Part 2

But the differences of bodies are two: for some of them indeed are primary, but others originate from these: for the hot and the cold, the moist and the dry, rank as primary differences; but the heavy and the light, the dense and the rare, have the relation of things which are produced from the primary differences. All of them, however, are in number sixteen, viz. the hot and the cold, the moist and the dry, the heavy and the light, the rare and the dense, the smooth and the rough, the hard and the soft, the thin and the thick, the acute and the obtuse. But of all these, the touch has a knowledge, and forms a judgement; hence, also, the first body in which these differences exist in capacity, may be sensibly apprehended by the touch.

The hot and the dry, therefore, the rare and the sharp, are the powers of fire; but those of water are, the cold and the moist, the dense and the obtuse; those of air are, the soft, the smooth, the light, and the attenuated; and those of earth are, the hard and the rough, the heavy and the thick.

Of these four bodies, however, fire and earth are the transcendencies and summits [or extremities] of contraries. Fire, therefore, is the transcendency of heat, in the same manner as ice is of cold: hence, if ice is a concretion of moisture and frigidity, fire will be the fervour of dryness and heat. On which account, nothing is generated from ice, nor from fire[18].

Fire and earth, therefore, are the extremities of the elements, but water and air are the media, for they have a mixed corporeal nature. Nor is it possible that there could be only one of the extremes, but it is necessary that there should be a contrary to it. Nor could there be two only, for it is necessary that there should be a medium, since media are opposite to the extremes.

Fire, therefore, is hot and dry, but air is hot and moist; water is moist and cold, but earth is cold and dry. Hence, heat is common to air and fire; cold is common to water and earth; dryness to earth and fire; and moisture to water and air. But with respect to the peculiarities of each, heat is the peculiarity of fire, dryness of earth, moisture of air, and frigidity of water. The essences, therefore, of these remain permanent, through the possession of common properties; but they change through such as are peculiar, when one contrary vanquishes another.

Hence, when the moisture in air vanquishes the dryness in fire, but the frigidity in water, the heat in air, and the dryness in earth, the moisture in water, and vice versâ, when the moisture in water vanquishes the dryness in earth, the heat in air, the coldness in water, and the dryness in fire, the moisture in air, then the mutations and generations of the elements from each other into each other are effected.

The body, however, which is the subject and recipient of mutations, is a universal receptacle, and is in capacity the first tangible substance.

But the mutations of the elements are effected, either from a change of earth into fire, or from fire into air, or from air into water, or from water into earth. Mutation is also effected in the third place, when that which is contrary in each element is corrupted, but that which is of a kindred nature, and connascent, is preserved. Generation, therefore, is effected, when one contrariety is corrupted. For fire, indeed, is hot and dry, but air is hot and moist, and heat is common to both; but the peculiarity of fire is dryness, and of air moisture. Hence, when the moisture in air vanquishes the dryness in fire, then fire is changed into air.

Again, since water is moist and cold, but air is moist and hot, moisture is common to both. The peculiarity however of water is coldness, but of air heat. When, therefore, the coldness in water vanquishes the heat in air, the mutation from air into water is effected.

Further still, earth is cold and dry, but water is cold and moist, and coldness is common to both; but the peculiarity of earth is dryness, and of water moisture. When, therefore, the dryness in earth vanquishes the moisture in water, a mutation takes place from water into earth.

The mutation, however, from earth, in an ascending progression, is performed in a contrary way; but an alternate mutation is effected when one whole vanquishes another, and two contrary powers are corrupted, nothing at the same time being common to them. For since fire is hot and dry, but water is cold and moist; when the moisture in water vanquishes the dryness in fire, and the coldness in water the heat in fire, then a mutation is effected from fire into water.

Again, earth is cold and dry, but air is hot and moist. When, therefore, the coldness in earth vanquishes the heat in air, and the dryness in earth, the moisture in air, then a mutation from air into earth is effected.

But when the moisture of air corrupts the heat of fire, from both of them fire will be generated; for the heat of air and the dryness of fire will still remain. And fire is hot and dry.

When, however, the coldness of earth is corrupted, and the moisture of water, from both of them earth will be generated. For the dryness of earth, indeed, will be left, and the coldness of water. And earth is cold and dry.

But when the heat of air, and the heat of fire are corrupted, no element will be generated; for the contraries in both these will remain, viz. the moisture of air and the dryness of fire. Moisture, however, is contrary to dryness.

And again, when the coldness of earth, and in a similar manner of water, are corrupted, neither thus will there be any generation; for the dryness of earth and the moisture of water will remain. But dryness is contrary to moisture. And thus, we have briefly discussed the generation of the first bodies, and have shown how and from what subjects it is effected.

Since, however, the world is indestructible and unbegotten, and neither received a beginning of generation, nor will ever have an end, it is necessary that the nature which produces generation in another thing, and also that which generates in itself, should be present with each other. And that, indeed, which produces generation in another thing, is the whole of the region above the moon; but the more proximate cause is the sun, who, by his accessions and recessions, continually changes the air, so as to cause it to be at one time cold, and at another hot; the consequence of which is, that the earth is changed, and everything which the earth contains.

The obliquity of the zodiac, also, is well posited with respect to the motion of the sun, for it likewise is the cause of generation. And universally this is accomplished by the proper order of the universe; so that one thing in it is that which makes, but another that which is passive. Hence, that which generates in another thing, exists above the moon; but that which generates in itself, has a subsistence beneath the moon; and that which consists of both these, viz. of an ever-running divine body, and of an ever-mutable generated nature, is the world.

CHAP. III.

The origin, however, of the generation of man was not derived from the earth, nor that of other animals, nor of plants; but the proper order of the world being perpetual, it is also necessary that the natures which exist in it, and are aptly arranged, should, together with it, have a never-failing subsistence. For the world primarily always existing, it is necessary that its parts should be co-existent with it: but I mean by its parts, the heavens, the earth, and that which subsists between these; which is placed on high, and is denominated aerial; for the world does not exist without, but together with, and from these.

The parts of the world, however, being consubsistent, it is also necessary that the natures, comprehended in these parts, should be co-existent with them; with the heavens, indeed, the sun and moon, the fixed stars, and the planets; but with the earth, animals and plants, gold and silver; with the place on high, and the aerial region, pneumatic substances and wind, a mutation to that which is more hot, and a mutation to that which is more cold; for it is the property of the heavens to subsist in conjunction with the natures which it comprehends; of the earth to support the plants and animals which originate from it; and of the place on high, and the aerial region, to be consubsistent with all the natures that are generated in it.

Since, therefore, in each division of the world, a certain genus of animals is arranged, which surpasses the rest contained in that division; in the heavens, indeed, the genus of the gods, but in the earth men, and in the region on high demons;—this being the case, it is necessary that the race of men should be perpetual, since reason truly induces us to believe, that not only the [great] parts of the world are consubsistent with the world, but also the natures comprehended in these parts.

Violent corruptions, however, and mutations, take place in the parts of the earth; at one time, indeed, the sea overflowing into another part of the earth; but at another, the earth itself becoming dilated and divulsed, through wind or water latently entering into it. But an entire corruption of the arrangement of the whole earth never did happen, nor ever will.

Hence the assertion, that the Grecian history derived its beginning from the Argive Inachus, must not be admitted as if it commenced from a certain first principle, but that it originated from some mutation which happened in Greece; for Greece has frequently been, and will again be, barbarous, not only from the migration of foreigners into it, but from nature herself, which, though she does not become greater or less, yet is always younger, and with reference to us, receives a beginning.

And thus much has been sufficiently said by me respecting _the whole_ and _the universe_; and further still, concerning the generation and corruption of the natures which are generated in it, and the manner in which they subsist, and will for ever subsist; one part of the universe consisting of a nature which is perpetually moved, but another part of a nature which is always passive; and the former of these always governing, but the latter being always governed.

CHAP. IV.

Concerning the generation of men, however, from each other, after what manner, and from what particulars, it may be most properly effected, law, and temperance and piety at the same time co-operating, will be, I think, as follows. In the first place, indeed, this must be admitted,—that we should not be connected with women for the sake of pleasure, but for the sake of begetting children.

For those powers and instruments, and appetites, which are subservient to copulation, were imparted to men by Divinity, not for the sake of voluptuousness, but for the sake of the perpetual duration of the human race. For since it was impossible that man, who is born mortal, should participate of a divine life, if the immortality of his genus was corrupted; Divinity gave completion to this immortality through individuals, and made this generation of mankind to be unceasing and continued. This, therefore, is one of the first things which it is necessary to survey,—that copulation should not be undertaken for the sake of voluptuous delight.

In the next place, the co-ordination itself of man should be considered with reference to the whole, viz. that he is a part of a house and a city, and (which is the greatest thing of all) that each of the progeny of the human species ought to give completion to the world[19], if it does not intend to be a deserter either of the domestic, or political, or divine Vestal hearth.

For those who are not entirely connected with each other for the sake of begetting children, injure the most honourable system of convention. But if persons of this description procreate with libidinous insolence and intemperance, their offspring will be miserable and flagitious, and will be execrated by gods and demons, and by men, and families, and cities.

Those, therefore, who deliberately consider these things, ought not, in a way similar to irrational animals, to engage in venereal connections, but should think copulation to be a necessary good. For it is the opinion of worthy men, that it is necessary and beautiful, not only to fill houses with large families, and also the greater part of the earth[20], (for man is the most mild and the best of all animals,) but, as a thing of the greatest consequence, to cause them to abound with the most excellent men.

For on this account men inhabit cities governed by the best laws, rightly manage their domestic affairs, and [if they are able] impart to their friends such political employments as are conformable to the polities in which they live, since they not only provide for the multitude at large, but [especially] for worthy men.

Hence, many err, who enter into the connubial state without regarding the magnitude of [the power of] fortune, or public utility, but direct their attention to wealth, or dignity of birth. For in consequence of this, instead of uniting with females who are young and in the flower of their age, they become connected with extremely old women; and instead of having wives with a disposition according with, and most similar to their own, they marry those who are of an illustrious family, or are extremely rich. On this account, they procure for themselves discord instead of concord; and instead of unanimity, dissention; contending with each other for the mastery. For the wife who surpasses her husband in wealth, in birth, and in friends, is desirous of ruling over him, contrary to the law of nature. But the husband justly resisting this desire of superiority in his wife, and wishing not to be the second, but the first in domestic sway, is unable, in the management of his family, to take the lead.

This being the case, it happens that not only families, but cities, become miserable. For families are parts of cities, but the composition of the whole and the universe derives its subsistence from parts[21]. It is reasonable, therefore, to admit, that such as are the parts, such likewise will be the whole and the all which consists of things of this kind.

And as in fabrics of a primary nature the first structures co-operate greatly to the good or bad completion of the whole work; as, for instance, the manner in which the foundation is laid in building a house, the structure of the keel in building a ship, and in musical modulation the extension and remission of the voice; so the concordant condition of families greatly contributes to the well or ill establishment of a polity.

Those, therefore, who direct their attention to the propagation of the human species, ought to guard against everything which is dissimilar and imperfect; for neither plants nor animals, when imperfect, are prolific, but to their fructification a certain portion of time is necessary, in order that when the bodies are strong and perfect, they may produce seeds and fruits.

Hence, it is necessary that boys, and girls also while they are virgins, should be trained up in exercises and proper endurance, and that they should be nourished with that kind of food, which is adapted to a laborious, temperate, and patient life.

Moreover, there are many things in human life of such a kind, that it is better for the knowledge of them to be deferred for a certain time. Hence, it is requisite that a boy should be so tutored, as not to seek after venereal pleasures before he is twenty years of age, and then should rarely engage in them. This, however, will take place, if he conceives that a good habit of body, and continence, are beautiful and honourable.

It is likewise requisite that such legal institutes as the following should be taught in Grecian cities, viz. that connection with a mother, or a daughter, or a sister, should not be permitted either in temples, or in a public place; for it is beautiful and advantageous that numerous impediments to this energy should be employed.

And universally, it is requisite that all preternatural generations should be prevented, and those which are attended with wanton insolence. But such as are conformable to nature should be admitted, and which are effected with temperance, for the purpose of producing a temperate and legitimate offspring.

Again, it is necessary that those who intend to beget children, should providentially attend to the welfare of their future offspring. A temperate and salutary diet, therefore, is the first and greatest thing which should be attended to by him who wishes to beget children; so that he should neither be filled with unseasonable food, nor become intoxicated, nor subject himself to any other perturbation, from which the habits of the body may become worse. But, above all things, it is requisite to be careful that the mind, in the act of copulation, should be in a tranquil state: for, from depraved, discordant, and turbulent habits, bad seed is produced.

It is requisite, therefore, to endeavour, with all possible earnestness and attention, that children may be born elegant and graceful, and that when born, they should be well educated. For neither is it just that those who rear horses, or birds, or dogs, should, with the utmost diligence, endeavour that the breed may be such as is proper, and from such things as are proper, and when it is proper[22]; and likewise consider how they ought to be disposed when they copulate with each other, in order that the offspring may not be a casual production;—but that men should pay no attention to their progeny, but should beget them casually; and when begotten, should neglect both their nutriment and their education: for these being disregarded, the causes of all vice and depravity are produced, since those that are thus born will resemble cattle, and will be ignoble and vile.

FOOTNOTES:

[8] See Additional Notes, [a].

[9] The universe could not be generated together with all things, for the principle of it must be unbegotten; since everything that is generated, is generated from a cause; and if this cause was also generated, there must be a progression of causes ad infinitum, unless the unbegotten is admitted to be the principle of the universe. Neither, therefore, can the universe be corrupted together with all things; for the principle of it being unbegotten is also incorruptible; that only being corruptible, which was once generated.

[10] Critolaus, the Peripatetic, employs nearly the same arguments as those contained in this paragraph, in proof of the perpetuity of the world, as is evident from the following passage, preserved by Philo, in his Treatise Περι Αφθαρσιας Κοσμου, “On the Incorruptibility of the World”: το αιτιον αυτῳ του υγιαινειν, ανοσον εστι· αλλα και το αιτιον αυτῳ του αγρυπνειν, αγρυπνον εστιν. ει δε τουτο, και το αιτιον αυτῳ του υπαρχειν, αϊδιον εστιν. αιτιος δε ο κοσμος αυτῳ του υπαρχειν, ειγε και τοις αλλοις απασιν. αϊδιος ο κοσμος εστιν. i. e. “That which is the cause to itself of good health, is without disease. But, also, that which is the cause to itself of a vigilant energy, is sleepless. But if this be the case, that also which is the cause to itself of existence, is perpetual. The world, however, is the cause to itself of existence, since it is the cause of existence to all other things. The world, therefore, is perpetual.” Everything divine, according to the philosophy of Pythagoras and Plato, being a self-perfect essence, begins its own energy from itself, and is therefore primarily the cause to itself of that which it imparts to others. Hence, since the world, being a divine and self-subsistent essence, imparts to itself existence, it must be without non-existence, and therefore must be perpetual.

[11] i. e. It is not true that the universe can contain anything greater and more powerful than itself.

[12] Philo Judæus, in his before-mentioned Treatise Περι Αφθαρσιας Κοσμου, has adopted the arguments of Ocellus in this paragraph, but not with the conciseness of his original.

[13] This four-fold mutation of ages in the human race, consists of the infant, the lad, the man, and the old man, as is well observed by Theo of Smyrna. See my Theoretic Arithmetic, p. 189.

[14] In the original, το τε απαθες μερος του κοσμου και το ακινητον, which is obviously erroneous. Nogarola, in his note on this passage, says, “Melius arbitror si legatur το τε αειπαθες μερος, και αεικινητον, ut sit sensus, semper patibilem, et semper mobilem partem distinguunt ac separant.” But though he is right in reading αεικινητον for ακινητον, he is wrong in substituting αειπαθες for απαθες; for Ocellus is here speaking of the distinction between the celestial and sublunary region, the former of which is _impassive_, because not subject to generation and corruption, but the latter being subject to both these is _perpetually mutable_.

[15] Aristotle, in his treatise on Generation and Corruption, has borrowed what Ocellus here says about the three things necessary to generation. See my translation of that work.

[16] In the original, και ψοφος προς σιγην, instead of which it is necessary to read και σιγη προς ψοφον, conformably to the above translation. See the Notes to my translation of the First Book of Aristotle’s Physics, p. 73, &c., in which the reader will find a treasury of information from Simplicius concerning matter. But as matter is devoid of all quality, and is a privation of all form, the necessity of the above emendation is immediately obvious.

[17] Thus also Aristotle, in his Treatise on Generation and Corruption, θερμον δε και ψυχρον, και ὑγρον, τα μεν τῳ ποιητικα ειναι, τα δε τῳ παθητικα λερεται, i. e. “With respect to heat and cold, dryness and moisture, the two former of these are said to be effective, but the two latter passive powers.”

[18] The substance of nearly the whole of what Ocellus here says, and also of the two following paragraphs, is given by Aristotle, in his Treatise on Generation and Corruption.

[19] In the original, επειτα δε και την αυτην τῳ ανθρωπῳ συνταξιν προς το ὁλον, ὁτι μερος ὑπαρχων οικου τε και πολεως, και το μεγιστον κοσμου, συμπληρουν οφειλει το απογενομενον τουτων ἑκαστον, κ. τ. λ. Here, for και το μεγιστον κοσμου, συμπληρουν, κ. τ. λ., it is requisite to read, conformably to the above translation, και το μεγιστον, κοσμου συμπληρουν, κ. τ. λ. Nogarola, in his version, from not perceiving the necessity of this emendation, has made Ocellus say that man is the greatest part of the universe; for his translation is as follows: “Mox eandem hominis constitutionem ad universam referendam, quippe qui non solum domûs et civitatis, verum etiam mundi maxima habetur pars,” &c.