Part 1

ON THE

PRESERVATION

OF

SHIPWRECKED MARINERS.

[Illustration: [Coin]]

Printed by J. NICHOLS, Red-Lion-Passage, Fleet Street.

AN ESSAY ON THE PRESERVATION OF SHIPWRECKED MARINERS, IN ANSWER TO THE PRIZE-QUESTIONS PROPOSED BY THE ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY: “1. _What are the best Means of preserving Mariners from Shipwreck?_—2. _Of keeping the Vessel afloat?_—3. _Of giving Assistance to the Crew, when Boats dare not venture out to their Aid?_”

By _A. FOTHERGILL_, M.D. F.R.S.

Member of the Royal College of Physicians, LOND. Honorary Member of Medical and Phil. Societies of LOND. EDINB. PARIS, MANCHEST. PHILADEL. &c.

_Delightful task!—to soften human woe, “’Tis what the happy to th’ unhappy owe.”_

LONDON:

Printed for the Society by JOHN NICHOLS, And sold by JOHNSON, DILLY, HOOKHAM; And at the Libraries in BATH, BRISTOL, &c.

1799.

(_Price Two Shillings and Sixpence._)

TO THE

KING’S MOST EXCELLENT MAJESTY,

_PATRON_

OF THE ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY:

TO THE

RIGHT HONOURABLE THE PRESIDENT,

THE VICE PRESIDENTS,

THE TREASURER,

AND MEDICAL ASSISTANTS,

_THIS ESSAY_,

IS MOST RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED,

BY THEIR VERY OBEDIENT,

AND FAITHFUL SERVANT,

THE AUTHOR.

LONDON, MARCH 19, 1799. At a special Meeting of the Directors of _THE ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY_;

Several of the Elder Brethren of the Trinity House being present; the PRIZE ESSAYS, on preserving Mariners from Shipwreck, were read; when the following RESOLUTIONS passed unanimously:

I. _That the ingenious Essay which has for its motto, “Delightful task, to soften human woe,” &c. is a very able and scientific performance, happily enlisting Philosophy in the cause of Humanity._

II. _That, as the precautions which it so earnestly impresses may tend to prevent the fatal disasters of shipwreck, and to preserve the lives of British seamen, its publication, especially at this eventful period, will be peculiarly interesting; and that, therefore, the permission of the Author be requested._

III. _That, on opening the sealed packet, annexed to the above mentioned Essay, the Author appears to be Dr._ FOTHERGILL _of Bath_.

JOHN NICHOLS, _Chairman_.

TO THE COURT OF DIRECTORS.

GENTLEMEN,

Since you were pleased to crown my former Dissertation with your HONORARY GOLD MEDAL, I must now, (agreeably to what I long ago hinted,) beg leave to decline any share in your present pecuniary premium. In obedience, however, to your second resolution, respecting the publication of this Essay, I submit to your superior judgement. Since it has been honoured with your sanction, I have re-touched it throughout, in hopes of rendering it more worthy of your approbation. In compliance, therefore, with your obliging request, it now ventures, though not without diffidence, to meet the public eye.

As the naval force of Great Britain is computed to consist of not less than eight hundred ships of war; while her commercial fleets, and trading vessels of various denominations, surpass those of all other nations, disasters at sea, particularly at this juncture, are most seriously to be deprecated. So great, indeed, is the aggregate value of her ships, with their respective cargoes and merchandise, that it can hardly be estimated. Great as it is, however, it can bear no competition with the lives of British seamen on board; yet between them and a watery grave is hourly interposed, only a thin partition of brittle planks!

The present subject, therefore, involving the lives of thousands of our fellow-subjects, and property to an amount almost incalculable, is perhaps one of the most momentous that can, at this time, engage our attention. When, under the signature of a Life Director, I first submitted this question to your consideration, as perfectly congenial to your life-saving institution, it was chiefly with a view to call forth the abilities of ingenious writers and experienced navigators. If the present Essay should ultimately contribute to so important a purpose, by opening a new path of inquiry, I shall think the labour well bestowed.

“_Vice fungar cotis._”

No philosophical work written expressly on shipwreck having yet reached my notice, the subject to me, appears to be novel, and in a manner untouched.[1] The following sketch, undertaken amidst a variety of avocations, though much short of what I could wish, is yet the best I could produce in so short a time, and with so few materials.

Footnote 1:

In contriving various means of forming a line of communication with the shore, that some of the methods proposed by me may have occurred to others, is not improbable, as has been hinted respecting Mr. Bell’s experiment. Had the anonymous writer in a late Morning Chronicle, who claims it as the discovery of another anonymous writer, and published eight years ago in an Anonymous French Journal, brought forth any thing MORE NEW or MORE PRACTICABLE than what originally appeared in this Essay, when read before the Society in March last, it would assuredly have afforded me much pleasure to have announced it.

But who the original inventor is, if not Mr. Bell, or in which of the numerous French Journals the supposed discovery is recorded, “this _deponent saieth not_.” Therefore,

——“_Si quid novisti rectius istis, Candidus imperti, si non his utere mecum._”

Doubtless the Author may be accused of rashness, in thus venturing out of his native element, and in quitting, at once, _terra firma_, to encounter the dangers of the deep, and to brave the still more stormy sea—of criticism!

Presuming, however, on your wonted candor, that you, my Lords of the Admiralty (in other words, my SUPREME JUDGES), will not be extreme to mark what may seem amiss, I here cheerfully submit to your inspection, my logbook, charts, and such implements as appear necessary to render sea-voyages less perilous, and, in case of shipwreck, to save the lives and property of unfortunate mariners in the hour of distress.

GENERAL CONTENTS.

Page

Shipwreck,—its frequency near shore 3

—— particularly near capes and promontories 6

—— Recent instances affording useful hints for future navigators respecting various expedients against thirst, famine, want of water 9

—— Cautions in the treatment 11

—— Accidental causes of shipwreck 12

—— Why influenced by local situations 13

Hurricanes,—prognostic signs of 14

Shipwreck, more often caused by negligence 15

—— Hints for prevention, by new improvements 16

—— by boats incapable of upsetting 18

—— the Shields life-boat, its pre-eminence 20

—— by improved nautical implements 22

—— by curious inventions by foreigners 30

—— by vigilance and intrepidity of the captain 32

—— by precautions against storms 33

—— laws respecting wrecks, and to prevent plunder 36

—— the forming a line of communication with the shore, an important object 38

—— How best accomplished 40

—— —— by life-boat, projectile forces, &c. 39

—— by impervious air-vessels, a new invention 44

Swimming and Diving, their importance 47

Objection from Human beings swept away by accidents 49

Waste of life,—how reconciled to the laws of the universe,—whether the mere preservation of the species be only intended 50

Whether swimming ought not to constitute an essential branch of national education ib.

Swimming and diving, their additional advantages 51

Asylum for shipwrecked mariners 53

—— whether that at Bamborough castle does not afford an excellent model 56

—— hints for establishing such institutions on a smaller scale 59

—— in situations peculiarly dangerous 60

Conclusion 61

[Illustration: [Fleuron]]

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE FREQUENCY OF SHIPWRECKS, PARTICULARLY NEAR SHORE. ILLUSTRATED BY SOME LATE MELANCHOLY EVENTS.

Of all the heavy afflictions incident to a seafaring-life, shipwreck is the most disastrous. For what can afford a more affecting spectacle than those poor way-worn mariners, who, on their joyful return from a long voyage to the bosom of their families, are unhappily cast away at the very mouth of the harbour! To behold them, in this perilous situation, conflicting with the merciless waves; clinging to the broken planks, or with uplifted hands and piercing shrieks imploring aid with all the eloquence of ineffable woe! among the crowd of spectators on the beach, see the aged parent, the tender wife, and the helpless children of the distressed sufferers, bathed in tears, and, in the anguish of their souls, pouring forth their unavailing cries and supplications! at length exhausted with ineffectual strugglings, the devoted victims in the agony of despair, are forced to yield to the all-conquering element, and, while casting their last look on the shore, are suddenly overwhelmed in one common undistinguished grave!

Now, this is no feigned picture of imaginary distress, but the genuine recital of a mournful event, which, alas! is too often realised on the British coasts!

An affecting instance of this nature happened not long ago, in open day, and in the face of at least a hundred spectators, to two vessels belonging to Cardigan Bay, which, during a storm, were unfortunately wrecked near the coast. One of them, being in a _decayed_ state, sunk within fifty yards of shore, where the crew, being instantly cast on a sand bank, miraculously escaped. But the miserable sufferers in the other vessel, eleven in number, being unable to keep their hold, whilst immense billows broke over them, were washed off one by one, until only one man was left, who tenaciously kept his seat for two hours after his unfortunate companions, when a prodigious wave dashed the wreck to the shore, where it unhappily struck against a rock which forced him back into the foaming surge, and he was seen no more!

_Second Case of Shipwreck near Shore._

According to an extract of a letter from Basseterre, of Aug. 3, 1792, the ship Britannia, captain Woodyear, with thirty persons, including two women and a child on board, struck on the bar near shore, and soon broke to pieces, leaving the captain with the female passengers and four men on the wreck; all the rest being washed off, except a few who escaped by swimming.

A boat repeatedly attempted to get off to their assistance, but in vain. The captain having exerted every nerve to save the remaining sufferers, particularly the women and child, was at length so completely exhausted as to be utterly unable to prevent their falling a prey to the devouring waves. He, together with his remaining companions, soon underwent the same unhappy fate!

The gallant captain might have swam on shore with his brother, but observed, that his quitting the ship would dispirit his people, and that he could not think of leaving them, particularly the poor women and child, in so perilous a situation. Thus did he nobly sacrifice his own life in a fruitless effort to preserve theirs!

The lamentations of the people on shore most forcibly expressed their sentiments on this truly distressing event. To increase the horrors of the scene, the brothers and relations of the unfortunate captain were among the spectators; while Mrs. Moore, one of the passengers, was also seen with her child in her lap, and clinging to her other son and her brother, wringing her hands in the wild agony of despair, while her disconsolate friends on land were unable to afford them the smallest assistance! Next morning the beach was covered with dead bodies that had been cast on shore in the night!

Adieu! ye sons of dire mishap, adieu! Your toils, and pains, and dangers, are no more; The tempest now shall howl unheard by you, While Ocean smites in vain the trembling shore[2].

Footnote 2:

See the “Shipwreck,” a pathetic poem, written _con amore_ by the ingenious captain Falconer, who, having narrowly escaped from a similar disaster, paints the affecting scene from nature.

_Attended with peculiar circumstances._

Captain M‘Kay, in a late pamphlet addressed to his father, gives some interesting particulars respecting the shipwreck of the Juno, of which he was the second officer. The ship, he remarks, was _crazy_, and greatly out of repair, before she set out from Rangoon, bound to Madras. This circumstance appears to have been the source of their subsequent misfortunes. For the vessel, being unequal to sustain the violence of the storm which overtook them on their voyage, became leaky, and was cast away on the coast; when the principal part of the crew miserably perished. Out of seventy-two persons on board, Captain M‘Kay, with thirteen companions, only survived. But, strange to relate (for the fact, were it not so well attested, would appear almost incredible), this unhappy remnant of the crew, being left on the wreck, subsisted not less than twenty-three days without food!

In describing their unparalleled sufferings during this forlorn situation, Captain M‘Kay observes, that the sense of hunger was very tormenting till the fifth day, when it gave way to the still more distressing sensation of extreme thirst. These painful sensations, however, were greatly mitigated whenever rain fell copiously, and wet them through their clothes. But, finding the relief only temporary, he had recourse to such other expedients as were at hand.—Sea-water drank liberally, though it operated as a severe purgative, yet afforded considerable refreshment. He next chewed pieces of lead, procured from fragments of the wreck, which, by producing a fresh flow of saliva, alleviated the intense thirst. To silence the cravings arising from that aching void produced by long fasting, and which nothing but nutritious food can fully satisfy, he tried the experiment of forcibly compressing the region of the stomach with both hands, which always afforded immediate relief. Hardened and benumbed with their sufferings, his unhappy comrades seemed to feel very little concern or sympathy one for another.

The idea every now and then of hearing a gun, or seeing a sail, when found only to be an illusion, never failed to embitter their distress. When they gave up life as utterly lost, they expressed less anguish; a state of cruel suspense being more painful than absolute despair.

The preceding melancholy cases of shipwreck are selected from several others, if possible, still more deplorable; over which, however, to spare the sympathetic feelings of the humane Reader, I shall draw the friendly veil. These already related are sufficient to suggest a variety of reflections; and it seemed necessary to give them in detail, as they may afford some useful inferences for the benefit of future navigators.

It appears then, in conformity to what has been already observed, that accidents from shipwreck happen most frequently near shore; and that communication between the distressed vessel and the coast being cut off, prevents that timely aid which might otherwise be administered.

2. That the crazy state of a ship, previous to the voyage, must inevitably increase the danger, and hasten on the fatal catastrophe.

3. That sailors expert in the art of swimming frequently escape, while their helpless companions miserably perish.

4. That life may sometimes be supported without food the space of twenty-three days; a much longer period than is commonly supposed, and which can only be explained on the principle of absorption. Hence the refreshment experienced by Captain M‘Kay and his companions from their bodies being wet with rain. Hence also the relief which Captain Bligh and his men, in their late surprizing voyage, obtained, not only from exposure to rain, but also from immersing their clothes in the sea.

The cause of this singular effect seems to be this: The innumerable lymphatic ducts, opening every where over the whole surface of the skin, exert their absorbent power in proportion to the demand. Here, the sailors’ bodies being exhausted by long fasting, and nature reduced to her _dernier_ resource, the lymphatic system imbibed with avidity the water, but rejected the salt; otherwise the extreme thirst, instead of being mitigated, would have been greatly increased.

5. It further appears, from Captain M‘Kay’s observation, that the painful sensation of extreme hunger may be greatly alleviated by compressing the region of the stomach.

6. That this distressing symptom goes off about the fifth day, and gives way to intense thirst, which, in its turn, may also be mitigated by chewing lead, as practised by sailors, in hot climates, who assuage their thirst by rolling in their mouths a leaden bullet. The poisonous quality of the metal, however, renders this a doubtful expedient. To allay thirst, and support the system, Dr. Franklin, with more propriety, had recourse to bathing in sea-water several hours every day, and observed that, however thirsty he was before immersion, he never continued so afterwards: nor did he ever perceive in his mouth any taste of saltness.

In case of extreme scarcity of fresh water, in long voyages, sailors, he remarks, might derive similar advantage by dipping their wearing apparel in the sea, and that without the least danger of cold.

7. That life may be protracted many weeks by mere water alone, will appear less wonderful when it is considered, that water consists of vital and inflammable air, and most probably undergoes a decomposition in the human frame; that its vital portion renews and invigorates the living principle, while its inflammable part supplies nutrition. For it can scarcely be doubted, that marine reptiles and fishes, that can subsist on water alone, are endowed with a power of decomposing it, and converting the inflammable part to their nourishment.

Hence, the swarms of insects in hot climates where inflammable air is copiously generated from putrid substances. Like plants, they thrive amidst putrefaction; convert the noxious effluvia into sustenance; and reject the vital air destined to sustain breathing animals. Were it not for this wise provision, the pernicious effluvia would, in such climates, prove a fruitful source of pestilence, and render a large portion of the globe uninhabitable.

On emergencies, therefore, when fresh water is wanting, sea-water, under proper management, may afford a better substitute than is generally imagined.

Here it deserves notice, that water may be preserved sweet, during the longest voyage, by the following simple process. Having filled the cask with water in which quick-lime is quenched, let it stand till the inside of the cask has acquired a thin coat of lime; then rinse out the cask, and re-fill it with fresh water for the voyage, adding a few handfuls of recent charcoal dust, a portion of which may be also kept for use in a bottle tight-corked. It not only preserves water sweet, but even restores putrid or corrupt water, which only requires afterwards to be filtered. This, and all other extraneous substances contained in water, not by _solution_, but _diffussion_ only, may be most expeditiously separated by Mr. Peacock’s Patent Machine, which has been found, by experiment, to filter 720 gallons of water in twenty-four hours, divesting it of all such accidental impurities. This invention promises much utility to persons by land, as well as by sea, and may be seen at the Surveyor’s Office, Guildhall, London.

8. To prevent in future voyages the terrible calamity of famine at sea, portable soup and farinaceous vegetables ought to constitute part of the ship’s provisions. To assuage the sensation of hunger, and enable the body to bear long fasting, oleaginous substances are well adapted, as beef and mutton suet, rich cheese, fresh butter, sweet almonds, also mucilaginous substances, as salop, tapioca, and particularly gum arabic, which, according to M. Hasselquist, supported more than one thousand persons in the desarts of Arabia, who, being left destitute of other provisions, subsisted upon it solely during the space of two months.

9. The treatment of shipwrecked mariners when nearly exhausted by cold and hunger, demands no small circumspection. At first they loath the sight of meat; but on a sudden the appetite grows voracious, and prompts them to devour more food than the digestive organs can assimilate. Their native warmth also, being greatly impaired, should be very gradually restored by a tepid bath; and the food should consist of new milk, barley-water, or weak broth, in very small quantity, which, in this state of more than infantile debility, will be found sufficiently powerful; avoiding, at the same time, the common error of pouring down wine, spirits, or other stimulating cordials, which, instead of supporting life, too often exhaust the feeble remnant of vitality[3].

Footnote 3:

See Dr. Percival’s affecting narrative of the sufferings of a collier, who was confined seven days in a coal-pit without sustenance. Memoirs of the Philosophical Society of Manchester, vol. II. p. 467.

CAUSES OF STORMS AND SHIPWRECKS—_whether influenced by local circumstances_.—

The most obvious cause of shipwreck, according to the language of seamen, is a heavy gale of wind with a lee shore.

Though the tides are produced by the joint influence of the sun and moon, the stormy waves depend wholly on winds of the higher order. Air possesses not only a chemical but mechanical attraction for water, superior to that which obtains between the component parts of the latter. When air, therefore, rapidly sweeps along the surface of water, it forcibly seizes the upper stratum, and raises it aloft in a surprizing manner, until the water, by its superior gravity, suddenly recovers its level. This powerful action and reaction between the contending elements constitutes a sea storm, which, according to its violence, raises the billows from twelve to twenty feet, sometimes to a much greater altitude, as in tornadoes and hurricanes, when the sea (as the sailors express it) runs mountains high.

Now, hurricanes may proceed from local rarefaction, or whatever suddenly disturbs the equilibrium of the atmosphere, but principally from an accumulation of the electrical fluid, which has a powerful tendency towards pointed or angular bodies to restore the balance. Hence, perhaps, it is, that lofty promontories, high cliffs, and rocky projecting shores, are so often infested with violent storms, while the main sea remains calm and unruffled. In such situations, the effects of the warring elements are often dreadful, and the disasters produced amongst the neighbouring vessels truly deplorable.

Of a tempest at sea, Thompson gives the following sublime and picturesque description:

“Then comes the Father of the Tempest forth Wrapt in black glooms—— Lash’d into foam, the fierce conflicting brine Seems o’er a thousand raging waves to burn; Mean time, the mountain billows to the clouds In direful tumult swell’d—surge after surge, Burst into chaos, with tremendous roar!

· · · · ·

They boil and wheel and foam and thunder thro’ And anchor’d navies from their station drive!”

Along the British and other neighbouring coasts, the equinoctial storms are generally the most formidable. As these are to be expected at their respective seasons, all prudent navigators ought to provide against their periodical return.

In tropical climates, and along the abrupt coasts of the Leeward Islands, the most violent hurricanes prevail between the 25th of July and the latter end of September, the wind blowing from the N. or N. W. in direct opposition to the trade winds.

_Prognostic signs of a Hurricane._

The native Carribees of St. Dominica and St. Vincent, from long observation, can with surprizing accuracy foretell the approach of the hurricane ten or twelve days before it arrives,—a circumstance of no small moment to inexperienced navigators.

All hurricanes, they observe, happen about the period of the lunations, particularly at full moon, and may be predicted from the following signs:

1st. The sun exhibits a blood-like redness.—The moon surrounded with a halo, the stars with a bur, and seem larger than usual.—The sky, towards the N. W. dark and gloomy.—Wells and deep caverns send forth a hollow sound.—The sea, an unusual rank odor.—Mists disappear on the tops of mountains—a calm succeeds—when on a sudden the hurricane bursts forth with incredible impetuosity, twists trees asunder, dismasts ships, and drives them a-shore, sometimes above twenty yards beyond the water-mark!

As soon as the wind veers from N. W. to E. or S. E. the hurricane ceases; yet, what is remarkable, the raging of the waves continues and even increases in proportion to the _momentum_ of the impulse already acquired, till at length, the tempest having spent its fury, the billows subside, and the sea gradually resumes its former tranquillity. Hence may be also understood, why the tide continues to flow at least forty-eight hours after the full and change; its altitude at Bristol often amounting to forty-seven feet, or upwards.