Part 1

Transcriber’s Notes:

Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_ in the original text. Equal signs “=” before and after a word or phrase indicate =bold= in the original text. Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals. Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs. Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected.

A THEORY OF PURE DESIGN _Harmony, Balance, Rhythm_

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS AND DIAGRAMS

BY DENMAN W. ROSS, PH. D.

LECTURER ON THE THEORY OF DESIGN IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY, FELLOW OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

BOSTON AND NEW YORK HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY MDCCCCVII

COPYRIGHT 1907 BY DENMAN W. ROSS

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED _Published April, 1907_

PREFACE

My purpose in this book is to elucidate, so far as I can, the principles which underlie the practice of drawing and painting as a Fine Art. Art is generally regarded as the expression of feelings and emotions which have no explanation except perhaps in such a word as _inspiration_, which is expletive rather than explanatory. Art is regarded as the one activity of man which has no scientific basis, and the appreciation of Art is said to be a matter of taste in which no two persons can be expected to agree. It is my purpose in this book to show how, in the practice of Art, as in all other practices, we use certain terms and follow certain principles. Being defined and explained, these terms and principles may be known and understood by everybody. They are, so to speak, _the form of the language_.

While an understanding of the terms and principles of Art will not, in itself, enable any one to produce important works, such works are not produced without it. It must be understood, however, that the understanding of terms and principles is not, necessarily, an understanding in words. It may lie in technical processes and in visual images and may never rise, or shall I say fall, to any formulation in words, either spoken or written. The terms and principles of Art have, as a rule, been understood by the artist in the form of technical processes and visual images, not in words. It is in words that they will become generally understood. It is in words that I propose to explain them in this book. I want to bring to definition what, until now, has not been clearly defined or exactly measured. In a sense this book is a contribution to Science rather than to Art. It is a contribution to Science made by a painter, who has used his Art in order to understand his Art, not to produce Works of Art. In a passage of Plato (Philebus, ¶ 55) Socrates says: “If arithmetic, mensuration, and weighing be taken out of any art, that which remains will not be much.“ “Not much, certainly,” was the reply. The only thing which remains in Art, beyond measurable quantities and qualities, is the personality, the peculiar ability or genius of the artist himself. That, I believe, admits of no explanation. The element of personality is what we mean when we speak of the element of inspiration in a Work of Art. Underlying this element of personality are the terms and principles of the art. In them the artist has found the possibility of expression; in them his inspiration is conveyed to his fellowmen. I propose to explain, not the artist, but the mode of expression which the artist uses. My purpose, in scientific language, is to define, classify, and explain the phenomena of Design. In trying to do that, I have often been at a loss for terms and have been obliged, in certain instances, to use terms with new meanings, meanings which differ, more or less, from those of common usage and from those of writers in other branches of learning. In all such cases I have taken pains to define my terms and to make my meanings perfectly clear. I do not expect any one to read this book who is not willing to allow to my terms the meanings I have given them. Those who are unwilling to accept my definitions will certainly not follow me to my conclusions.

I am giving this book to the Public with great reluctance. Though I have had it in mind for many years and have put no end of thought and work into it, it seems to me inadequate and unsatisfactory. It will hardly be published before I shall discover in it errors both of omission and commission. The book presents a new definition of principles, a new association of ideas. It is inconceivable that this, my first published statement, should be either consistent or complete. It will be a long time, I am sure, before it can be brought to a satisfactory shape. It is simply the best statement that I can make at this time. One reason, perhaps my best reason, for publishing this Theory, before it is completely worked out, is to bring other students into the investigation. I need their coöperation, their suggestions, and their criticisms. Without assistance from others the book would not be as good as it is. I am indebted to a number of persons for helpful suggestions. I am particularly indebted to three men, who have been associated with me in my teaching: William Luther Mowll, Henry Hunt Clark, and Edgar Oscar Parker. Each of them has had a share in the work. I am indebted to Professor Mowll for very important contributions to the doctrine of Rhythm, as it is presented in this book, and he has kindly helped me in the revision of the work for the press. My friend Dean Briggs has kindly read my proof sheets, and I am indebted to him for many suggestions.

DENMAN W. ROSS. HARVARD UNIVERSITY, February 16, 1907.

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 1 POSITIONS IN HARMONY, BALANCE, AND RHYTHM 9 LINES IN HARMONY, BALANCE, AND RHYTHM 37 OUTLINES IN HARMONY, BALANCE, AND RHYTHM 96 TONES AND TONE-RELATIONS 131 SEQUENCES OF VALUES AND COLORS 143 TONE-HARMONY 158 TONE-BALANCE 172 TONE-RHYTHM 182 COMPOSITION, GENERAL RULES 186 THE STUDY OF ORDER IN NATURE AND IN WORKS OF ART 190 CONCLUSION 192 PARAGRAPH INDEX 195

INTRODUCTION

THE MEANING OF DESIGN

1. By Design I mean Order in human feeling and thought and in the many and varied activities by which that feeling or that thought is expressed. By Order I mean, particularly, three things,—Harmony, Balance, and Rhythm. These are the principal modes in which Order is revealed in Nature and, through Design, in Works of Art.

THE ORDER OF HARMONY

2. Whenever two or more impressions or ideas have something in common that is appreciable, they are in harmony, in the measure of what they have in common. The harmony increases as the common element increases; or the common elements. It diminishes in the measure of every difference or contrast. By the Order of Harmony I mean some recurrence or repetition, some correspondence or likeness. The likeness may be in sounds or in sights, in muscular or other sense-impressions. It may lie in sensations, in perceptions, in ideas, in systems of thought.

THE ORDER OF BALANCE

3. By the Order of Balance I mean some equal opposition and consequent equilibrium, as it occurs at some moment of Time or at some point of Space; an equilibrium which induces, for the moment and in its place, a suspension of all change or movement, and causes a pause or a rest. The equilibrium may be one of physical forces (forces of weight or resistance) or forces of will. It may be an equilibrium of sense-impressions or attractions, of interests, of alternative propositions or ideas. It may be the equilibrium of a perfect antithesis. Certain moments of Time, certain points of Space, are distinguished from others by instances of equilibrium or balance. The balance being lost, in any case, we have at once some movement. If this movement is regular, and marked in its regularity, we get, instead of Balance, Rhythm.

THE ORDER OF RHYTHM

4. By the Order of Rhythm I mean changes of sensation; changes in muscular impressions as we feel them, in sounds as we hear them, in sights as we see them; changes in objects, people, or things as we know them and think of them, changes which induce the feeling or idea of movement, either in the duration of Time or in the extension of Space; provided that the changes take place at regular and marked intervals of time or in regular and marked measures of space. By regular intervals and measures I mean equal or lawfully varying intervals and measures. I do not mean, by Rhythm, changes simply, inducing the sense or idea of movement: I mean, by Rhythm, a regularity of changes in a regularity of measures, with the effect of movement upon our minds.

Rhythms in Time differ from Rhythms in Space, inasmuch as the movement in Time is in one direction, inevitably. It lies in the duration and passing of time, from which nothing escapes. The movement in space, on the contrary, may be in any one of many possible directions. A movement in different directions, particularly in contrary directions, amounts to a negation of movement. In any space-rhythm, therefore, the direction in which the rhythm leads us, the direction in which we follow it, must be unmistakable.

5. Of these three principles of Order, the first and foremost, the most far-reaching and comprehensive, is the principle of Harmony. We have Harmony in all balances, and we have it also in all rhythms. It is, therefore, undesirable to think of the three principles as coördinate. It will be better to think of the principle of Harmony first, and then of two other principles, those of Balance and of Rhythm, as lying within the range of Harmony but not coextensive with it. We might express the idea in a logical diagram.

[Illustration: Fig. 1]

Within the field of Harmony we have two distinct modes of Order—Balance and Rhythm; but we have Harmony beyond the range of Balance and beyond the range of Rhythm.

In cases where rhythms, corresponding in character and in direction of movement, are set side by side, one on the right, the other on the left, of a vertical axis, so that they balance, one against the other, and the vertical axis of the balance is the line of the movement, we have the union of all three principles. This idea, also, may be expressed in a logical diagram.

[Illustration: Fig. 2]

Examples of this union of the three principles of Order will be given farther on.

BEAUTY A SUPREME INSTANCE OF ORDER

6. I refrain from any reference to Beauty as a principle of Design. It is not a principle, but an experience. It is an experience which defies analysis and has no explanation. We distinguish it from all other experiences. It gives us pleasure, perhaps the highest pleasure that we have. At the same time it is idle to talk about it, or to write about it. The less said about it the better. “It is beautiful,” you say. Then somebody asks, “Why is it beautiful?” There is no answer to that question. You say it is beautiful because it gives you pleasure: but other things give you pleasure which are not beautiful. Pleasure is, therefore, no criterion of Beauty. What is the pleasure which Beauty gives? It is the pleasure which you have in the sense of Beauty. That is all you can say. You cannot explain either the experience or the kind of pleasure which it gives you.

While I am quite unable to give any definition or explanation of Beauty, I know where to look for it, where I am sure to find it. The Beautiful is revealed, always, so far as I know, in the forms of Order, in the modes of Harmony, of Balance, or of Rhythm. While there are many instances of Harmony, Balance, and Rhythm which are not particularly beautiful, there is, I believe, nothing really beautiful which is not orderly in one or the other, in two, or in all three of these modes. In seeking the Beautiful, therefore, we look for it in instances of Order, in instances of Harmony, Balance, and Rhythm. We shall find it in what may be called supreme instances. This is perhaps our nearest approach to a definition of Beauty: that it is a supreme instance of Order, intuitively felt, instinctively appreciated.

THE ARTS AS DIFFERENT MODES OF EXPRESSION

7. The Arts are different forms or modes of expression: modes of feeling, modes of thought, modes of action. There are many Arts in which different terms of expression, different materials, different methods are used. The principal Arts are (1) Gymnastics, including Dancing, (2) Music, (3) Speech, spoken and written, (4) Construction with all kinds of materials, (5) Sculpture, including Modeling and Carving, (6) Drawing and Painting. These are the principal Arts, but there are many others, more or less connected with them. Design comes into all of these Arts, bringing Order, in some cases Beauty.

THE ART OF DRAWING AND PAINTING

8. The Art which I have studied and practiced, the Art in which I am giving instruction, is that of Drawing and Painting.

By the Art of Drawing and Painting I mean expression in pigment-tones (values, colors, intensities of color) spread in different measures or quantities and in different shapes: shapes being differences of character given to a line by its straightness or curvature, to a spot or area by its outline or contour. By Drawing and Painting I mean, therefore, expression by lines and spots of paint.

TWO MODES OF DRAWING AND PAINTING

9. There are two modes of Drawing and Painting, the mode of Pure Design and the mode of Representation.

PURE DESIGN

10. By Pure Design I mean simply Order, that is to say, Harmony, Balance, and Rhythm, in lines and spots of paint, in tones, measures, and shapes. Pure Design appeals to the eye just as absolute Music appeals to the ear. The purpose in Pure Design is to achieve Order in lines and spots of paint, if possible, the perfection of Order, a supreme instance of it, the Beautiful: this with no other, no further, no higher motive; just for the satisfaction, the pleasure, the delight of it. In the practice of Pure Design we aim at Order and hope for Beauty. Even the motive of giving pleasure to others lies beyond the proper purpose of Pure Design, though it constantly happens that in pleasing ourselves we give others pleasure.

APPLICATIONS OF DESIGN

11. The application of Design in the various Arts and Crafts is well understood and appreciated. We have many instances and examples in the Art of the Past. The possibility of Pure Design, pure Art, followed for the sake of Order and Beauty, with no purpose of service or of utility, is not at all understood or appreciated. I think of Pure Design as I think of Music. Music is the arrangement and composition of sounds for the sake of Order and Beauty, to give pleasure to the ear of the composer. Pure Design is the arrangement and composition of lines and spots of paint for the sake of Order and Beauty, to give pleasure to the eye of the designer. I am prepared to admit, however, that as Music, once created, being appropriate to the occasion when it is performed and to the mood of the listeners, may give pleasure to many persons, so Pure Design, once achieved, being appropriate to the time and the place of exhibition and to the mood of the beholders, may give pleasure to others besides the designer. In that sense, I am willing to allow that Pure Design may be Applied Art,—Art applied in the service of Humanity, its purpose being to bring pleasure into human experience. The underlying motive of it, however, is found not in the service of humanity, but in the ideal of the artist. He aims at Order and hopes for Beauty, as the highest reward of his effort. John Sebastian Bach said of Music: “It is for the glory of God and a pleasant recreation.” That is what I mean. The designer, like the musician, seeks first of all to achieve Order and Beauty for the sake of Order and Beauty. That is his religion,—the worship of the Ideal. When the Ideal is realized, the object which has been produced may serve a useful purpose in giving pleasure, and perhaps inspiration, to others.

The principles of Pure Design which are defined and illustrated in this book are the principles which should be followed in all applications of Design in the Arts and Crafts. In such applications, however, the ideals of design are often obscured by the consideration of materials and technical processes on the one hand, and of service or utility on the other. It will be worth while, therefore, for those who wish to bring Design into their work, whatever that is, to study Design in the abstract, Pure Design, so that they may know, before they undertake to use it, what Design is. It is the purpose of this book to explain what it is.

REPRESENTATION

12. Order, which in Pure Design is an end, becomes in Representation a means to an end; the end being the Truth of Representation. In Representation we are no longer dealing, as in Pure Design, with meaningless terms, or, if the terms have meanings, with no regard for them. In Representation we are putting lines and spots of paint together for the sake of their meanings. Design in Representation means Order in the composition or arrangement of meanings. What we aim at is the Truth of Representation in a form of expression which will be simple, clear, reasonable, and consistent, as well as true. The attention must be directed to what is important, away from what is unimportant. Objects, people, and things represented must be brought out and emphasized or suppressed and subordinated, according to the Idea or Truth which the artist wishes to express. The irrelevant must be eliminated. The inconsistent and the incongruous must be avoided. That is what I mean by Design in Representation, the knowledge of Nature and Life presented in a systematic, logical, and orderly way.

REPRESENTATION IN FORMS OF DESIGN

13. It sometimes happens that we have the Truth of Representation in a form of Pure Design or Pure Design combined with Representation. In Poetry we have the meaning of the words in the measures of the verse. So in Representation it is sometimes possible to achieve the Truth in forms of Harmony, Balance, and Rhythm. In such cases the appeal is simultaneously to the love of Knowledge and to the sense of Order and of Beauty, so that we have an æsthetic pleasure in the statement of the Truth.

In this book I shall explain what I mean by Drawing and Painting in Pure Design. Later, I hope to write another book on Design in Representation.

DRAWING AND PAINTING IN PURE DESIGN

POSITIONS

DEFINITION OF POSITIONS

14. Take a pencil and a piece of paper. With the pencil, on the paper, mark a dot or point.

[Illustration: Fig. 3]

By this dot (A) three ideas are expressed: an idea of Tone, the tone of lead in the pencil; an idea of Measure, the extent of the space covered by the dot; and an idea of Shape, the character given to the dot by its outline or contour. The dot is so small that its tone, its measure, and its shape will not be seriously considered. There is another idea, however, which is expressed by the dot or point,—an idea of Position. That is its proper meaning or signification. There is presumably a reason for giving the dot one position rather than another.

POSITIONS DETERMINED BY DIRECTIONS AND DISTANCES

15. Put another dot (B) on your paper, not far from dot “A.”

[Illustration: Fig. 4]

We have now a relation of two positions,—the relation of position “A” to position “B.” The relation is one of Directions and of Distances. Proceeding from “A” in a certain direction to a certain distance we reach “B.” Proceeding from “B” in a certain direction and to a certain distance we reach “A.” Every position means two things; a direction and a distance taken from some point which may be described as the premise-point.

DIRECTIONS

16. Directions may be referred either to the Horizontal or to the Vertical. Referring them to the horizontal, we say of a certain direction, that it is up-to-the-left, or up-to-the-right, or down-to-the-left, or down-to-the-right, a certain number of degrees. It may be thirty (30°), it may be forty-five (45°), it may be sixty (60°),—any number of degrees up to ninety (90°), in which case we say simply that the direction is up or down. Directions on the horizontal may be described by the terms, to the right or to the left.

[Illustration: Fig. 5]

The method of describing and defining different directions from any point, as a center, is clearly explained by this diagram.

DISTANCES

17. The definition of Distances in any direction is well understood. In defining position “B,” in Fig. 4, we say that it is, in a direction from “A,” the premise-point, down-to-the-right forty-five degrees (45°), that it is at a distance from “A” of one inch. Distances are always taken from premise-points.

POSITIONS DETERMINED BY TRIANGULATIONS

18. If we mark a third dot, “C,” on our paper and wish to define its position, we may give the direction and the distance from “A,” or from “B,” or, if we prefer, we may follow the principle of Triangulation and give two directions, one from “A” and the other from “B.” No distances need be given in that case. The position of “C” will be found at the intersection of the two directions.

[Illustration: Fig. 6]

The principle of Triangulation is illustrated in the above diagram.

INTERVALS

19. We shall have occasion to speak not only of Distances, but of Intervals. They may be defined as intermediate spaces. The spaces between the points “A” and “B,” “A” and “C,” “B” and “C,” in Fig. 6, are Intervals.

SCALE IN RELATIONS OF POSITIONS

20. Given any relation of positions, the scale may be changed by changing the intervals, provided we make no change of directions. That is well understood.

Before proceeding to the considerations which follow, I must ask the reader to refer to the definitions of Harmony, Balance, and Rhythm which I have given in the Introduction.

THE ORDER OF HARMONY

IN POSITIONS: DIRECTIONS, DISTANCES, INTERVALS

21. All Positions lying in the same direction and at the same distance from a given point, taken as a premise-point, are one. There is no such thing, therefore, as a Harmony of Positions. Positions in Harmony are identical positions. Two or more positions may, however, lie in the same direction from or at the same distance from a given point taken as a premise-point. In that case, the two or more positions, having a direction or a distance in common, are, to that extent, in harmony.

22. What do we mean by Harmony of Directions?

[Illustration: Fig. 7]

This is an example of Direction-Harmony. All the points or positions lie in one and the same direction from the premise-point “A.” The distances from “A” vary. There is no Harmony of Intervals.

Directions being defined by angles of divergence, we may have a Harmony of Directions in the repetition of similar angles of divergence: in other words, when a certain change of direction is repeated.

[Illustration: Fig. 8]

In this case the angles of divergence are equal. There is a Harmony, not only in the repetition of a certain angle, but in the correspondence of the intervals.

[Illustration: Fig. 9]