Part 8

I have said there is no movement in the lower limb exactly like the pronation and supination of the forearm and hand. We have, it is true, a power of moving the leg upon the thigh in a somewhat similar manner; but this can only be done when the knee is bent. For instance, when sitting in a chair with the foot upon a fender, or with the toes upon the ground, we can make the foot revolve so as to turn the heel in or out. A little careful observation, however, will prove that this movement takes place, altogether, at the knee, and that _both_ bones of the leg participate equally in it, the _whole_ leg revolving with the foot. Whereas, in the case of the forearm, the movement takes place, partly, at the wrist, and, partly, at the elbow; and _one_ bone (the ulna) remains _still_ while the lower end of the other bone (the radius) revolves around it. Moreover, the pronation and supination of the hand and forearm are much more free than these movements of the foot and leg; and they take place with equal facility and freedom in any position of the limb. We can turn the palm up or down as easily when the elbow is straight as when it is bent.

The movement of which I am speaking is so important to the usefulness of the hand, that I will call your attention to three of the muscles by which it is effected.

And, let me remark, by the way, that all the movements in the solid parts of the body--probably all without exception, even the slight wrinklings of the skin that take place when it is exposed to cold--are the result of muscular action. Muscles are bundles of fibres which have usually a red colour and constitute what is commonly called the “flesh” or “lean meat” of animals. They are endued with the power of contracting or shortening themselves; and it is this property which gives rise to the various movements of animal bodies. At their ends muscles often dwindle into “tendons” or “sinews” which, though occupying much less space, and having no contractile power, are very strong, and serve to connect the muscles with the bones.

One of the three muscles just mentioned (A, fig. 61) passes from a projecting process on the inner side of the arm-bone, at its lower end, to the outer edge of the middle of the radius. Its contraction causes the radius to roll over, or in front of, the ulna. It thus pronates the hand, and is called a “_Pronator_” muscle. Another muscle (B, fig. 62) passes, from a projecting process on the outer side of the arm-bone, to the inner edge of the radius near its upper part. It runs, therefore, in an opposite direction to the former muscle and produces an opposite effect, rolling the radius and the hand back into the position of supination. Hence it is called a “_Supinator_” muscle.

[Illustration: Fig. 63. The Biceps Muscle.]

The third is a very powerful muscle. It is called the “_Biceps_” muscle (fig. 63), because it has _two_ points of attachment to the shoulder-blade. It descends along the front of the arm, and, bulging there, forms a conspicuous feature, to which athletic persons are proud to point in evidence of their muscular development. Its tendon crosses over the front of the elbow, and is inserted into the hinder edge of a stout tubercle which is seen on the inner side of the radius near its upper end. The chief effect of this muscle is to bend the elbow; but it also rotates the radius so as to supinate the hand; and it gives great power to that movement. When we turn a screw, or drive a gimlet, or draw a cork, we always employ the _supinating_ movement of the hand for the purpose; and all screws, gimlets, and implements of the like kind, are made to turn in a manner suited to that movement of the right hand, because mechanicians have observed that we have more power to supinate the hand than to pronate it, though they are, probably, not aware that the preponderating influence of the _biceps_ muscle is the cause of the difference.

The movement of which I am speaking is performed to its full extent only by Man. Monkeys cannot completely supinate the hand; and in most of the lower animals the part corresponding with the hand remains nearly, or quite, fixed in a state of pronation. Even in Man, complete supination is rather a constrained and awkward position. It is not a position which is habitual or natural to us. When we see any one sitting or walking with the palms turned forward it strikes us as strange, and the idea is suggested to us that the individual must be strange too, that, possibly, his head may be a little turned as well as his hands. In a state of ease the hand is naturally more or less prone; so that when it is desired to place the forearm or hand at rest, as in case of disease or injury, the prone position is usually selected. If the forearm be broken, for instance, the surgeon sets the fracture and fixes the limb with the hand prone or semiprone. This is, also, the position of greatest strength, as well as of most ease. Hence, in striking a blow, or carrying a weight, or making any strong muscular effort, the palm is always kept more or less inturned.

_The Wrist._

[Illustration: Fig. 64. Wrist-joints.]

This drawing (fig. 64) represents what is seen when a section has been made, from side to side, through the wrist and lower part of the forearm. It gives an idea of the mode in which the several bones of the wrist are adapted to one another and held together by ligaments. The upper three wrist-bones (C, E, D) are joined together, so as to present a convex surface, which is received into a wide cup, or socket, formed by the end of the radius (A) and a ligament passing from the radius to the ulna (B); and, in pronation and supination, the end of the radius, together with this ligament and the wrist-bones, revolves upon the end of the ulna.

All the bones here represented are so well fitted to one another, and so strongly bound together, that, as I have before said, displacement very rarely occurs among them. We sometimes _hear_ of a dislocation of the wrist, but very seldom _see_ one. The wrist is often bruised, or its ligaments strained, by falls upon the hand; or, what very often happens, especially after the middle period of life, the bones of the forearm are broken a little above the wrist.

You might think that, in such an accident, the radius only would suffer, inasmuch as it is especially connected with the wrist-bones, and so receives the force directly from the hand. But, if you observe the line of contact of the radius and ulna (running from F), you will see that it is oblique, and that its direction is such as to cause the ulna to support the radius, and to receive some of the force from it; and this disposition, which makes the ulna share the duties of the radius, makes it, also, share the dangers; hence, it is very frequently involved with the radius in fracture of the forearm.

By the joints of the wrist we are enabled to move the hand backwards and forwards, and also slightly sideways.

_The Movements of the Hand._

I come now to speak more particularly of the movements that take place in the Hand. I have already said that the mobility of the thumb is the chief characteristic of the hand as distinguished from the foot. Another important distinction between the hand and the foot is the greater length and mobility of the fingers as compared with the toes. The toes are short; and our power of moving them is, under any circumstances, slight. They constitute a small, and, comparatively, unimportant, part of the foot. The fingers, on the contrary, are long; they form a half, and, including the thumb, the more important half, of the hand. Without them the rest of the hand, indeed the rest of the limb, would be comparatively useless. Their movements are varied and free, and take place with singular facility and rapidity. We can bend them quite down upon the palm, and can extend them beyond the straight line; we can separate them from one another to a considerable extent; and we can bring them together with some force, as a waiter does when he carries a number of wine-glasses between his fingers; and persons who have lost the thumb contrive to hold a pen, a knife or fork, or other things, between the fingers.

[Illustration: Fig. 65.

Muscles of forearm and hand.]

Let me endeavour to give you an idea of some of the muscles which are concerned in executing these movements.

The wrist and hand are bent forwards upon the forearm by means of three muscles (A, B, C, fig. 65). These all pass downwards from the inner side of the lower end of the armbone. The outer and inner ones (A and C) are connected, by tendons, with the wrist-bones; and the tendon of the middle one (B) runs over the wrist and becomes spread out in the palm like a fan, so as to support the skin of the palm and to protect the nerves and blood-vessels, which lie beneath it, from injurious pressure, when we grasp any substance firmly in the hand. The fan-like expansion of this tendon in the palm is called the “palmar fascia.” It is very strong, and is connected, below, with the ends of the metacarpal bones, and with the sheaths of the fingers. The bundle of muscles near D forms what is called the “ball of the thumb,” and serves to move the thumb in various directions.

[Illustration: Fig. 66.

Muscles and tendons of hand.]

Beneath these three muscles which bend the wrist and strengthen the palm lies another set of muscles (A, B, fig. 66) which bend the thumb and fingers. They pass from the bones of the forearm, and end in long tendons or “leaders” which run over the wrist and palm and along the fingers and are firmly connected with the last phalanges of the fingers. They lie close to the bones in their whole course, and are held in their places by sinewy cross bands and sheaths which are seen, both at the wrist and in the fingers, in fig. 65.

[Illustration: Fig. 67.

Muscles and tendons on back of forearm and hand.]

Fig. 67 represents the muscles on the back of the forearm. The tendons pass from them, and run, some to the wrist and extend, or bend backwards, the wrist upon the forearm, some to the thumb and extend the several joints ofthe thumb; and others run to the back of the fingers. These leaders lie nearer to the skin than do those on the palmar aspect; and most of those which go to the thumb and fingers may be distinguished through the skin. The short muscles (A, A) situated upon and between the metacarpal bones pass from them to the sides of the fingers; some of these serve to spread the fingers out from one another, while others have the effect of drawing them together. There are several such small muscles on both surfaces of the hand, but I must not detain you by a description of them; and there are other little muscles passing from the flexor tendons to the phalanges, which have been called _fidicinales_, from their assisting in performing the short quick motions of the fingers, and from their being, accordingly, called into action in playing upon the violin and other musical instruments.

_Movements of the Thumb._

In its adaptation to the purposes of bearing the weight and ministering to the locomotion of the body the human foot excels that of any other animal; and, unquestionably, the human hand is not less preeminently distinguished by the nicety, the variety, and the freedom of its movements. This is shown by the manner in which it can be twisted about, by the exquisite play of the fingers; and it is shown, above all, by the mode in which the thumb can be moved to and fro, can be opposed to the other fingers, and to any part of them individually and collectively, and can be folded beneath them or clasped upon them as occasion may require.

The power which the thumb possesses, and gives to the hand, is signified by its name--“pollex,”--derived from the Latin word _pollere_, which means to have power. Some have supposed that the word “poltroon” is derived from _pollice truncato_, and signifies one so cowardly that he has submitted to have his thumb cut off in order that he may be incapacitated for fighting.

The faculty which we possess of moving the thumb in the way I have mentioned, athwart the other fingers, and of touching any part of the palmar surface of either of them depends, partly, upon its being set, not quite in the same plane with them, but, obliquely, so that when it is moved towards the palm it faces or opposes the other fingers; and, partly, upon the nature of the joint between its metacarpal bone and the bone of the wrist with which it is connected.

This joint is so constructed as to admit of three different movements. _First_, the thumb can be moved forwards or backwards, that is, towards, or, away from, the palm. _Secondly_, it can be “adducted” or “abducted,” that is, approximated to the forefinger or inclined away from it. _Thirdly_, it can be “circumducted,” that is, its extremity can be made to describe a circle, as in “twiddling the thumbs.” These several movements are effected with great power and rapidity by means of the bundle of muscles which forms the “ball of the thumb” (fig. 65. D), as well as by the long muscles and tendons which descend, from the forearm, to the thumb.

_Movements of the metacarpal bones of the Fingers upon the Wrist._

The movements of the thumb, through the medium of its metacarpal bone, upon the wrist are much more free than those of any of the other fingers. The middle finger, indeed, has its metacarpal bone set upon the wrist so fixedly as to admit of scarcely any such movement. The forefinger can be thus moved a little; the ring finger more and the little finger still more.

You may easily prove this by taking the knuckles or heads of the respective metacarpal bones of one hand between the fingers and thumb of the other hand, when you will find that you can press the knuckle of the little finger backwards and forwards in a very perceptible manner. Then try the knuckle of the ring finger; the movement is distinct, though not so free as in the case of the little finger. The knuckle of the forefinger you will find to be almost fixed; and in that of the middle finger you will be unable to perceive any movement at all.

In fact the joints of the metacarpal bones of the fingers with the wrist resemble those of the outer four toes with the tarsus; and the drawings of these joints of the foot (figs. 22 to 25) will serve sufficiently well to illustrate those of the hand.

These movements of the metacarpal, or knuckle, bones upon the wrist enable us to increase or diminish the hollow of the palm by bringing its edges more or less forward. Thus, when we make a cup of the hand we bring forward the metacarpal bones of the thumb and the little finger, wrinkling the skin of the palm; and when we spread the hand open we carry those bones backwards, rendering the skin of the palm tense.

These movements, moreover, enable us to bring the little fingers and the thumb more easily into contact.

Have you ever wondered what advantage is gained by the fingers and thumb all differing from one another in length; or don’t you take the trouble to reflect upon little matters of this sort? If you have, I would ask you now to remark that there is, in the several fingers, a relation between their shortness, their position near the edge of the hand, and the amount of mobility of their metacarpal bones upon the wrist. Thus the finger which is in the middle of the hand is the longest, and its metacarpal is the most fixed. The fore-finger is not quite so long; and its metacarpal is rather less immovable. The ring-finger comes next in shortness and in the mobility of its metacarpal. Then the little finger; and the thumb which is much shorter than any other has also its metacarpal much more moveable.

[Illustration: Fig. 68.]

Observe, further, that, when the fingers and thumb are separated from one another, and then bent, the middle knuckle-bone remains stationary, but the others are advanced a little forwards, each to an extent proportionate to its mobility upon the wrist, and to the shortness of the finger. The fore-finger is, by this means, advanced a little, the ring and the little fingers more, and the thumb most of all. And the result is, that the tips of the fingers and the thumb come all to a level, and form, with the palm, a great hollow in which we can grasp any substance, a cricket-ball, for instance, and hold it very firmly. The length of the several fingers and the thumb is, therefore, just so regulated, in relation to their mobility upon the wrist, as to give us this power.

You may observe, also, that when the fingers and the thumb are spread out the space between the thumb and the fore-finger is considerably greater than either of the spaces between the other fingers. Then, by a slight movement, the thumb takes up a position in front of, or opposite to, the fingers; and in grasping any substance it has to antagonise the pressure exerted by all the fingers. Hence it needs to be much stronger than they are, and to be wielded by more numerous and more powerful muscles.

The MIDDLE FINGER is not only the longest and the largest finger; it is also, to a certain extent, the centre about which the others move. Thus, when the fingers are bent down into the palm, their tips all converge towards the middle finger; and when they are spread out, they all diverge from it. Its greater length and the greater prominence of its knuckle, expose this finger to injury more than any of the others; which may account for the fact that Surgeons are called upon to amputate the middle finger more frequently than either of the other fingers or the thumb.

The FORE-FINGER has the greatest range of independent movement. Hence it is used to point with, and is called the “Index” or “Indicator” finger.

_Writing._

In WRITING the pen should be held between the pulps of the fore and middle fingers and the thumb, in contact with all three, and firmly lodged between them. The down-stroke is made by bending the phalanges of the fingers and the thumb inwards and the metacarpal bone of the thumb outwards; and the up-stroke is made by straightening all the joints of the fingers and thumb. The hand rests lightly, not upon its whole edge, but, upon the hindermost and foremost parts of the edge, that is, upon the pisiform bone of the wrist and upon the little finger near the end, so that it can be moved easily along the paper, and can be inclined, or rolled, a little to either side. The obliquity of the stroke is not imposed by mere arbitrary rule, but is in accordance with the direction in which there is the freest movement of the fingers and thumb when thus holding the pen. Make the experiment for yourselves of moving the pen in different directions, and you will soon be satisfied that the writing-master has nature on his side in insisting on a particular movement as well as a particular mode of holding the pen. Some persons make the strokes vertical, or slope them the wrong way; but in either case the writing is stiff and awkward; it is not natural.

The custom of writing from left to right may also be regarded as correct or natural, inasmuch as we can move the pen more freely upwards and _out_wards than upwards and _in_wards. Hence the light _up_ or advancing stroke--that which connects a letter with the one which follows it--is most easily made _out_wards or to the right; and the letters are, consequently, made to follow one another in that direction. To understand this more clearly make a down-stroke upon paper in the usual manner; you will then find that you can make up-strokes from any part of it more easily to the right than to the left; and if you make a series of continuous up-and-down-strokes at a little distance from one another, the up-stroke is, not merely habitually, but naturally, made fine and inclined to the right, whereas the down-stroke is made heavier or thicker and is sloped to the left. Moreover, you will perceive that the hand slides along the paper more easily from left to right than from right to left.

It is worthy of remark that the writing of all that great class of languages called Indo-European, which includes Sanscrit, Greek, Latin, and many others, with our own, is from left to right; whereas nearly all the writing of another great class called the Semitic, which includes the Hebrew and Arabic, is in the opposite direction, viz. from right to left. Some nations write in perpendicular columns, the letters being placed under one another, of which the Chinese affords an example. But either of the two latter methods must be inferior to the Indo-European style in ease of execution and expedition.

_Reason for the Ring being usually placed upon the Fourth finger._

The RING-FINGER has less independent movement than either of the others. It cannot be bent or straightened much without being accompanied by one or both of those next it. This is, partly, because its extensor tendon is connected, by means of a band of fibres, with the tendon on either side of it. You may discern these connecting bands working up and down under the skin of the back of your hand when you move the fingers to and fro (they are represented in fig. 67). The ring-finger is, therefore, always, more or less, protected by the other fingers; and it owes to this circumstance a comparative immunity from injury, as well, probably, as the privilege of being especially selected to bear the ring in matrimony. The left hand is chosen for a similar reason; a ring placed upon it being less likely to be damaged than it would be upon the right hand.

Other reasons have been given for this preference. It has been attributed to a notion among the ancients that the ring-finger is connected with the heart by means of some particular nerve or vessel, which renders it a more favourable medium than the other fingers for the reception and transmission of sympathetic impressions; the left hand being selected, in preference to the right, because it lies rather nearer to the heart.

[Illustration: Fig. 69. Nerves of hand.]