Part 6

AUTHORITIES.--Continuous groups: Lie and Engel, _Theorie der Transformationsgruppen_ (Leipzig, vol. i., 1888; vol. ii., 1890; vol. iii., 1893); Lie and Scheffers, _Vorlesungen uber gewohnliche Differentialgleichungen mit bekannten infinitesimalen Transformationen_ (Leipzig, 1891); _Idem, Vorlesungen uber continuierliche Gruppen_ (Leipzig, 1893); _Idem, Geometrie der Beruhrungstransformationen_ (Leipzig, 1896); Klein and Schilling, _Hohere Geometrie_, vol. ii. (lithographed) (Gottingen, 1893, for both continuous and discontinuous groups). Campbell, _Introductory Treatise on Lie's Theory of Finite Continuous Transformation Groups_ (Oxford, 1903). Discontinuous groups: Klein and Fricke, _Vorlesungen uber die Theorie der elliptischen Modulfunktionen_ (vol. i., Leipzig, 1890) (for a full discussion of the modular group); _Idem, Vorlesungen uber die Theorie der automorphen Funktionen_ (vol. i., Leipzig, 1897; vol. ii. pt. i., 1901) (for the general theory of discontinuous groups); Schoenflies, _Krystallsysteme und Krystallstruktur_ (Leipzig, 1891) (for discontinuous groups of motions); Groups of finite order: Galois, _[OE]uvres mathematiques_ (Paris, 1897, reprint); Jordan, _Traite des substitutions et des equations algebriques_ (Paris, 1870); Netto, _Substitutionentheorie und ihre Anwendung auf die Algebra_ (Leipzig, 1882; Eng. trans. by Cole, Ann Arbor, U.S.A., 1892); Klein, _Vorlesungen uber das Ikosaeder_ (Leipzig, 1884; Eng. trans. by Morrice, London, 1888); H. Vogt, _Lecons sur la resolution algebrique des equations_ (Paris, 1895); Weber, _Lehrbuch der Algebra_ (Braunschweig, vol. i., 1895; vol. ii., 1896; a second edition appeared in 1898); Burnside, _Theory of Groups of Finite Order_ (Cambridge, 1897); Bianchi, _Teoria dei gruppi di sostituzioni e delle equazioni algebriche_ (Pisa, 1899); Dickson, _Linear Groups with an Exposition of the Galois Field Theory_ (Leipzig, 1901); De Seguier, _Elements de la theorie des groupes abstraits_ (Paris, 1904), A summary with many references will be found in the _Encyklopadie der mathematischen Wissenschaften_ (Leipzig, vol. i., 1898, 1899). (W. Bu.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The word "group," which appears first in English in the sense of an assemblage of figures in an artistic design, picture, &c., is adapted from the Fr. _groupe_, which is to be referred to the Teutonic word meaning "knot," "mass," "bunch," represented in English by "crop" (q.v.). The technical mathematical sense is not older than 1870.

GROUSE, a word of uncertain origin,[1] now used generally by ornithologists to include all the "rough-footed" Gallinaceous birds, but in common speech applied almost exclusively, when used alone, to the _Tetrao scoticus_ of Linnaeus, the _Lagopus scoticus_ of modern systematists--more particularly called in English the red grouse, but till the end of the 18th century almost invariably spoken of as the Moor-fowl or Moor-game. The effect which this species is supposed to have had on the British legislature, and therefore on history, is well known, for it was the common belief that parliament always rose when the season for grouse-shooting began (August 12th); while according to the _Orkneyinga Saga_ (ed. Jonaeus, p. 356; ed. Anderson, p. 168) events of some importance in the annals of North Britain followed from its pursuit in Caithness in the year 1157.

The red grouse is found on moors from Monmouthshire and Derbyshire northward to the Orkneys, as well as in most of the Hebrides. It inhabits similar situations throughout Wales and Ireland, but it does not naturally occur beyond the limits of the British Islands,[2] and is the only species among birds peculiar to them. The word "species" may in this case be used advisedly (since the red grouse invariably "breeds true," it admits of an easy diagnosis, and it has a definite geographical range); but scarcely any zoologist can doubt of its common origin with the willow-grouse, _Lagopus albus_ (_L. subalpinus_ or _L. saliceti_ of some authors), that inhabits a subarctic zone from Norway across the continents of Europe and Asia, as well as North America from the Aleutian Islands to Newfoundland. The red grouse indeed is rarely or never found away from the heather on which chiefly it subsists; while the willow-grouse in many parts of the Old World seems to prefer the shrubby growth of berry-bearing plants (_Vaccinium_ and others) that, often thickly interspersed with willows and birches, clothes the higher levels or the lower mountain-slopes, and it flourishes in the New World where heather scarcely exists, and a "heath" in its strict sense is unknown. It is true that the willow-grouse always becomes white in winter, which the red grouse never does; but in summer there is a considerable resemblance between the two species, the cock willow-grouse having his head, neck and breast of nearly the same rich chestnut-brown as his British representative, and, though his back be lighter in colour, as is also the whole plumage of his mate, than is found in the red grouse, in other respects the two species are precisely alike. No distinction can be discovered in their voice, their eggs, their build, nor in their anatomical details, so far as these have been investigated and compared.[3] Moreover, the red grouse, restricted as is its range, varies in colour not inconsiderably according to locality.

[Illustration: Red Grouse.]

Though the red grouse does not, after the manner of other members of the genus _Lagopus_, become white in winter, Scotland possesses a species of the genus which does. This is the ptarmigan, _L. mutus_ or _L. alpinus_, which differs far more in structure, station and habits from the red grouse than that does from the willow-grouse, and in Scotland is far less abundant, haunting only the highest and most barren mountains. It is said to have formerly inhabited both Wales and England, but there is no evidence of its appearance in Ireland. On the continent of Europe it is found most numerously in Norway, but at an elevation far above the growth of trees, and it occurs on the Pyrenees and on the Alps. It also inhabits northern Russia. In North America, Greenland and Iceland it is represented by a very nearly allied form--so much so indeed that it is only at certain seasons that the slight difference between them can be detected. This form is the _L. rupestris_ of authors, and it would appear to be found also in Siberia (_Ibis_, 1879, p. 148). Spitzbergen is inhabited by a large form which has received recognition as _L. hemileucurus_, and the northern end of the chain of the Rocky Mountains is tenanted by a very distinct species, the smallest and perhaps the most beautiful of the genus, _L. leucurus_, which has all the feathers of the tail white.

[Illustration: Ptarmigan.]

[Illustration: Blackcock.]

The bird, however, to which the name of grouse in all strictness belongs is probably the _Tetrao tetrix_ of Linnaeus--the blackcock and greyhen, as the sexes are respectively called. It is distributed over most of the heath-country of England, except in East Anglia, where attempts to introduce it have been only partially successful. It also occurs in North Wales and very generally throughout Scotland, though not in Orkney, Shetland or the Outer Hebrides, nor in Ireland. On the continent of Europe it has a very wide range, and it extends into Siberia. In Georgia its place is taken by a distinct species, on which a Polish naturalist (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1875, p. 267) has conferred the name of _T. mlokosiewiczi_. Both these birds have much in common with their larger congener the capercally and its eastern representative.

The species of the genus _Bonasa_, of which the European _B. sylvestris_ is the type, does not inhabit the British Islands. It is perhaps the most delicate game-bird that comes to table. It is the _gelinotte_ of the French, the _Haselhuhn_ of Germans, and _Hjerpe_ of Scandinavians. Like its transatlantic congener _B. umbellus_, the ruffed grouse or birch-partridge (of which there are two other local forms, _B. umbelloides_ and _B. sabinii_), it is purely a forest-bird. The same may be said of the species of _Canace_, of which two forms are found in America, _C. canadensis_, the spruce-partridge, and _C. franklini_, and also of the Siberian _C. falcipennis_. Nearly allied to these birds is the group known as _Dendragapus_, containing three large and fine forms _D. obscurus_, _D. fuliginosus_, and _D. richardsoni_--all peculiar to North America. Then there are _Centrocercus urophasianus_, the sage-cock of the plains of Columbia and California, and _Pedioecetes_, the sharp-tailed grouse, with its two forms, _P. phasianellus_ and _P. columbianus_, while finally _Cupidonia_, the prairie-hen, also with two local forms, _C. cupido_ and _C. pallidicincta_, is a bird that in the United States of America possesses considerable economic value, enormous numbers being consumed there, and also exported to Europe.

The various sorts of grouse are nearly all figured in Elliot's _Monograph of the Tetraoninae_, and an excellent account of the American species is given in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway's _North American Birds_ (iii. 414-465). See also SHOOTING. (A. N.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] It seems first to occur (O. Salusbury Brereton, _Archaeologia_, iii. 157) as "grows" in an ordinance for the regulation of the royal household dated "apud Eltham, mens. Jan. 22 Hen. VIII.," i.e. 1531, and considering the locality must refer to black game. It is found in an Act of Parliament 1 Jac. I. cap. 27, S 2, i.e. 1603, and, as reprinted in the _Statutes at Large_, stands as now commonly spelt, but by many writers or printers the final e was omitted in the 17th and 18th centuries. In 1611 Cotgrave had "Poule griesche. A Moore-henne; the henne of the Grice [in ed. 1673 "Griece"] or Mooregame" (_Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues, s.v. Poule_). The most likely derivation seems to be from the old French word _griesche_, _greoche_ or _griais_ (meaning speckled, and cognate with _griseus_, grisly or grey), which was applied to some kind of partridge, or according to Brunetto Latini (_Tres._ p. 211) to a quail, "porce que ele fu premiers trovee en Grece." The Oxford Dictionary repudiates the possibility of "grouse" being a spurious singular of an alleged plural "grice," and, with regard to the possibility of "grows" being a plural of "grow," refers to Giraldus Cambrensis (c. 1210), _Topogr. Hib. opera_ (Rolls) v. 47: "gallinae campestres, quas vulgariter _grutas_ vocant."

[2] It was successfully, though with much trouble, introduced by Mr Oscar Dickson on a tract of land near Gottenburg in Sweden (_Svenska Jagarforbundets Nya Tidskrift_, 1868, p. 64 _et alibi_).

[3] A very interesting subject for discussion would be whether _Lagopus scoticus_ or _L. albus_ has varied most from the common stock of both. Looking to the fact that the former is the only species of the genus which does not assume white clothing in winter, an evolutionist might at first deem the variation greatest in its case; but then it must be borne in mind that the species of _Lagopus_ which turn white differ in that respect from all other groups of the family _Tetraonidae_. Furthermore every species of _Lagopus_ (even _L. leucurus_, the whitest of all) has its first set of _remiges_ coloured brown. These are dropped when the bird is about half-grown, and in all the species but _L. scoticus_ white _remiges_ are then produced. If therefore the successive phases assumed by any animal in the course of its progress to maturity indicate the phases through which the species has passed, there may have been a time when all the species of _Lagopus_ wore a brown livery even when adult, and the white dress donned in winter has been imposed upon the wearers by causes that can be easily suggested. The white plumage of the birds of this group protects them from danger during the snows of a protracted winter. But the red grouse, instead of perpetuating directly the more ancient properties of an original _Lagopus_ that underwent no great seasonal change of plumage, may derive its ancestry from the widely-ranging willow-grouse, which in an epoch comparatively recent (in the geological sense) may have stocked Britain, and left descendants that, under conditions in which the assumption of a white garb would be almost fatal to the preservation of the species, have reverted (though doubtless with some modifications) to a comparative immutability essentially the same as that of the primal _Lagopus_.

GROVE, SIR GEORGE (1820-1900), English writer on music, was born at Clapham on the 13th of August 1820. He was articled to a civil engineer, and worked for two years in a factory near Glasgow. In 1841 and 1845 he was employed in the West Indies, erecting lighthouses in Jamaica and Bermuda. In 1849 he became secretary to the Society of Arts, and in 1852 to the Crystal Palace. In this capacity his natural love of music and enthusiasm for the art found a splendid opening, and he threw all the weight of his influence into the task of promoting the best music of all schools in connexion with the weekly and daily concerts at Sydenham, which had a long and honourable career under the direction of Mr (afterwards Sir) August Manns. Without Sir George Grove that eminent conductor would hardly have succeeded in doing what he did to encourage young composers and to educate the British public in music. Grove's analyses of the Beethoven symphonies, and the other works presented at the concerts, set the pattern of what such things should be; and it was as a result of these, and of the fact that he was editor of _Macmillan's Magazine_ from 1868 to 1883, that the scheme of his famous _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_, published from 1878 to 1889 (new edition, edited by J. A. Fuller Maitland, 1904-1907), was conceived and executed. His own articles in that work on Beethoven, Mendelssohn and Schubert are monuments of a special kind of learning, and that the rest of the book is a little thrown out of balance owing to their great length is hardly to be regretted. Long before this he had contributed to the _Dictionary of the Bible_, and had promoted the foundation of the Palestine Exploration Fund. On a journey to Vienna, undertaken in the company of his lifelong friend, Sir Arthur Sullivan, the important discovery of a large number of compositions by Schubert was made, including the music to _Rosamunde_. When the Royal College of Music was founded in 1882 he was appointed its first director, receiving the honour of knighthood. He brought the new institution into line with the most useful European conservatoriums. On the completion of the new buildings in 1894 he resigned the directorship, but retained an active interest in the institution to the end of his life. He died at Sydenham on the 28th of May 1900.

His life, a most interesting one, was written by Mr Charles Graves. (J. A. F. M.)

GROVE, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT (1811-1896), English judge and man of science, was born on the 11th of July 1811 at Swansea, South Wales. After being educated by private tutors, he went to Brasenose College, Oxford, where he took an ordinary degree in 1832. Three years later he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn. His health, however, did not allow him to devote himself strenuously to practice, and he occupied his leisure with scientific studies. About 1839 he constructed the platinum-zinc voltaic cell that bears his name, and with the aid of a number of these exhibited the electric arc light in the London Institution, Finsbury Circus. The result was that in 1840 the managers appointed him to the professorship of experimental philosophy, an office which he held for seven years. His researches dealt very largely with electro-chemistry and with the voltaic cell, of which he invented several varieties. One of these, the Grove gas-battery, which is of special interest both intrinsically and as the forerunner of the secondary batteries now in use for the "storage" of electricity, was based on his observation that a current is produced by a couple of platinum plates standing in acidulated water and immersed, the one in hydrogen, the other in oxygen. At one of his lectures at the Institution he anticipated the electric lighting of to-day by illuminating the theatre with incandescent electric lamps, the filaments being of platinum and the current supplied by a battery of his nitric acid cells. In 1846 he published his famous book on _The Correlation of Physical Forces_, the leading ideas of which he had already put forward in his lectures: its fundamental conception was that each of the forces of nature--light, heat, electricity, &c.--is definitely and equivalently convertible into any other, and that where experiment does not give the full equivalent, it is because the initial force has been dissipated, not lost, by conversion into other unrecognized forces. In the same year he received a Royal medal from the Royal Society for his Bakerian lecture on "Certain phenomena of voltaic ignition and the decomposition of water into its constituent gases." In 1866 he presided over the British Association at its Nottingham meeting and delivered an address on the continuity of natural phenomena. But while he was thus engaged in scientific research, his legal work was not neglected, and his practice increased so greatly that in 1853 he became a Q.C. One of the best-known cases in which he appeared as an advocate was that of William Palmer, the Rugeley poisoner, whom he defended. In 1871 he was made a judge of the Common Pleas in succession to Sir Robert Collier, and remained on the bench till 1887. He died in London on the 1st of August 1896.

A selection of his scientific papers is given in the sixth edition of _The Correlation of Physical Forces_, published in 1874.

GROVE (O.E. _graf_, cf. O.E. _groefa_, brushwood, later "greave"; the word does not appear in any other Teutonic language, and the _New English Dictionary_ finds no Indo-European root to which it can be referred; Skeat considers it connected with "grave," to cut, and finds the original meaning to be a glade cut through a wood), a small group or cluster of trees, growing naturally and forming something smaller than a wood, or planted in particular shapes or for particular purposes, in a park, &c. Groves have been connected with religious worship from the earliest times, and in many parts of India every village has its sacred group of trees. For the connexion of religion with sacred groves see TREE-WORSHIP.

The word "grove" was used by the authors of the Authorized Version of the Bible to translate two Hebrew words: (1) _'eshel_, as in Gen. xxi. 33, and 1 Sam. xxii. 6; this is rightly given in the Revised Version as "tamarisk"; (2) _asherah_ in many places throughout the Old Testament. Here the translators followed the Septuagint [Greek: alsos] and the Vulgate _lucus_. The _'[)a]sherah_ was a wooden post erected at the Canaanitish places of worship, and also by the altars of Yahweh. It may have represented a tree.

GROZNYI, a fortress and town of Russia, North Caucasia, in the province of Terek, on the Zunzha river, 82 m. by rail N.E. of Vladikavkaz, on the railway to Petrovsk. There are naphtha wells close by. The fortifications were constructed in 1819. Pop. (1897) 15,599.

GRUB, the larva of an insect, a caterpillar, maggot. The word is formed from the verb "to grub," to dig, break up the surface of the ground, and clear of stumps, roots, weeds, &c. According to the _New English Dictionary_, "grub" may be referred to an ablaut variant of the Old Teutonic _grab_-, to dig, cf. "grave." Skeat (_Etym. Dict._ 1898) refers it rather to the root seen in "grope," "grab," &c., the original meaning "to search for." The earliest quotation of the slang use of the word in the sense of food in the _New English Dictionary_ is dated 1659 from _Ancient Poems, Ballads_, &c., Percy Society Publications. "Grub-street," as a collective term for needy hack-writers, dates from the 17th century and is due to the name of a street near Moorfields, London, now Milton Street, which was as Johnson says "much inhabited by writers of small histories, dictionaries and temporary poems."

GRUBER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1774-1851), German critic and literary historian, was born at Naumburg on the Saale, on the 29th of November 1774. He received his education at the town school of Naumburg and the university of Leipzig, after which he resided successively at Gottingen, Leipzig, Jena and Weimar, occupying himself partly in teaching and partly in various literary enterprises, and enjoying in Weimar the friendship of Herder, Wieland and Goethe. In 1811 he was appointed professor at the university of Wittenberg, and after the division of Saxony he was sent by the senate to Berlin to negotiate the union of the university of Wittenberg with that of Halle. After the union was effected he became in 1815 professor of philosophy at Halle. He was associated with Johann Samuel Ersch in the editorship of the great work _Allgemeine Encyklopadie der Wissenschaften und Kunste_; and after the death of Ersch he continued the first section from vol. xviii. to vol. liv. He also succeeded Ersch in the editorship of the _Allgemeine Literaturzeitung_. He died on the 7th of August 1851.

Gruber was the author of a large number of works, the principal of which are _Charakteristik Herders_ (Leipzig, 1805), in conjunction with Johann T. L. Danz (1769-1851), afterwards professor of theology at Jena; _Geschichte des menschlichen Geschlechts_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1806); _Worterbuch der altklassischen Mythologie_ (3 vols., Weimar, 1810-1815); _Wielands Leben_ (2 parts, Weimar, 1815-1816), and _Klopstocks Leben_ (Weimar, 1832). He also edited Wieland's _Samtliche Werke_ (Leipzig, 1818-1828).