Chapter 17 of 18 · 3993 words · ~20 min read

Part 17

On the last page of the _Ihya_, however, Al-Ghazali expresses the opinion that on the day of judgment not a single Mohammedan, whatever be his character, will enter the fire! He then quotes a tradition which says that for every Moslem designed to go to hell God will at the last day substitute a Jew or a Christian, evidently approving this substitution-doctrine as satisfactory to God’s mercy towards all who confess Mohammed and to His decree that hell shall be filled with its quota of unbelievers. (See Surah 50: 29.) The last page of the _Ihya_, alas, again shows the Moslem spirit of intolerance which prevails even to-day. Men do not remember the more liberal judgment in his other treatise. Al-Ghazali’s attitude towards Christianity and his quotations from the Gospel narrative did much to leaven Persian thought and gave Jesus of Nazareth a large place in later mysticism especially in the foremost mystical poet, the immortal author of the _Masnavi_, Jallal-ud-Din Ar-Rumi. He draws the great Lesson from the life of Christ which Al-Ghazali only hints at in his quotations; namely that Jesus is the Life-giver:

“Thyself reckon dead, and then thou shalt fly Free, free, from the prison of earth to the sky! Spring may come, but on granite will grow no green thing: It was barren in winter, ’tis barren in spring; And granite man’s heart is, till grace intervene. And, crushing it, clothe the long barren with green, When the fresh breath of Jesus shall touch the heart’s core, It will live, it will breathe, it will blossom once more.”

The City of Mashad, close to the ruins of Tus, where Al-Ghazali was born and where he died, has been truly described as the Mecca of the Persian world. Its streets are crowded with a hundred thousand pilgrims every year. The American Presbyterian Church has an important work there, and the Bible Societies report thousands of copies of the Bible sold there. “We have inundated the City of Mashad with the Word of God,” wrote the late Mr. Esselstyn; “in the bazaars I have repeatedly been warned some one will kill me if we do not stop selling the Scriptures and preaching. But ‘Lo, I am with you always’ keeps ringing in my ears and we continue. The Scriptures that have been sold in and around Mashad are sown seed and in due time we shall reap if we faint not.”

To-day the black-browed Afghan, the Uzbek Tartar, the dervish, travel-stained and footsore, nay the poorest lad of Khorasan can buy the whole story of what Jesus did and taught. No Moslem is now dependent on Al-Ghazali’s few quotations from the Gospel. A new day has dawned for Persia and the Near East. Everywhere the New Testament is better known than any of the ninety-nine works of Al-Ghazali, and we may also say, without exaggeration, that the New Testament finds a larger circle of readers. The mystics in Islam are near the Kingdom of God and for them Al-Ghazali may be used as a schoolmaster to lead men to Christ. Did not the author of the _Gulshan-i-Raz_ (the Garden of Mysteries) write: “Dost thou know what Christianity is? I shall tell it thee. It digs up thine own Ego, and carries thee to God. Thy soul is a monastery wherein dwells oneness, thou art Jerusalem, where the Eternal is enthroned; the Holy Spirit works this miracle, for know that God’s being rests in the Holy Spirit as in His Own Spirit.” And such seekers after God to-day will find those who will lead them to CHRIST. For, as Dr. J. Rendel Harris expressed it: “All of us who love Christ are beginning to realize that we live in the same street and are on the same telephone, some of us that we are lodged next door to one another and can knock on the partitions, a few that we are all under the same roof and all within arm’s length and heart reach.”

Appendix

A. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abu Nasir Abd ul Wahab Taqi id Din as Subqi.—Tabaqat-ash-Shafaʾiya al Kubra. Vol. IV, pp. 101-102.

Barbier de Meynard, M. C.—Traduction nouvelle du traite de Ghazzali intitule le Préservatif de l’erreur et notices sur les extases (des Soufis). (Journal Asiatique, Paris, 1877.)

Brockelmann, Carl—Geschichte der Arabischen Litteratur, Weimar, 1898, 2 vols.

Chenery, Thomas—The Assemblies of Al-Hariri, London, 1878, Trans.

Clark, Edson L.—The Arabs and the Turks, Boston, 1875.

DeBoer, T. J.—The History of Philosophy in Islam, London, 1903.

Dozy, (Trans. by Francis Griffin Stokes)—Spanish Islam, London, 1913.

De Vaun, Cara—Gazali (Les Grand Philos.—Felix Alcan), Paris, 1912.

Encyclopædia Britannica.

Field, Claud—The Alchemy of Happiness, by Ghazali (from Hindustani).

— The Confessions of Al-Ghazali, London, 1909, Trans.

— Mystics and Saints of Islam, London, 1910.

— Persian Literature, London (undated).

Fortescue, Adrian—The Lesser Eastern Churches, London, 1913.

Gairdner, W. H. T.—Al-Ghazali’s Mishkat-ul-Anwar and the Ghazali Problem, Der Islam, Bd. V, Heft 2/3.

Gardner, W. R. W.—Al-Ghazali. In Islam Series, Christian Literature Society for India, 1919.

Gautier, Lucien—Ad-Dourra al-fakhira: La perle precieuse de Ghazali. Traite d’eschatologie musulmane, publie ... avec une traduction francaise. Geneve, 1878.

Gosche, von R.—Über Ghazzali, Leben und Werke, Berlin, 1859.

Huart, Clement—A History of Arabic Literature, London, 1903.

Hurgronje, Dr. C. Snouck—Mekka, Haag, 1886.

Ibn Khallikan.

Jackson, A. V. Williams—“From Constantinople to the Home of Omar Khayyam”: New York, Macmillan Company, 1911.

Jayakar, Lt. Col. A. S. G.—Ad-Damiri’s Hayat Al-Hayawan (under _Al-Hammam_), Vol. I, London, 1906, Trans.

Jewish Encyclopædia, The.

Journal of The American Oriental Society, Vol. XX, pp. 71-132. New Haven, Conn., 1898.

Lane-Poole, Stanley—Mediæval India under Mohammedan Rule, in the Story of the National Series, London, 1903.

Mohammed Iqbal—The Development of Metaphysics in Persia, London, 1908.

Miguel Asin et Palacios—Al Gazel: Domatica, moral, Ascetica. (Zargoza. Spain, 1901.)

— _Logia et Agrapha Domini Jesu_ apud Moslemicos Scriptores, etc. (Latin and Arabic) Firmin-Didot and Co., Paris, 1917.

Le Strange, G.—Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate, Oxford, 1900.

Macdonald, D. B.—Aspects of Islam, New York, 1911.

— Emotional religion in Islam as affected by music and singing. Being a translation of a book of the Ihya ʿUlum ad-Din of Al-Ghazzali with analysis, annotation and appendices. (Royal Asiatic Society. Journal. 1901.)

— Encyclopædia of Islam, Leyden—art., “Ghazali.”

— The Life of Al-Ghazali with special reference to his religious experiences and opinions (Journal American Oriental Society).

— Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory. 1903.

— The Religious Attitude and Life in Islam, Chicago, 1909.

Murtadha—Introduction to the Celebrated Commentary of the _Ihya_ entitled _Ithaf ul Saʾada_. Cairo Edition.

Nicholson, Reynold A.—Kashf Al-Mahjub, the oldest Persian Treatise on Sufism by Al-Hujwiri, London, 1911.

— Literary History of the Arabs, New York, 1907.

Nöldeke, Theodore—Sketches from Eastern History, London, 1892.

Osborn, Robert Durie—Islam Under the Khalifs of Baghdad, London, 1878.

Saladin, H.—Manuel d’art Musulman, Paris, 1907, Vol. I.

Tyrwitt, W. S. S.—Cairo, Jerusalem and Damascus, London, 1907.

B. TRANSLATIONS OF AL-GHAZALI’S WORKS

_Hebrew._

Makasid al Falasifah—De’ot ha-Pilusufim—Isaac Albalag, 13th C.

— Kawwanot ha-Pilusufim—Judah Nathan, 14th C.

Tahafut al-Falasifah—Happalat ha-Pilusufim—Zerahiah ha-Levy, 1411.

Ma’amar bi-Teshubot She’elot Nish’al Mehem (Answers to Philanthropical Questions)—H. Malter, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1897; also called Kawwanot ha-Kawwanot.

— Mozene ha-’Iyyunin—Jacob ben Makir (d. 1308).

Mizan al-ʿAmal—Mozen Zedek—Abraham Ibn Hazdai ben Samuel ha-Levy of Barcelona, ed. J. Goldenthal, Leipsic, 1839.

Mishkat al-Anwar fi Riyad al-Azhar bi-Taufik al-Anhar—Maskit ha-Orot be-Pardes ha-Nizzanim—Isaac ben Joseph Alfasi.

_Latin._

Maqasid Falasifa—Logica et Philosophia—Dom. Gundisalvi, Venetiæ, 1506.

_German._

Kitab aiyuha ’l walad—O Kind! Die berühmte ethische Abhandlung Ghazali’s arab. u. deutsch, v. Hammer-Purgstall, Wien, 1838.

Kitab Tahafut al Falasifa—Die Widersprüche der Philosophie nach Al-Ghazzali und ihr Ausgleich durch Ibn Rushd, Strassburg, 1894.

Antworten auf Fragen, die an ihn gerichtet wurden, hebr. u. arab. Text mit deutschen übers. Erklarung und Glossen v. H. Malter, Frankfurt, 1896.

Ihya ʾulum id Din—German translation in course of preparation by H. Bauer.

_French._

Ad durra al fakhira fi kasf ʾulum al akhira—La Perle precieuse de Ghazali, ed. par L. Gautier, Geneve, 1878.

Al munqidh min ad dhalal—ed. Schmolders, Essai sur les ecoles philosophiques chez les Arabes, Paris, 1842. Translated by Barbier de Meynard, 1877, in Journal Asiatique, vol. ix.

_English._

Kimiya as-saaʾda—The Alchemy of Happiness—H. A. Homes, Albany, N. Y., 1873.

The Alchemy of Happiness—Claud Field, London, 1908.

The Confessions of Al-Ghazali—Claud Field, London, 1909.

_Turkish._

There are two manuscript translations of Al-Ghazali’s Nasaʾih-ul-Muluk in Turkish. Also an Arabic version of the Persian original. (See Browne’s Handlist of Cambridge University Library Arabic MSS. Nos. 1185 and 220.)

The Alchemy of Happiness is also widely known in a Turkish version from which the earliest English version by Homes was made.

C. LIST OF AL-GHAZALI’S WORKS

In Arabic alphabetical order according to As-Subqi, Al-Murtadha (Vol. I, pp. 41-83), and other sources.

1. Ihya ʾUlum id Din—(Revival of the Sciences of Religion). 2. Al Imlaʾ ʾAla Mushkal al Ihya—(supplement to above). 3. AlʾArbaʾîn—(on the Koran). 4. Asma Allah al Husna—(on the names of God). 5. Al-Iqtasad fi Iʾtiqad—(Speculative Theology). 6. Iljam al ʾAwam ʾan ʾilm al Kalam—(Warning against scholasticism). 7. Asrar Muʾamalat id Din—(Mysticism). 8. Asrar al anwar al ilahiya—(on the Koran). 9. Akhlaq al abrar wa najat min al ashrar—(Ethics). 10. Asrar itbaʾa as sunna—(Tradition). 11. Asrar al huruf wa ’l kalimat—(Koran Mysteries). 12. Ayyuha ’l walad—(O child!—written in Persian originally—Ethics and Manners). 13. Badayat al Hadaya—(Beginner’s book in religion). 14. Al Basit fi furuʾa al Madhhab—(Jurisprudence). 15. Bayan al Qaulain—(Creed). 16. Bayan Fadhaʾa al Abahiya— 17. Badaʾa as Saniya. 18. Tanbih al Ghafalîn. 19. Talbis Iblis. 20. At Takbir fi ʾilm al taʾabir—(Interpretation). 21. Tahafut al filasafa—(Against Philosophy). 22. Taʾliqa fi furuʾa al Madhhab—(Written at Jurjan against the Ismailite heresy). 23. Tahsin al Maqsud— 24. Tahsin al Adilla—(Sources of Islam). 25. Tafsir al Quran al ʾAzim—(Brief Koran Commentary). 26. Al Tafriqa bain al iman wa ’l zindiqa— 27. Jawahir al Quran—(Beauties of the Koran). 28. Hujjat al Haqq— 29. Haqiqat al Ruh—(Mysticism). 30. Haqiqat al Qaulain—(on the Creed). 31. Al Durra al Fakhira—(The Precious Pearl). 32. Khulasat ar Rasaʾil—(Jurisprudence). 33. Khulasat al-tasanif fi l-tasawwuf. 34. Risalat al Qudsiya. 35. Risalat al Aqtab. 36. Al Risalat al Laduniya. 37. Risalat at Tair—(Parable on the Birds). 38. Sirr al Maʾsun—(on the magical use of the Koran text). 39. Sirr al-ʿalamain wa-kashf ma fi ’l-darain. 40. Sharh Daʾirat ʾAli ibn Talib. 41. Shifaʾ al Ghalil—(On Logic). 42. ʾAqidat al Misbah. 43. ʾAjaʾib Sanaʾa Allah. 44. ʾAnqud al Mukhtasar. 45. Ghayat al Ghur fi Misaʾil al daur—(On Divorce). 46. Ghaur al Daur—(also on Divorce) written in Bagdad 484 A. H. 47. Al Fatawa—(One hundred and ninety questions answered). 48. Fatihat al ʾUlum—(Encyclopædia of Sciences). 49. Al Qanun al Kulli. 50. Qanun ar Rasul. 51. Al Qurbat ila Allah—(On Nearness to God). 52. Al Qistas al Mustaqim—(Sources of Islam). 53. Al Qaul al jamil fi radd ʾala man ghaiyar al Injil—(On the corrupting of the Gospel text). 54. Kimiya as Saaʾda—(The Alchemy of Happiness; written in Persian and afterwards translated). 55. Kashf ʾUlum al Akhira—(Eschatology). 56. Al Kashf wa ’l tabyin fi ghurur al Khalk ajmaʾin—(Mysticism). 57. Kanz al ʾIdat. 58. Kitab al ʾarbaʾin. 59. Al Lubab al Muntaqal fi ’l Jadal—(On Controversy). 60. Al Mustasfa fi ʾUsul al Fiqh—(Jurisprudence). His most important and largest work on this subject; several commentaries were written on it later. 61. Al Manqul fi ’l ʾUsul. 62. Al Maksud fi Khilafiyat bain al Hanifiya wa ’sh Shafiʾya—(on these two schools of jurisprudence). 63. Al Madadi wa ’l Ghayat fi asrar al Huruf al Maknumat. 64. Al Majalis al Ghazaliya—(Collection of his Bagdad sermons). 65. Maqasid al filasafa—(Philosophy). 66. Al Munqidh min adh-Dhalal—(His Confessions, Autobiographical). 67. Miʾyar al ʾIlm fi ’l Mantiq—(Logic). 68. Miʾyar al Nazir—(Logic). 69. Mahal al Nazir— 70. Mishkat al anwar fi lataʾif al akhyar—(Ethics). 71. Al Mustazhir fi radd ʾala ’l Batiniya—(Controversial). 72. Al-Madnun bihi ʾala ghairi ahlihi—Book to be kept from those unfitted for it. (Esoteric.) 73. Al-Madnun al-saghir—Book to be kept from those unfitted for it. (Esoteric.) 74. Mishkat al-anwar—(Mysticism). 75. Mizan al ʾAmal—(A compendium of Ethics). 76. Mawahib al Batiniya—(similar to No. 71, but abbreviated). 77. Al Minhaj al Aʾali— 78. Miraj as Salikîn— 79. Mukashafat al qulub— 80. Mufasal al Khilaf fi ʾUsul al Qiyas— 81. Minhaj al ʾAbidin ila Janat Rab al ʾAlamîn—(His last work: a popular epistle on the Mystic way). 82. Nasikhat al Muluk—(Written in Persian and called in the Arabic translation Al Tibr al Masbuk; a book of counsel for kings and princes). 83. Al Wajiz—(Jurisprudence). Several commentaries were written on this work and it is much used. 84. Al Wasit—(a celebrated book in Jurisprudence). Several commentaries. 85. Yaqut at Taʾwil fi Tafsir at Tanzil—(Commentary on the Koran in 40 vols.).

D. Comparative Table of Events

NORTH AFRICA EUROPE AND SPAIN AL-GHAZALI A. D. A. H. --------------------+-------------------+-----------------+------+------+ _Germany_— |Kingdoms of Castile|Al-Ghazali born. | 1058 | 450 | Franconian | and Leon. | | | | Dynasty. Henry |End of the | | | | III, Henry IV. | Ommiades, 419. | | | | --------------------+The Morabeths. |Al-Ghazali goes | | | Struggle between +-------------------+ to Bagdad. | 1087 | 480 | Emperors and |Advance of | | | | the Popes. | Christians. | | | | --------------------+The Moslems divided| | | | _Italy_—Lombard | into small | | | | Republics. | states. |Conversion of | | | Gregory VII. +-------------------+ Al-Ghazali. | 1095 | 488 | --------------------+Abdallah ben Tasfin| | | | _France_—Reign of | founds Marakash. | | | | Feudalism. +-------------------+ | | | Philip, 1060. |Toledo taken, 1085.|His return to | | | --------------------+The Almoravides. | active life. | 1104 | 498 | _Russia_—Vladimir |Yusuf ibn Tasfin | | | | the Great adopts | called to Spain, | | | | Christianity. | 1086. | | | | --------------------+-------------------+ | | | _England_—Conquest |1086, Battle of | | | | of William, Duke | Zalaca, defeat of|His death. | 1111 | 505 | of Normandy, | Moslems. | | | | 1066. | | | | | --------------------+ | | | | Abelard born, 1079. | | | | | --------------------+ | | | | First Crusade, 1095.| | | | | Anselm, 1093. | | | | | Bernard, 1115. | | | | |

FOOTNOTES

[1] “Sketches from Eastern History,” Theodore Nöldeke. London, 1892, p. 98.

[2] “Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.”

[3] “The Assemblies of al-Hariri,” trans. by Thomas Chenery. London, 1867. Vol. I, Introduction, p. 5.

[4] Der Islam, Band V, Heft 2/3; C. H. Becker, Strassburg, 1914, pp. 239, 291.

[5] Mediæval India, in “The Story of the Nations Series,” Stanley Lane-Poole, New York, 1903, p. 37.

[6] “The Caliphate, its Rise, Decline and Fall,” 1892, p. 578.

[7] That there was not only close social, but religious and polemical contact between the learned men of Christian sects and those of Islam long before this period, and especially during the life of Al-Ghazali is well known. See especially the life and writings of Al-Kindi, John of Damascus, and Theodor Abu Qurra as given by A. Keller in “Der Geisteskampf des Christentums gegen den Islam bis zur Zeit der Kreuzzüge” (Leipzig, 1896) and “Christliches Polemik und Islamische Dogmenbilding,” by C. H. Becker (“Festschrift Ignaz Goldziher,” pp. 175-195). The latter shows clearly that Islam borrowed considerably from Christianity, through controversy, both in its dogma and ritual even as late as the tenth century.

[8] Cf. “The Lesser Eastern Churches,” Adrian Fortescue, London, 1913.

[9] Cf. _The Moslem World_, Vol. VI, p. 385.

[10] See article on “The Arabic Bible” in _The Moslem World_, October, 1916.

[11] “Missionary Achievement:” A survey of world-wide Evangelization, London, 1907, pp. 22, 26.

[12] “Minhaj et Talibin of An-Nawawi,” trans. from the French of L. W. C. Van Den Berg by E. C. Howard, London, 1914, pp. 467 and 469.

[13] These badges of servitude, called _Ghayar_, are referred to as obligatory in Al-Ghazali’s “_Wajiz_.” See the chapter on infidel-subjects.

[14] Richard Gottheil gives the contents of a _fatwa_ on the appointment of _Dhimmis_ to office dated about A. D. 1126 and given by one Ahmad ibn Al Husain. “To place an infidel in authority over a Moslem would never enter the mind of one who had a sound heart. He who does so must either be a godless fellow or be ignorant of Moslem law and practice. He attempts to prove that a _Dhimmi_ (_i. e._ Jew or Christian) is not even to be used as a scribe, a money-changer, or a butcher; citing passages from the Koran and the Traditions” (“Festschrift Ignaz Goldziher von Carl Bezold,” Strassburg, 1911, pp. 203-208).

[15] “The Early Development of Mohammedanism,” London, 1914, p. 131.

[16] Milner, “The History of the Church of Christ,” London, 1834, p. 531, Vol. II.

[17] “The Pulse of Asia,” Houghton, Mifflin & Co., New York, 1907, p. 325.

[18] See however Gardner’s Al-Ghazali in the “Islam Series” (pp. 1-3) where we have this note: “The district of Tus contained four towns, Radkan, Tabaran, Bazdghur, and Nawqan, (Yaqut gives the spelling as Nuqan) and more than 1,000 villages.” (See Yaqut, quoting Misʾar bin Mukhalhil, vol. vi, p. 7. Ibn Khallikan, vol. i, p. 29. Jackson, _From Constantinople to the Home of Omar Khayyam_, p. 267, 284 _ff._) Of these four towns, Tabaran was the capital, while Nawqan was the most populous. It was outside of Nawqan that ʿAli bin Musa ar-Rida and Haroun Ar-Rashid were buried. Thus, the present Mashad represents the old Nawqan, and must cover some at least of the site of that city; while the ruins now known as Tus represent the old city of Tabaran, which, having been the capital of the district, was commonly called by the name of the district. It was outside Tabaran that Al-Ghazali and Firdausi were buried. It is a mistake to regard Tus as having been a metropolis containing four boroughs. That there ever existed a _city_ of Tus stretching thirty-five miles, from Mashad to Radkan, is incredible. As-Samʾani, in the _Kitabu’l-Ansab_, says that Tus contained two towns and over one thousand villages.

[19] “The Glory of the Shiah World,” London, 1910. In this book we have an interesting picture of Mashad and Tus as they are to-day.

[20] “Kashf al-Mahjub,” pp. 173-174.

[21] “Hayat-ul-Hayawan,” by Damiri.

[22] Referred to in his “Life of Al-Ghazzali.”

[23] _Ibn Khallikan_ (Vol. I, p. 29, Cairo, 1310) leaves little doubt that Samaʾani spells it with one “z,” _Ghazali_. So also is the spelling of German Orientalists including Brockelmann. He writes (Vol. I, p. 419) “_So_, als Nisbe zu Gazala, einem kleinen Orte bei Tus, nach dem ausdrücklichen Zeugnis des Samʾanis, jenes ausgezeichneten Kenners iranischer Namen, (s. o. p. 330) b. j. Hall, nr. 37; die von Gosche 1, 1, nr. 3 auf Grund später, persischer Quellen verteidigte Schreibung ‘Gazzali’ verdankt offenbar einer Volksetymologie ihr Dasein in Anlehnung an die nach al Samʾani in Hwarizm gebräuchlichen Nisben, wie al Qassari für al Qassar. Sujuti den Gosche citiert bestätigt keineswegs seine auffassung, sondern gibt seine Quelle als Samʾani genau wieder.” Clement Huart (“History of Arabic Literature,” p. 265) gives the preference to _Ghazali_; so do the French Orientalists in the _Revue du Monde Mussulman_, Goldziher in his latest work _Vorlesungen über den Islam_ (1910), and the well-known Dutch Arabist, Snouck Hurgronje. Yet in spite of all this those who prefer “Ghazzali” may appeal to the highest Moslem authority, namely, Mohammed the Prophet who is said to have declared to some one in a dream that this was the correct spelling. (See “Murtadha,” Vol. I, p. 18.) I have a _fatwa_ from the Sheikhs of Al-Azhar, Cairo, however, stating that the true spelling is now agreed on by Moslems as _Ghazali_ with one middle radical.

[24] Macdonald.

[25] From the Biography given at the end of Miskat-ul-Anwar, Cairo edition (1322).

[26] “The Confessions of Al-Ghazali,” trans. by Claud Field, London, 1909.

[27] Cf. Appendix VII in Macdonald’s “Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theology.”

[28] I follow here the contents of Ghazali’s own _Wajiz_.

[29] D. B. Macdonald, “Life of Al-Ghazzali,” Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. XX, p. 76.

[30] Huart, “Arabic Literature.”

[31] “Lalla Rookh.”

[32] “Baghdad under the Abbasside Caliphate,” G. Le Strange, Oxford, 1900, p. 298.

[33] Several of these are given at length by Murtadha.

[34] Macdonald, p. 88.

[35] Macdonald, p. 90, and see Bibliography.

[36] “The Maqamat.”

[37] “Manuel d’Art Musulman,” Vol. I, Paris, 1907.

[38] Compare on the chronology the first chapters of Gardner’s “Al-Ghazali,” 1919 (Christian Lit. Soc. for India).

[39] Quoted in Klein’s “Islam,” page 87, from the _Ihya_, IV: 320.

[40] For the significance of these terms consult Hughes’ “Dictionary of Islam.”

[41] That this method of seeking God is still a refuge for the most earnest and sincere among Moslems is clear from such books as “The Autobiography of Imad-ud-Din the Indian Convert” (C. M. S., London).

[42] Gardner finds evidence that the book mentioned was _not_ written there.

[43] “The Jewish Encyclopædia,” article “Machpelah.”

[44] A recent traveller says: “There is a hole in the wall which is supposed to communicate with the cave below. Jews write letters to Abraham and place them in this hole, to tell him how badly they are being treated by the Moslems. But the Moslem boys are said to know that the hole has no great depth, and to collect these letters and burn them before Abraham has seen them.”

[45] Cf. his “Ihya” and also his “Al-Wajiz.”

[46] M. J. De Goeje, “Memoire sur les Carmathes du Bahrain et Les Fatimides,” (Leiden, 1886) pp. 104-114.

[47] In the _Ihya_ Al-Ghazali gives the prayer to be offered when kissing the Black Stone.

[48] “Mekka,” Dr. C. Snouck Hurgronje, Vol. I, den Haag, 1888.

[49] Burton’s “Pilgrimage,” Vol. II, Appendix, pp. 323-324.

[50] Macdonald, “The Life of Al-Ghazzali,” pp. 97-98.

[51] Burton’s “Pilgrimage to Al-Medinah and Meccah,” Vol. I, p. 12.

[52] Macdonald’s “Life of Al-Ghazzali,” pp. 105, 107-108, quoted from Murtadha.

[53] Quoted in Hayat-ul-Hayawan.

[54] An exposition of the Creed of the People of the Sunna on the two Words of Witnessing (_kalimatai ’sh-shahada_) which form one of the foundations of Islam. This creed is intended to be committed to memory by children. It forms the first section of the second book of Ghazali’s Ihya, Vol. II, pp. 17-42 of edit. of Cairo with commentary of the Sayyid Murtadha. We are indebted for the translation to Professor Macdonald (_Muslim Theology and Jurisprudence_).

[55] For the process see pp. 170 et seq. of “_Mafatih Al-Ghaib_” (Cairo, 1327) by Ahmed Al-Zarkawi, a contemporary Egyptian magician, and on the subject in general, the sixth and seventh _Risalas_ in that volume.