Part 1
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[Illustration: LIGHT AND LIBERTY]
The Century Books of Useful Science
ARTIFICIAL LIGHT
ITS INFLUENCE UPON CIVILIZATION
BY M. LUCKIESH
DIRECTOR OF APPLIED SCIENCE. NELA RESEARCH LABORATORY, NATIONAL LAMP WORKS OF GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY
Author of "Color and Its Applications," "Light and Shade and Their Applications," "The Lighting Art," "The Language of Color," etc.
_ILLUSTRATED WITH PHOTOGRAPHS_
NEW YORK THE CENTURY CO. 1920
Copyright, 1920, by THE CENTURY CO.
DEDICATED
TO THOSE WHO HAVE ENCOURAGED ORGANIZED SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF CIVILIZATION
PREFACE
In the following pages I have endeavored to discuss artificial light for the general reader, in a manner as devoid as possible of intricate details. The early chapters deal particularly with primitive artificial light and their contents are generally historical. The science of light-production may be considered to have been born in the latter part of the eighteenth century and beginning with that period a few chapters treat of the development of artificial light up to the present time. Until the middle of the nineteenth century _mere_ light was available, but as the century progressed, the light-sources through the application of science became more powerful and efficient. Gradually _mere_ light grew to _more_ light and in the dawn of the twentieth century _adequate_ light became available. In a single century, after the development of artificial light began in earnest, the efficiency of light-production increased fifty-fold and the cost diminished correspondingly. The next group of chapters deals with various economic influences of artificial light and with some of the byways in which artificial light is serving mankind. On passing through the spectacular aspects of lighting we finally emerge into the esthetics of light and lighting.
The aim has been to show that artificial light has become intricately interwoven with human activities and that it has been a powerful influence upon the progress of civilization. The subject is too extensive to be treated in detail in a single volume, but an effort has been made to present a discussion fairly complete in scope. It is hoped that the reader will gain a greater appreciation of artificial light as an economic factor, as an artistic medium, and as a mighty influence upon the safety, efficiency, health, happiness, and general progress of mankind.
M. LUCKIESH.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
It is a pleasant duty to acknowledge the coöperation of various companies in obtaining the photographs which illustrate this book. With the exception of Plates 2 and 7, which are reproduced from the excellent works of Benesch and Allegemane respectively, the illustrations of early lighting devices are taken from an historical collection in the possession of the National Lamp Works of the General Electric Co. To this company the author is indebted for Plates 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 11, 15, 18b, 20, 21, 29; to Dr. McFarlan Moore for Plate 10; to Macbeth Evans Glass Co. for Plate 12; to the Corps of Engineers, U. S. Army, for Plate 13; to Lynn Works of G. E. Co. for Plates 14, 16; to Edison Lamp Works of G. E. Co. for Plates 17, 24; to Cooper Hewitt Co. for Plate 18a; to R. U. V. Co. for Plate 19; to New York Edison Co. for Plates 22, 26, 30; to W. D'A. Ryan and the Schenectady Works of G. E. Co. for Plates 23, 25, 31; to National X-Ray Reflector Co. for Plate 28. Besides the companies and the individuals particularly involved in the foregoing, the author is glad to acknowledge his appreciation of the assistance of others during the preparation of this volume.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I LIGHT AND PROGRESS 3
II THE ART OF MAKING FIRE 15
III PRIMITIVE LIGHT-SOURCES 24
IV THE CEREMONIAL USE OF LIGHT 38
V OIL-LAMPS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 51
VI EARLY GAS-LIGHTING 63
VII THE SCIENCE OF LIGHT-PRODUCTION 80
VIII MODERN GAS-LIGHTING 97
IX THE ELECTRIC ARCS 111
X THE ELECTRIC INCANDESCENT FILAMENT LAMPS 127
XI THE LIGHT OF THE FUTURE 143
XII LIGHTING THE STREETS 152
XIII LIGHTHOUSES 163
XIV ARTIFICIAL LIGHT IN WARFARE 178
XV SIGNALING 194
XVI THE COST OF LIGHT 208
XVII LIGHT AND SAFETY 225
XVIII THE COST OF LIVING 238
XIX ARTIFICIAL LIGHT AND CHEMISTRY 256
XX LIGHT AND HEALTH 269
XXI MODIFYING ARTIFICIAL LIGHT 284
XXII SPECTACULAR LIGHTING 298
XXIII THE EXPRESSIVENESS OF LIGHT 310
XXIV LIGHTING THE HOME 325
XXV LIGHTING--A FINE ART? 341
READING REFERENCES 357
INDEX 359
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Light and Liberty _Frontispiece_ FACING PAGE Primitive fire-baskets 16
Crude splinter-holders 16
Early open-flame oil and grease lamps 17
A typical metal multiple-wick open-flame oil-lamp 32
A group of oil-lamps of two centuries ago 33
Lamps of a century or two ago 56
Elaborate fixtures of the age of candles 57
Flame arc 128
Direct current arc 128
On the testing-racks of the manufacturer of incandescent filament lamps 129
Carbon-dioxide tube for accurate color-matching 160
The Moore nitrogen tube 160
Modern street lighting 161
A completed lighthouse lens 176
Torro Point Lighthouse, Panama Canal 176
American search-light position on Western Front in 1919 177
American standard field search-light and power unit 177
Signal-light for airplane 232
Trench light-signaling outfit 232
Aviation field light-signal projector 232
Signal search-light for airplane 232
Unsafe, unproductive lighting worthy of the dark ages 233
The same factory made safe, cheerful, and more productive by modern lighting 233
Locomotive electric headlight 240
Search-light on a fire-boat 240
Building ships under artificial light at Hog Island Shipyard 241
Artificial light in photography 256
Sterilizing water with radiant energy from quartz mercury-arcs 257
Judging color under artificial daylight 272
Artificial daylight 273
Fireworks and illuminated battle-fleet at Hudson-Fulton Celebration 288
Fireworks exhibition on May Day at Panama-Pacific Exposition 289
The new flood lighting contrasted with the old outline lighting 304
Niagara Falls flooded with light 305
Artificial light honoring those who fell and those who returned 320
The expressiveness of light in churches 321
Obtaining two different moods in a room by a portable lamp which supplies direct and indirect components of light 336
The lights of New York City 337
Artificial light in community affairs 352
Panama-Pacific Exposition 353
ARTIFICIAL LIGHT
I
LIGHT AND PROGRESS
The human race was born in slavery, totally subservient to nature. The earliest primitive beings feasted or starved according to nature's bounty and sweltered or shivered according to the weather. When night fell they sought shelter with animal instinct, for not only were activities almost completely curtailed by darkness but beyond its screen lurked many dangers. It is interesting to philosophize upon a distinction between a human being and the animal just below him in the scale, but it may serve the present purpose to distinguish the human being as that animal in whom there is an unquenchable and insatiable desire for independence. The effort to escape from the bondage of nature is not solely a human instinct; animals burrow or build retreats through the instinct of self-preservation. But this instinct in animals is soon satisfied, whereas in human beings it has been leading ever onward toward complete emancipation.
The progress of civilization is a long chain of countless achievements each one of which has increased man's independence. Early man perhaps did not conceive the idea of fire and then set out to produce it. His infant mind did not operate in this manner. But when he accidentally struck a spark, produced fire by friction, or discovered it in some other manner, he saw its possibility. It is thrilling to picture primitive man at his first bonfire, enjoying the warmth, or at least interested in it. But how wonderful it must have become as twilight's curtain was drawn across the heavens! This controllable fire emitted _light_. It is easy to imagine primitive man pondering over this phenomenon with his sluggish mind. Doubtless he cautiously picked up a flaming stick and timidly explored the crowding darkness. Perhaps he carried it into his cave and behold! night had retreated from his abode! No longer was it necessary for him to retire to his bed of leaves when daylight failed. The fire not only banished the chill of night but was a power over darkness. Viewed from the standpoint of civilization, its discovery was one of the greatest strides along the highway of human progress. The activities of man were no longer bounded by sunrise and sunset. The march of civilization had begun.
In the present age of abundant artificial light, with its manifold light-sources and accessories which have made possible countless applications of light, mankind does not realize the importance of this comfort. Its wonderful convenience and omnipresence have resulted in indifference toward it by mankind in general, notwithstanding the fact that it is essential to man's most important and educative sense. By extinguishing the light and pondering upon his helplessness in the resulting darkness, man may gain an idea of its overwhelming importance. Those unfortunate persons who suffer the terrible calamity of blindness after years of dependence upon sight will testify in heartrending terms to the importance of light. Milton, whose eyesight had failed, laments,
O first created beam and thou great Word "Let there be light," and light was over all, Why am I thus bereaved thy prime decree?
Perhaps only through a similar loss would one fully appreciate the tremendous importance of light to him, but imagination should be capable of convincing him that it is one of the most essential and pleasure-giving phenomena known to mankind.
A retrospective view down the vista of centuries reveals by contrast the complexity with which artificial light is woven into human activities of the present time. Written history fails long before the primitive races are reached, but it is safe to trust the imagination to penetrate the fog of unwritten history and find early man huddled in his cave as daylight wanes. Impelled by the restless spirit of progress, this primitive being grasped the opportunity which fire afforded to extend his activities beyond the boundaries of daylight. The crude art upon the walls of his cave was executed by the flame of a smoking fagot. The fire on the ledge at the entrance to his abode became a symbol of home, as the fire on the hearth has symbolized home and hospitality throughout succeeding ages. The accompanying light and the protection from cold combined to establish the home circle. The ties of mated animals expanded through these influences to the bonds of family. Thus light was woven early into family life and has been throughout the ages a moralizing and civilizing influence. To-day the residence functions as a home mainly under artificial light, for owing to the conditions of living and working, the family group gathers chiefly after daylight has failed.
From the pine knot of primitive man to the wonderfully convenient light-sources of to-day there is a great interval, consisting, as appears retrospectively, of small and simple steps long periods apart. Measured by present standards and achievements, development was slow at first and modern man may be inclined to impatience as he views the history of light and human progress. But the achievements of early centuries, which appear so simple at the present time, were really great accomplishments when considered in the light of the knowledge of those remote periods. Science as it exists to-day is founded upon proved facts. The scientist, equipped with a knowledge of physical and chemical laws, is led by his imagination into the darkness of the unexplored unknown. This knowledge illuminates the pathway so that hypotheses are intelligently formed. These evolve into theories which are gradually altered to fit the accumulating facts, for along the battle area of progress there are innumerable scouting-parties gaining secrets from nature. These are supported by individuals and by groups, who verify, amplify, and organize the facts, and they in turn are followed by inventors who apply them. Liaison is maintained at all points, but the attack varies from time to time. It may be intense at certain places and other sectors may be quiet for a time. There are occasional reverses, but the whole line in general progresses. Each year witnesses the acquirement of new territory. It is seen that through the centuries there is an ever-growing momentum as knowledge, efficiency, and organization increase the strength of this invading army of scientists and inventors.
The burning fagot rescued mankind from the shackles of darkness, and the grease-lamp and tallow-candle have done their part. Progress was slow in those early centuries because the great minds of those ages philosophized without a basis of established facts: scientific progress resulted more from an accumulation of accidental discoveries than by a directed attack of philosophy supported by the facts established by experiment. It was not until comparatively recent times, at most three centuries ago, that the great intellects turned to systematically organized scientific research. Such men as Newton laid the foundation for the tremendous strides of to-day. The store of facts increased and as the attitude changed from philosophizing to investigating, the organized knowledge grew apace. All of this paved the way for the momentous successes of the present time.
The end is not in sight and perhaps never will be. The unexplored region extends to infinity and, judged by the past, the momentum of discovery will continue to increase for ages to come, unless the human race decays through the comfort and ease gained from utilizing the magic secrets which are constantly being wrested from nature. Among the achievements of science and invention, the production and application of artificial light ranks high. As an influence upon civilization, no single achievement surpasses it.
Without artificial light, mankind would be comparatively inactive about one half its lifetime. To-day it has been fairly well established that the human organism can flourish on eight hours' sleep in a period of twenty-four hours. Another eight hours spent in work should settle man's obligation to the world. The remaining hours should be his own. Artificial light has made such a distribution of time possible. The working-periods in many cases may be arranged in the interests of economy, which often means continuous operations. The sun need not be considered when these operations are confined to interiors or localized outdoors.
Thus, artificial light has been an important factor in the great industrial development of the present time. Man now burrows into the earth, navigates under water, travels upon the surface of land and sea, and soars among the clouds piloted by light of his own making. Progress does not halt at sunset but continues twenty-four hours each day. Building, printing, manufacturing, commerce, and other activities are prosecuted continuously, the working-shifts changing at certain periods regardless of the rising or setting sun. Adequate artificial lighting decreases spoilage, increases production, and is a powerful factor in the prevention of industrial accidents.
It has ever been true since the advent of artificial light that the intellect has been largely nourished after the completion of the day's work. The highly developed artificial lighting of the present time may account for much of the vast industry of publication. Books, magazines, and newspapers owe much to convenient and inexpensive artificial light, for without it fewer hours would be available for recreation and advancement through reading. Schools, libraries, and art museums may be attended at night for the betterment of the human race. The immortal Lincoln, it is said, gained his early education largely by the light of the fireplace. But all were not endowed with the persistence of Lincoln, so that illiteracy was more common in his day than in the present age of adequate illumination.
The theatrical stage not only depends for its effectiveness upon artificial light but owes its existence and development largely to this agency. In the moving-picture theater, pictures are projected upon the screen by means of it and even the production of the pictures is independent of daylight. These and a vast number of recreational activities owe much, and in some cases their existence, to artificial light.
Not many centuries ago the streets at night were overrun by thieves and to venture outdoors after dark was to court robbery and even bodily harm. In these days of comparative safety it is difficult to realize the influence that abundant illumination has had in increasing the safety of life and property. Maeterlinck in his poetical drama, "The Bluebird," appropriately has made _Light_ the faithful companion of mankind. The Palace of Night, into which _Light_ is not permitted to enter, is the abode of many evils. Thus the poet has played upon the primitive instincts of the impressiveness of light and darkness.
By combining the symbolism of light, color, and darkness with the instincts which have been inherited by mankind from its superstitious ancestry of the age of mythology, another field of application of artificial light is opened. Light has gradually assumed such attributes as truth, knowledge, progress, enlightenment. Throughout the early ages light was more or less worshiped and thus artificial lights became woven in many religious ceremonies. Some of these have persisted to the present time. The great pageants of peace celebrations and world's expositions appropriately feature artificial light. In drawing upon the potentiality of the expressiveness and impressiveness of light and color, artificial light is playing a major part. Doubtless the future generations will be entertained by gorgeous symphonies of light. Experiments are performed in this direction now and then, and it is reasonable to expect that after many centuries of cultivation of the appreciation of light-symphonies, these will take a place among the arts. The elaborate and complicated music of the present time is appreciated by civilized nations only after many centuries of slow cultivation of taste and understanding.
Light-therapy is to-day a distinct science and art. The germicidal action of light-rays and of some of the invisible rays which ordinarily accompany the luminous rays is well proved. Wounds are treated effectively and water is sterilized by the ultraviolet radiant energy in modern artificial illuminants.
Thousands of lighthouses, light-ships, and light-buoys are scattered along sea-coasts, rivers, and channels. They guide the wheelman and warn the lookout of shoals and reefs. Some of these send forth flashes of light whose intensities are measured in millions of candle-power. Many are unattended for days and even months. These powerful lights dominated by automatic mechanisms have replaced the wood-fires which were maintained a few centuries ago upon certain prominent points.
Signal-lights now guide the railroad train through the night. A burning flare dropped from the rear of a train keeps the following train at a safe distance. Huge search-lights penetrate the night air for many miles. When these are equipped with shutters, a code may be flashed from one ship to another or between the vessel and land. A code from a powerful search-light has been read a hundred miles away because the flashes were projected upon a layer of high clouds and were thus visible far beyond the horizon.
Artificial light played its part in the recent war. Huge search-light equipments were devised for portability. This mobile apparatus was utilized against enemy aircraft and in various other ways. Small hand-lamps are used to send out a pencil of light as directed by a pair of sights and the code is flashed by means of a trigger. Raiding-parties are no longer concealed by the curtain of darkness, for rockets and star-shells are used to illuminate large areas. Flares sent upward to drift slowly downward supported by parachutes saved and cost many lives during the recent war. Rockets are used by ships in distress and also by beleaguered troops.
Experiments are being prosecuted to ascertain the possibilities of artificial light in the forcing of plant-growth, and even chickens are made to work longer hours by its use.
Artificial light is now modified in color or spectral character to meet many requirements. Daylight has been reproduced in spectral quality so that certain processes requiring accurate discrimination of color are now prosecuted twenty-four hours a day under artificial daylight. Colored light is made of the correct quality which does not affect photographic plates of various sensibilities. Monochromatic light is utilized in photo-micrography for the best rendition of detail. Light-waves have been utilized as standards of length because they are invariable and fundamental. Numerous other interesting adaptations of artificial light are in daily use.
This is in reality the age of artificial light, for mankind has not only become independent of daylight in certain respects, but has improved upon natural light. The controllability of artificial light makes it superior to natural light in many ways. In fact, uses have been made of artificial light which are impossible with natural light. Light-sources may be made of a vast variety of shapes, and those may be transported wherever desired. They may be equipped with reflectors and other optical devices to direct or to diffuse the light as required.
Thus, artificial light to-day has numerous advantages over light which has been furnished by the Creator. It is sometimes stated that it can never compete with daylight in cheapness, inasmuch as the latter costs nothing. But this is not true. Even in the residence, daylight costs something, because windows are more expensive than plain walls. The expense of washing windows is an appreciable percentage of the cost of gas or electricity. And there is window-breakage to be considered.
In the more elaborate buildings of the congested portions of cities, daylight is satisfactory a lesser number of hours than in the outlying districts. In some stores, offices, and factories artificial light is used throughout the day. Still, the daylighting-equipment is installed and maintained. Furthermore, when it is considered that much expensive area is given to light-courts and much valuable wall space to windows, it is seen that the cost of daylight in congested cities is in reality considerable. Of course, the daylighting-equipment has value in ventilating, but ventilation may be taken care of in a very satisfactory manner as a separate problem.
The cost of skylights in museums and other large buildings is far greater than that of ordinary ceilings and walls, and the extra allowance for heating is appreciable. The expense of maintenance of some skylights is considerable. Thus it is seen that the cost and maintenance of daylighting-equipment, the loss of valuable rental space and of wall area, and the increased expense of heating are factors which challenge the statement that daylight costs nothing. In fact, it is not surprising to find that occasionally the elimination of daylighting--the reliance upon artificial light alone--has been seriously contemplated. When the possibilities of the latter are considered, it is reasonable to expect that it will make greater and greater inroads and that many buildings of the future will be equipped solely with artificial-lighting systems.
Naturally, with the tremendous development of artificial light during the present age, a new profession has arisen. The lighting expert is evolving to fill the needs. He is studying the problems of producing and utilizing artificial illumination. He deals with the physics of light-production. His studies of utilization carry him into the vast fields of physiology and psychology. His is a profession which eventually will lead into numerous highways and byways of enterprise, because the possibilities of lighting extend into all those activities which make their appeal to consciousness through the doorway of vision. These possibilities are limited only by the boundaries of human endeavor and in the broadest sense extend even beyond them, for light is one of the most prominent agencies in the scheme of creation. It contributes largely to the safety, the efficiency, and the happiness of civilized beings and beyond all it is a powerful civilizing agency.
II