Part 2

Besides tempests at sea, including hurricanes, thunder storms, and water-spouts, there are still other causes which too often produce shipwreck.

Sea-faring men, inured to hardships, and taught by example to despise dangers, are often totally regardless of forecast, and even of the necessary means of self-preservation. To unpardonable negligence, or fool-hardiness, therefore, rather than to unavoidable misfortune, may many of their disasters be justly imputed. To what else can be attributed the entire loss of the Royal George, and of the Haswell, with their respective companies? or of the late tremendous explosion of the La Coquille? and other still more recent disasters?

From the master down to the common tar, the same _nonchallence_, the same contempt of danger, frequently pervades the whole crew. Thus, when the master embarks on board a decayed leaky vessel unfit to bear stress of weather; when the sleepy pilot, dozing at the helm, runs the ship on some noted rock or lee-shore; or, when the drunken sailor, with a lighted candle, carelessly approaches too near a cask of spirits, or gunpowder; what in the name of wonder can be expected but inevitable ruin! Under such management, can we be surprised that fatal accidents befal so many of our trading vessels, not only in long voyages, but even in making a short trip across the channel? It was by a very different conduct, guided by prudence and marked by unremitting attention, that Captain Cook, and other expert circum-navigators, performed their successful voyages round the globe; and that Captain Bligh, in an open boat amidst frequent storms, traversed the great Pacific Ocean.

_Hints for improving naval architecture.—For rendering boats incapable of upsetting or sinking.—The Life-Boat at Shields—its singular utility._

Though shipwreck, under certain circumstances, perhaps, cannot by any human means be prevented; yet there seems reason to hope it may, in future, be rendered less frequent and less fatal, by observing the subsequent precautions.

1. Respecting the state of the ship.

2. The conduct of the commander.

1st. From late discoveries respecting floating bodies, and a comparative view of the ships of different nations, the board of naval architecture will, it is hoped, be enabled to suggest many useful improvements in the construction of all kinds of vessels, and by well conducted experiments to reduce the art of ship-building to a more regular science.

In the interim, let ships of every denomination, previous to the intended voyage, undergo a more strict examination by competent and impartial judges, that such as are materially damaged or worn out be condemned, and none permitted to sail unless they can be safely warranted.

2dly. Let tall-masted vessels and ships of burthen be well armed with electrical conductors. For though it be beyond human power to arrest the rapid lightning in its flight, yet reason, enlightened by experimental philosophy, has taught us how to divest it of a considerable part of its terrors, by the use of metallic rods. But, in order to prevent their being melted by the lightning, let a pointed piece of black lead be inserted at their tops, projecting about two inches above the metallic sockets; and to guard them against rust, which would destroy their conducting power, let the rods be sheathed with tin or copper.

3dly. To render ships more durable with less expence of timber, it has been lately recommended, by Mr. Bosquet, to fill up all the void spaces between the planks, lining, and timbers, with a composition of melted pitch, tar, and glue, adding a certain quantity of cork-shavings and charcoal dust. This not only prevents rats harbouring in the cavities, but also the accumulation of bilge water and foul air, so highly injurious to mariners. Ships thus fortified by his patent invention, being rendered sound and durable, would, he imagines, rarely be subject to leakage or foundering at sea[4].

Footnote 4:

The Specification of the invention may be seen in the Repertory of Arts, Vol. IX. p. 381.

In the construction of ships, for safety as well as swiftness, Sir George Shee advises to add to their length and width, and to diminish considerably their height. By reversing this, and by crowding too much sail, light vessels and pleasure barges become unfit to encounter sudden gusts of wind, and are frequently upset.

4thly. To prevent accidents of this nature, Mr. Miller of Dalswinton, in his specification of a patent invention of a vessel for passengers or parties of pleasure, incapable of being upset, proposes his flat-bottomed boat, which draws very little water. It moves with wheels in the water, wrought by capstans; roomy between decks for the accommodation of numerous passengers, and requires no pumps[5].

Footnote 5:

Repertory, Vol. VI.

The seamen of Trinity House, at Leith, recommend, for safety, a boat carrying more ballast than necessary for ordinary sailing; over the ballast, bags filled with cork, rising higher than the gunnels; the whole properly secured by sailcloth and ropes. By this contrivance, they alledge, that all persons on board, or even others holding by the boat; will be carried safe through the most stormy breakers. On similar principles, and to answer the same end, other boats have been constructed by ingenious persons in America, in Italy, and in Holland. The patent boat of Mr. Lukin, coachmaker, in London, which, we are told, can neither overset, nor sink, though filled with water, is formed with projecting gunnales, sloping from the top, armed with cork; and secured with leather or tin. Of which a more full description is given in the “Repertory of Arts,” vol. III. p. 10.

Count Berchtold, of Tuscany, well known for his zeal in the cause of humanity, not long ago presented to the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, in London, a curious model of a boat, with necessary apparatus for assisting persons in danger of drowning, by the breaking of ice, which may be viewed at the Society’s rooms, in the Adelphi, by application to the secretary.

The Greenlanders have invented a boat of a singular construction, resembling a huge inflated bladder, inveloped with seal skins, and rendered water-proof, in which they can sit at ease, while they ply their oars, and thus encounter their stormy seas in perfect safety. One of these boats may be seen in the British Museum; or an accurate description with an engraving, in the first volume of Crantz’s History of Greenland.

_The_ LIFE-BOAT, _at Shields.—Its singular Utility evinced by repeated Trials._—

This noted boat, by which, within the course of a few years, many lives and much property have been saved, was built by Mr. Greathead, an able ship-builder, and generously presented to the inhabitants of South Shields by his Grace the Duke of Northumberland, by whose beneficence North Shields has also since been supplied with a boat of a similar construction.

Mr. Fairless, who furnished some useful hints respecting the original plan, describes the vessel “as measuring 30 feet by 10; resembling, in form, a common Greenland boat, only flatter in the bottom. The weight of cork employed in the construction is about 7 _cwt_, with which the boat is lined, inside and outside of the gunnales, two feet in breadth; the seats being also filled with the same: rowed by ten men, double-banked, and steered by one at each end with oars, being alike at both ends, and with a contrivance to prevent sinking in the sand.

“She draws very little water, and can carry twenty persons, even when full of water. Being water-proof, and rendered buoyant by cork, she keeps afloat, preserving her equilibrium without danger of oversetting, and is able to contend against the most tremendous sea, having never in any one instance yet failed of conveying a distressed ship’s crew into safety.

“In going off with her, in the highest seas and broken water, the men testify no dread; and, though cork jackets were provided for them, yet such is their confidence in the boat, that they now refuse to use them.

“Indeed, she has surprised every intelligent seaman that has seen her contend with the boisterous waves. Any farther description I can give,” adds Mr. Fairless, “will not be equal to a view of the model kept at Northumberland House, in London, which, I make no doubt, you may see. Such a vessel ought to be provided with high wheels, to convey it to the place where it is immediately wanted.

“The boat complete, and copper-nailed, cost about 150_l._” But, in the moment of distress, what shipwrecked mariner would not think this a cheap purchase, and pronounce the value of such a boat as truly inestimable!

_Other late discoveries for the prevention of Shipwreck, and preservation of Mariners._

[_From American and Batavian correspondence._]

1. An expert American seaman recommends to mariners the experiment of hanging out a line of cable over the stern of a small vessel, or boat, in a rough sea, as this appendage serves to make a long wake, and will be found to enable the vessel (according to the sea term) to live much longer in a heavy gale. Little danger, he observes, is to be apprehended from a long sweeping swell of the sea; the mischief generally arises from overhanging surges, which at once break in and overwhelm the vessel. Having often experienced, in stormy weather, the beneficial effects of a long coil of rope fixed to a flat piece of wood, and appended to vessels, he thence endeavours to explain the extraordinary efficacy of the tow-line in balancing the ship, and lowering the high-swelling surge.

2. From the Transactions of the Philosophical Society, at Philadelphia, we learn, that Mr. Hopkinson has invented an instrument, with a graduated tube, which, from the difference of specific gravity between oil and water, by its rise and fall, accurately measures the ship’s progress. Also, a curious spring block, by which sailing is greatly expedited; for which useful invention he obtained the Society’s gold medal.

3. Mr. Gearson, of York-town, Pennsilvania, has lately obtained a patent for an important invention, by means of which, we are informed, that a vessel whose bottom is so shattered, that the ordinary pumps could not, for one hour, prevent her sinking, will be effectually kept buoyant; and, though under a press of sail, be incapable of being overset by the heaviest gale.

4. A gentleman of Rotterdam has invented a new floating machine, which, though small, is capable of holding four men commodiously, and may be enlarged sufficiently to accommodate fifty, if required. So curious is its construction, we are told, as to enable it to withstand the utmost fury of the winds and seas. It can neither overset, nor sink, and may therefore, in the most stormy weather, be steered whatever course the pilot shall see necessary. These last may be considered as different modifications of the life-boat, constructed with the same humane views, though probably without any communication between the respective artists. Were packet-boats destined to convey important dispatches thus constructed, many unfortunate accidents might be prevented.

The comparative value of these and other laudable inventions, whether produced by foreigners, or our own countrymen, must rest with their ingenious authors, at least, till their respective merits be fully ascertained by actual experiment. Were models of every new and useful contrivance, of this nature, consigned to the board of Naval Architecture, for public inspection, the display of such an assemblage of mechanism would excite emulation, and the result of satisfactory trials, if communicated from time to time, might prove highly important to the maritime world.

_To ascertain the ship’s burthen._

5. It is certain, that a ship will carry a weight equal to that of a quantity of water, of the same bulk with itself, deducting, however, the weight of metal employed in its construction; for the wood is nearly of the same weight with water. Were it not for the iron, or other metal, a ship might float though full of water. However it be loaded, therefore, it will not entirely sink as long as the weight of its cargo is less than that of an equal bulk of water.

Now, to ascertain this, the capacity of the ship must be measured. Suppose it to be 1000 cubical feet, multiply that by 73 pounds, the average weight of a cubical foot of sea-water (taken at a proper distance from shore), which gives in the product 73,000 pounds for the weight of a bulk of water equal to that of the ship, the burthen of the ship being 73,000 pounds, or 36 ton and a half, reckoning a ton 2000 pounds, that being the weight of a ton of sea-water. If the cargo exceeds 36 ton and half, the ship will sink; if just 73,000 pounds, she will swim, though very deep in the water, and on the very point of sinking. And though she may float at sea, she will sink on entering the mouth of a river; fresh water being specifically lighter than sea-water, and in the proportion of about 63 to 73.

Previous to the voyage, therefore, the ship’s burthen ought to be more carefully ascertained than, perhaps, raw inexperienced navigators have hitherto imagined.

_The ship’s pumps._

6. The pumps ought to be formed on the most approved plan, and kept in perfect order. Some prefer Mr. Fulton’s patent pump, worked by a cylinder, and described in the Repertory of Arts, vol. III.

Mr. Clarke, Surgeon, at Sunderland, proposes an easier and more expeditious method of working the pumps, by means of a curved lever, which acts by an easy motion of the body, as in rowing. It has been found, on trial, to deliver twice the quantity of water, and with far less labour, than that with the brake—a circumstance of no small consequence, especially when seamen are almost worn out with sickness or fatigue[6].

Footnote 6:

See Repertory, Vol. IX.

Mr. Dearborn, an ingenious American mechanic, has accomplished a still farther improvement, by constructing a new machine to answer the double purpose of a pump and a fire-engine[7].

Footnote 7:

Ibid. Vol. III.

Mr. Taylor, of Southampton, we are credibly informed, has invented a ship pump, which, in point of simplicity and ingenuity, surpasses all others, and bids fair to supersede them in the British navy.

_Ship’s compass._

7. The magnetic power of the mariner’s compass is liable to be disturbed by various accidents, as the rolling of the ship in a rough sea, the explosion of the great guns, and particularly lightning. Nay, even the electricity of the glass cover, when excited by the slightest accidental friction, is sufficient to alter its direction; but this can be soon remedied by wetting the glass, which carries off the electricity. In thunder storms at sea, the polarity of the needle has sometimes been suddenly reversed, and irreparably damaged, by the North and South points changing their station, occasioning, at the same time, dangerous errors. By this accident, a ship has been known to take a retrograde course, and steer above 100 leagues by a needle, the polarity of which had thus been totally changed[8].

Footnote 8:

Phil. Trans. Abridged, by Lowthorp, vol. II. p. 180.

The compass, though long known, was imperfect and liable to many inconveniencies, till at length, by the ingenuity of Dr. Knight, it was greatly improved; and has since undergone a further emendation by Mr. Smeaton. The improvement consists in the shape and temper of the needle; in the discovery of proper means for restoring the loss of magnetism in a voyage; and, finally, in rendering it less subject to be influenced by the motions of the ship. These contrivances, though found too delicate always to sustain with impunity the rude shocks of a tempestuous sea, or the more violent stroke of lightning, are, however, the best that have been yet discovered. Therefore, as this improved compass is allowed to be superior to others, and is now generally used in the royal navy, it ought certainly to be provided for all merchant ships, particularly on long voyages.

_Ship’s Rudder._

8. The power of the rudder being reducible to that of the lever, and oblique action of the water, the most advantageous angle made by the helm from the keel, mathematicians have fixed at 54° 44′. Euler recommends an obliquity somewhat less; and establishes this rule, that an obliquity of 48° will, in general, produce the most powerful effect; though experience testifies, that a ship steers tolerably well when the rudder makes an angle of only 35°.

A convenient substitute for the loss of a rudder has been invented by captain Pakenham, for which useful device the Society of Arts presented him with a gold medal. The method, being described at large in the Society’s Transactions, need not be repeated in this place.

_Masts._

9. To the mechanical genius of captain Pakenham, the navy is also indebted for an easy, cheap, and expeditious, method of restoring a mast, when injured, or decayed, by simply inverting the mast and turning the heel to the head; of which the Society, in the 10th volume of their Transactions, have given a full description, illustrated with an engraving.

The sudden damage which masts frequently sustain from sea-storms and naval engagements, and which, in the ordinary way, require from six to eight weeks to refit, may thus, we are assured, be repaired within forty-eight hours; and that this method is equally applicable to all ships, from a first-rate, to the smallest merchantman—a matter of no small consequence on long voyages, or in time of war.

_Nautical Apparatus._

10. A ship, properly equipped for a long voyage, ought to be provided with a complete set of nautical instruments, including an accurate thermometer, barometer, and time-piece. Also, a life-boat, cork jackets, cords, drags, buoys, and other implements for the prevention of drowning.

_Thermometer._

From the result of three successive voyages from Europe to America, captain Williams, under the direction of Dr. Franklin, found the temperature of the main ocean, out of soundings, at least ten degrees warmer than in shallower water near the coast. Hence the thermometer may serve a new and important purpose in pointing out the near approach to shore; also, in detecting latent rocks, or banks of sand or coral, concealed under water. Is the decrease of temperature owing to these solid bodies acting as conductors, and thus conveying off the heat?

_Nautical Time-piece._

A curious and unsuspected cause of inaccuracy in watches, or time-pieces, has lately been discovered by an ingenious artist, which well deserves notice. The balance, being made of steel, is very liable to acquire a polarity, which disturbs the regularity of its movement, according as the watch happens to be placed North and South, or in the vicinity of a knife, a key, or other steel utensil. On trying a variety of steel balances, by floating them on cork, placed on the surface of water, Mr. Varley could scarcely select one that did not betray some sign of polarity; nor can this be easily prevented, but by substituting a balance of gold, or some other metal. May not this be one reason why that grand _desideratum_, a perfectly correct time-piece for discovering the longitude at sea, has not yet been produced?

To prevent accidents during long voyages, the Transactions of the Royal Society of London suggest many important hints; which, however, for the sake of brevity, must be omitted, by referring the reader to the respective passages, _viz._

1. To preserve vessels from the worm, by a more cheap and durable method than that of sheathing; also, to prevent leakage from the same cause.—See Phil. Trans. vol. VIII. p. 6192.—Vol. XLIII. p. 370.

2. To preserve the health and lives of men crowded in slave ships, and transports, by ventilators, and other means.—Vols. XLIV, and XLVII. p. 211.

3. To measure the ship’s way more correctly than by the log, &c.—Vols. XXXIII, and XXXVIII.

Also, a still later method, with improvements. See Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, vol. II.

_Hints respecting the Conduct of the Captain and his Mates._

Having briefly discussed the principal objects respecting the state of the ship, and the precautions necessary to be taken previous to the voyage, we now proceed humbly to suggest a few hints proper to be observed by the master and his mates.

1. Having provided all the requisites necessary to the complete equipment of the vessel, it becomes the master to use every necessary precaution against disasters, and to be prepared to meet the event whatever it may be.

2. Like the intrepid captain Riou, and the gallant and humane captain Woodyear, he should resolve, in case of distress, to preserve discipline through the whole scene, and to discharge his duty by being the last man to quit the shattered vessel. By thus manfully preserving his authority, good order will be kept up till, possibly, some timely aid may be obtained, or the ship got into harbour. But if in the time of danger he quit his post, from that moment discipline is at an end, anarchy prevails, and ruin ensues.

3. His shipmates, and whole company under his command, in their several departments, must cheerfully obey his orders, and with alacrity give every possible assistance in the management of the vessel, and in affording one another mutual aid.

4. In the critical hour of distress, to prevent the additional danger of strife, or mutiny, let the captain resolve to prevent intoxication. Should this prove impracticable, let him order every cask of spirits to be staved.

5. Dr. Franklin’s experiment of smoothing the rough undulations of a fresh water-lake to the extent of half an acre, by pouring on its surface a small portion of oil, is extremely curious, though its efficacy in calming the waves of a troubled sea, as recorded by Pliny, certainly wants confirmation. By suffering the wind to glide over it, as over a surface of ice, it seems rather calculated to prevent new waves forming, than to controul those already formed.

Nevertheless, Count Bentinck, in the sixty-fourth volume of the Philosophical Transactions, gives a remarkable case, attested by the officers on board, respecting a Dutch East India ship, which was happily preserved in a storm by gradually pouring into the sea a considerable quantity of Olive Oil. Merchant ships, with large cargoes of oil, might easily put this matter to the test. At all events, empty casks, in case of shipwreck, being well secured between decks, the air they contain may, in proportion to the space they occupy, tend to keep the vessel afloat; or, casks bound to rafts may afford seasonable means of saving those persons who cannot swim.

6. In tropical climates, and particularly in the Leeward Islands, the signs already mentioned, which precede the most dreadful hurricanes, several days before their arrival, if duly attended to in time, may enable the master not only to foretell the storm, but to ward off the impending danger. Convinced of this by long observation, that experienced seaman Captain Langford recommends the following precautions: “To keep the ship sailable with store of ballast—ports well barred and caulked—top-masts down—yards a-part laced—doors and windows well secured. Let all ships at anchor quit the road, or they will be driven a-shore. As the storm always begins at North and North-West, till it comes to South-East, when its fury subsides; let them run to the South for ample sea-room, and for drift of _the_ South West, and there wait the event.” Observing these cautions, he providentially weathered out five dreadful hurricanes without the loss of sail, yard, or mast. Other commanders, he adds, who listened to his predictions and followed his advice, likewise escaped damage, and returned safe[9].

Footnote 9:

Phil. Trans. Abr. Vol. II. p. 105.