Part 6

In this case the movement of convergence is in a curve. The stages of the movement, not being marked, the movement is not rhythmical, unless we feel that equal changes are taking place in equal measures. I am inclined to think that we do feel that. The question, however, is one which I would rather ask than answer, definitely.

[Illustration: Fig. 191]

In this case the movement is, unquestionably, rhythmical, because the measures are clearly marked. The measures are in an arithmetical progression. They diminish gradually in the direction of the convergence, causing a gradual crowding together of attractions in that direction.

Substituting, in the measures, shapes which have movement, the movement of the rhythm may be considerably increased, as is shown in the example which follows.

[Illustration: Fig. 192]

This is a case in which the movement is, no doubt, facilitated by an association of ideas, the suggestion of a growth.

113. The more obvious the suggestion of growth, the more inevitable is the movement in the direction of it, whatever that direction is. It must be understood, however, that the movement in such cases is due to an association of ideas, not to the pull of attractions in the sense of vision. The pull of an association of ideas may or may not be in the direction of the pull of attractions.

[Illustration: Fig. 193]

In Fig. 193 we have an illustration of a rhythmic movement upward. The upward movement is due quite as much to an association of ideas, the thought of a growth of vegetation, as it is to mere visual attractions. It happens that the figure is also an illustration of Symmetrical Balance. As we have Harmony in the similarity of the opposite sides, the figure is an illustration of combined Harmony, Balance, and Rhythm.

There is another point which is illustrated in Fig. 193. It is this: that we may have rhythmic movement in an outline, or, indeed, in any composition of lines, which shows a gradual and regular change from one shape to another; which shows a gradual and regular evolution or development of shape-character; provided the changes are distributed in regular and marked measures and the direction of the changes, the evolution, the development, is unmistakable; as it is in Fig. 193. The changes of shape in the above outline are changes which are gradual and regular and suggest an upward movement unmistakably. The movement, however, involves a comparison of shape with shape, so it is as much a matter of perception as of sensation. Evolutions and developments in Space, in the field of vision, are as interesting as evolutions and developments in the duration of Time. When the changes in such movements are regular, when they take place in regular and marked measures, when we must take them in a certain order, the movements are rhythmical, whether in Time or in Space.

THE ATTITUDES OF OUTLINES

114. Any outline, no matter what dimensions or shape it has, may be turned upon a center and in that way made to take a great number and variety of attitudes. Not only may it be turned upon a center but inverted upon an axis. Being inverted, the inversion may be turned upon a center and made to take another series of attitudes, and this second series of attitudes will be different from the first series, except in cases of axial symmetry in the outline or area. It must be clearly understood that a change of attitude in any outline or area is not a change of shape.

115. What has been said of Harmony, Balance, and Rhythm in the attitudes of a line applies equally well to outlines and to the spaces defined by them.

THE ARRANGEMENT AND COMPOSITION OF OUTLINES

116. By the composition of outlines I mean putting two or more outlines in juxtaposition, in contact or interlacing. In all cases of interlacing, of course, the shape-character of the interlacing outlines is lost. The outlines become the outlines of other areas and of a larger number of them. Our object in putting outlines together is, in Pure Design, to illustrate the orders of Harmony, Balance, and Rhythm, to achieve Order, as much as we can, if possible Beauty.

I will now give a series of examples with a brief analysis or explanation of each one.

[Illustration: Fig. 194]

In this case we have Shape-Harmony in the outlines and also a Harmony of Attitudes.

[Illustration: Fig. 195]

Here we have another illustration of the Harmony of Shapes and of Attitudes, with a Harmony of Intervals, which we did not have in Fig. 194.

[Illustration: Fig. 196]

In this case we have a Harmony of Attitudes and of Intervals (the Harmony of a repeated Relation of Intervals) in what may be called an All-Over Repetition.

[Illustration: Fig. 197]

In this case we have a Harmony of Attitudes in the repetition of a relation of two opposite attitudes; this with Shape-Harmony and Interval-Harmony.

[Illustration: Fig. 198]

In this case we have a Symmetry of Attitudes, with Shape-Harmony and Interval-Harmony. Turning the composition off the vertical axis we should have Balance but no Symmetry. The balance-center will be felt in all possible attitudes of this composition.

[Illustration: Fig. 199]

In this case I have repeated a certain outline, which gives me the Harmony of a repetition,—this in connection with a progression in scale, so that the Harmony is Shape-Harmony, not Measure-Harmony. We have in the attitude of this repetition a Symmetrical Balance. The movement is rhythmical and the direction of the rhythm is up.

The movement in Fig. 199 might be indefinitely increased by the introduction into it of a gradation of attractions, increasing in number. That means that the extent of contrasting edges is increased from measure to measure.

[Illustration: Fig. 200]

The addition of details, increasing in number from measure to measure upward, increases the movement of the rhythm in that direction.

[Illustration: Fig. 201]

Taking the arrangement of Fig. 199 and repeating it six times at diverging angles of sixty degrees, we get what may be called a radial balance upon the basis of a hexagon.

Outlines may be drawn one inside of the other or several inside of one.

[Illustration: Fig. 202]

This is a case of outlines-within-outlines and of Shape-Harmony without Measure-Harmony. There is, also, a Harmony of Attitudes, but no Harmony of Intervals.

Interesting results may be produced by drawing a series of outlines similar in shape, the second inside of the first, the third inside of the second, and so on.

[Illustration: Fig. 203]

In this case, for example, we have the outlines drawn one inside of the other. The outlines have all the same shape, but different measures. It is a case of Shape-Harmony and Harmony of Attitudes, without Measure-Harmony, and without any Harmony of Intervals. This is a very interesting and important form of Design which has many applications.

[Illustration: Fig. 204]

In this case, also, we have Shape-Harmony without Measure-Harmony. We have a Harmony of Attitudes and also of Intervals, the spaces between the outlines corresponding.

[Illustration: Fig. 205]

Here we have the Harmony of an alternation of Attitudes repeated, with Shape-Harmony, without Measure-Harmony.

In all forms of design in which we have the concentric repetition of a certain outline we have, in connection with the feeling of a central balance, the feeling of a movement or movements toward the center. These movements are due to convergences. Movements carrying the eye away from the center, in opposite directions, interfere with the feeling of balance. The feeling is enhanced, however, when the movements converge and come together.

We may have not only an alternation of attitudes in these cases, but an alternation of shape-character.

[Illustration: Fig. 206]

The repetition of outlines-within-outlines may be concentric or eccentric. The repetition is concentric in Fig. 204. It is eccentric in the example which follows.

[Illustration: Fig. 207]

In all eccentric repetitions like this we have a lack of balance and the suggestion of movement. The direction of the movement is determined by the direction of convergences and of the crowding together of attractions. The movement in Fig. 207 is up-to-the-left, unmistakably. Repeating the composition of Fig. 207, at regular intervals and without change of attitude, the movement up-to-the-left would be extended to the repetitions and the movement would be rhythmical. The movement is rhythmical in the composition itself, as shown in Fig. 207, because the movement in the composition is regular in character, regular in its measures, and unmistakable in direction.

[Illustration: Fig. 208]

This is another example of eccentric repetition in outlines-within-outlines. As in Fig. 207, we have movement, and the movement is rhythmical.

In the examples I have given there have been no contacts and no interlacings. Contacts and interlacings are possible.

[Illustration: Fig. 209]

Here, for an example, is an instance of contact, with Harmony of Attitudes and a Symmetrical Balance on a vertical axis.

[Illustration: Fig. 210]

In this case we have contacts, with no Harmony of Attitudes. The balance which is central as well as axial is in this attitude of the figure symmetrical.

[Illustration: Fig. 211]

Here we have a similar composition with interlacings.

When the outlines have different shapes as well as different measures, particularly when the outlines are irregular and the shapes to be put together are, in themselves, disorderly, the problem of composition becomes more difficult. The best plan is to arrange the outlines in a group, making as many orderly connections as possible. Taking any composition of outlines and repeating it in the different ways which I have described, it is generally possible to achieve orderly if not beautiful results.

[Illustration: Fig. 212]

Here are five outlines, very different in shape-character. Let us see what can be done with them. A lot of experiments have to be tried, to find out what connections, what arrangements, what effects are possible. The possibilities cannot be predicted. Using tracing-paper, a great many experiments can be tried in a short time, though it may take a long time to reach the best possible results.

[Illustration: Fig. 213]

In this example I have tried to make a good composition with my five outlines. The problem is difficult. The outlines to be combined have so little Harmony. The only Harmony we can achieve will be the Harmony of the same arrangement of shapes repeated, which amounts to Shape-Harmony. Inversions will give us the satisfaction of Balance. Inversions on a vertical axis will give us the satisfaction of Symmetry. In the design above given I have achieved simply the Harmony of a relation of shapes repeated, with Rhythm. The Rhythm is due to the repetition of a decidedly unbalanced group of elements with a predominance of convergences in one direction. The movement is on the whole up, in spite of certain downward convergences. The upward convergences predominate. There are more inclinations to the right than to the left, but the composition which is repeated is unstable in its attitude and suggests a falling away to the left. The resultant of these slight divergences of movement is a general upward movement.

[Illustration: Fig. 214]

In this case I have less difficulty than in Fig. 213, having left out one of my five outlines, the one most difficult to use with the others. There is a great gain of Harmony. There is a Harmony of Intervals and a Harmony in the repetition of the same grouping of outlines. In the outlines themselves we have a Harmony of curved character, and the curves fit one another very well, owing to a correspondence of measure and shape-character in certain parts. In such cases we are able to get considerable Harmony of Attitudes into the composition. There is a Harmony of Attitudes in the repeats, as well as in certain details. Comparing Fig. 214 with Fig. 213, I am sure the reader will agree that we have in Fig. 214 the larger measure of Harmony.

[Illustration: Fig. 215]

In Fig. 215 I have used inversions and repetitions of the rather disorderly outline which gave me so much difficulty when I tried to combine it with the other outlines. Whatever merit the composition has is due solely to the art of composition, to the presence of Attitude-Harmony, Interval-Harmony, and to the inversions and repetitions; inversions giving Balance, repetitions giving Harmony.

While it is important to recognize the limitation of the terms in this problem, it is important to yield to any definite impulse which you may feel, though it carries you beyond your terms. The value of a rule is often found in breaking it for a good and sufficient reason; and there is no better reason than that which allows you, in Design, to follow any impulse you may have, provided that it is consistent with the principles of Order.

[Illustration: Fig. 216]

In this case an effort has been made to modify the terms already used so as to produce a more rapid and consistent movement. Advantage has been taken of the fact that the eye is drawn into all convergences, so all pointing down has been, so far as possible, avoided. The movement is distinctly rhythmical.

In the previous examples I have avoided contacts and interlacing. It was not necessary to avoid them.

[Illustration: Fig. 217]

117. What is done, in every case, depends upon the designer who does it. He follows the suggestions of his imagination, not, however, with perfect license. The imagination acts within definite limitations, limitations of terms and of principles, limitations of certain modes in which terms and principles are united. In spite of these limitations, however, if we give the same terms, the same principles, and the same modes to different people, they will produce very different results. Individuality expresses itself in spite of the limitation of terms and modes, and the work of one man will be very different from the work of another, inevitably. We may have Order, Harmony, Balance, or Rhythm in all cases, Beauty only in one case, perhaps in no case. It must be remembered how, in the practice of Pure Design, we aim at Order and hope for Beauty. Beauty is found only in supreme instances of Order, intuitively felt, instinctively appreciated. The end of the practice of Pure Design is found in the love of the Beautiful, rather than in the production of beautiful things. Beautiful things are produced, not by the practice of Pure Design, but out of the love of the Beautiful which may be developed by the practice.

AREAS

118. I have already considered the measures of areas, in discussing the interior dimensions of outlines, and in discussing the outlines themselves I have considered the shapes of areas. It remains for me to discuss the tones in which the areas may be drawn and the tone-contrasts by which they may be distinguished and defined—in their positions, measures, and shapes.

LINEAR AREAS

119. Before proceeding, however, to the subject of tones and tone-relations, I must speak of a peculiar type of area which is produced by increasing or diminishing the width of a line. I have postponed the discussion of measures of width in lines until now.

A line may change its width in certain parts or passages. It may become wider or narrower as the case may be. The wider it is the more it is like an area. If it is sufficiently wide, the line ceases to be a line, and becomes an area. The line may change its width abruptly or gradually. The effect of the line is by these changes indefinitely varied. The line of Design is not the line of Geometry.

120. Considerable interest may be given to what I have called Linear Progressions by changing the width of the line at certain points, in certain passages, and more or less abruptly. The changes will be like accents in the line, giving variety and, possibly, an added interest.

[Illustration: Fig. 218]

Let us take this line as the motive of a linear progression. We can give it a different character, perhaps a more interesting character, by widening all the vertical passages, as follows:—

[Illustration: Fig. 219]

This is what we get for a motive by widening all the vertical passages.

[Illustration: Fig. 220]

This is what we get for a motive by widening all the horizontal passages.

[Illustration: Fig. 221]

Compare this Progression, in which I have used the motive of Fig. 219, with that of Fig. 77, p. 47. The accents, which in Fig. 221 occur in every repetition of the motive, might occur only in certain repetitions, at certain intervals.

[Illustration: Fig. 222]

It is not necessary that the changes in the width of the line be abrupt, as in the examples just given. The width of the line may increase or diminish gradually, in which case we may have, not only accents in the line, but movements due to gradations of dimension, to convergences, or to an increase or gradual crowding together of attractions in a series of visual angles.

[Illustration: Fig. 223]

In this case we have a gradual increase followed by a diminution of the width of the line in certain parts, and these changes occur at equal intervals. A certain amount of rhythmic movement is given to the progression by such accents, provided the direction of movement is unmistakable, which it is not in this case. It is not at all clear whether the movement is down-to-the-right or up-to-the-left. It seems to me about as easy to move in one direction as in the other.

[Illustration: Fig. 224]

In this case there is less doubt about the movement. It seems to be down-to-the-right. The eye is pulled through an increase of width-measures toward a greater extension and crowding together of contrasting edges.

[Illustration: Fig. 225]

Substituting outlines for areas in the previous illustration, we are surprised, perhaps, to find that the movement is reversed. We go up-to-the-left in this case, not down-to-the-right. The pull of a greater extension of tone-contrast in a given area was, in Fig. 224, sufficient to overcome the pull of a less evident convergence in the other direction.

By increasing or diminishing the width of lines, doing it gradually or abruptly, we are able to control the movement of the eye to an indefinite extent. This is one of the important resources of the designer’s art. Its use is not limited to forms of Linear Progression, but may be extended to all forms of Design in which lines are used.

[Illustration: Fig. 226]

In this case, for example, the eye follows the direction of convergences, but we can easily force it to turn and move in the opposite direction, by widening the lines in that direction, thus increasing the extent of contrasting edge until it more than outbalances the convergences; as in the following illustration:—

[Illustration: Fig. 227]

THE ARRANGEMENT AND COMPOSITION OF AREAS

121. What has been said about the composition of Lines and Outlines applies equally well to the composition of Areas, so far as they are distinguished and defined by outlines. We will now proceed to consider areas as distinguished and defined, not by outlines, but by tone-contrasts. The composition of lines and outlines is one thing, the composition of tones in different positions, measures, and shapes is another. In putting lines and outlines together we draw. The point of view is that of drawing. In putting tones in different positions, measures, and shapes we paint. The point of view is that of the painting.

TONES AND TONE-RELATIONS

122. Up to this point I have avoided the consideration of Tones and Tone-Relations. I have spoken of possible changes of tone in dots and in lines; changes of value, of color, of color-intensity; but it is not in dots nor in lines that these changes call for particular attention. Our interest has been in the positions, measures, shapes, and attitudes of dots and lines, and in the possibilities of arrangement and composition. When it comes to the consideration of areas and area-systems, however, the subject of tone-relations becomes one of the greatest interest, because areas are defined and distinguished, not only by their outlines, but quite as much by differences of tone; that is to say, by tone-contrasts.

THE PROCESS OF PAINTING AS DISTINGUISHED FROM DRAWING

123. The first thing to consider is the tone of the surface upon which you are going to paint. You then take a tone differing from the ground-tone, in value, in color, or in color-intensity, you put it in a certain position, and you spread it over a certain extent of space. In so doing you give to the space a certain shape. This is the process of Painting, as distinguished from the process of Drawing. In Drawing we think of lines and outlines first. In Painting we think of Tones first, of positions, measures, and shapes afterwards.

DEFINITION OF THE WORD TONE

124. In producing tones we use, necessarily, certain pigment-materials and mixtures of these materials. The effect of light produced by any particular material or mixture we call its tone. Though I have been using the word _Tone_ I have not yet defined its meaning. I will now do that.

TONE-ANALYSIS,—VALUE, COLOR, INTENSITY, NEUTRALITY

125. In every tone we have to distinguish two elements, the quantity of light in it—what we call its value—and the quality of the light in it—its color; and the color, whatever it is,—Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, or Violet,—may be intense or neutral. By intensity I mean the quality of a color in its highest or in a very high degree. By the intensity of Red I mean Red when it is as red as possible. The mixture of Vermilion and Rose Madder, for example, gives us a Red of great intensity. That is about the strongest Red which we are able to produce with the pigment-materials which we use. Intensity must not be confounded with value nor value with intensity. By value I mean more or less light. By intensity I mean a great purity and brilliancy of color. Intensity stands in opposition to neutrality, in which no color can be distinguished. The more color we have in any tone the more intensity we have. The less the intensity the less color, and the absence of color means neutrality or grayness. Neutrality or grayness, though it is the negation of color, the zero of color, so to speak, must be classed as a color because upon analysis it proves to be a result of color combination or mixture. When I speak, as I shall from time to time, of the neutral as a color, it will be understood that I am speaking of a combination or mixture of colors in which no particular color can be distinguished. I speak of the neutral as a color just as I speak of zero as a number. We use zero as a number though it is no number, and counts for nothing.

STUDY OF TONES AND TONE-RELATIONS