Part 18
But if you are in a borough or some such place where horses cannot be used for recreation, you should take up this form of amusement: go to your chambers and put on heavy armor; next look up some fellow henchman (he may be a native or an alien) who likes to drill with you and whom you know to be well trained to fight behind a shield or a buckler. Always bring heavy armor to this exercise, either chain mail or a thick gambison,[248] and carry a heavy sword and a weighty shield or buckler in your hand. In this game you should strive to learn suitable thrusts and such counterstrokes as are good, necessary, and convenient. Learn precisely how to cover yourself with the shield, so that you may be able to guard well when you have to deal with a foeman. If you feel that it is important to be well trained in these activities, go through the exercise twice a day, if it is convenient; but let no day pass, except holidays, without practicing this drill at least once; for it is counted proper for all kingsmen to master this art and, moreover, it must be mastered if it is to be of service. If the drill tires you and makes you thirsty, drink a little now and then, enough to quench your thirst; but while the game is on, be careful not to drink till you are drunk or even merry.
Footnote 248:
The gambison (_panzari_) was a form of defensive armor made of cloth padded and quilted. It is described on page 217 as being made “of soft linen thoroughly blackened.” Usually it was worn under the coat of mail, but it could also be worn outside. See _Annaler for nordisk Oldkyndighed_, 1867, 74 ff. (Blom.); Falk, _Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 181-182.
If you should like to try a variety of drills and pastimes, there are certain sports that one can take up out of doors, if that is thought more diverting. For one thing, you may have a pole prepared, somewhat heavier than a spear shaft, and put up a mark some distance away for a target; with these you can determine how far and how accurately you can throw a spear and do it effectively. It is also counted rare sport and pastime to take one’s bow and go with other men to practice archery. Another pleasant and useful diversion is to practice throwing with a sling both for distance and for accuracy, and with a staff sling[249] as well as with a hand sling, and to practice throwing stone missiles. Formerly the custom was for all who wished to become expert in such arts and thoroughly proficient in war and chivalry to train both hands alike to the use of weapons. Strive after the same skill, if you find yourself gifted for it, inasmuch as those who are trained in that way are the most perfect in these activities and the most dangerous to their enemies.
Footnote 249:
The staff sling was a sling fastened to the end of a stick; it was an earlier form which was not used much in the thirteenth century.
You should abhor and avoid manslaying in every form except as a lawful punishment or in common warfare. But in ordinary warfare on the lawful command of your chief, you need to shun manslaying no more than any other deed which you know to be right and good. Show courage and bravery in battle; fight with proper and effective blows, such as you have already learned, as if in the best of humor, though filled with noble wrath. Never fight with feigned strokes, needless thrusts, or uncertain shots like a frightened man. Heed these things well that you may be able to match your opponent’s skill in fighting. Be resolute in combat but not hot-headed and least of all boastful. Always remember that there may be those who can give good testimony in your behalf; but never praise your own deeds, lest after a time it should come to pass that you are pursued for the slaughter of men whose death is rated a great loss and the revenge is directed toward you by your own words.
If you are fighting on foot in a land battle and are placed at the point of a wedge-shaped column,[250] it is very important to watch the closed shield line in the first onset, lest it become disarranged or broken. Take heed never to bind the front edge of your shield under that of another.[251] You must also be specially careful, when in the battle line, never to throw your spear, unless you have two, for in battle array on land one spear is more effective than two swords. But if the fight is on shipboard, select two spears which are not to be thrown, one with a shaft long enough to reach easily from ship to ship and one with a shorter shaft, which you will find particularly serviceable when you try to board the enemy’s ship. Various kinds of darts should be kept on ships, both heavy javelins and lighter ones. Try to strike your opponent’s shield with a heavy javelin, and if the shield glides aside, attack him with a light javelin, unless you are able to reach him with a long-shafted spear. Fight on sea as on land with an even temper and with proper strokes only; and never waste your weapons by hurling them to no purpose.
Footnote 250:
The wedge-shaped column (_svínfylking_, perhaps so named from a fancied resemblance to a boar’s head) was a common form of battle array among the Northern peoples as well as among the early Germans generally.
Footnote 251:
As the shield was born on the left arm, the front edge would be the right edge.
Weapons of many sorts may be used to advantage on shipboard, which one has no occasion to use on land, except in a fortress or castle. Longhandled scythes[252] and long-shafted broadaxes,[253] “war-beams” and staff slings, darts,[254] and missiles of every sort are serviceable on ships. Crossbows and longbows are useful as well as all other forms of shooting weapons; but coal and sulphur[255] are, however, the most effective munitions of all that I have named. Caltrops[256] cast in lead and good halberds[257] are also effective weapons on shipboard. A tower joined to the mast[258] will be serviceable along with these and many other defenses, as is also a beam cloven into four parts and set with prongs of hard steel,[259] which is drawn up against the mast. A “prow-boar”[260] with an ironclad snout is also useful in naval battles. But it is well for men to be carefully trained in handling these before they have to use them; for one knows neither the time nor the hour when he shall have to make use of any particular kind of weapons. But take good heed to collect as many types of weapons as possible, while you still have no need of them; for it is always a distinction to have good weapons, and, furthermore, they are a good possession in times of necessity when one has to use them. For a ship’s defense the following arrangement is necessary: it should be fortified strongly with beams and logs built up into a high rampart, through which there should be four openings, each so large and wide that one or two men in full armor can leap through them; but outside and along the rampart on both sides of the ship there should be laid a level walk of planks to stand upon.[261] This breastwork must be firmly and carefully braced so that it cannot be shaken though one leaps violently upon it. Wide shields and chain mail of every sort are good defensive weapons on shipboard; the chief protection, however, is the gambison made of soft linen thoroughly blackened, good helmets, and low caps of steel. There are many other weapons that can be used in naval fights, but it seems needless to discuss more than those which I have now enumerated.
Footnote 252:
These scythes were apparently used to catch and hold the hostile ships and perhaps also to cut the ropes on the ship. See the Sorö edition, 388.
Footnote 253:
The broadax (_skeggöx_) had the blade extended backward somewhat like that of a halberd, though in the latter case the extension was usually forward. See Falk, _Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 108-110.
Footnote 254:
_Skeptifletta_: a dart of some sort with a cord attached.
Footnote 255:
Coal and sulphur seem to have been used chiefly to fire the enemy’s ship.
Footnote 256:
Caltrops were instruments provided with iron prongs and were usually scattered where the enemy’s horsemen were likely to pass, in the hope of maiming the horses. It is evident that they were also used in naval warfare, the purpose being to maim the men on the enemy’s deck. See the Sorö edition, 392.
Footnote 257:
_Atgeirr._ The translation is doubtful, but it seems clear that some kind of spear useful for striking as well as for thrusting is meant. See Falk, _Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 81-82.
Footnote 258:
Probably some sort of a cage placed at the top or near the top of the mast from which men with bows and slings could fight to better advantage. See _Aarböger for nordisk Oldkyndighed_, 1872, 242; Falk, _Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 197.
Footnote 259:
Only one end of the beam was cloven in this way. See the Sorö edition, 394-395. The beam was apparently fastened to the mast and used to crush the sides of the enemy’s ship in much the same way as the ram was used against a castle wall. See Falk, _Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 199.
Footnote 260:
The prow-boar (_rôðrgoltr_) was not a beak but apparently some device fastened to the prow which served much the same purpose, namely to run down and sink an opposing ship. See the Sorö edition, 395-396; Falk, _Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 198-199.
Footnote 261:
See the Sorö edition, 397-399; Falk, _Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 196. This rampart was built of logs and planks and raised on the gunwales. Sometimes it seems to have been placed along the entire length of the ship, but often, perhaps, only where the ship was lowest. Inside it was braced with strong beams. The plank walk on the outside projected over the edge of the ship and was no doubt in part intended to make it difficult for the enemy to board it.
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XXXVIII
WEAPONS FOR OFFENSE AND DEFENSE
_Son._ Since we now have before us a discussion which teaches chiefly how a man must prepare himself to meet his enemies in attack and defense, it seems to me that it would be well to say something about how one has to fight on land, on horse or on foot, and in attacking and defending castles. Therefore, if you feel disposed to say anything about such matters, I shall be glad to listen.
_Father._ The man who is to fight on horseback needs to make sure, as we have already stated, that he is thoroughly trained in all the arts of mounted warfare. For his horse he will need to provide this equipment:[262] he must keep him carefully and firmly shod; he must also make sure that the saddle is strong, made with high bows, and provided with strong girths and other saddlegear, including a durable surcingle across the middle and a breast strap in front.[263] The horse should be protected in such a way both in front of the saddle and behind it that he will not be exposed to weapons, spear-thrust or stroke, or any other form of attack. He should also have a good shabrack[264] made like a gambison of soft and thoroughly blackened linen cloth, for this is a good protection against all kinds of weapons. It may be decorated as one likes, and over the shabrack there should be a good harness of mail. With this equipment every part of the horse should be covered, head, loins, breast, belly, and the entire beast, so that no man, even if on foot, shall be able to reach him with deadly weapons. The horse should have a strong bridle, one that can be gripped firmly and used to rein him in or throw him when necessary. Over the bridle and about the entire head of the horse and around the neck back to the saddle, there should be a harness made like a gambison of firm linen cloth, so that no man shall be able to take away the bridle or the horse by stealth.[265]
Footnote 262:
On the equipment of the horse in medieval warfare, see _Aarböger for nordisk Oldkyndighed_, 1867, 90-97.
Footnote 263:
In the thirteenth century the saddle was made with high bows before and behind so as to provide a firmer seat for the rider. The surcingle was a girth drawn over the saddle; the breast strap served to keep the saddle from slipping backwards. _Aarböger for nordisk Oldkyndighed_, 91.
Footnote 264:
_Kovertur_, from medieval French _couverture_. But the _couverture_ was not a covering worn underneath the mail; it was probably the mail itself or an outer covering for the horse. See Falk, _Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 191.
Footnote 265:
Falk believes that this description is in some respects inaccurate. No such elaborate equipment could have been used in the North where cavalry was not an important part of the host in the thirteenth century. He also doubts that an equipment just like the one described was in use anywhere in Europe at the time. _Ibid._, 190-191. The medieval _couverture_ was not placed beneath the covering of mail as the _Speculum Regale_ states; and Falk can see no reason why a gambison placed beneath the mail should be ornamented. It seems clear that the author is somewhat confused as to these various coverings.
The rider himself should be equipped in this wise: he should wear good soft breeches made of soft and thoroughly blackened linen cloth, which should reach up to the belt; outside these, good mail hose[266] which should come up high enough to be girded on with a double strap; over these he must have good trousers made of linen cloth of the sort that I have already described; finally, over these he should have good kneepieces made of thick iron and rivets hard as steel.[267] Above and next to the body he should wear a soft gambison, which need not come lower than to the middle of the thigh. Over this he must have a strong breastplate[268] made of good iron covering the body from the nipples to the trousers belt; outside this, a well-made hauberk and over the hauberk a firm gambison made in the manner which I have already described but without sleeves. He must have a dirk[269] and two swords, one girded on and another hanging from the pommel of the saddle. On his head he must have a dependable helmet made of good steel and provided with a visor.[270] He must also have a strong, thick shield fastened to a durable shoulder belt and, in addition, a good sharp spear with a firm shaft and pointed with fine steel. Now it seems needless to speak further about the equipment of men who fight on horseback; there are, however, other weapons which a mounted warrior may use, if he wishes; among these are the “horn bow”[271] and the weaker crossbow, which a man can easily draw even when on horseback, and certain other weapons, too, if he should want them.
Footnote 266:
The mail hose were made of chain mail. _Aarböger for nordisk Oldkyndighed_, 1867, 73-74.
Footnote 267:
The kneepieces, or _genouillères_ were pieces of armor worn to protect the knees.
Footnote 268:
Blom thinks that the breastplate was a new thing in the thirteenth century (_ibid._, 76), but Falk believes that it was used quite generally (_Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 182).
Footnote 269:
The dirk (_brynknifr_) was probably a poniard-like weapon used to pierce the chain mail at the joints. Falk, _Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 124.
Footnote 270:
The helmet with the visor appears in the illustrations of the closing years of the twelfth century; the earlier helmet was a steel cap with a nose guard. _Aarböger for nordisk Oldkyndighed_, 83-84.
Footnote 271:
Little seems to be known about the hornbow. Captain Blom finds it mentioned in the Latin sources as _balista cornea_ or _balista cum cornu_. _Aarböger for nordisk Oldkyndighed_, 1867, 100-101. Falk believes that it was a bow which was reinforced on the inner side with horn. _Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 91-92.
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XXXIX
MILITARY ENGINES
_Son._ Inasmuch as you seem to think that you have described most of the weapons which are convenient to have in naval warfare or in fighting on horseback, I will now ask you to say something about those which you think are most effective in besieging or defending castles.
_Father._ All the weapons that we have just discussed as useful on ships or on horseback can also be used in attacking and defending castles; but there are many other kinds. If one is to attack a castle with the weapons which I have enumerated, he will also have need of trebuckets:[272] a few powerful ones with which to throw large rocks against stone walls to determine whether they are able to resist such violent blows, and weaker trebuckets for throwing missiles over the walls to demolish the houses within the castle. But if one is unable to break down or shatter a stone wall with trebuckets, he will have to try another engine, namely the iron-headed ram,[273] for very few stone walls can withstand its attack. If this engine fails to batter down or shake the wall, it may be advisable to set the cat[274] to work. A tower raised on wheels[275] is useful in besieging castles, if it is constructed so that it rises above the wall which is to be stormed, even though the difference in height be only seven ells; but the higher it is, the more effective it will be in attacking another tower. Scaling ladders on wheels which may be moved backward and forward are also useful for this purpose, if they are boarded up underneath and have good ropes on both sides. And we may say briefly about this craft, that in besieging castles use will be found for all sorts of military engines. But whoever wishes to join in this must be sure that he knows precisely even to the very hour when he shall have need for each device.
Footnote 272:
The trebucket (French _trébuchet_) was a siege engine which came into use in the twelfth century; it was worked by counterpoises. For a description see Oman, _Art of War_, 143-144; _Aarböger for nordisk Oldkyndighed_, 1867, 103-104; Falk, _Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 193-194.
Footnote 273:
The ram was a massive beam used to batter down walls; it was an inheritance from antiquity and was much in use. See Oman, _Art of War_, 132; _Aarböger for nordisk Oldkyndighed_, 1867, 104; Falk, _Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 198.
Footnote 274:
_Grafsvin._ Falk translates this with “badger” and seems to believe that it was a shelter on wheels under which the attackers might work in comparative safety. _Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 196. It is more likely, however, that a “cat” is meant. The cat was a long pointed pole used to loosen the stones in a wall and thus to make a breach. It is also called a “sow” and the Old Norse term _grafsvin_, “digging boar,” was evidently an attempt to translate the Latin term _scrofa_ or _sus_, “hog” or “sow.” For a description of the cat, see Oman, _Art of War_, 132.
Footnote 275:
On the subject of the movable tower see Oman, _Art of War_, 134-135, 549.
Those who have to defend a castle may also make use of these weapons which I have now enumerated and many more: trebuckets both large and small, hand slings and staff slings. They will find crossbows and other bows, too, very effective, as well as every other type of shooting weapons, such as spears and javelins both light and heavy. But to resist the trebuckets, the cat, and the engine called the ram, it is well to strengthen the entire stone wall on the inside with large oaken timbers; though if earth and clay are plentiful, these materials had better be used. Those who have to defend castles are also in the habit of making curtains of large oak boughs, three or even five deep, to cover the entire wall;[276] and the curtain should be thoroughly plastered with good sticky clay. To defeat the attacks of the ram, men have sometimes filled large bags with hay or straw and lowered them with light iron chains in front of the ram where it sought to pierce the wall. It sometimes happens that the shots fall so rapidly upon a fortress that the defenders are unable to remain at the battlements; it is then advisable to hang out brattices made of light planks and built high enough to reach two ells above the openings in the parapet and three ells below them. They should be wide enough to enable the men to fight with any sort of weapons between the parapet and the brattice wall, and they should be hung from slender beams in such a way that they may be readily drawn in and hung out again later, as one may wish.[277]
Footnote 276:
These curtains were evidently placed on the outer side of the wall.
Footnote 277:
This translation of _hengivigskarð_ is based on Blom’s interpretation (_Aarböger for nordisk Oldkyndighed_, 1867, 105-106, note). The brattices were projecting galleries built along the top of the wall and were in use before it became customary to build stone parapets. Cf. Oman, _Art of War_, 534.
The “hedgehog”[278] will be found an effective device in defending a castle. It is made of large, heavy beams armed along the ridge with a brush of pointed oak nails; it is hung outside the parapet to be dropped on anyone who comes too near the wall. Turnpikes made of large heavy logs armed with sharp teeth of hard oak may be raised on end near the battlements and kept ready to be dropped upon those who approach the castle. Another good device is the “briar,”[279] which is made of good iron and has curved thorns as hard as steel with a barb on every thorn; and the chain, from which it hangs, as high up as a man can reach must be made of spiked links, so that it can be neither held nor hewn; higher up any kind of rope that seems suitable may be used, only, it must be firm and strong. This briar is thrown down among the enemy in the hope of catching one or more of them and then it is pulled up again. A “running wheel”[280] is also a good weapon for those who defend castles: it is made of two millstones with an axle of tough oak joining them. Planks sloping downward are laid out through the openings in the wall; the wheel is rolled out upon these and then down upon the enemy.
Footnote 278:
The hedgehog (_ericius_) in common use was a form of the _cheval de frise_ and was laid on the earth to impede a hostile advance. I know of no other mention of the device (_igelkǫttr_) described above.
Footnote 279:
Captain Blom is disposed to look on the _brynklungr_ as an imaginary device (_Aarböger for nordisk Oldkyndighed_, 1867, 106) but Falk finds that some such instrument was in use in Italy as early as the tenth century (_Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 199-200).
Footnote 280:
Devices somewhat similar to the “running wheel” seem to have been used in medieval warfare, but of this particular form no other mention has been found. See Falk, _Altnordische Waffenkunde_, 200.