 362, 365; _N. pygmaea_, 364, 371 f. Native-Companion, 254; -Hen, 249 _Nauclerus_, 146; _N. riocouri_, 171 Nauseous bird, 329 Nearctic Region, 15 f.; its contents, 16 Neck of rib, 6 _Necrastur alacer_, fossil, 181 _Necrobyas harpax_, fossil, 414; _N. rossignoli_, fossil, 414 _Necropsar_, 559, 561 _Necropsittacus rodericanus_, fossil, 375 _Necrornis_, fossil, 361 _Nectarinia_, 569 Nectariniidae, 427, 568 f.; habits, 569 f. Nelly, 65 Nelson, on _Tringa maculata_, 281 n. _Nemura_, 516 _Neochloe_, 536 _Neochmia phaëton_, 578 _Neocorys_, 499, 500 {616} _Neoctantes_, 488 _Neodrepanis_, 569 Neogaea, 15 _Neolestes_, 531, 533 Neomorphinae, 351, 357 _Neophema_, 364, 367; _N. petrophila_, 367; _N. pulchella_, 367 _Neophron_, 143, 145, 151; _N. ginginianus_, 145; _N. percnopterus_, 145; _N. pileatus_, 145 _Neopsittacus_, 373 _Neopus_, 160; _N. malayensis_, 161 _Neornis_, 514 Neornithes, 25 f.; a Sub-Class, 23; N. Carinatae, 25, 48; N. Odontolcae, 25, 45 f.; N. Ratitae, 25 _Neotis_, 260, 262; _N. denhami_, 261 Neotropical Region, 15 f.; its contents, 16 Nerves of bill, in Snipe, 290 n. _Nesochen sandvicensis_, 131 _Nesocichla_, 510, 515 _Nesoenas mayeri_, 343 _Nesolimnas_, 244; _N. dieffenbachi_, 247 _Nesonetta_, 111, 113; _N. aucklandica_, 125 _Nesopelia_, 342 _Nesospiza_, 583 Nestlings, condition of, 21 f. Nestor, Mountain, 375 _Nestor_, 362, 364, 374; _N. esslingi_, 374; _N. meridionalis_, 374; _N. norfolcensis_, 366, 374; _N. notabilis_, 364 f., 374, 375; _N. productus_, 366, 374 Nestorinae, 362 f., 374; habits, 374 _Netta rufina_, 123 _Nettion albigulare_, 126; _N. andium_, 126; _N. bernieri_, 126; _N. brasiliense_, 126; _N. capense_, 126; _N. carolinense_, 126; _N. castaneum_, 126; _N. crecca_, 125 f.; _N. flavirostre_, 126; _N. formosum_, 126; _N. georgicum_, 126; _N. gibberifrons_, 126; _N. punctatum_, 126; _N. torquatum_, 126 _Nettopus_, 112; _N. albipennis_, 134; _N. auritus_, 134; _N. coromandelianus_, 134; _N. pulchellus_, 133 f. Newton, A., on Anatidae, 136; on Bird of Paradise, 543 n.; on classification of Passeres, 467; on Dodo, 329 n.; on _Eurypyga_, 266; on _Fregata_, 72; on geographical distribution, 16 f.; on Great Auk and its literature, 321 n.; on habits of Shoveller, 124 n.; on _Hierofalco_, 180 n.; on Humming-birds, 426 n.; on mimicry, 543 n.; on mode of progression of young Grebes, 54 n.; on Oscines, 495; on Secretary-bird, 142 n.; on Solitaire, 331 n.; on Strigidae, 398 n.; on _Syrrhaptes_ (chick), 325; on trachea of Swans, 112 n.; on Turkey, 206 n.; on Widow-bird, 577 n. Newton, E., on _Phaëthon_, 73 n.; on Solitaire, 331 Newton, A. and E., on _Eulampis holosericeus_, 428 Newton, E., and Gadow, H., on Dodo, 329 n., 330 _Newtonia_, 506 New Zealand Region, 15 f.; its contents, 16 _Nicator_, 532, 533 Nidicolae, 21 Nidifugae, 22 Night-hawk, 67, 417 Night-heron–see Heron, Night- Nightingale, 512, 515, 516; Ceylon-, 506; Palestine-, 506 Night-jar, 415 f.; habits, 416 f.; toes, 10; Common, 416, 418, 418; Pennant-winged, 418 _Niltava_, 506, 507, 509 _Ninox_, 399-401, 408; _N. affinis_, 409; _N. albaria_, 409; _N. boobook_, 408; _N. connivens_, 401, 408; _N. maculata_, 409; _N. natalis_, 409; _N. novae zealandiae_, 409; _N. obscura_, 409; _N. scutulata_, 408; _N. strenua_, 408 _Nipponia_, young, 103; _N. nippon_, 102 _Nisaëtus_, 160; _N. bellicosus_, 161; _N. fasciatus_, 161; _N. morphnoïdes_, 161; _N. pennatus_, 161; _N. spilogaster_, 161 _Nisoïdes moreli_, 157 Nitzsch, on classification, 14; on Alectorides and Fulicariae, 243; on powder-down patches in Falconidae, 147; on Macrochires, 420; on Odontoglossae, 105; on Picariae, 376; Pterylographie, 2 Noble, on Falconry, 146, 178 Noddy, 310–see Tern, Noddy Nomenclature of external parts, in Falcon, 20 _Nomonyx dominicus_, 118 _Nonnula_, 447; _N. rubecula_, 447 North, on Emeu's nest, 37 n.; on _Gypoictinia_, 170 n. Nostril, 20; external, 11; in Petrels, 60; in _Rhinochetus_, 264 Notched bill, 12 _Nothocercus_, 183, 186 _Nothocrax_, 195; _N. urumutum_, 196 _Nothoprocta_, 183, 185; _N. pentlandi_, 185 _Nothura_, 183, 185; _N. darwini_, 185; _N. maculosa_, 185 Noto-coracomorphae, 531 n. _Notodela_, 509, 516 Notogaea, 15 _Notophoyx picata_, 91 _Notornis_, 243, 244, 251; little keel to sternum, 26; _N. alba_, 250, 251; _N. mantelli_, 250 Nucha, 20 _Nucifraga_, 552; _N. caryocatactes_, 553 _Numenius_, 268, 270, 287 f.; bill, 12; fossil, 300; _N. arquata_, 287 f., 288; _N. borealis_, 288, 289; _N. cyanopus_, 288; _N. hudsonicus_, 289; _N. longirostris_, 288; _N. minutus_, 289; {617} _N. phaeopus_, 288 f.; _N. tahitiensis_, 270, 289; _N. tenuirostris_, 288; _N. variegatus_, 289 _Numida_, 201, 204 f.; _N. cornuta_, 205; _N. coronata_, 205; _N. marungensis_, 205; _N. melaegris_, 205; _N. mitrata_, 205; _N. ptilorhyncha_, 205, 206; _N. reichenowi_, 205 Numidinae, 198-201, 204; habits, 205 f. Nunlet, 447 Nutcracker, 553, 555, 556 Nuthatch, 536 f., 537; habits, 538 Nutmeg-bird, 577 _Nyctala_, 399, 401; _N. acadica_, 405; _N. tengmalmi_, 405 _Nyctea_, 398, 403; fossil, 415; _N. scandiaca_, 400, 412 _Nycterodius violaceus_, 90 Nyctibiinae, 415, 416, 418 _Nyctibius_, 415, 417, 418 _Nycticorax_, 87, 88, 90, 265; young, 94; _N. caledonicus_, 90; _N. goisagi_, 90; _N. griseus_, 90; _N. leuconotus_, 90; _N. megacephalus_, fossil, 95; _N. naevius_, 90; _N. pauper_, 90; _N. pileatus_, 90; _N. sibilatrix_, 90; _N. violaceus_, 90 _Nyctidromus_, 415, 416 _Nyctiornis_, 387-389; _N. amictus_, 389 _Nymphicus_, 364, 365; _N. uvaeensis_, 363 _Nyroca_, habits, 123; fossil, 136; _N. africana_, 122, 123; _N. americana_, 122; _N. australis_, 122, 123; _N. baeri_, 122; _N. brunnea_, 123; _N. ferina_, 122; _N. innotata_, 122; _N. nationi_, 123; _N. vallisneria_, 122

Oar-feathers, 21 Oates, on Sturinidae, 559 Occiput, 20 _Oceanites_, 60, 62, 65; _O. oceanicus_, 65 Oceanitinae, 59, 60, 65 _Oceanodroma_, 61, 62, 67 f.; _O. cryptoleucura_, 68; _O. furcata_, 68; _O. hornbyi_, 68; _O. leucorrhoa_, 68 _Ochromela_, 509 Ocreate metatarsus, 60 Ocreated, 10 _Ocydromus_, 244-247; _O. australis_, 247; _O. earli_, 247; _O. fuscus_, 247; _O. greyi_, 247; _O. hectori_, 247; _O. insignis_, fossil, 251; _O. sylvestris_, 247 _Ocyphaps_, 326; _O. lophotes_, 337 Odontoglossae, 105 Odontolcae, 45 f.; a subdivision of Neornithes, 23 f. Odontophorinae, 198, 199, 202, 204, 230 f. _Odontophorus_, 199, 203, 232; _O. guianensis_, 232 _Odontopteryx toliapica_, fossil, 86 Odontornithes, 2, 45 f. Odontotormae, 45 _Oedemia_, 111; habits, 120; _O. americana_, 119; _O. carbo_, 120; _O. deglandi_, 120; _O. fusca_, 113, 119 f.; _O. nigra_, 119; _O. perspicillata_, 113, 120 Oedicnemidae, 268, 269, 297 _Oedicnemus_, 269, 270; _O. affinis_, 297; _O. bistriatus_, 297; _O. capensis_, 297; _O. dominicensis_, 297 n.; _O. grallarius_, 297; _O. scolopax_, 297; _O. senegalensis_, 297; _O. superciliaris_, 297; _O. vermiculatus_, 297 _Oena_, 326, 327; _O. capensis_, 339 Oesophagus, 12 _Oestrelata_, 66; _O. brevipes_, 66; _O. haesitata_, 66 Oil-bird, 419 Oil-glands, 21 Oiseau-mouche, 426 Old Squaw, 121 Oligomyodae, 466 _Oligura_, 502 _Oncostoma_, 473 One-wattled Cassowary, 35 _Onychognathus_, 559 _Onychotes gruberi_, 165 O-o, 564, 567, 568 Open-bill, 97 Operculum of nostrils, 11; in Caprimulgidae, 415; in Columbae, 325; in Plovers, 270; in Procellariidae, 60; in _Rhinochetus_, 264 Opisthocoelous, 6 Opisthocomi, 186, 241 Opisthocomidae, 186, 241 _Opisthocomus_, 186, 241; affinity to Cuculi, 241; _O. cristatus_, 241, 242 _Opisthodactylus_, 45 _Opisthoprora euryptera_, 437 _Ophrysia superciliosa_, 218 Orange colour in Birds, its nature, 3 n. Orbit, 20 _Orchesticus_, 575 ὄρχιλος, 426 _Orchilus ecaudatus_, 473 _Oreicola_, 511 _Oreocorys_, 498 _Oreoeca_, 532, 534; _O. cristata_, 567 n. _Oreomyza_, 562, 563 _Oreonympha nobilis_, 436 Oreophasinae, 194, 195, 198 _Oreophasis_, 195; _O. derbianus_, 198 _Oreophilus ruficollis_, 273 _Oreopsittacus_, 363 _Oreortyx pictus_, 230 f. _Oreoscoptes_, 514, 515, 519 _Oreotrochilus_, 431 f., 436; _O. chimborazo_, 428; _O. pichincha_, 428, 430, 436 Organ-bird, 522, 532 Oriental Region, 17 _Origma_, 517, 518 Oriole, 542 f.; habits, 543; American, 542, 579; Baltimore, 580, 581; Golden, 542, 542 Oriolidae, 542 f.; {618} habits, 543 _Oriolus ardens_, 542; _O. cruentus_, 542; _O. galbula_, 542, 542; _O. hosii_, 542; _O. kundoo_, 542; _O. steerii_, 542; _O. trailli_, 542; _O. viridis_, 542, 543 _Ornithion imberbe_, 474, 476 _Ortalis_, 195, 197; _O. canicollis_, 197; _O. ruficauda_, 197; _O. vetula_, 195, 197 _Orthnocnemus_, fossil, 251 _Ortholophus_, 390, 393 _Orthonyx_, 503, 504 _Orthotomus_, 514, 518 _Ortygornis_, 226 _Ortyx_, 202-204; _O. virginianus_, 231, 232 f. _Ortyxelus_, 293; _O. meiffreni_, 187, 295 Oscines, 466, 467, 494; families of, 495 f.; structure, 496; voice-muscles, 13, 491 n. _Osculatia purpurea_, 336; _O. sapphirina_, 336 _Osmotreron_, 348; _O. aromatica_, 349; _O. olax_, 349; _O. pompadora_, 349; _O. vernans_, 348 f. Osprey, 137, 149, 180 f.; habits, 181 _Ossifraga_, 60, 61; fossil, 69; _O. gigantea_, 65 _Osteornis_, fossil, 496 _Ostinops_, 580 Ostrich, 26, 27 f., 28; breast-bone, 7; claws of toes, 10; farming, 30; feathers, 30 Otididae, 243, 260 f.; habits, 262 f. _Otidiphaps_, 325, 328; _O. cervicalis_, 335; _O. insularis_, 335; _O. nobilis_, 335 _Otis_, 260, 262; fossil, 263; _O. tarda_, 261, 261; _O. tetrax_, 260-262 _Otocompsa_, 504, 505 _Otocorys_, 496-498; _O. alpestris_, 496 f.; _O. peregrina_, 496 _Otogyps_, 143; _O. auricularis_, 144; _O. calvus_, 144 _Otophanes_, 416 Ourissia, 426 Ousel, Ring-, 510; Water-, 519 Oustalet–see Milne-Edwards Oven-bird, 485; nest, 485 Oviedo, on a Humming-bird, 426 Owen, on _Archaeopteryx_, 23; on Dinornithidae, 41; on Dodo, 330 Owl, 175, 179, 180, 397 f.; clavicles do not always unite, 8, 398; habits, 400 f.; toes, 10; American Screech-, 413; Barn-, 403; Brown, 405; Burrowing, 400, 409 f., 410; Eagle-, 402, 413 f.; Grass-, 404; Hairy, 408; Hawk-, 401, 408, 411; Lapp-, 405; Laughing, 408; Little, 403, 410 f.; Long-eared, 402, 406; Marsh-, 406 f.; Mottled, 401, 413; of Pallas Athene, 411; Pigmy-, 407; Saw-whet, 405; Scops, 403, 412 f.; Screech-, 398-403, 404; Short-eared, 400, 402, 403, 406; Snowy, 399-403, 412; Tawny, 398 n., 405; Tengmalm's, 405; White, 403; Wood-, 401, 402, 405, 406; Woodcock-, 407 Oxbird, 279 Ox-pecker, 561 _Oxylabes_, 503 _Oxynotus_, 526 _Oxypelia_, 326; _O. cyanopis_, 340 _Oxypogon guerini_, 436 f. Oxyrhamphidae, 469, 477 _Oxyrhamphus_, 477 _Oxyurus_, 484 Oyster-catcher, 276, 302; bill, 11

Paauw, 263 n. _Pachycephala_, 531, 534; _P. simplex_, 533 Pachycephalinae, 531 f. _Pachyornis_, 42; _P. elephantopus_, 42 _Pachyrhamphus_, 480, 482, 483 _Paeoptera_, 532 _Pagodroma nivea_, 67 _Pagophila_, 301; _P. eburnea_, 306 Palaearctic region, 15 f. _Palaeeudyptes antarcticus_, fossil, 59 _Palaegithalus_, fossil, 496 Palaelodidae, 70, 105, 108 _Palaelodus_, 70, 108 _Palaeocercus cuvieri_, fossil, 181 _Palaeociconia_, fossil, 99 _Palaeocorax_, fossil, 496 _Palaeocycnus_, fossil, 136 Palaeogaea, 15 _Palaeogrus_, fossil, 256 _Palaeohierax gervaisi_, fossil, 181 _Palaeolimnas_, fossil, 251 _Palaeopelargus_, fossil, 99 _Palaeoperdix_, fossil, 240 _Palaeornis_, 362-365, 368; _P. eupatria_, 368; _P. exsul_, 366; _P. torquata_, 368 _Palaeortyx_, fossil, 240 _Palaeospheniscus bergii_, fossil, 59; _P. menzbieri_, fossil, 59; _P. patagonicus_, fossil, 59 _Palaeospiza_, fossil, 496 _Palaeotetrix_, fossil, 241 _Palaeotringa_, fossil, 300 _Palamedea_, 109; _P. cornuta_, 110 Palamedeae, 108 f. Palamedeidae, 108 f.; habits, 109 f.; rib, 6; young, 109 Palatine, 11 _Palmeria_, 562, 564; _P. dolii_, 563 Pamprodactylous, 10 _Pandion_, 146; habits, 181; _P. carolinensis_, 181; _P. haliaëtus_, 180 f.; _P. leucocephalus_, 181; _P. solitarius_, 165 Pandionidae, 137, 180 f.; young, 180 _Panoplites_, 437 f. _Panterpe insignis_, 435 Panuridae, 541 f. _Panurus biarmicus_, 541 f., 541 _Panychlora_, 433 _Panyptila_, 420, 421, 424; {619} toes, 10; _P. cayennensis_, 424; _P. sancti hieronymi_, 424 Papilla of feather, 2 _Parabuteo unicinctus_, 166 _Paradigalla_, 544, 550; _P. carunculata_, 546 _Paradisea_, 545, 550; _P. apoda_, 543, 546, 551; _P. augustae victoriae_, 551; _P. minor_, 546; _P. raggiana_, 546, 551; _P. rubra_, 546; _P. rudolphi_, 546 Paradise-bird–see Bird of Paradise Paradise-Pie, 546 Paradiseidae, 543 f., 557 n.; habits, 550 f. _Paradisornis_, 545, 546, 550 _Paradoxornis_, 502-504 Parakeet, 351, 364; Grass-, 364, 367; Ground-, 364; Rock-, 367; Rose-banded, 368; Roselle, 368; Rose-ringed, 368; Uvaean, 363 _Paramythia montium_, 559 n. _Paraptenodytes antarcticus_, fossil, 59 _Pardalotus_, 570, 571 _Pareudiastes_, 244-246 Paridae, 494, 536, 538; habits, 540 Parietal, 11 _Parisoma_, 508 Parker, T. J., on _Aepyornis_, 43 n.; on Apteryges, 38; on Megistanes, 38; on Dinornithidae, 42 Parker, W. K., on classification, 14; on Oscines, 495; on Picidae, 457; on _Rhinochetus_, 263 n. _Paroaria_, 583, 585 _Parotia_, 550; _P. lawesi_, 551; _P. sexpennis_, 547 f., 548 _Parra_, 270; _P. gymnostoma_, 298; _P. jacana_, 298-300; dance of, 300; _P. melanopygia_, 298; _P. nigra_, 298; _P. variabilis_, 298 Parridae, 268-71, 297 f.; habits, 299 f. Parrot, 351, 361 f., 366; bill, 12; cere, 11; clavicles sometimes absent, 8; habits, 364 f.; toes, 10; voice, 13; Alexandrine, 368; Amazon-, 370; Black, 359; Grey, 362, 369, 370; Ground-, 362; Kaka, 374; Monk-, 370; Norfolk Island, 374; Owl-, 366; Phillip Island, 374; Vasa, 369 Parson-bird, 567

## Partial migrants, 18

Partridge, 198-200, 202, 203; habits, 224 f.; American, 198, 203, 230; Bamboo-, 218 f.; Barbary, 228; Black, 226; Common, 224, 229; French, 228; Greek, 228; Mountain-, 336; Red-legged, 203, 228; hybrids, 224; (Ruffed Grouse), 233; Snow-, 230; Spruce-, 236 _Parus_, 538, 539; _P. britannicus_, 539; _P. caeruleus_, 539; _P. cristatus_, 539; _P. cyanus_, 539; _P. flavipectus_, 539; _P. major_, 539, 539; _P. niger_, 539; _P. palustris_, 539; _P. sultaneus_, 539 _Paryphephorus_, 544, 545 Passaros de sol, 543 _Passer_, 583; _P. domesticus_, 584, 584; _P. insularis_, 583; _P. jagoënsis_, 583; _P. simplex_, 585 Passeres, voice-muscles, 13; anisomyodae, 467; diacromyodae, 467, 491 f. Passeriformes, 466 f. _Pastor_, 559, 561; _P. roseus_, 560 _Patagona_, 430; _P. gigas_, 430, 432, 437 Patella, 22; of Grebes, 49 Paul, on Humming-bird's nest, 436 _Pauxis_, 195; _P. galeata_, 197 _Pavo_, 200, 202, 203; _P. cristatus_, 200, 206; _P. muticus_, 207; _P. nigripennis_, 207 Pavo del Monte, 197 Peacock, 199, 200, 203, 204, 206 f.; Japanned, 207; Pheasant, 208 Pea-fowl, 207; superstition about, 207 Pea-hen, 207 Peale, discovery of _Didunculus_, 331 f. _Pealea_, 60, 65 Pectineal process of pubis, 9 Pectoral arch, 8 Pectus, 20 _Pedioecetes_, 199, 201; fossil, 241; _P. phasianellus_, 234 Pedionomidae, 186, 187, 189 _Pedionomus_, 187; _P. torquatus_, 189 f., 190 Peewit, 275 _Pelagodroma_, 60, 63, 65; _P. marina_, 65 _Pelagornis_, fossil, 86 _Pelargodes_, fossil, 99 Pelargomorphae, 70 _Pelargopsis_, 383; _P. gurial_, 387 Pelecanidae, 70, 83 _Pelecanoïdes_, 60; _P. exsul_, 68; _P. garnoti_, 68; _P. urinatrix_, 68 Pelecanoïdinae, 59, 68 _Pelecanus_, 70-72; fossil, 86; habits, 84 f.; _P. conspicillatus_, 84; _P. crispus_, 83, 84; _P. erythrorhynchus_, 83; _P. fuscus_, 83 f.; _P. minor_, 83; _P. mitratus_, 83; _P. molinae_, 84; _P. onocrotalus_, 83; _P. philippensis_, 83, 85; _P. rufescens_, 83; _P. sharpii_, 83 Pelican, 70, 83; habits, 84 f.; fabled to feed its young with blood, 85 f.; outgrowth of culmen shed, 5 n., 83; Crested, 84 _Pellorneum_, 504 Pelvis of _Apteryx_, 9 _Penelope_, 195, 197; _P. albipennis_, 197; _P. cristata_, 197; _P. jacucaca_, 195; _P. montagnii_, 197; _P. obscura_, 197; _P. pileata_, 197 _Penelopides manillae_, 395 _Penelopina_, 195; _P. nigra_, 197 Penelopinae, 194, 197 Penguin, 54 f., 315; (Auk), 321; habits, 55 f.; meaning of name, 55; moult, 5 Penis, in Anseriformes, 108; {620} in Ratitae, 26 Pennae, 2 _Pennula_, 244, 245; _P. ecaudata_, 244, 250, 251 _Penthetria ardens_, 577 Perdicinae, 198, 204, 218 _Perdicula_, 223; _P. argoondah_, 223; _P. asiatica_, 223 _Perdix_, 202, 224; _P. barbata_, 225; _P. cinerea_, 224; _P. daürica_, 225; _P. hodgsoniae_, 225; _P. montana_, 224; _P. sifanica_, 225 Perdiz, 335; chico, 185; comun, 185; grande, 184 Perdrix d'Angleterre, 323 _Pericrocotus_, 525, 526 _Perisoreus infaustus_, 554 _Perissoglossa_, 573 _Peristera_, 326-328, 334; _P. cinerea_, 339; _P. geoffroyi_, 339; _P. mondetoura_, 339 f. Peristerinae, 325 f., 334 f. Peristeropodes, 186, 190 Perkins, on Drepanididae, 562 n. _Pernis_, 148, 172; _P. apivorus_, 172; _P. celebensis_, 172; _P. cristatus_, 172; _P. ptilorhynchus_, 172; _P. tweeddalii_, 172 Pervious nostrils, 11 _Petasophora_, 430, 434 Petherick, on _Balaeniceps_, 94 n. Petit Duc, 412 Petrel, 54, 59 f.; breast-bone, 7 f.; derivation of name, 68; habits, 61 f.; nostrils, 11; size, 61; Diving, 62; Giant-, 63, 65; Leach's, 68; Storm-, 62, 65, 68; Wilson's, 65 _Petrochelidon_, 522, 523, 525; _P. nigricans_, 524, 525 _Petroeca_, 511, 515, 516 _Petronia_, 586; _P. brachydactyla_, 585-587 _Petrophassa albipennis_, 337 _Peucaea_, 585 _Peucedramus_, 573 _Pezophaps solitarius_, 328, 330 f. _Pezoporus_, 364, 365; _P. formosus_, 367 _Phabotreron_, 326, 348; _P. amethystina_, 348 _Phacellodomus_, 484, 487 _Phaenopepla_, 529; _P. nitens_, 530 _Phaenoptila_, 529; _P. melanoxantha_, 530 _Phaenorrhina_, 326; _P. goliath_, 345 _Phaeornis_, 513, 515 _Phaëthon_, 70-72; fossil, 86; _P. aethereus_, 72, 73; _P. americanus_, 72 n.; _P. flavirostris_, 72; _P. rubricauda_, 72 Phaëthontidae, 70, 72; habits, 72 f. _Phaëthornis_, 427, 430, 431, 435 Phaëthornithinae, 435 _Phaëthusa magnirostris_, 314 Phalacrocoracidae, 70, 75 _Phalacrocorax_, 70-72, 75; fossil, 86; habits, 78 f.; _P. africanus_, 77; _P. carbo_, 75 f., 76; _P. carunculatus_, 77; _P. dilophus_, 76; _P. featherstoni_, 77; _P. graculus_, 77; _P. imperialis_, 77; _P. lucidus_, 77; _P. novae hollandiae_, 76; _P. onslowi_, 77; _P. pelagicus_, 76; _P. perspicillatus_, 77; _P. punctatus_, 77; _P. pygmaeus_, 78; _P. urile_, 77; _P. varius_, 77 _Phalaenoptilus_, 417; _P. nuttalli_, 415 Phalanges, of fingers, 9; of toes, 10 Phalarope, 270; Grey, 278; Red-necked, 279 Phalaropodinae, 278 f. _Phalaropus_, 269, 270; bright colour of hen, 4; male incubates, 271; _P. fulicarius_, 278; _P. hyperboreus_, 278 f.; _P. wilsoni_, 279 _Phalcobaenus_, 152; _P. albigularis_, 152; _P. carunculatus_, 152; _P. megalopterus_, 152 _Phaps_, 327, 328, 334; _P. chalcoptera_, 338; _P. elegans_, 338 Pharaoh's hen, 145 _Pharomacrus_, 441; _P. mocinno_, 441, 442, 444, 444; _P. pavoninus_, 442 Phases of colour in owls, 400 Phasianidae, 186, 198, 219; habits, 202 f. Phasianinae, 198, 204, 206 _Phasianus_, 199-202; fossil, 240; _P. chrysomelas_, 210; _P. colchicus_, 210, 211, 212; _P. decollatus_, 210; _P. elegans_, 210; _P. ellioti_, 211; _P. formosanus_, 210, 211; _P. humiae_, 211; _P. mongolicus_, 211; _P. persicus_, 210; _P. principalis_, 210; _P. reevesi_, 211, 212; _P. satscheunensis_, 210, 211; _P. shawi_, 210; _P. soemmerringi_, 211, 212; _P. strauchi_, 210; _P. tarimensis_, 210; _P. torquatus_, 210-212; _P. versicolor_, 210-212; _P. vlangali_, 210; _P. zerafshanicus_, 210 _Phasidus_, 201; _P. niger_, 205, 206 Pheasant, 192, 198, 199, 202, 203, 211, 493; in Britain, 210; Argus-, 207; Blood-, 217; Copper-, 212; Crow-, 356; Eared, 214; Golden, 209 f.; Green, 212; Horned, 216; Impeyan, 215, 216; Koklas, 212; Lady Amherst's, 210; Native, 193; Peacock-, 208; Pukras, 212; Reeves's, 212; Ring-necked, 210; (Ruffed Grouse), 233; Silver-, 213; Snow-, 214, 229; Stinking, 242 _Phedina_, 523 _Phegornis_, 269; _P. mitchelli_, 292 _Pheucticus_, 585 _Phibalura_, 479, 480, 482, 483; _P. flavirostris_, 480 _Philacte canagica_, 132 _Philemon_, 564-567; mimicry, 543 n., 568; _P. corniculatus_, 567 _Philepitta_, 471; {621} _P. jala_, 471, 471; _P. schlegeli_, 471 f. Philepittidae, 469, 471 _Philetaerus_, 579; _P. socius_, 577 _Philohela minor_, 290 _Philortyx fasciatus_, 231 _Phimosus infuscatus_, 101 _Phloeocryptes_, 486 _Phlogoenas_, 326, 335; _P. kubaryi_, 336; _P. luzonica_, 335; _P. rufigula_, 335; _P. stairi_, 335; _P. tristigma_, 335 _Phlogopsis_, 488 _Phlogothraupis_, 575 Phoebe, 476 _Phoebetria_, 60; _P. fuliginosa_, 63 _Phoenicocercus_, 479, 480; _P. carnifex_, 480 _Phoeniconaias minor_, 107 _Phoenicoparrus andinus_, 107 _Phoenicophaës_, 352; _P. pyrrhocephalus_, 357 Phoenicophainae, 351, 357; habits, 357 Phoenicopteri, 70 f., 105 f., 108 Phoenicopteridae, 70, 105 f., 112; apparently shed wing-quills simultaneously, 4; habits, 107 _Phoenicopterus_, fossil, 108; sifting apparatus of bill, 12, 107; young, 107; _P. andinus_, 106, 107; _P. chilensis_, 106; _P. jamesi_, 106, 107; _P. minor_, 106, 107; _P. roseus_, 106 f., 106; _P. ruber_, 105 f. _Pholidauges_, 559; _P. leucogaster_, 560 f. _Pholidornis_, 570 _Phonipara_, 583, 586 _Phonygammus_, 545, 550, 551; _P. jamesi_, 548 _Phororhachos_, 44; fossil, 260; _P. gracilis_, 45; _P. inflatus_, 45; _P. longissimus_, 45; _P. modicus_, 45; _P. platygnathus_, 45; _P. sehuensis_, 45 _Photodilus_, 398, 400; _P. badius_, 404 f. _Phoyx purpurea_, 93 _Phrygilus_, 586 _Phyllergates_, 514 _Phylloscopus_, 514, 515, 517, 518 _Phyllostrephus_, 504, 506 _Phytotoma_, 483; _P. angustirostris_, 483; _P. raimondii_, 483; _P. rara_, 483; _P. rutila_, 483 Phytotomidae, 469, 483 _Piaya_, 351, 357; _P. cayana_, 357 _Pica_, 552; _P. mauritanica_, 355, 552, 553; _P. nuttalli_, 553; _P. rustica_, 355, 553, 554 Picaflor, 426 Picariae, 376; of Nitzsch, 466 Picarii, 466 _Picathartes_, 552, 556 Pici, 376, 445 f.; toes, 10 _Picicorvus columbianus_, 553 Picidae, 445, 457 f. Picinae, 457 f., 464; habits, 458 f. _Picoïdes_, 462; _P. tridactylus_, 462 _Picolaptes_, 487 Piculet, 464 Picumninae, 464 _Picumnus_, 462, 464; _P. africanus_, 464; _P. micromegas_, 464; _P. ochraceus_, 464 _Picus_, 464; bill, 12; fossil, 465; _P. martius_, 458, 463, 464; _P. obsoletus_, 462 Pie, 175; Sea-, 276 Pierrot, 362 _Piezorhynchus_, 507, 509; _P. chrysomelas_, 507 Pigafetta, on Bird of Paradise, 543 Pigeon, 325 f.; breeds of, 327 n.; origin of domestic, 327, 344; habits, 327 f.; operculum of nostrils, 11; Brush Bronze-wing, 338; Common Bronze-wing, 338; Crested Bronze-wing, 337; Crowned, 333, 334; Fruit-, 325, 327, 328, 344-347; Ground-, 326, 327, 338; hollondais, 346; Partridge Bronze-wing, 337; Passenger-, 327, 342; Plumed Bronze-wing, 337; Rock-, 324, 344; Snow-, 344; Tooth-billed, 325, 332, 333; Tumbler-, 327; Wood-, 327, 328, 344; White-bellied, 336 Pigment of feathers, 3, 3 n. Pigmy Parrot, 371 f. _Pilerodius pileatus_, 90 Pimlico, 567 Pingré, on Solitaire, 330 f. Pintados, 204 Pintail–see Duck _Pipile_, 195; _P. cujubi_, 197; _P. cumanensis_, 197; _P. jacutinga_, 197 _Pipilo_, 585 Pipit, 498 f.; habits, 500 f.; Meadow-, 354, 500; moult, 5; Red-throated, 500; Richard's, 500; Rock-, 500; Tawny, 500; Tree-, 500, 501; Water-, 500 _Pipra leucocilla_, 478; _P. mentalis_, 478; _P. serena_, 478; _P. suavissima_, 478; _P. velutina_, 478 _Pipreola_, 480, 482; _P. riefferi_, 483 Pipridae, 469, 477 f.; habits, 479 Piprinae, 477 f. _Piprisoma_, 571 _Piprites_, 477 _Pitangus_, 475; _P. bolivianus_, 476 _Pithecophaga_, 146; _P. jefferyi_, 160 _Pithys_, 488, 489 _Pitta_, 469 f.; _P. angolensis_, 471; _P. baudi_, 471; _P. brachyura_, 470; _P. caerulea_, 470 f.; _P. cucullata_, 470; _P. cyanea_, 471; _P. cyanoptera_, 471; _P. granatina_, 471; _P. iris_, 471; _P. mackloti_, 471; _P. maxima_, 471; _P. moluccensis_, 470; _P. novae guineae_, 470; _P. nympha_, 471; _P. oatesi_, 470; _P. strepitans_, 471 _Pittasoma_, 488 Pittidae, 469 f., 472; {622} habits, 469 f. _Pitylus_, 575 _Pityriasis_, 532; _P. gymnocephala_, 532 Plain-Wanderer, 190 Plant-cutters, 483 Plantain-eater, 351, 359 f., 439; habits, 360 f.; toes, 10 _Platalea_, 100; bill, 12; fossil, 105; young, 105; _P. alba_, 103, 104; _P. flavipes_, 104; _P. leucorodia_, 100, 103, 104, 104; _P. minor_, 103, 104; _P. regia_, 103, 104 Plataleinae, 99 f.; habits, 103 _Platycercus_, 363, 364, 367; _P. elegans_, 367 f.; _P. eximius_, 368 _Platylophus_, 532 Platyrhynchinae, 473 f. _Platyrhynchus_, 473 _Platysmurus_, 552; _P. aterrimus_, 553 _Platystira_, 506, 507 _Plectrophenax_, 583, 586; _P. nivalis_, 584 f., 585 Plectropterinae, 111, 133 f. _Plectropterus_, 111-113; _P. gambensis_, 134; _P. niger_, 134; _P. rüppelli_, 134; _P. scioanus_, 134 _Plectrorhynchus_, 565 _Plegadis_, 100; _P. falcinellus_, 101; _P. guarauna_, 101; _P. ridgwayi_, 101 Pliny, on death of Aeschylus, 151; on _Trochilus_, 426 _Ploceëlla_, 577, 579 Ploceidae, 576 f., 582; habits, 578 f. Ploceinae, 577 f. _Ploceipasser mahali_, 579 _Ploceus_, 577, 579; _P. baya_, 578, 579 _Plotus_, 70-72; habits, 80 f.; _P. anhinga_, 79; _P. chantrii_, 80; _P. levaillanti_, 80; _P. melanogaster_, 80, 80; _P. nanus_, fossil, 86; _P. novae hollandiae_, 79 f.; _P. parvus_, fossil, 86 Plover, 268, 270; Crab-, 268, 296; Golden, 272; Green, 275; Grey, 272; Kentish, 273; Kill-deer, 274; Little Ringed, 273; Norfolk, 297; Ringed, 273, 273, 295 Plumae, 2 Plumule, 2 _Pluvianellus sociabilis_, 276 _Pluvianus_, 293; _P. aegyptius_, 295 Pneumaticity, of _Chauna_, 109; of _Sula_, 72 _Pnoëpyga_, 521, 522 Pochard, 122 _Podager_, 416 Podargidae, 415-417, 419 _Podargus_, 415, 417, 419; _P. cuvieri_, 417 _Podica_, 267; _P. petersi_, 268; _P. senegalensis_, 267 Podicipedidae, 49, 52; functionless tail, 26; habits, 53 f.; structure, etc., 49 f. Podicipedes, 49 _Podicipes auritus_, 53; _P. caliparaeus_, 53; _P. cristatus_, 53; _P. dominicus_, 53; _P. fluviatilis_, 52, 52; _P. griseigena_, 53; _P. gularis_, 52; _P. holboelli_, 53; _P. nestor_, 53; _P. nigricollis_, 53; _P. pelzelni_, 53; _P. rollandi_, 53; _P. rufipectus_, 53; _P. taczanowskii_, 53; _P. tricolor_, 53 _Podilymbus_, 49; _P. podiceps_, 53 _Podoces_, 558; _P. biddulphi_, 558; _P. hendersoni_, 558; _P. humilis_, 558, 559; _P. panderi_, 558 _Poecilonetta bahamensis_, 125; _P. erythrorhyncha_, 125; _P. galapagensis_, 125 _Poeocephalus_, 364; _P. robustus_, 365, 369 _Poëphila mirabilis_, 578 _Pogonorhynchus_, 448, 449; _P. dubius_, 449 f. _Pogonornis_, 565, 567 _Polioaëtus ichthyaëtus_, 164; _P. plumbeus_, 164 _Poliohierax insignis_, 174; _P. semitorquatus_, 174 _Poliolophus_, 505 _Polioptila_, 514, 518 Polioptilinae, 509, 514, 515 Pollex, 8 Polyborinae, 146-148, 151 f. _Polyboroïdes_, 146; _P. radiatus_, 154; _P. typicus_, 154 _Polyborus_, 146-148, 152, 153; _P. cheriway_, 152; _P. lutosus_, 152; _P. tharus_, 151, 152 Polygamy, in Galline Birds, 202; questionable in _Opisthocomus_, 242 Polygonal bodies imbedded in vanes, 3 Polymyodi, 466 _Polyplectron_, 200, 202, 203, 208; _P. bicalcaratum_, 208; _P. chinquis_, 208; _P. germaini_, 208; _P. inocellatus_, 208; _P. napoleonis_, 208; _P. nehrkornae_, 208; _P. schleiermacheri_, 208 _Polytmus_, 427 _Pomatorhinus_, 502, 504 _Pomatostomus_, 568 Poor Soldier, 567 Poor-Will, 417 _Porphyrio_, 243, 245, 246, 250; _P. caerulescens_, fossil, 251; _P. caeruleus_, 250; _P. mackintoshi_, fossil, 251; _P. reperta_, 251; _P. veterum_, 250 _Porphyriola_, 244; _P. alleni_, 250; _P. martinica_, 250; _P. parva_, 250 _Porphyriops_, 244; _P. crassirostris_, 250; _P. melanops_, 250 _Porphyriornis nesiotis_, 244, 249 _Porphyrocephalus spurius_, 367 Port Egmont Hen, 305 _Porzana bailloni_, 246, 248; _P. carolina_, 248; _P. maruetta_, 248 _Porzanula_, 244, 246; _P. palmeri_, 249 f. Post-thoracic rib, 6 Posterior limbs, 9 Pouch, 21; gular, in Bustards, 261 Poule Rouge, 251 {623} Powder-down, feathers, 3; patches, 22; in Accipitres, 147; in Ardeae, 87; in _Artamus_, 531; in Eurypygidae, 266; in Falconidae, 147; in _Gymnoderus_, 481; in _Leptosoma_, 378; in _Mesites_, 187; in Podargidae, 416; in Psittaci, 364; in _Rhinochetus_, 264; in Tinamidae, 183 Praecoces, 22 Praemaxilla, 11 Prairie, Chicken, 234; -Hen, 235; Lesser Prairie-Hen, 235 _Pratincola_, 510, 515; _P. rubetra_, 511 Pratincole, 268, 293 f. Pre-Tertiary Birds, 2 Presphenoid, 11 Primaries, 20, 22 Principal shaft, or rhachis of feather, 3 _Prinia_, 514, 518 _Priocella_, 61; _P. glacialoïdes_, 67 _Priofinus cinereus_, 67 _Prion_, 60, 61, 66, 112; sifting apparatus of bill, 12; _P. ariel_, 66; _P. desolatus_, 66 _Prionirhynchus_, 380 _Prioniturus_, 363 _Prionochilus_, 570, 571; _P. squalidus_, 571; _P. vincens_, 570 _Prionodura_, 551; _P. newtoniana_, 548, 551 Prionopinae, 531 f. _Prionops_, 532 _Prionotelus_, 441, 442; _P. temnurus_, 443 f. Prismatic, hues in feathers, cause of, 3; structure of vanes, 4 _Pristorhamphus_, 570 _Procellaria_, 62, 67 f.; _P. pelagica_, 67, 68; _P. tethys_, 68 Procellariidae, 59 f.; habits, 61 f. Procellariiformes, 59 f., 70 Procellariinae, 59, 60, 65 f. _Procelsterna_, 311 _Procne_, 523-525; _P. furcata_, 525; _P. tapera_, 523-525 Procnemial, 22; process, of Colymbiformes, 49 _Procnias_, 575, 576 Procoelous, 6 _Prodotiscus_, 451 f.; _P. insignis_, 452; _P. regulus_, 452 _Progura gallinacea_, fossil, 350 _Proherodius oweni_, fossil, 95 _Promerops_, 568, 569; _P. cafer_, 570 _Propelargus_, fossil, 99 _Prosobonia leucoptera_, 283 _Prosthemadera_, 565, 567; _P. novae zealandiae_, 567 _Protibis_, fossil, 105 _Protonotaria_, 573 Proventriculus, 12 Provinces, 17 Proximal, 22 _Prymnacantha_, 427; _P. popelarii_, 438 f. _Psalidoprocne_, 522-525; _P. nitens_, 522, 524 _Psaltria_, 538, 539 _Psaltriparus_, 538-540 _Psamathia_, 515 _Psarisomus_, 468, 469; _P. dalhousiae_, 468 f. _Psaroglossa_, 559 _Psephotus_, 365 _Pseudapteryx gracilis_, fossil, 40 _Pseudochelidon_, 530, 531 _Pseudocolaptes_, 484, 487 _Pseudodacnis_, 575 _Pseudogeranus_, 254 _Pseudogerygone_, 507; _P. rubra_, 507 _Pseudogryphus_, 137; _P. californianus_, 139 _Pseudogyps_, 143; _P. africanus_, 145; _P. bengalensis_, 145 _Pseudonestor_, 562 _Pseudorhectes_, 532 _Pseudotantalus ibis_, 97 _Pseudotriccus_, 474 _Psilopogon pyrolophus_, 450 _Psilorhamphus_, 488 _Psilorhinus_, 553 Psittaci, 351 f., 361 f., 376; bill, 12; cere, 11; clavicles sometimes absent, 8; habits, 364 f.; metatarsals, 10; toes, 10; voice, 13 Psittacidae, 351, 362 f., 366 f. Psittacinae, 362 f., 367 _Psittacirostra_, 562, 563 _Psittacula_, 363, 364, 368, 370 _Psittacus_, 364; fossil, 375; _P. erithacus_, 362, 369, 370; _P. timneh_, 369 _Psophia crepitans_, 257, 258; _P. leucoptera_, 258; _P. napensis_, 258; _P. obscura_, 258; _P. ochroptera_, 258; _P. viridis_, 258 Psophiidae, 243, 256, 257 f.; habits, 258 _Psophodes_, 503 Ptarmigan, 204, 240; claws shed, 203; moult, 5 _Ptererythrius_, 532, 533 _Pteridophora_, 545; _P. alberti_, 548 _Pternistes_, 225 f.; _P. afer_, 225; _P. boehmi_, 226; _P. cranchi_, 225 f.; _P. humboldti_, 225; _P. infuscatus_, 226; _P. leucoscepus_, 226; _P. nudicollis_, 225; _P. rubricollis_, 225; _P. rufipictus_, 226; _P. swainsoni_, 226 _Pterocles_, 268, 321 f.; fossil, 325; _P. arenarius_, 323; _P. bicinctus_, 323; _P. coronatus_, 323; _P. decoratus_, 323; _P. fasciatus_, 322, 323; _P. gutturalis_, 323; _P. lichtensteini_, 322, 323; _P. quadricinctus_, 323; _P. personatus_, 323; _P. variegatus_, 323 Pteroclidae, 268, 321 f.; habits, 322 f.; toes, 10 Pteroclo-Columbine, 268, 321 _Pteroclurus_, 322; {624} _P. alchata_, 323; _P. exustus_, 324; _P. namaqua_, 324; _P. senegallus_, 324 _Pteroglossus_, 456; _P. aracari_, 456; _P. beauharnaisi_, 454, 456; _P. torquatus_, 455 _Pteronetta hartlaubi_, 134 _Pterophanes_, 427; _P. temmincki_, 430, 434 _Pteropodocys_, 525, 526 Pteroptochidae, 469, 489, 490 _Pteroptochus_, 490, 491; _P. albicollis_, 491; _P. rubecula_, 490 Pterygoid, 11 Pterylae, feathered spaces, 2 Pterylographie, of Nitzsch, 2 Pterylosis, 2 Ptilochlorinae, 477 f. _Ptilochloris_, 478; _P. squamata_, 479 _Ptilogenys caudatus_, 529; _P. cinereus_, 530 Ptilonorhynchidae, 496 _Ptilopachys fuscus_, 219 _Ptilopus_, 326, 327, 347; _P. aurantiifrons_, 348; _P. dupetit-thouarsi_, 347; _P. insolitus_, 325, 348; _P. jambu_, 347; _P. nanus_, 348; _P. superbus_, 348; _P. swainsoni_, 347 _Ptilorhis_, 544, 550, 551; _P. magnifica_, 545; _P. paradisea_, 545; _P. victoriae_, 551 Ptilorhynchidae, 543 _Ptilorhynchus_, 550, 551; _P. violaceus_, 549, 549, 551, 552 _Ptilosclera versicolor_, 373 _Ptilotis_, 565-567; _P. limbata_, 564 _Ptychorhamphus_, 316; _P. aleuticus_, 318 Pubis, 9, 9 _Pucrasia_, 201, 212; _P. castanea_, 212; _P. darwini_, 213; _P. macrolopha_, 212; _P. meyeri_, 212 f.; _P. nipalensis_, 212; _P. xanthospila_, 213 Puff-bird, 445, 447 Puffin, 316, 317; Tufted, 317 _Puffinus_, 60, 66; fossil, 69; _P. anglorum_, 63, 66; _P. assimilis_, 66; _P. brevicauda_, 63; _P. conradii_, fossil, 69; _P. eyermani_, fossil, 69; _P. gravis_, 66; _P. griseus_, 66; _P. major_, 66; _P. obscurus_, 66; _P. yelkouanus_, 66 Puttock, 165 Pycnaspidean, 479 Pycnonotidae, 504 f., 531; habits, 505 f. _Pycnonotus_, 355, 505; _P. haemorrhous_, 506; _P. xanthopygus_, 506 _Pycnopygius_, 565 _Pycnorhamphus_, 584 Pycraft, on _Archaeopteryx_, 23 n. _Pygarrhicus_, 484 _Pygmornis_, 430 Pygopodes, 49 _Pygoptila_, 488, 489; _P. margaritata_, 488 _Pygosceles_, 55; _P. adeliae_, 57; _P. taeniata_, 57 Pygostyle, 6, 8; absent in _Archaeopteryx_, 25; absent in Hesperornithes, 25, 26; absent in Ratitae, 25, 26; absent in Tinamidae, 25, 26, 182; occasionally found in _Apteryx_, 26 n.; occasionally found in _Struthio_, 26 n. _Pyranga_, 575 _Pyrenestes_, 577 _Pyriglena_, 489 _Pyrocephalus_, 473, 474; _P. rubineus_ 474-477 _Pyroderus_, 479, 481; _P. orenocensis_, 483 _Pyromelaena_, 577, 579; _P. flammiceps_, 577 _Pyrrhocorax_, 552, 553 _Pyrrholaemus_, 518 _Pyrrhula_, 583; _P. enucleator_, 584; _P. europaea_, 584 _Pyrrhulauda_, 497, 498 _Pyrrhuloxia_, 583 _Pyrrhuphonia_, 576

Quadrate bone, 11, 26; in _Hesperornis_, 26, 47; in _Ichthyornis_, 26, 94; in Ratitae, 26; in Tinamidae, 26, 182 Quadratojugal, 11 Quail, 199, 200, 203, 220 f.; Bush-, 223; Bustard-, 188; Button-, 186, 188; Chinese, 219; Common, 220; Least Swamp-, 219; Painted, 219; Swamp-, 219 f. Quebranta-huesos, 145 Queest, 344 _Querquedula_, 112; _Q. circia_, 125; _Q. cyanoptera_, 125; _Q. discors_, 125; _Q. puna_, 125; _Q. versicolor_, 125 _Querula_, 479, 481 Quezal, 441, 442, 444 Quill, or barrel of feather, 3 Quills shed simultaneously by Anatidae, 4, 113; by Phoenicopteridae, 4, 107; by Rallidae, 4 n. Quiscalinae, 579 f. _Quiscalus_, 581; _Q. versicolor_, 580 Quit-quit, 572 f.

Races of birds, 15 Rackelhahn, 237 Racquet-shaped, 22 Radii, 2 Radius, 8, 8 Rail, 243-247; breast-bone, 7; flightless, 244; lose wing-quills simultaneously, 4 n.; Clapper-, 245, 246; King-, 246; Land-, 243, 248, 248; Sora-, 248; Water-, 245, 246; Weka-, 243, 245, 247 Rain-bird, 357, 460, 468 Rain-goose, 52 Rainbow, 434 _Rallicula_, 244, 246, 248 Rallidae, 243 f., 246 {625} _Rallina_, 248 _Rallus_, fossil, 251; _R. aquaticus_, 246; _R. crepitans_, 246; _R. elegans_, 246; _R. longirostris_, 246; _R. maculatus_, 246; _R. madagascariensis_, 246; _R. sandvicensis_, 251; _R. virginianus_, 246 Rami, 2 Ramsay, on Cassowaries, 34 n. Raptorial, 154 Ratitae, 109; coracoid and scapula fused, 8; incisura ischiadica, 9; meaning of name, 7; no pygostyle, 6 n.; structure, 26; a subdivision of Neornithes, 23 f. Rattlewing, 121 Raven, 554, 555, 555, 556 Razorbill, 316, 317, 320 f. Rectrices, 20, 21, 22; in _Archaeopteryx_, 25; no true, in Grebes, 50 _Recurvirostra_, 268, 269; _R. americana_, 278; _R. andina_, 278; _R. avocetta_, 278; _R. novae hollandiae_, 278; _R. rubricollis_, 278 Red Bird, 331 Redbreast, 516 Redpoll, 583, 584, 586; beak elongated in summer, 5 n. Redshank, 283; Dusky, 283; Spotted, 283 Redstart, 511, 512, 515-517; American, 512 n., 574; Black, 511 Redwing, 226, 510 Reed-Pheasant, 541 f., 541 Reeve, 285 Regent-bird, 549 _Regerhinus_, 147; _R. cayennensis_, 173; _R. megarhynchus_, 173; _R. uncinatus_, 173; _R. wilsoni_, 173 Regions, of Heilprin, 15 f.; of Huxley, 15 f.; of Newton, 16 f.; of Sclater, 15 f.; of Wallace, 15 f.; of others, 16 f. Regulidae, 495 Regulinae, 509 _Regulus_, 513-515, 517, 518 Reinhardt, on Dodo, 330 _Reinwardtoenas_, 326; _R. browni_, 343; _R. reinwardti_, 343 Remiges, 21, 22; primarii, 20; secundarii, 20; of Cassowaries, 33 _Remiornis_, 45 Reò, 379 Reptilia, difference from Birds, 1 f. Reticulated, 10 Rhachis of feather, 3 Rhamphastidae, 445, 448, 453 f.; habits, 454 f. _Rhamphastus_, 454, 455; _R. ariel_, 455, 456; _R. carinatus_, 455; _R. toco_, 455, 456; _R. vitellinus_, 455 _Rhamphocaenus_, 488 _Rhamphococcyx_, 352; _R. calorhynchus_, 357 _Rhamphocoelus_, 575; _R. brasilius_, 576, 576 _Rhamphocorys_, 497 _Rhamphodon_, 426, 430, 431, 435; _R. naevius_, 432 _Rhamphomantis_, 351 _Rhamphomicron heteropogon_, 437; _R. microrhynchum_, 437 Rhamphotheca, 11; of Ratitae, 26 _Rhea_, 30 f.; breast-bone, 7; feathers, 32; fossil, 31; _R. americana_, 30 f., 31; _R. darwini_, 30 f.; _R. macrorhyncha_, 30 Rheae, 26, 30 f., 38 _Rhectes_, 531, 532 Rheidae, structure, etc., 30 f. _Rheinardtius_, 199, 200; _R. ocellatus_, 208 Rhinoceros-bird, 561 Rhinochetidae, 243, 263 f. _Rhinochetus_, 186, 187, 243; habits, 265; operculum of nostrils, 11; _R. jubatus_, 263 f., 264 _Rhinocrypta_, 490, 491; _R. lanceolata_, 490, 491 _Rhinogryphus_, 140, 152; _R. aura_, 140; _R. burrovianus_, 140; _R. perniger_, 140 _Rhinoplax_, 390, 391; _R. vigil_, 393 _Rhinopomastus_, 397 _Rhinoptilus_, 295 _Rhinortha_, 351 _Rhipidura_, 506, 508; _R. motacilloïdes_, 508 _Rhizothera dulitensis_, 225; _R. longirostris_, 225 _Rhodacanthis_, 562-564 _Rhodinocincla_, 515 _Rhodonessa caryophyllacea_, 134 _Rhodostethia_, 300, 301, 304; _R. rosea_, 310 _Rhopocichla_, 504 _Rhopodytes_, 352, 357 _Rhopophilus_, 513 _Rhopoterpe_, 488 _Rhyacornis_, 516 _Rhynchaea_, 268, 270; male incubates, 271; _R. australis_, 292; _R. capensis_, 292; _R. semicollaris_, 292 _Rhynchocyclus_, 473 Rhynchopidae, 300 Rhynchopinae, 300 f., 310 _Rhynchops_, 301, 310; habits, 304; _R. albicollis_, 310; _R. flavirostris_, 310; _R. intercedens_, 310; _R. melanura_, 310; _R. nigra_, 310 _Rhynchortyx cinctus_, 232; _R. spodiostethus_, 232 _Rhynchostruthus_, 583 _Rhynchotus_, 183; _R. maculicollis_, 184; _R. rufescens_, 184 f., 184 _Rhytidoceros plicatus_, 394; _R. subruficollis_, 393; _R. undulatus_, 394 Rib, 6, 7 Rictal, 22 Ridge of bill, 20 Ridged structure of vanes of feathers, 3 {626} Ridgway, on _Ardea occidentalis_, 93 n.; on Ciconiidae, 95 n.; on _Dissura_, 96 n.; on Humming-birds, 432; see Baird Rifleman, 472, 545 n.; -bird, 545 Riporre, 238 _Rissa_, 301; _R. brevirostris_, 303, 306; _R. tridactyla_, 305 f. Road-runner, 357 Robin, 354, 512, 515, 516; American, 510; Australian, 511; Cape-, 512 n.; Corean, 512; Hill-, 503; Indian, 512 n.; Japanese, 512; Persian, 512; New Zealand, 512 n. Roc, 26, 43 Rock-hopper, 56, 58, 58 Roller, 376 f., 467; habits, 377 f.; Ground- 376, 378 _Rollulus_, 199, 200; _R. roulroul_, 221 Roofed, of tail, 22 Rook, 552, 554, 556 Rose-sucker, 426 Rosenberg, v., on _Nasiterna_, 372 _Rostratula_, 292 _Rostrhamus_, 146, 147, 149; _R. sociabilis_, 171 Rotche, 321 Rothschild, on _Apteryx_, 39; on Bird of Paradise, 550; on Drepanididae, 562 n.; on _Houbara_, 262 n. Roy, on Flight, 61 n. Royal Birds, 136 _Rubigula_, 505 Ruc, 43 Ruff, 234, 270, 285 Rump, 20 _Rupicola_, 479, 480; dances of, 482; nest, 482 f.; _R. crocea_, 480 Rupicolinae, 479 f. _Rupornis magnirostris_, 167; _R. nattereri_, 167; _R. pucherani_, 167; _R. ruficauda_, 167; _R. ridgwayi_, 169; _R. saturata_, 167 _Ruticilla_, 509; _R. moussieri_, 512; _R. phoenicurus_, 511

Sabre-wing, 426, 435 Saddle-back, 558 Sage-cock, 203, 234 Sagittarius, 141 Sagittate, 22 St. Hilaire, on _Aepyornis_, 43 Saker, 179 Salmon, on _Creciscus_, 249 n. _Salpinctes_, 521, 522 _Salpornis_, 571, 572 _Saltator_, 575 Salvadori, on Anatidae, 111, 136; on Birds of Paradise, 543 n.; on Cassowaries, 33; on Columbae, 325; on _Podicipes_, 52; on Psittacidae, 362 _Salvadorina_, 113; _S. waigiuensis_, 116 Salvin, F. H., on fishing with Cormorants 79; and Brodrick, on Falconry, 148 n.; see also Freeman Salvin, O., on Humming Birds, 432; on Lämmergeier, 151 n.; on Motmots, 380 n.; on nest of _Panyptila_, 424; on classification of Petrels, 59 n.; see Sclater Sandeman, on Honey-guide, 452 n. Sanderling, 282 Sand-Grouse–see Grouse, Sand- Sand-Lark, 273 Sandpiper, 268; Bonaparte's, 280; Broad-billed, 282; Buff-breasted, 282; Common, 280, 286; Curlew-, 280; Green, 271, 284; Marsh, 284; Pectoral, 280 f.; Purple, 281; Purple, male incubates, 271; Semipalmated, 282; Spoon-billed, 282; Spotted, 286; Stilt-, 286; White-winged, 283; Wood-, 284 Sap-sucker, 461 _Sappho_, 427, 434; _S. phaon_, 434; _S. sparganura_, 434 _Sarcidiornis_, 111-113; fossil, 136; _S. carunculata_, 134; _S. melanonota_, 134 _Sarciophorus tectus_, 275 _Sarcogeranus_, 254 _Sarcophanops_, 468, 469 _Sarcops_, 559, 561 Sarcorhamphidae, 137 f. _Sarcorhamphus_, 137; _S. gryphus_, 138 f., 139 _Sasia_, 464 Satin-bird, 549, 549 Saunders, on Black-headed Gull and allies, 308; on Laridae, 306 f.; on Stercorariidae, 300 Saurognathae, 457 Sauropsida of Huxley, 1 f. _Saurothera_, 351, 357 Sauzier, bones of Dodo, 330 Savannah-blackbird, 359 Savery, figure of Dodo, 329 f. _Saxicola_, 509-511 Saxicoline, 516 _Sayornis_, 475, 476 Scales, nature of, 2 n. _Scaniornis_, fossil, 108 Scapula, 7, 8, 8; unites with coracoids in _Fregata_, 72 Scapulars, 20, 22 Scapus, 3 _Scardafella_, 335, 340 f.; _S. inca_, 341; _S. squamosa_, 341 Scaup, 121 _Sceloglaux_, 398, 400, 401; _S. albifacies_, 408 _Scenopoeetes_, 544, 550; _S. dentirostris_, 549, 551 _Schistospiza_, 583 f. _Schizoeaca_, 484 _Schizorhis_, 360; _S. concolor_, 361 _Schlegelia_, 545, 550; {627} _S. respublica_, 547 Schomburgk, on _Rupicola_, 482 _Scissirostrum_, 559, 561 Scissor-bill, 310 Sclater, on classification, 14; edits translation of Nitzsch's _Pterylographie_, 2 n.; on geographical distribution, 15 f.; on Alectorides and Fulicariae, 243; on Anatidae, 113; on method of feeding in Cormorant, 78 n.; on Cotingidae, 479; on Dendrocolaptidae, 484; on Formicariidae, 488; on Galbulidae and Bucconidae, 445 n.; on Icteridae, 579; on incubation of Ostrich, 29; on classification of Passeres, 467; on Penguins, 56 n., 57 n.; on Picariae, 376; on Pipridae, 477 n.; on Rhamphastidae, 455; on Tanagridae, 575 n.; on Tyrannidae, 473; and Hudson, on _Aramus_, 257 n.; and Hudson, on Bitterns, 88 n.; and Salvin, on _Ptilochloris buckleyi_, 479 n. _Scleroptila_, 226 Sclerurinae, 484 f. _Sclerurus_, 486 _Scolephagus_, 581; fossil, 496 Scolopacinae, 268, 269, 271, 289 _Scolopax_, 268-270; drumming, 272, 291; _S. megala_, 270; _S. minor_, 270; _S. rochusseni_, 290; _S. rusticula_, 289 f., 290; _S. saturata_, 290; _S. stenura_, 270 Scopidae, 70, 86 f., 95 _Scops_, 398, 399, 401, 403, 412; _S. asio_, 413; _S. brucii_, 413; _S. capnodes_, 413; _S. flammeola_, 413; _S. giu_, 412 f.; _S. gymnopus_, 398, 413; _S. icterorhynchus_, 413; _S. leucotis_, 413; _S. magicus_, 411, 413; _S. nudipes_, 398, 413; _S. rutilus_, 413; _S. semitorques_, 412 _Scoptelus_, 397 _Scopus_, 86, 87, 265; habits, 95; _S. umbretta_, 94, 95 Scoter, 119; habits, 120; Surf, 120; Velvet, 119 _Scotopelia_, 398, 400; _S. bouvieri_, 414; _S. peli_, 414; _S. ussheri_, 414 _Scotornis climacurus_, 418 Screamer, Crested, 110; Horned, 110 Scrub-bird, 491 Scutellae, 10 Scutellated, 10 Scutelliplantar, 496 _Scytalopus_, 490; _S. magellanicus_, 491 _Scythrops_, 351; _S. novae hollandiae_, 356 Sea-Eagle, habits, 163 f.; -Hen, 305; -Pheasant, 125; -Pie, 276; -Swallow, 303, 311 Secondaries, 20, 22 Secretarius, 141 Secretary-Bird, 137, 141, 141, 258; habits, 142 f. Seebohm, on _Sula_, 74 n. Seed-Snipe, 268, 296 _Seena aurantia_, 314 _Selasphorus platycercus_, 438; _S. rufus_, 427, 438 _Selenidera_, 454, 456; _S. piperivora_, 456; _S. spectabilis_, 456 _Seleucides_, 544, 550, 551; _S. ignotus_, 545 Semi-rings of bronchi, 21 _Semioptera_, 545, 550, 551; _S. wallacii_, 548 _Senex_, 152, 153; _S. australis_, 152 Septum, of nostrils, 11 _Sericornis_, 518 _Sericossypha_, 575 _Sericulus_, 550, 551; _S. melinus_, 549, 551, 552 Seriemá, 243, 258, 259, 260 _Serilophus_, 469 Serin, 584 _Serinus canarius_, 585; _S. canicollis_, 585; _S. hortulanus_, 584 Serpentariidae, 137, 141 f. _Serpentarius secretarius_, 141, 141; habits, 142 f.; _S. robustus_, fossil in France, 143 _Serpophaga_, 475-477 Serrated bill, 12 _Serresius_, 326; _S. galeatus_, 346 _Setophaga_, 573, 574; _S. ruticilla_, 512 n. Settler's Clock, 386 Shag, 75, 77 Shaheen, 179 Shank, 9 Sharpe, on genus _Ardea_, 91 n.; on Birds of Paradise, 543 n.; on Brachypteri and Cisticolae, 513; on _Eudromias_, 270 n.; on plumage of Falconidae, 157; on _Ortyxelus_, 295 n.; families of Oscines, list of, 495; on Owls, 400; on _Podicipes_, 52 n.; on Sturnidae, 559; on _Strix_, 404; on Thamnobiae, 510; on Timeliidae, 502 Sheartail, Peruvian, 438 Shearwater, 61-63, 65, 66; Manx, 68 Sheath-bill, 268; bill, 11 Sheld-Drake, 114, 128, 128; Ruddy, 129 Shell-Ibis, 97 Shelley on Capitonidae, 449; on Cuculidae, 351; on _Promerops_ (Nectariniidae), 568 n.; on Weaver-birds, 576 n. Shield, frontal or on bill, 12 Shikra, 157 Shoe-bill, 93, 94 Shoulder-girdle, 8 Shoveller, 114, 124 Shrike, 473, 531 f.; Cuckoo-, 525 f.; Great Grey, 534, 534; Grey Coly-, 527, 527; Lesser Grey, 534; Red-backed, 535; Wood-, 535; Woodchat-, 534 Shufeldt, on _Cypselus melanoleucus_, 421 n. _Sialia_, 509, 510, 515, 517 _Sibia_, 502 Sibree, on _Coua_, 357 n.; {628} on _Leptosoma_, 379 n. _Sigelus_, 355 _Sigmodus_, 532 _Simorhynchus_, 316, 318; _S. cristatellus_, 318; _S. pusillus_, 318; _S. pygmaeus_, 318 _Siptornis albiceps_, 485; _S. hudsoni_, 487; _S. maluroïdes_, 487; _S. sordida_, 486, 487; _S. striaticeps_, 487; _S. sulphurifera_, 487 Sirkeer, 357 Siskin, 584 _Sisura_, 506, 509; _S. inquieta_, 508 _Sitella_, 537, 538 _Sitta_, 537, 538; _S. caesia_, 537, 538 Sittidae, 494, 536 f.; habits, 538 _Sittiparus_, 503 _Sittosomus_, 484, 487 _Siurus_, 573, 574 _Siva_, 502 Skeat, on the name Parrot, 362 Skeleton, 5 f.; appendicular, 5; axial, 5 f.; of Carinate Bird, 8; of trunk of Falcon, 7 Skimmer, 300, 304 Skin, 2 n. Skua, 81, 268, 300-303; Arctic, 305; Buffon's, 305; Great, 302, 304; Pomatorhine, 305 Skull, 10 f.; of Wild Duck, 11 Slater, bones of Solitaire, 331 Smew, 115, 116 _Smicrornis_, 506, 509 _Smithornis_, 506, 509 Snake-Bird, 79, 465 Snipe, 268, 270; bill, 11; Common, 290 f.; Double, 291; Full, 290; Jack, 292; Painted, 292; Pin-tailed, 292; Solitary, 291; Wood-, 291 Snow-Cock, 229; -Partridge, 230; -Pheasant, 229 Solan Goose, 73, 75, 302 Solitaire, 325; habits, 331; of Bourbon, 330; of Rodriguez, 328, 330 f. _Somateria_, 114; _S. dresseri_, 118; _S. mollissima_, 118 f.; _S. spectabilis_, 111, 118 f.; _S. v-nigrum_, 118 _Sporaeginthus_, 579 Sparrow, 584, 586; -Hawk, see Hawk, Sparrow-; Hedge-, 354, 512, 515-517; House-, 584; Java-, 577; Song-, 586 _Spathura_, 427, 437 f. _Spatula_, 111; _S. capensis_, 124; _S. clypeata_, 124; _S. platalea_, 124; _S. rhynchotis_, 124 Spatulate, 12, 22 Species of Birds, 15 Speculum, 22; in ducks, 114 f. Speed of flight, 20 Spel of Capercaillie, 237 _Speotyto_, 398-402; _S. cunicularia_, 400 f., 409 f., 410 Sperling, on Sooty Tern, 312 n. _Spermestes_, 577 _Sphecotheres_, 542, 543; _S. maxillaris_, 543 Sphenisci, 54 f.; fingers, 9; metatarsals, 10 Spheniscidae, 54 f., 71, 109; habits, 55 f. Sphenisciformes, 54 f., 59 _Spheniscus_, 55; _S. demersus_, 57; _S. magellanicus_, 57; _S. mendiculus_, 57; _S. minor_, 56, 57 _Sphenocercus_, 326, 349; _S. formosae_, 350; _S. permagnus_, 350; _S. sieboldi_, 350; _S. sororius_, 350; _S. sphenurus_, 349 f. _Sphenocichla_, 521 _Sphenoeacus_, 491 n., 514 _Sphenoproctus_, 427, 435 _Sphenostoma_, 538-540 _Sphenura_, 517 _Sphyropicus_, 461; _S. varius_, 458, 461 Spicules beneath toes–see Toes _Spiloglaux novae zealandiae_, 409 _Spilornis_, 154; _S. cheela_, 154; _S. holospilus_, 154; _S. sulaënsis_, 154; _S. undulatus_, 154 Spinal cord, 5 _Spindalis_, 575 _Spiza_, 583; _S. guiraca_, 587 _Spizaëtus_, 160; _S. coronatus_, 160; _S. ornatus_, 160; _S. tyrannus_, 160 _Spiziapteryx_, 146; _S. circumcinctus_, 174 _Spiziastur melanoleucus_, 161 _Spizilauda deva_, 496 _Spizixus_, 504, 505 _Spodiopsar_, 561; _S. burmanicus_, 560 Spoonbill, 70, 99 f., 104; bill, 12; habits, 103 _Sporadinus_, 433 _Sporaeginthus amandava_, 577 Spring moult, 4 f. Spur-fowl, 218 Squamosal, 11 Square, of tail, 22 _Squatarola helvetica_, 272 Squatter, 337 _Stachyridopsis_, 503 _Stachyris_, 504 _Stactolaema anchietae_, 450; _S. olivaceum_, 450 Standard wing, 548 Starling, 559, 560, 560-562; habits, 561 f.; American, 579; Red-winged, 580; Tree-, 559 _Starnoenas_, 327; _S. cyanocephala_, 335 _Steatornis_, 417; nest, 419; _S. caripensis_, 419 Steatornithidae, 415, 419 Steering feathers, 21 Steganopodes, 70 f.; nostrils, 12; toes, 10 Steganopodous, 71 _Steganopus wilsoni_, 279 _Stegnolaema montagnii_, 197 Stejneger, classification, 14; {629} families of Oscines, list, 495; on Stercorariinae, 300 _Stelgidopteryx_, 522-524 _Stephanophorus_, 575 Stercorariidae, 300 Stercorariinae, 300 f., 304; habits, 302 f. _Stercorarius crepidatus_, 301, 305; _S. parasiticus_, 301, 305; _S. pomatorhinus_, 301, 305; _S. richardsoni_, 305 Stereornithes, 25, 43 f., 260; structure, 44 f. _Sterna_, 301, 311; _S. albigena_, 313; _S. albistriata_, 314; _S. aleutica_, 312; _S. anaestheta_, 312; _S. antillarum_, 311; _S. balaenarum_, 312; _S. bergii_, 312; _S. bernsteini_, 312; _S. cantiaca_, 312; _S. dougalli_, 304, 313; _S. elegans_, 312; _S. eurygnatha_, 312; _S. fluviatilis_, 313, 313; _S. forsteri_, 314; _S. frontalis_, 312; _S. fuliginosa_, 312; _S. hirundinacea_, 313; _S. longipennis_, 313; _S. lorata_, 312; _S. lunata_, 312; _S. macrura_, 313; _S. maxima_, 312; _S. media_, 312; _S. melanauchen_, 311; _S. melanogaster_, 314; _S. minuta_, 311; _S. nereis_, 312; _S. saundersi_, 311; _S. sinensis_, 311; _S. superciliaris_, 311 f.; _S. trudeaui_, 311; _S. virgata_, 313; _S. vittata_, 313 Sterninae, 300 f., 310 f.; habits, 303 f. Sternotracheal muscles, two pairs in Anseriformes, 108 Sternum, 6, 7, 8 _Stictonetta_, 111; _S. naevosa_, 123 _Stictospiza_, 579 Stilt, 277, 278 Stint, Little, 279 f., 282; Temminck's, 280 _Stiphrornis_, 514 _Stipiturus_, 514, 517 Stirling and Zietz on _Genyornis_, 38 n. Stitch bird, 567, 568 Stock Eagle, 463 Stolzmann on _Loddigesia_, 437 Stomach, 12 Stone-Curlew, see Curlew, Stone-; -Runner, 273 Stonechat, 511, 516 Stonehatch, 273 Stork, 70, 86, 95 f., 105, 148; habits, 96; Black, 99; Saddle-billed, 98; White, 96, 97, 98, 99 _Strepera_, 532 _Strepsilas_, 268; _S. interpres_, 276; _S. melanocephalus_, 276 _Streptocitta_, 561 Striated feathers, 4 Strickland, on _Aepyornis_, 43; on Widow bird, 577 n.; and Melville, on Dodo, 329 n.; on Solitaire, 331 n. Striges, 376, 397 f.; clavicles do not always unite, 8; toes, 10 Strigidae, 398 f.; habits, 400 f. Striginae, 398, 403 Stringopinae, 362 f., 366 f. _Stringops_, 362, 364; little keel to sternum, 7, 26; _S. habroptilus_, 366, 366 _Strix_, 398, 399, 402; fossil, 415; _S. aurantiaca_, 404; _S. candida_, 404; _S. capensis_, 404; _S. castanops_, 404; _S. flammea_, 400, 403 f., 404; _S. novae hollandiae_, 404; _S. tenebricosa_, 404 _Struthidea_, 552, 557 f. _Struthio_, toes and claws, 10; _S. asiaticus_, fossil, 27; _S. australis_, 27; _S. camelus_, 27 f., 28; _S. chersonensis_, fossil, 27; _S. karatheodori_, fossil, 27; _S. molybdophanes_, 27 _Struthiolithus chersonensis_, fossil, 27 Struthiones, 27 f., 38 Struthionidae, structure, etc., 27 _Sturnella_, 500, 581, 582; _S. defilippii_, 500; _S. magna_, 500, 580 Sturnellinae, 579 f. _Sturnia_, 559 Sturnidae, 494, 558 n., 559; fossil, 496; habits, 561 f. _Sturnopastor_, 559, 562; _S. contra_, 560 _Sturnornis_, 559 _Sturnus_, 559; _S. unicolor_, 560; _S. vulgaris_, 560, 560, 561 Subclamatores, 467 Sub-classes of Aves, 23 Suboscines, 467 Sub-regions, 17 Sugar-bird, 573 _Sula_, 70-72; fossil, 86; _S. abbotti_, 74; _S. bassana_, 73, 74; _S. capensis_, 73; _S. cyanops_, 74; _S. leucogaster_, 74; _S. piscator_, 74; _S. serrator_, 73; _S. variegata_, 74 Sulidae, 70, 73; habits, 75 Sultan-bird, 539 Sun-bird, 355, 427, 568 f.; habits, 569 f.; Splendid, 569 Sun-bittern, 243, 266 f., 266 Supra-angular, 11; -occipital, 11 Surf-bird, 270 _Surnia_, 398, 399; _S. funerea_, 411; _S. ulula_, 401, 411 _Surniculus_, 352, 353; _S. dicruroïdes_, mimicry, 529; _S. lugubris_, 355 _Suthora_, 502, 503 Swallow, 420, 522 f., 524 f., 524; habits, 524 f.; moult, 5; -tail, 435; -wing, 448; Bank-, 525; Chimney-, 422; Cliff-, 525; Sea-, 303; Wood-, 530 f. Swan, 114, 135 f.; habits, 114; marks, 136; trachea enters keel of sternum, 13; young, 135 f.; Bewick's, 136; Black, 135, 136; Mute, 135, 136; Polish, 135; Tame, 135 Swift, 419 f., 522; breast-bone, 6 f.; habits, 421 f.; toes, 10; Alpine, 424; American Chimney, 421; Common, 421, 424, 425; Palm-, 421, 425 f.; Tree-, 422 _Sycalis_, 586; {630} _S. pelzelni_, 586 _Sycobrotus_, 578 _Sylvia_, 517, 518 _Sylviella_, 514 Sylviidae, 494, 495 Sylviinae, 494, 506, 509, 513, 573; fossil, 496; habits, 517 _Sylviorthorhynchus_, 484 _Syma_, 382; _S. torotoro_, 386 _Symmorphus_, 525, 526 _Symphemia_, 284 _Symphysis_, 21 Synallaxinae, 484 f. _Synallaxis_, 484, 486, 487; _S. semicinerea_, 485 _Synoecus_, 200; _S. australis_, 219; _S. raalteni_, 220 _Synthliborhamphus_, 316; _S. antiquus_, 318; _S. wumizusume_, 318 _Sypheotis_, 260; _S. aurita_, 262 _Syrigma sibilatrix_, 90 Syrinx, 13, 21 f. _Syrnium_, 399, 402; _S. albigulare_, 406; _S. aluco_, 405; _S. cinereum_, 400, 405; _S. indranee_, 405; _S. lapponicum_, 405; _S. leptogrammicum_, 405; _S. nebulosum_, 406; _S. newarense_, 405; _S. nivicola_, 405; _S. nuchale_, 406; _S. occidentale_, 406; _S. ocellatum_, 405; _S. perspicillatum_, 406; _S. rufipes_, 406; _S. sinense_, 405; _S. uralense_, 405; _S. virgatum_, 406; _S. woodfordi_, 406 _Syrrhaptes_, 322-324; padded foot, 322; no hallux, 322; _S. paradoxus_, 322, 323, 323, 324; breeding, 325; _S. tibetanus_, 323, 324

_Taccocua_, 351, 352; _T. sirkee_, 357 _Tachornis_, 425 f.; _T. squamata_, 425 _Tachycineta_, 522, 523, 525; _T. albiventris_, 524; _T. leucorrhous_, 525 _Tachyeres_, 112, 113; _T. cinereus_, 121 _Tachyornis_, 315 n.; fossil, 426 Taczanowski and Stolzmann, on _Loddigesia_, 437 n. _Tadorna_, 112; _T. cornuta_, 111, 113, 128, 128; _T. radjah_, 128 _Taenioptera_, 473, 475-477; _T. dominicana_, 475 Taeniopterinae, 473 f. Tail, 20; in _Archaeopteryx_, 25; coverts, 20; functionless in Tinamidae, 182; in Woodpecker, 457 Tailor-bird, 518 _Talegallus_, 190 f.; _T. cuvieri_, 192; _T. fuscirostris_, 193; _T. jobiensis_, 193 Tanager, 575 f.; habits, 576; Brazilian, 576 _Tanagra_, 575, 576 Tanagridae, 575 f., 582; habits, 576 Tan-cho, 254 _Tantalus_, 95, 99; fossil in France, 99; _T. cinereus_, 97; _T. ibis_, 96, 97; _T. leucocephalus_, 97; _T. loculator_, 97 _Tanysiptera_, 383; _T. dea_, 385; _T. nympha_, 385; _T. sabrina_, 385 _Taoniscus_, 183, 186 _Taoperdix_, fossil, 240 Tapaculo, 491 _Taphaëtus branchialis_, fossil, 181 _Tapinopus_, fossil, 251 Tarapo, 366 Tarrock, 306 _Tarsiger_, 513, 516 Tarso-metatarsus, 8, 10 Tarsus, 10 Taste, in Birds, 12 Tatare, 515 Tatton on _Didus borbonicus_, 330 Taxaspidean, 471 _Tchitrea_, 507 Teal, 125 f. Tectrices, 21 Teeth, 12, 25; of _Archaeopteryx_, 24; of _Hesperornis_, 46 f.; of _Ichthyornis_, 49 Tegetmeier, on breeds of Pigeons, 327 n.; on Fowls, 208 n.; on Pheasants, 212 n. _Telephonus_, 532 _Telespiza_, 583 _Telmatornis_, fossil, 251 _Temenuchus_, 559 _Temnurus truncatus_, 553 _Tephrocorys cincrea_, 498 _Teracus littoralis_, fossil, 181 _Terekia cinerea_, 286 _Terenura_, 488, 489 _Teretistris_, 573 Terminology, 20 f. Tern, 82, 268, 300, 301, 310 f.; habits, 303 f.; Arctic, 313; Black, 314; Caspian, 304, 314; Common, 313, 313; Gull-billed, 314; Least, 304, 311; Lesser, 311; Marsh-, 314; Noddy, 303, 310 f.; Roseate, 313; Sandwich, 312; Sooty, 303, 312; Whiskered, 314 f.; White-winged Black, 314 _Terpsiphone_, 506, 507, 509; _T. mutata_, 508; _T. paradisi_, 507, 508 Tertials, 22 Téru-téru, 275 _Tetragonops_, 448, 449; _T. frantzii_, 451; _T. rhamphastinus_, 451 _Tetrao_, 200, 202; _T. kamtschaticus_, 237; _T. medius_, 237; _T. parvirostris_, 237; _T. urogalloïdes_, 237; _T. urogallus_, 200-202, 236 f.; _T. urogallus_, fossil, 241; _T. uralensis_, 236 _Tetraogallus_, 202; _T. altaicus_, 229; _T. caspius_, 229; _T. caucasicus_, 229; _T. henrici_, 229; _T. himalayensis_, 229; _T. tibetanus_, 229 Tetraonidae, claws shed, 5 n. Tetraoninae, 198-201, 204, 233 f.; shed horny fringes of toes, 203 _Tetraophasis obscurus_, 229; {631} _T. széchenyii_, 230 _Tetrapteryx_, 252, 255 _Tetrastes_, 199, 203, 234 _Textor_, 579; _T. albirostris_, 578 _Thalassaëtus_, 146; _T. branickii_, 163; _T. pelagicus_, 163 _Thalassiornis leuconota_, 118 _Thalassoeca antarctica_, 67 _Thalassogeron_, 65 _Thamnistes_, 489 _Thamnobia_, 510, 512 n., 513, 516 Thamnobiae, of Sharpe, 510, 513 _Thamnocharis_, 489 _Thamnomanes_, 488, 489 Thamnophilinae, 488 f. _Thamnophilus_, 489; _T. albinuchalis_, 489 _Thaumastura cora_, 438 _Thaumatibis_, 99; _T. gigantea_, 102 _Theristicus_, 100; _T. branickii_, 102; _T. caudatus_, 101; _T. melanopis_, 102 Thigh, 22 _Thinocorys orbignianus_, 296; _T. rumicivorus_, 296 Thinocorythidae, 268-270, 296; habits, 296 _Thinornis novae zealandiae_, 274 Thornbill, 437, 438 f. Thorn-bird, 487 _Thrasaëtus_, 146, 147; _T. harpyia_, 159 _Thraupis_, 575 Throat, 20 Thrush, 509 f., 515; Babbling, 503; Ground-, 510, 515; Mistletoe-, 510, 511; Rock-, 510, 515, 516; Song-, 510, 515, 516; Water-, 574–see also Redwing, Fieldfare _Thryophilus pleurostictus_, 522 _Thryothorus_, 521 Thumb, 8 _Thyrorhina_, 244 _Tiaris_, 584 Tibia, 9 Tibio-tarsus, 8, 9 _Tichodroma_, 571; _T. muraria_, 571 _Tickellia_, 514 Ticks, on _Cypselus_, 425 n. Tiercel, 178 _Tiga javanensis_, 462 f. Tiger-Bittern, 90 _Tigrisoma_, 87, 90; _T. brasiliense_, 90 _Tigrornis_, 87; _T. leucolophus_, 90 _Tijuca_, 479, 480 _Timelia_, 502-504; _T. maculata_, 503 Timeliae, 502 Timeliidae, 501 f., 504, 506, 510 n., 513 n.; habits, 503 Timpoy, 223 Tinami, 182 f. Tinamidae, 182 f.; functionless tail, 26; habits, 183; quadrate-bone, 26 Tinamiformes, 182 f.; position of the Order, 182, 186 _Tinamotis_, 182, 186; _T. ingoufi_, 184 Tinamou, 183 f.; habits, 183; Great, 184 _Tinamus_, 183, 184; _T. tao_, 184 Tinker-bird, 449 _Tinnunculus_, 175; _T. alaudarius_, 175; _T. alopex_, 176; _T. caribbaearum_, 176; _T. cenchris_, 175; _T. cenchroïdes_, 176; _T. cinnamominus_, 176; _T. dominicensis_, 176; _T. gracilis_, 176; _T. isabellinus_, 176; _T. japonicus_, sub-species, 175; _T. moluccensis_, 176; _T. neglectus_, sub-species, 175; _T. newtoni_, 176; _T. pekinensis_, 176; _T. punctatus_, 176; _T. rupicoloïdes_, 176; _T. rupicolus_, 176; _T. saturatus_, sub-species, 175; _T. sparverioïdes_, 176; _T. sparverius_, 149, 176 Tit, habits, 540; Bearded, 541 f.; Blue, 539, 540; Bottle-, 540; Coal-, 539; Crested, 539, 540; Great, 539, 539, 540; Long-tailed, 539, 540; Marsh-, 539 _Tityra_, 480; _T. semifasciata_, 482, 483 Tityrinae, 479 f. _Tmetotrogon_, 441, 442; _T. rhodogaster_, 444 Todinae, 379 f., 381 f.; habits, 382 _Todirostrum_, 473, 477; _T. cinereum_, 474 f. _Todus_, 381; _T. hypochondriacus_, 382; _T. multicolor_, 382; _T. subulatus_, 382; _T. viridis_, 382, 382 Tody, 376, 379 f., 382; habits, 382 Toes, 10, 20; in _Archaeopteryx_, 25; in Grouse and _Lerwa_, 199; of _Hesperornis_, 47; only two anterior in _Cholornis_, 502; with spicules below, in Owls, 398; in Falconidae, 146; in _Pandion_, 180; reversible outer in _Pandion_, 180; shed horny fringes of, in Tetraoninae, 203 f.; of Struthionidae, 27; in various families, 10 Tomia, 20 Tominejo, 426 Tongue, 12; in Coerebidae, 572; in Dicaeidae, 570; in Drepanididae, 562; in Meliphagidae, 564; in Mniotiltidae, 573; in Nectariniidae, 569; in Picidae, 457, 465; in Trochilidae, 427; in Zosteropidae, 568 Topaz, Crimson, 436 _Topaza pella_, 436; _T. pyra_, 436 Torillo, 188 n. Tortola cordillerana, 339 Tortolita, 340 Totaninae, 278 _Totanus_, 268, 269, 283; fossil, 300; _T. brevipes_, 285; _T. calidris_, 283; _T. flavipes_, 283 f.; _T. fuscus_, 283; _T. glareola_, 284; _T. glottis_, 284; _T. guttifer_, 284; _T. hypoleucus_, 270; _T. incanus_, 284, 285; _T. melanoleucus_, 284; _T. ochropus_, 284; {632} _T. semipalmatus_, 269, 284; _T. solitarius_, 284; _T. stagnatilis_, 284 Toucan, 390, 445, 448, 451, 453 f.; habits, 454 f.; Ariel, 455 Trachea convoluted, in Aramidae, 256; in _Manucodia_ and _Phonygammus_, 545; in _Platalea_, 100; in _Rhynchaea_, 270; dilatation, 13; dilated in _Chauna_, 109 n.; enlarged or with "labyrinth" in Anatidae, 113; looped in _Anseranas_, 113; in Cracidae, 195; in _Rhynchaea_, 292; in _Tantalus ibis_, 96; in _Tetrao urogallus_ and _Guttera_, 200; penetrates keel of sternum in certain Swans, 112; in Cranes, 252; use and formation, 13 Tracheal syrinx, 22 _Trachelotis_, 260, 262; _T. caerulescens_, 262 Tracheo-bronchial syrinx, 22 Tracheophonae, 466, 483 Tracheophones, 466 _Trachycomus_, 505 _Trachyphonus_, 450; _T. cafer_, 450 f.; _T. margaritatus_, 451 Tragopan, 216, 217; Cabot's, 217 _Tragopan_, 199 Train-bearer, 434 Transverse process of vertebra, 6 Transylvanus, Maximilianus, on Bird of Paradise, 543 _Traversia_, 472; _T. lyalli_, 472 _Treron nasica_, 349; _T. nipalensis_, 349 Treroninae, 325 f., 344 Triarctic, 16 _Tribonyx_, 244, 245; _T. effluxus_, fossil, 251; _T. mortieri_, 249; _T. roberti_, fossil, 251; _T. ventralis_, 249 Trichoglossidae, 351, 362 f., 373 f. _Trichoglossus_, 364, 373; _T. novae hollandiae_, 373 _Tricholaema_, 448, 449; _T. leucomelan_, 450 _Tricholestes_, 504, 505 _Tricholimnas_, 245; _T. lafresnayi_, 247 _Trichophoropsis_, 504 Tridactylous, 457 n. _Tringa_, 268, 269; fossil, 300; _T. acuminata_, 281; _T. alpina_, 279; _T. bairdi_, 280; _T. canutus_, 281; _T. couesi_, 281; _T. crassirostris_, 282; _T. fuscicollis_, 280; _T. maculata_, 280 f.; _T. maritima_, 281; _T. minuta_, 279 f.; _T. minutilla_, 279 f.; _T. platyrhyncha_, 268; _T. ptilocnemis_, 281; _T. ruficollis_, 279; _T. striata_, 281; _T. subarquata_, 280; _T. subminuta_, 280; _T. temmincki_, 280 Tringinae, 268, 269, 271, 278 f. _Triptorhinus_, 490; _T. paradoxus_, 490, 491 _Trochalopterum_, 504; _T. chrysopterum_, 502; _T. phoeniceum_, 502 Trochilidae, 419, 420, 426 f.; habits, 428 f.; operculum of nostrils, 11 Trochilinae, 435 Τροχίλος, 295, 426 _Trochilus_, 426; _T. alexandri_, 438; _T. colubris_, 427, 438. _Trochocercus_, 506 _Troglodytes_, 521; _T. aedon_, 522; _T. domesticus_, 522; _T. formosus_, 521; _T. parvulus_, 521 Troglodytidae, 494, 509, 521 f. Trogon, 441-443; habits, 442 f. _Trogon ambiguus_, 442; _T. gallicus_, fossil, 445; _T. mexicanus_, 443; _T. surucura_, 443 Trogones, 376, 441 Trogonidae, 441 f.; habits, 442 f. Tropic-bird, 70, 72, 73; habits, 72 f. Tro-tro, 223 Trouessart, on Geographical Distribution, 16 True rib, 6 Trumpeter, 243, 257 f., 257 _Tryngites rufescens_, 282 Tsipoy, 223 Tuberculum of rib, 6 Tubinares, 59 f.; nostrils, 11 Tui, 567, 567 Tumbler, 327 Turacin, 3 n., 360 Turaco, Green-mantled, 360 _Turacoena_, 326; _T. menadensis_, 343; _T. modesta_, 343 _Turacus_, 360; _T. corythaix_, 361; _T. fischeri_, 361 Turdidae, 494, 509 f. Turdinae, 506, 509 f.; habits, 515 f. _Turdinus_, 503 _Turdus_, 510; fossil, 496; _T. hancii_, 510; _T. horsfieldi_, 510; _T. iliacus_, 510; _T. merula_, 510; _T. migratorius_, 510; _T. musicus_, 510; _T. pilaris_, 510; _T. torquatus_, 510; _T. varius_, 510; _T. viscivorus_, 510, 511 Turkey, 198, 201, 203; habits, 206; origin of domestic, 206 n.; specific name, 206 n.; Brush-, 192, 193; -Buzzard, 138, 140, 152; Native, 262 _Turnagra_, 509, 510, 513, 516 Turnices, 186, 187 Turnicidae, 186, 187 _Turnix_, 187, 188; habits, 188; _T. albiventris_, 189; _T. blanfordi_, 189; _T. castanonota_, 189; _T. dussumieri_, 189; _T. fasciata_, 188; _T. hottentotta_, 189; _T. leucogaster_, 189; _T. maculosa_, 189; _T. melanogaster_, 189; _T. nana_, 189; _T. nigricollis_, 189; _T. ocellata_, 187, 189; _T. powelli_, 189; _T. pugnax_, 188; _T. pyrrhothorax_, 189; _T. rufilata_, 188; _T. saturata_, 189; _T. sylvatica_, 187, 188 n., 189; _T. taigoor_, 188; _T. tanki_, 189; _T. varia_, 189; _T. velox_, 189 Turnstone, 276 {633} _Turtur_, 326, 334, 341; _T. abbotti_, 341; _T. aldabranus_, 341; _T. comorensis_, 341; _T. communis_, 341; _T. coppingeri_, 341; _T. douraca_, 341; _T. dussumieri_, 341; _T. isabellinus_, 341; _T. orientalis_, 341; _T. picturatus_, 341; _T. risorius_, a cage-bird, 341; _T. rostratus_, 341; _T. senegalensis_, 342; _T. semitorquatus_, 341; _T. tigrinus_, 341 _Turturoena_, 327, 328; _T. delegorgii_, 343; _T. iriditorques_, 343; _T. sharpii_, 343 Turumti, 178 _Tylas_, 504, 505; _T. eduardi_, 533; mimicry, 533 Tympanic cavity, 11 Tympaniform membrane, 13, 21 _Tympanistria_, 327; _T. bicolor_, 339 _Tympanuchus_, air-sacs, 201; _T. americanus_, 235; _T. cupido_, 235; _T. pallidicinctus_, 235 Tyrannidae, 469, 473, 479, 494; habits, 475 f. Tyranninae, 473 f. _Tyrannulus_, 474 _Tyrannus_, 473-476; _T. pipiri_, 474 Tyrant-bird, habits, 475 f. Tystie, 319

_Uintornis_, fossil, 465 Ulna, 8, 8; its quills, 22 Umbrella-bird, 481, 481 Umbrette, 70 Unfeathered spaces, or apteria, 2 Uncinate process, of ribs, 6, 7; absent in _Archaeopteryx_, 23; in Palamedeidae, 108 Upper arm-bone, 8 _Upucerthia_, 486 _Upupa africana_, 397; _U. epops_, 396 f., 396; _U. indica_, 397; _U. marginata_, 397; _U. somalensis_, 397 Upupidae, 390, 395 f. Upupinae, 390, 395 f.; habits, 395 f. _Uranornis_, 545, 546 _Uratelornis_, 378; _U. chimaera_, 378 _Uria_, 315; fossil, 321; _U. arra_, 320; _U. brünnichi_, 319; _U. californica_, sub-species, 319; _U. troile_, 319 _Uroaëtus_, 146; _U. audax_, 163 _Urobrachya_, 577 _Urocichla_, 521, 522 _Urocissa_, 552, 554 _Urodrepanis_, 569 _Urogalba amazonum_, 446; _U. paradisea_, 446 _Urolestes_, 532, 534 _Uroleuca_, 552 _Uropelia campestris_, 340 Uropygium, 20 _Urospatha martii_, 380 f. _Urosticte_, 427 _Urubitinga anthracina_, 168; _U. zonura_, 167

_Vanellus_, 268-270, 274 f.; _V. cayennensis_, 275; _V. chilensis_, 275; _V. coronatus_, 275; _V. cristatus_, 275; _V. inornatus_, 275; _V. melanopterus_, 275; _V. resplendens_, 275 Vanes, 2 _Vanga_, 533 Vaulted, of tail, 22 Vent, 20 Ventral, 22 Ventriculus, 12 Verreaux, on Secretary-bird, 142 n. _Verreauxia_, 464 Vertebrae, cervical, dorsal, sacral, pelvic, caudal, 5 f.; of Woodpecker, 6 Vertebral Column, 5 Vertebrarterial foramen, 6 Vertebrata, difference of Birds from other, 1 f. Vertex, 20 _Vestiaria_, 562, 564; _V. coccinea_, 563, 564 Vexillum, 2 _Vidua_, 577, 578; _V. principalis_, 577 Viduinae, 576 f. Vigors, on Toucan, 454 n. _Vinago_, 348, 349; _V. australis_, 349; _V. calva_, 325, 349; _V. crassirostris_, 349; _V. waalia_, 349 _Vireo_, 536 _Vireolanius_, 536; _V. melitophrys_, 536; _V. pulchellus_, 536 Vireonidae, 536 Vireoninae, 531 _Vireosylvia_, 536 Vizor-bearer, 432 Vogt, on _Archaeopteryx_, 23 n. Voice-muscles, 13 Voice, organs of, 12 f. _Volatinia_, 585 Vomer, 11 Vorondreo, 378 Vosmaer, on Secretary-bird, 141 _Vultur_, 143; fossil, 145; _V. cinereus_, 143; _V. monachus_, 143 Vulture, 148, 149; Bearded, 150; Black (of New World), 138, 140; Black (of Old World), 143, 145 n.; Californian, 139; Eared, 144; Egyptian, 145, 145 n.; Griffon, 143, 144; King-, 139, 144; New-World, 137 f.; habits, 137 f.; Old-World, 137, 143 f.; Pondicherry, 144; White-backed, 145 Vulturidae, 137, 143 f., 150, 151

Wagner, on _Archaeopteryx_ (_Griphosaurus_), 23 Wagtail, 498 f.; habits, 500 f.; moult, 5; Blue-headed, 500; {634} Grey, 500; Pied, 354, 500, 501; White, 500; Yellow, 499, 500, 501 Walghvogel, 329 Wallace, on Geographical Distribution, 15 f.; on Birds of Paradise, 543 n., 550; on Humming-birds, 432 Wallace's Line, 16, 564 Walpole, on _Didunculus_, 332 Warbler, 513; habits, 517 f.; American, 573 f.; Black-cap, 517; Black-and-White, 574; Garden-, 517; Grasshopper-, 517, 518; Reed-, 354, 517; Savi's, 518; Sedge-, 517; Willow-, 517; Wood-, 517 Warrior, 437 Water-Cock, 249 Water-hen (= Moor-hen) loses wing-quills simultaneously, 4 n. Waterton, on Humming-birds, 432 Wattle-bird, 566 Wavy, 133 Wax-bill, 577, 578 Wax-like tips to feathers, 3 Waxwing, 529 f., 530 Weaver-bird, 368, 576 f., 577; habits, 578 f. Webs, of feathers, 2; of toes, 10; in Alcidae, 315; in Anatidae, 112; in Colymbidae and Podicipedidae, 49; in Laridae, 301; in Limicolae, 269; in Steganopodes, 71 Weka, 243, 245, 247 Whale-bird, 66 Whale-head, 93 Whaup, 287 Wheatear, 511, 516 Whew, 126 Whimbrel, 288 f. Whinchat, 511, 516 Whip-poor-Will, 417 Whip-Tom-Kelly, 536 White colour in Birds, its nature, 3 n. White, on _Furnarius_, 486 White Crow, 145 White-eye, 568 White-throat, 517 Whitmee, on _Didunculus_, 332 Whooper, 135 Whymper, on Condor, 138 Wideawake Fair, 312 Widow-bird, 577 Wigeon–see Duck Willet, 284 Willock, 319 Wilson, A., on Humming-birds, 432; on Passenger Pigeon, 342 Wilson, S. B., and Evans, on Drepanididae, 562 n.; on Meliphagidae, 568 n. Wind-hover, 148, 175 Windpipe, use and formation, 13 Wing, 8 Wing-coverts, 20 Wing-quills–see Quills Wing-spurs, 9 Wire-bird, 274 Wires, of Birds of Paradise, 3, 545 f. Witthoos, figure of _Didus borbonicus_, 330 Woodcock, 289 f., 290; bill, 11 Wood-Hen, 247 Wood-Ibis, 70, 97 Wood-Mason, on _Rhynchaea_, 292 n. Woodpecker, 149, 445, 457 f.; bill, 12; habits, 458 f.; vertebra, 6; Black, 458, 464; Californian, 461; Great Black, 463; Great Spotted, 462, 463; Green, 460; Ivory-billed, 463; Lesser Spotted, 462, 462; Pileated, 463; Spotted, 458, 461 Wood-Swallow, 530 f. Wren, 426, 519, 521 f., 521; Bush-, 472; Rock-, 472 Wrist, 8 Wry-bill, 274, 274 Wryneck, 445, 457, 459, 464 f., 465

_Xanthocephalus_, 581 Xanthochroism, 4 n. _Xanthocorys_, 499 _Xantholaema haematocephala_, 449 _Xanthomelus_, 550; _X. aureus_, 548 _Xanthomixis_, 503 _Xanthura luxuosa_, 554 _Xema_, 301; _X. furcatum_, 310; _X. sabinii_, 304, 310 _Xenerpestes_, 484 Xenicidae, 469, 472 _Xenicus_, 472; _X. gilviventris_, 472; _X. longipes_, 472 _Xenocichla_, 505 _Xenopipo atronitens_, 478 _Xenopirostris_, 531, 533; _X. polleni_, mimicry, 533 _Xenops_, 484, 487 _Xenopsaris_, 482 _Xenorhynchus_, fossil, 99; _X. australis_, 98 _Xerophila_, 539, 540 _Xipholena_, 480; _X. pompadora_, 480 _Xiphorhamphus_, 502, 504 _Xiphorhynchus_, 484, 487

Yaffle, 460 Yarrell's British Birds, 212 n., 285 n. Yellow colour in Birds, its nature, 3 n. Yellow Hammer, 584 Yellowshank, 283 f. Yelper, 278 Young, moult late, 4; in Turdinae and Sylviinae, 513; of Megapodiidae fly early, 191

_Zanclostomus_, 351 _Zapornia_, 246; {635} _Z. parva_, 246, 248 _Zebrilus_, 86, 87; _Z. pumilus_, 89 _Zenaida_, 326, 328, 334, 342; _Z. amabilis_, 342 _Zenaidura_, 327; _Z. carolinensis_, 342 _Zeocephus_, 507 Zic-zac, 276, 295 Zietz–see Stirling _Zonaeginthus bellus_, 577 _Zonerodius heliosylus_, 90 _Zonibyx_, 272 _Zonotrichia_, 586 Zoomelanin, 3 n. Zoonerythrin, 3 n. _Zoothera_, 510 Zooxanthin, 3 n. Zosteropidae, 568 _Zosterops_, 568; _Z. caerulescens_, 568; _Z. japonica_, 568; _Z. lateralis_, 568; _Z. simplex_, 568 Zygodactylous feet, 10; in Cuculiformes, 351; in Picidae, 457

END OF VOL. IX

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NOTES

[1] _P.Z.S._ 1892, p. 236.

[2] The integument of a Bird consists of Skin and Feathers, the former being composed of a superficial _epidermis_ and an underlying _derma_ or _cutis_, which is rich in sensory organs but poor in blood-vessels. The epidermis itself has a horny outer layer and a softer (Malpighian) substratum. Feathers, hairs, bristles, scales, claws and bill-sheaths are epidermal structures.

[3] A translation was edited for the Ray Society by Mr. Sclater in 1867.

[4] Of this nature are zoomelanin (black), zoonerythrin (red), zooxanthin (yellow), turacin (red–only known in the _Musophagidae_), and perhaps turacoverdin (green, from the same family). Brown is produced by a combination of red and black; white is the appearance due to innumerable air-spaces.

[5] Such are many yellows, oranges, greens and blues.

[6] Albinism is due to the absence of pigment; melanism, xanthochroism and erythrism are terms implying an abnormal proportion of black, yellow, or red in the plumage. They may be caused by food.

[7] In some cases at least Rails and Water-hens do the same.

[8] In certain of the _Tetraonidae_ the claws are shed in spring; in some _Alcidae_ (Auks) the horny bill-sheath and the outgrowths over the eyes are lost after the breeding season; the American White Pelican moults a horny projection on the culmen after nesting, while the beak of Redpolls is much elongated in summer.

[9] The _Ratitae_, _Crypturi_ and _Hesperornis_ have no pygostyle.

[10] For the best collection of facts, see the various reports of the Migration Committee of the British Association, 1880-1888; and especially that for 1896, containing the Digest of the observations (made at Lighthouses and Lightships) by Mr. W. Eagle Clarke.

[11] It has been suggested that these flocks of young birds are led by older members of their own species which, though for some cause not breeding, have yet had experience of migration; but of this there is no evidence whatever.

[12] Cf. W. Dames, _Pal. Abhandl._ ii. 1884, pp. 119-196; transl. _Geol. Mag._ 1884, pp. 418-424; Vogt, _Ibis_, 1880, pp. 434-456; Hurst, _Nat. Sci._ vi. 1895, pp. 112-122, 180-186, 244-248; Pycraft, _op. cit._ v. 1894, pp. 350-360, 437-448; viii. 1896, pp. 261-266.

[13] A doubtful genus, _Laopteryx_, has been described from the Jurassic by Marsh, _Ann. Nat. Hist._ (5) vii. 1881, p. 488.

[14] H. Gadow, Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil._ 1893, p. 90.

[15] H. Gadow, Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil._ 1893, p. 90.

[16] A pygostyle is occasionally found in _Struthio_ and _Apteryx_.

[17] P. L. Sclater, _P.Z.S._ 1895, p. 401.

[18] _Argentine Ornithology_, ii. 1889, p. 220.

[19] _Argentine Ornithology_, ii. 1889, p. 220.

[20] _Op. cit._ pp. 218, 220.

[21] _Ornitologia Papuasia e Molucche_, iii. Torino, 1882, p. 473.

[22] Cf. E. P. Ramsay, _P.Z.S._ 1876, p. 122.

[23] Cf. Murie, _P.Z.S._ 1867, p. 405.

[24] North, _Nests and Eggs of Australian Birds_, Sydney, 1889, p. 293.

[25] For an extinct gigantic bird from Callabonna, South Australia, with enormous skull (_Genyornis newtoni_), see Stirling, _Nature_, l. 1894, p. 206; Stirling and Zietz, _Tr. R. Soc. S. Austr._, xx. 1896, pp. 171-211.

[26] Cf. Milne-Edwards and Oustalet, _Vol. Centenaire Mus. N. H. Paris_, 1893, pp. 62-67.

[27] _Tr. Zool. Soc. London_, xiii. 1895, pp. 425-427.

[28] Rothschild, _Bull. Ornith. Club_, I. 1893, pp. lx. lxi.

[29] _Loc. cit._

[30] _Cat. Fossil Birds Brit. Mus._ 1891, p. 218.

[31] _P. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales_ (2), vi. 1891, p. 448.

[32] _Tr. Zool. Soc. London_, xiii. 1895, pp. 373-431.

[33] _P. Soc. Queensland_, i. 1885, pp. 23-28.

[34] _Ann. Sci. Nat._ (3) xiv. 1850, pp. 205-216.

[35] Milne-Edwards and Grandidier, _C. R. Ac. Sci._ cxviii. 1894, pp. 122-127; Andrews, _Geol. Mag._ 1894, p. 18; _id. Ibis_, 1896, pp. 376-389.

[36] Parker, _Tr. N. Z. Inst._ xxv. 1892, p. 3.

[37] _Bol. Mus. La Plata_, i. 1887, p. 24.

[38] _Revist. Argent._ i. 1891, p. 255.

[39] _An. Mus. La Plata, Pal. Argent._ i. 1891, pp. 20, 37.

[40] _Revist. Argent._ i. 1891, pp. 441-453.

[41] _Bol. Inst. Geogr. Argent._ xv. 1895, pp. 11, 12.

[42] _Ibis_, 1893, pp. 40-47; and _Nat. Sci._ 1894, p. 125.

[43] _Ibis_, 1896, pp. 1-12; see also Gadow, _op. cit._ pp. 586, 587.

[44] _Science Progress_, v. 1896, pp. 398-416.

[45] _Amer. J. Sci._ (3) v. 1873, pp. 161, 162.

[46] _Op. cit._ x. 1875, pp. 403-408.

[47] _Cat. Fossil Birds Brit. Mus._ 1891, p. 200; _id._ A. Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1894. p. 651.

[48] This is very doubtful, as they show quite as many points of resemblance to other very different forms.

[49] For these refer to Prof. Marsh's _Odontornithes_, New Haven, Conn. 1880.

[50] Lydekker, _Cat. Fossil Birds Brit. Mus._ 1891, p. 192.

[51] _Ornitologia Papuasia e Molucche_, iii. Torino, 1882, pp. 469-471; cf. also Sharpe, _Bull. Ornith. Club_, iv. 1894, p. iv.

[52] A. Newton, _Ibis_, 1889, p. 577.

[53] A. D. Bartlett, _P.Z.S._ 1879, p. 6.

[54] Cf. Gare-fowl (_Alcidae_), _infra_.

[55] P. L. Sclater, _Ibis_, 1888, p. 330.

[56] Cf. Moseley, _Rep. Voy. "Challenger," Zool._ ii. 1880, Birds, p. 123.

[57] Cf. Abbott, _Ibis_, 1860, p. 336; Sclater, _op. cit._ 1894, p. 501; and Eaton, _Phil. Trans._ clxviii. 1879, pp. 154-157.

[58] Cf. Abbott, _ut supra_, and Moseley, _op. cit._ pp. 124, 125.

[59] Buller, _Birds of New Zealand_, 2nd ed. 1888, p. 301.

[60] Cf. Moseley and Abbott, _ut supra_, p. 57.

[61] Huxley, _Quart. J. Geol. Soc._ xv. 1859, pp. 670-676.

[62] _An. Mus. La Plata, Pal. Argent._ i. 1891, pp. 16-19, 446.

[63] H. Gadow, Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil_, p. 129. For other classifications see W. A. Forbes, _Rep. Brit. Ass._ 1881, p. 671; and O. Salvin, _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xxv. 1896, p. 342.

[64] Here the late Professor Roy's article on "Flight" (A. Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1893, p. 260) may be consulted.

[65] Ogilvie Grant, _Ibis_, 1896, p. 52.

[66] _Id. ibid._

[67] _Ibis_, 1865, pp. 281, 282.

[68] Harvie-Brown, _Zoologist_, 1894, p. 337-338.

[69] Eaton, _Phil. Trans._ clxviii. 1879, pp. 129-134; Ogilvie Grant, _Ibis_, 1896, pp. 51-53.

[70] Eaton, _Phil. Trans._ clxviii. 1879, p. 121.

[71] _Voy. "Beagle"_ (1890 ed.), p. 351.

[72] _Quart. J. Geol. Soc._ xlii. 1886, pp. 366, 367.

[73] H. Gadow, Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil._ 1893, p. 135.

[74] A. Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1893, pp. 293, 294.

[75] W. A. Forbes, _P.Z.S._ 1882, pp. 208-212.

[76] The East American form of _P. flavirostris_ is separated as _P. americanus_ by Mr. Ogilvie Grant, _Bull. Ornith. Club_, vii. 1897, p. xxiv.

[77] _Cf._ E. Newton, _Ibis_, 1861, pp. 180, 276; Layard, _op. cit._ 1863, p. 248.

[78] Cf. Seebohm, _Birds of the Japanese Empire_, 1890, p. 212.

[79] _Birds of New Zealand_, 2nd ed. ii. London, 1888, pp. 154-160.

[80] The Chatham Island bird is _P. onslowi_ of H. O. Forbes (_Ibis_, 1893, p. 537), who discusses various other species. The American forms need further study.

[81] P. L. Sclater, _P.Z.S._ 1882, p. 458.

[82] Freeman and Salvin, _Falconry, its claims_, etc., London, 1859, pp. 327-349.

[83] W. A. Forbes, _P.Z.S._ 1882, p. 210.

[84] These birds eject the lining of the gizzard in a most curious manner; cf. A. D. Bartlett, _P.Z.S._ 1881, pp. 247, 248.

[85] H. O. Forbes. _Naturalist's Wanderings_, London, 1885, p. 32.

[86] _Birds of Europe_, vi. 1879, pp. 193, 194.

[87] Jerdon, _Birds of India_, ii. Calcutta, 1877, p. 860.

[88] _Ibid._

[89] A. D. Bartlett, _P.Z.S._ 1869, p. 146.

[90] Sclater and Hudson, _Argentine Ornithology_, ii. 1889, pp. 103, 104.

[91] Cf. Sharpe, _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xvii. 1898-9, pp. 56-59.

[92] Ridgway, _Manual N. Amer. Birds_, 1887, p. 128. _A. würdemanni_ of Florida is a close ally.

[93] Petherick, _P.Z.S._ 1860, pp. 195-198, and _Ibis_, 1859, p. 471.

[94] Ridgway, _Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv._ iv. Art. ix. 1878, pp. 249-251.

[95] Ridgway, _Bull. U.S. Geol. Surv._ iv. Art. ix. 1878, pp. 249-251.

[96] Garrod, _P. Z. S._ 1857, p. 297.

[97] Layard, ed. Sharpe, _Birds of South Africa_, 1875-84, p. 732, and Hume, ed. Oates, _Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds_, iii. 1890, p. 266.

[98] Hume, ed. Oates, _Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds_, iii. 1890, p. 227.

[99] Jerdon, _Birds of India_, ii. Calcutta, 1877, p. 770.

[100] For this genus see Ogilvie Grant, _Ibis_, 1889, pp. 32-58.

[101] _Ibis_, 1884, pp. 88, 89.

[102] _Nineteenth Cent._ xxii. 1887, pp. 886-890.

[103] _Naturalist in Florida_, 1884, No. 1.

[104] Milne-Edwards, _Oiseaux Fossiles de la France_, ii. 1868, p. 58.

[105] Dames, _Svensk. Ak. Handl. Bihang_, xvi. 1890, Part IV. No. 1, pp. 4-11.

[106] Gibson, _Ibis_, 1880, pp. 165-167; Hudson, _Argentine Ornithology_, ii. 1889, pp. 119-122.

[107] _Chauna_ has a dilatation near the middle of the trachea.

[108] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xxvii. 1895, pp. 23, 24.

[109] For a general account, see A. Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1896, pp. 983-985.

[110] W. A. Forbes, _P.Z.S._ 1882, p. 350.

[111] _P.Z.S._ 1880, p. 533.

[112] _Supra_, p. 4.

[113] For notes on the courtship, and so forth, see J. G. Kerr, _Ibis_, 1890, pp. 359, 360.

[114] _Water Birds N. Amer._ ii. Boston, 1884, p. 56.

[115] _Voy. Beagle_ (1890 ed.), p. 244; cf. Cunningham, _Voy. Nassau_, 1871, pp. 91-97.

[116] Fine alternate dusky and white lines produce a grey effect at a short distance.

[117] A. Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1896, pp. 841-842.

[118] I can hardly agree with Count Salvadori in placing _Aex_ here.

[119] Cf. _Dict. Birds_, artt. Duck, Goose, Swan, and the references there given.

[120] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xxvii. 1895.

[121] Andrews, _Ibis_, 1897, pp. 344-355.

[122] Huxley, _P.Z.S._ 1867, pp. 463-464.

[123] _Travels amongst the Great Andes of the Equator_, 1891-92, pp. 200-205.

[124] _Check-List N. Amer. Birds_, 1895, p. 344; Moreno and Mercerat, _An. Mus. La Plata, Pal. Argent._ i. 1891, pp. 67-69, pls. xviii.-xx. See also _Dryornis_ (p. 44 _supra_).

[125] Cf. A. Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1894, pp. 822, 823.

[126] This is abbreviated from the account by J. Verreaux, _P.Z.S._ 1856, pp. 348-352.

[127] Layard, ed. Sharpe, _Birds of South Africa_, 1875-1884, p. 9.

[128] Chapman and Buck, _Wild Spain_, 1893, p. 207.

[129] Chapman and Buck, _Wild Spain_, 1893, p. 206. The Black Vulture, however, may possibly be meant, as the Egyptian Vulture does not seem to break bones.

[130] Lydekker, _P.Z.S._ 1890, p. 404.

[131] Id. _Cat. Fossil Birds Brit. Mus._ 1891, p. 29.

[132] _Pterylography_ (_Ray Soc._) ed. Sclater, 1867, p. 37.

[133] Falconry is too large a subject to be considered here; but the reader may be referred to the works of Salvin and Brodrick, Freeman and Salvin, and others.

[134] Salvin, _Ibis_, 1859, p. 177; Pliny, _Hist. Nat._ lib. x. cap. 3.

[135] _A list of the Diurnal Birds of Prey_, 1884, pp. 14-18.

[136] J. H. Gurney, _Ibis_, 1875, p. 468.

[137] Cf., however, Sharpe, _P.Z.S._ 1873, pp. 418, 419.

[138] Ogilvie Grant, _Ibis_, 1897, pp. 214-220.

[139] Cf. North, _Nests and Eggs of Australian Birds_, Sydney, 1889, pp. 11-13.

[140] Cf. _Ibis_, 1879, pp. 413, 414.

[141] Professor Newton and other writers seem to consider that the true Gyr-Falcon only _inhabits_ Scandinavia and _H. candicans_ Greenland and Arctic America; but this does not preclude occurrences elsewhere. Cf. however, _Ibis_, 1889, pp. 143-144.

[142] Cf. H. Gadow, Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil._ 1893, pp. 160-164.

[143] H. Gadow, Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil._ 1893, p. 176.

[144] A. Milne-Edwards, _Ann. Sci. Nat._ (6) _Zool._ vii. 1878, Art. 6.

[145] _P.Z.S._ 1882, pp. 267-271.

[146] _P.Z.S._ 1877, p. 292.

[147] _Turnix sylvatica_ is called "Torillo" in Spain from its note, which resembles the subdued bellowing of a bull.

[148] For the entire genus see Ogilvie Grant, _Ibis_, 1889, pp. 446-475.

[149] This species has bred in the Zoological Society's Gardens, where the

## active young left the mound within twenty-four hours of being

hatched. A. D. Bartlett, _P.Z.S._ 1860, pp. 426, 427. _C. purpureicollis_ has been recently described from Cape York.

[150] _P.Z.S._ 1868, p. 301.

[151] Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil._ 1893, p. 172.

[152] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xxii. 1893.

[153] This name, and the Latin _Meleagris_, seem to have originally belonged to the Guinea-Fowl. _M. gallipavo_, the origin of our farm-yard Turkey, was domesticated in Europe by about 1530. Cf. A. Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1896, pp. 994-996.

[154] For a full account see Tegetmeier, _Ibis_, 1891, pp. 304-327.

[155] Cock-fighting in England is beyond the scope of this work.

[156] Much interesting information is given in Yarrell's _Brit. Birds_, ed. 4, iii. 1882-84, pp. 91-104, and Tegetmeier, _Pheasants: their Nat. Hist._ etc., ed. 2, 1881.

[157] _Euplocamus_ and _Gallophasis_ are synonyms of the above.

[158] Mr. Ogilvie Grant begins with _Excalphatoria_. Cf. _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xxii. 1893, pp. 94-95.

[159] For more details, see art. Quail, Dresser, _Birds of Europe_, vii. 1878, pp. 143-154.

[160] Grandidier, _Histoire de Madagascar_, xii., Paris, 1879, pp. 489, 490.

[161] Cf. Ogilvie Grant, _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xxii. 1893, p. 188.

[162] See Lilford, _Ibis_, 1862, pp. 352-356; Dresser, _Birds of Europe_, vii. pp. 123-128.

[163] The nest is occasionally in a shrub, Hume, ed. Oates, _Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds_, iii. 1890, p. 435.

[164] For further details cf. Gould, _Monograph of the Odontophorinae_, London, 1850.

[165] _Life Histories of N. Amer. Birds_, Special Bull. i. U.S. Nat. Mus. 1892, pp. 52-56.

[166] For hybrids of grouse, cf. Meyer, _Unser Auer Rackel und Birkwild_. Vienna, 1887; and Millais, _Game Birds and Shooting Sketches_. London, 1892.

[167] Cf. Lloyd, _Game Birds of Sweden and Norway_, London, 1867; and Millais, _op. cit._

[168] T. E. Buckley, _P.Z.S._ 1882, pp. 112-116.

[169] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xxii. 1893, p. 36.

[170] Cf. Elliot, _Monograph of the Tetraonidae_, New York, 1872; Dresser, _Birds of Europe_, vii. 1871-81, p. 187. To these books and those mentioned in the note on p. 237, the reader must be referred for fuller details regarding the Tetraoninae.

[171] _Ibis_, 1880, p. 408.

[172] _Argentine Ornithology_, ii. London, 1889, p. 153.

[173] See Salmon, _P.Z.S._ 1879, p. 546, and cf. Durnford, _Ibis_, 1877, p. 193; 1878, p. 65.

[174] Dr. A. B. Meyer considers the remains found in the North Island (_N. mantelli_) to be distinct from the South Island species, which he names _N. hochstetteri_.

[175] For the habits, _cf._ Sclater and Hudson, _Argentine Ornithology_, ii. 1889, pp. 159-161; Gosse, _Birds of Jamaica_, pp. 355-363; Gundlach, _J. f. O._, 1875, pp. 353-355.

[176] Mr. Rothschild has separated the Canary Island race as _H. fuerteventurae_.

[177] Chapman and Buck, _Wild Spain_, London, 1893, p. 342.

[178] The Boers of South Africa term all Bustards Paauw, _i.e._ Peacock (_Pavo_).

[179] Dresser, _Birds of Europe_, vii. 1871-81, pp. 388, 394.

[180] W. K. Parker, _Tr. Zool. Soc. London_, vi. p. 501; x. p. 307; Murie, _op. cit._ vii. p. 465; A. D. Bartlett, _P. Z. S._ 1862, p. 218.

[181] Layard, _Ibis_ 1882, pp. 534-535; Bartlett, _P.Z.S._ 1862, pp. 218; 1868, pp. 114-116.

[182] _Dict. Birds_, 1896, pp. 923-925.

[183] _P.Z.S._ 1866, p. 76.

[184] W. A. Forbes, _P.Z.S._ 1881, pp. 646, 647.

[185] See, however, Sharpe, _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xxiv. 1896, p. 741.

[186] For this bird's "dances," see Hudson, _Argentine Ornithology_, ii. p. 167.

[187] See W. W. Cordeaux, _Ibis_, 1894, p. 374; 1897, pp. 563-564.

[188] Adams, _P.Z.S._, 1859, p. 130; Nelson, _Auk_, 1884, pp. 218-221; _id. N.H. Collect. Alaska_, Washington, 1887, pp. 108-109; Murdoch, _Rep. Polar Exped. Pt. Barrow_, Washington, 1885, p. 111.

[189] See Yarrell's _Brit. Birds_, 4th ed., iii. 1882-84, pp. 426-434, and elsewhere.

[190] For the nerves of the bill, see Yarrell's _Brit. Birds_, 4th ed. iii. 1882-84, pp. 346, 347.

[191] For habits, see Dresser, _Birds of Europe_, vii. 1871-1881, pp. 635-637.

[192] Wood-Mason. _P.Z.S._ 1878, pp. 745-751; Gould, _Birds of Australia_, ii. 1865, p. 275.

[193] Cf. Sharpe, _Ibis_, 1892, p. 543; but it seems nearer to _Turnix_ (p. 187).

[194] _Oe. dominicensis_ of St. Domingo may be distinct from the above.

[195] Hudson, _Argentine Ornithology_, ii. London, 1889, p. 163.

[196] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xxv. 1896, p.3.

[197] Stejneger, _Stand. N. H._ iv. Boston, 1885, p. 75.

[198] Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, _Water Birds N. Amer._ ii. 1884, p. 194.

[199] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xxv. 1896; _J. Linn. Soc._ xiv. pp. 390-406; _P.Z.S._ 1876, pp. 638-672; 1878, pp. 155-212.

[200] See Saunders, _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xxv. 1896, pp. 171, 200-219.

[201] Cf. Sperling, _Ibis_, 1868, pp. 286-288; Collingwood, _Zoologist_, 1867, pp. 980-983.

[202] Mr. Barrett-Hamilton, however, tells the author that the feet are red in life.

[203] Since referred by Milne-Edwards to the Cypselidae as _Tachyornis_.

[204] For the literature, see A. Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1893, pp. 220-221, 303-308.

[205] _P.Z.S._ 1882, pp. 312-332; Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil_, pp. 207-209.

[206] For further details see A. Newton, _Ibis_, 1864, pp. 185-222; 1890, pp. 207-214; _Dict. Birds_, 1894, pp. 805-810; cf. also _Zool. Rec._ 1888-89.

[207] Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil_, 1893, p. 210.

[208] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xxi. 1893, p. 3.

[209] See Darwin, _The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication_, i. London, 1868, pp. 131-224; Tegetmeier, _Pigeons, their Structure, etc._ London: 1867.

[210] Strickland and Melville, _The Dodo and its Kindred_, London, 1848; A. Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1893, pp. 155-161, 215, 216; E. Newton and H. Gadow, _Tr. Zool. Soc._ London, xiii. 1893, pp. 281-302.

[211] _Phil. Trans._ clix. 1869, pp. 327-362; clxviii. 1879, pp. 448-451. Further details will be found in Strickland and Melville's work _The Dodo and its Kindred_, London, 1848, pp. 46-56; A. Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1896, pp. 887-892.

[212] _P.Z.S._ 1874, pp. 183, 184.

[213] _Op. cit._ 1852, p. 87.

[214] Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil_, 1893, pp. 212-223.

[215] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xix. 1891, pp. 209-210.

[216] For superstitions connected with Celebes Cuckoos, see Meyer, _Ibis_, 1879, pp. 67-70.

[217] Cf. Sibree, _Ibis_, 1891, pp. 218-219.

[218] Cf. Meyer, _ut supra_ (p. 356).

[219] See Church, _Phil. Trans._ 1869, pp. 627-636; _op. cit._ 1893, pp. 511-530.

[220] Bonn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil_, 1893, pp. 221, 222.

[221] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xx. 1891, pp. viii. 2.

[222] Cf. Buller, _Birds of New Zealand_, 2nd ed., i. London, 1888, pp. 176-191.

[223] Gibson, _Ibis_, 1880, pp. 3-6.

[224] Cf. Salvadori, _Ornitologia Papuasia e Molucche_, i. Torino, 1880, p. 125.

[225] For this, as most Madagascar birds, see Grandidier, _Histoire de Madagascar_, and Sibree, _Ibis_, 1891, pp. 194-228, 416-443, 557-565; 1892, pp. 103-119, 261-274.

[226] Cf. Salvin, _P.Z.S._ 1873, pp. 429-433.

[227] Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil_, pp. 233-235. The Hoopoes used once be considered Passerine.

[228] A. D. Bartlett, _P.Z.S._ 1869, p. 142; Flower, _tom. cit._ p. 150; Murie, _op. cit._ 1874, p. 420.

[229] In the _Upupinae_ and _Irrisorinae_ the oil-gland of the incubating female, and also of the young, produces a stinking secretion.

[230] Cf. Milne-Edwards, _Oiseaux fossiles de la France_, ii. 1871, pp. 474-492; and for further details A. Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1894, pp. 671-674.

[231] Brisson, who divided the genus _Strix_, made the Tawny Owl its type; if this be accepted, Striginae must become Alucinae and Buboninae become Striginae.

[232] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ ii. 1875, p. vii.

[233] Hume, ed. Oates, _Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds_, iii. 1890, p. 103.

[234] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ ii. 1875, pp. 290-309.

[235] Not to be confounded with the "More-pork" Nightjar of Tasmania (p. 417).

[236] H. Gadow, in A. Newton's _Dict. Birds_, 1893, p. 69.

[237] _J.f.O._ 1885, p. 341, pl. 4.

[238] Cf. Gosse, _Birds of Jamaica_, 1847, pp. 47, 48; Goeldi, _Ibis_, 1896, pp. 299-305.

[239] Cf. the French "Crapaud-volant" or Flying Frog, applied to Nightjars.

[240] The _Cypselomorphae_ of Huxley included Swifts, Humming-birds, and the Nightjar group.

[241] D'Albertis noticed _Macropteryx mystacea_ settling on trees in the day-time, and Shufeldt saw _Cypselus melanoleucus_ sitting on rocky pinnacles.

[242] Green, _J. Physiol._ vi. 1885, pp. 41-45.

[243] _P.Z.S._ 1863, pp. 191-192.

[244] Two large ticks (_Anapera fimbriata_) are usually found on this bird, similar to _Anapera pallida_ of _C. apus_.

[245] For a fuller account, see A. Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1893, pp. 440-451.

[246] These are produced by the prismatic surfaces of the feathers, cf. pp. 3, 4.

[247] _Ibis_, 1859, pp. 139, 140.

[248] _Zool. Voy. Beagle_, iii. 1841, p. 112.

[249] _Birds of Jamaica_, 1847, p. 130.

[250] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xvi. 1892, p. 28.

[251] For the habits, see Taczanowski and Stolzmann, _P.Z.S._ 1881, pp. 827-834.

[252] For the Family generally, see Sclater, _Monograph of the Jacamars and Puff-birds_, London, 1879-82; and _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xix. 1891.

[253] This is Dr. Gadow's view; but two separate Families are decidedly preferable.

[254] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xix. 1891, pp. 13-121.

[255] Layard, ed. Sharpe, _Birds of South Africa_, 1875-84, pp. 166-171. Cf. Sandeman, _Eight Months in an Ox-Waggon_, 1880, pp. 235-239. [Extract, _Ibis_, 1880, p. 286.]

[256] _Ibis_, 1864, pp. 327-328.

[257] So called either from the note, or from two words meaning "nose" and "bone."

[258] See Broderip, _Zool. Journ._ i. 1825, p. 484; Vigors, _op. cit._ ii. 1826, pp. 466-483.

[259] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xix. 1891, pp. 122-160.

[260] The hallux is often aborted, producing a tridactylous, instead of a zygodactylous, foot (cf. p. 10).

[261] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xviii. 1890.

[262] Mr. Abel Chapman (_Wild Spain_, p. 256) says that the Spanish Green Woodpecker breeds twice a year; and its British congener at times does likewise.

[263] A Mexican species stores acorns in hollow stems of plants, but subsequently sticks them in holes bored in branches. Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, _N. Amer. Birds_, ii. 1874, pp. 569-572.

[264] _Ibis_, 1880, pp. 340-349.

[265] _Dict. Birds_, 1896, Introduction.

[266] _Untersuchungen zur Morphologie und Systematik der Vögel_, Amsterdam, 1888.

[267] Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves. Syst. Theil_, 1893, pp. 270-273.

[268] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xiv. 1888.

[269] Cf. Sclater, _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xiv. 1888, p. 282.

[270] _P. buckleyi_ has curious long filaments on the head of the young. Sclater and Salvin, _P.Z.S._ 1880, p. 158.

[271] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xiv. 1888, p. 326.

[272] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xv. 1890, p. 3.

[273] _I.e._ interiorly scutellated at the back.

[274] Duets are said to be sung; cf. Hudson _Argentine Ornithology_, i. 1888, p. 168.

[275] _P.Z.S._ 1882, p. 609.

[276] _Op. cit._ 1873, p. 268.

[277] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xv. 1890, p. 177.

[278] Some _Oscines_ have as many as seven pairs, but _Sphenoeacus_ has only three.

[279] Stejneger, _Standard Natural History_, iv. 1885.

[280] Sharpe, _A Review of Recent Attempts to Classify Birds_, 1891 (2nd Ornith. Congress).

[281] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ vi. 1881.

[282] _op. cit._ vii. 1883, pp. xii-xvi.

[283] Placed under the Timeliidae in _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ vii. 1883, p. ix.

[284] The American Redstart is _Setophaga ruticilla_ (Mniotiltidae), the Cape Robin is _Cossypha caffra_, the Indian Robin _Thamnobia_, the New Zealand Robin _Miro_.

[285] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ vii. 1883, pp. x. xi. (Timeliidae).

[286] For new British species, see Saunders, _Manual Brit. Birds_, 2nd edition, 1897-9.

[287] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ viii. 1883, p. 89. The _Gymnorhininae_ belong to the group _Austro-coraces_ or _Noto-coracomorphae_, if such be admitted; _i.e._ to the apparently generalized forms whence the _Corvidae_ (p. 557) and perhaps the _Laniidae_, have sprung.

[288] H. Gadow, Bronn's _Thier-Reich, Aves, Syst. Theil_, 1893, p. 281.

[289] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ viii. 1883, p. 3.

[290] For unconscious mimicry of _Mimeta_ (Oriolidae) and _Philemon_ (Meliphagidae), cf. A. Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1893, pp. 573-574.

[291] _Cf._ A. Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1893, pp. 37-40; and for the Family generally, _op. cit._ pp. 48-51, 534-536, 779-780, 789-790, Wallace, _Malay Archipelago_, ch. xxxviii., Salvadori, _Ornitologia Papuasia e Molucche_, and the Monographs of Elliot and Sharpe.

[292] W. A. Forbes, _P.Z.S._ 1882, pp. 347-350; Beddard, _Ibis_, 1891, pp. 512-514.

[293] Not to be confounded with the New Zealand Rifleman (_Acanthidositta chloris_.)

[294] _Malay Archipelago_, ch. xxxviii.

[295] _P.Z.S._ 1885, pp. 651-656.

[296] _Das Tier-reich_, 1898.

[297] The _Austro-coraces_ (p. 531) may contain these three genera and the Paradiseidae.

[298] This genus and the two next perhaps belong to the Sturnidae.

[299] _Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds_, i. 1889, p. 363.

[300] _A Review of Recent Attempts to Classify Birds_, 1891 (2nd _Internat. Orn. Congress_).

[301] For _Paramythia montium_, of New Guinea, a dull-blue bird with creamy head, black crest and fore-neck, olive-green rump-region, yellow vent, and brownish wings; cf. Sclater, _Ibis_, 1893, pp. 243-245; Hartert, _Novitat. Zool._ iii. pp. 13, 14.

[302] Cf. Wilson and Evans, _Aves Hawaiienses_, pt. ii. 1891, pp. 17-21; pt. vii. 1899, pp. 1-7; and, for the Family generally, the same work, Rothschild, _Avifauna of Laysan_, and Perkins, _Ibis_, 1893, pp. 101-112.

[303] _Oreoeca cristata_ (Laniidae) and _Manorhina melanophrys_ (Meliphagidae) are the Bell-birds of Australia; _Chasmorhynchus_ (Cotingidae) of the Neotropical Region.

[304] Cf. Buller, _Birds of New Zealand_, 2nd ed. i. 1888, p. 104; Wilson and Evans, _Aves Hawaiienses_, pt. i. 1890, p. 3.

[305] _P.Z.S._ 1883, p. 63.

[306] _Ibis_, 1891, p. 510-512.

[307] Shelley, _Monograph of the Nectariniidae_, London, 1880, p. xiii.

[308] For the Family see Sclater, _Monogr. Tanag._ 1857; and _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xi. 1886.

[309] Euler, _J. f. O._ 1867, p. 411.

[310] Cf. Shelley, _Ibis_, 1886, pp. 301-359; 1887, pp. 1-47.

[311] For a full account of the tail-feathers of these remarkable birds, see Strickland, _Contrib. Ornith._ 1850, pp. 88, 149; A. Newton, _Dict. Birds_, 1896, p. 1030.

[312] _Cat. Birds Brit. Mus._ xi. 1886, p. 309.

[313] _Cassidix oryzivora_ is parasitic on other forms; Goeldi, _Ibis_, 1897, p. 364.

[314] For the Pigeon-like conduct of the courting male, see Hudson, _Argentine Ornithology_, i. 1888, pp. 73, 87.