Chapter 16 of 16 · 6963 words · ~35 min read

CHAPTER VIII

BRAZIL’S EXTERIOR COMMERCE

Studying the commerce of Brazil with the rest of the world, following the remarkable variations in amount of export of certain articles, and the no less remarkable fluctuation in price of others, one comes at last to the conclusion that Brazilian trade has never had a normal year. Almost every twelve months has seen changes taking place which are not the result, in most cases, of the growth, to be expected, along definite lines; influences unforeseen have more than once knocked the bottom out of certain prosperous businesses, production has been affected by remote causes, or stimulated by others as little to be normally reckoned upon. The history of Brazilian exterior commerce, which is largely the history of her exports since purchases depend upon income, shows some of the most sensational transferences of prosperity from one region and industry to another, oddest appearances and disappearances of industries, falls and rises of prices, in commercial records.

To realize something of this it is only necessary to think of the dominance of the northern promontory, in colonial days, when sugar was the great Brazilian staple together with dyewood, and of the total disappearance of the latter—until the last year—from consideration; of the once-feverish gold industry, which shipped over a thousand tons of the refined metal in its hey-day, employing an army of people, and which has now vanished, with the exception of the operations of two British-owned companies; of the obliteration of Brazil’s fame as a diamond producer after the discovery of the blue-clay deposits of Kimberley; of the rise of the once-neglected and uncolonized south to the position of “leader” section of the country with its enormous coffee production, built up during the last forty years; of the phenomena of the rubber export of the extreme north, as well as the new developments in Brazilian business appearing on the horizon, great in potentiality, during the war period, and which may bring Brazil into the front rank of countries exporting chilled beef and producing manganese ore. Few countries on the active list have seen such revolutions in industry; they have been largely due to the variety of Brazilian regions, and they will in all probability be repeated while Brazil opens her great expanses of virgin prairies, forests, and mineral-saturated hills.

The following figures show that between 1915 and 1920, Brazil’s exterior commerce was nearly equal in value to that of the previous ten years:

_Ten-year _Total _Total _Relation _Average Period_ Importation Exportation of Imports Value of Values_ Values_ to Milreis Exports_ in Pence_ 1846–1855 737,720 contos 691,740 contos 106.6% 27 ¹⁄₁₆ 1856–1865 1,228,171 „ 1,225,563 „ 100.2% 26 ⁹⁄₃₂ 1866–1875 1,551,630 „ 1,902,331 „ 81.5% 21 ⁹⁄₁₆ 1876–1885 1,768,564 „ 1,969,515 „ 89.8% 19 ³¹⁄₃₂ 1886–1895 3,267,650 „ 4,073,764 „ 80.2% 18 ³⁄₁₆ 1896–1905 4,856,634 „ 7,324,009 „ 66.3% 11 ³⁵⁄₆₄ 1906–1915 6,331,487 „ 8,115,492 „ 78 % 14 ³⁹⁄₆₄ 1916–1920[21] 6,063,000 „ 7,397,300 „ 81.5% 13 ¹¹⁄₂₅

These figures show one or two points clearly—first, the vitality of Brazil, for as one industry has waned another has waxed, exportation values steadily showing increases in spite of the caprices of fortune; it is also plain that for the last fifty years Brazil has exported more than she has imported. In war years, this excess of exports was very much more accentuated, but, although this balance is useful in helping to steady exchange, to pay debts abroad, and to put money into shippers’ and producers’ pockets, it has the effect, when imports are greatly curtailed, of starving the Federal Government, whose revenues are mainly dependent upon import taxes.

The famous “nine principal articles” of Brazilian export were coffee, cotton, sugar, rubber, cacao, hides (of cattle), skins (of goats and sheep), tobacco, and matte (“Paraguay tea”) up to 1916. Other items which displayed marked rises up to 1918 were lard, rice, Brazil nuts, carnauba wax, manganese ore, precious and semi-precious stones, and chilled or frozen beef. Prosperity over all Brazil depends much more upon volume and variety of goods exported than upon prices, for while soaring values put large profits into the hands of the few, great volumes of products mean employment for the field labourer or collector, for transportation companies, and a host of intermediaries. In addition to increased prices, the actual volume of Brazilian exports was larger in the five years 1916–1920, rising from seven million tons in 1911–1915 to nearly ten million tons. This prosperity was due to war calls, several new items appearing on the 1916–20 lists on page 319.

_1915_ _1914_ _1913_ _1912_ _1911_ Coffee 17,061,000 11,270,000 13,267,000 12,080,000 11,258,000 bags Matte 75,885 59,354 65,415 62,880 61,834 tons Rubber 35,165 33,531 36,232 42,286 36,547 „ Sugar 59,074 31,860 5,367 4,772 36,208 „ Cacao 44,980 40,767 29,759 30,492 34,994 „ Hides 38,324 31,442 35,075 36,255 31,832 „ Tobacco 27,096 26,980 29,388 24,706 18,489 „ Cotton 5,228 30,434 37,424 16,774 14,650 „ Skins 4,578 2,487 3,232 3,189 2,798 „

_1920_ _1919_ _1918_ _1917_ _1916_ Coffee 11,525,000 12,963,000 7,433,000 10,606,000 13,039,000 bags Matte 90,686 90,200 72,781 65,431 76,777 metric tons Rubber 22,876 32,213 22,211 31,590 28,865 „ Sugar 109,141 69,429 115,634 138,159 54,438 „ Cacao 54,419 62,584 41,865 55,622 43,720 „ Tobacco (leaf) 30,562 42,575 29,011 25,282 21,021 „ Cotton (raw) 24,696 12,153 2,594 5,941 1,071 „ Cotton seed 23,564 22,649 42 22,882 11,762 „ Rice 134,554 28,423 27,916 44,639 1,315 „ Mandioca Flour 8,660 21,834 65,322 18,745 5,370 „ Beans 23,000 58,607 70,914 93,536 45,817 „ Brazil Nuts 9,279 24,998 6,750 16,057 9,882 „ Hard Woods 125,394 103,824 179,799 64,264 82,816 „ Manganese 453,737 205,725 393,388 532,855 503,130 „ Meat 63,600 54,094 60,509 66,452 33,661 „ Lard 11,166 20,028 13,270 10,235 3 „ Hides 37,265 56,788 45,584 39,912 53,511 „ Tinned Meat 1,649 25,398 17,223 6,552 856 „ Skins 3,966 5,166 2,215 3,046 3,840 „

The preponderance today of São Paulo as a producer state is shown by her shipment values—465,212 contos out of the total exports, or about forty-six per cent of Brazilian sales. Next in values come the sales of Minas Geraes, worth 221,000 contos, and Rio de Janeiro state, with about 176,000 contos; Bahia is fourth, with exports worth over 102,000 contos; Pará and Amazonas follow with about 70,000 and 64,000 contos respectively; Paraná, 33,565 contos; Espirito Santo, nearly 30,000; and Pernambuco, with 22,600 contos, are next, followed by Ceará, shipping nearly 19,000 contos’ worth of goods, to Rio Grande do Sul, with sales worth almost 16,000 contos; the only other state shipping over 10,000 contos’ worth of goods is Maranhão.

The United States has been for many years the greatest single purchaser of Brazilian materials, generally taking rather more than one-third of all exports, Europe taking nearly all the rest, with South America also buying an appreciable share, amounting to about five per cent of the total. The coffee trade is that in which the United States is most largely concerned: for the last six years Brazilian exports of coffee have averaged over fourteen million bags, and of this the United States has been taking about one-third, Germany, Austria and the Netherlands accounting for another third, France taking from one to two million bags, and the rest of Europe absorbing the remainder. The United States, purchaser of a billion dollars of tropical and sub-tropical products in 1915–16, is an eager taker of Brazilian hides and skins, an export markedly stimulated since the European War began, important shipments coming from Rio Grande do Sul among other cattle states; she has, during the last two years, apparently been able to receive larger quantities of all Brazilian products, and perhaps the most salutary trend, for both the United States and Brazil, has been in the great quantities of raw materials taken by the northern country. These materials are the breath of life to the manufactures, and nothing is better for Brazil than increased volumes of such exports.

During 1915 the United States bought, reckoning in dollars, nearly $107,000,000 of Brazil’s total exports of over $255,000,000, while Great Britain took $31,000,000, France $29,000,000, Sweden $23,000,000 (chiefly coffee, and, in view of the disappearance of direct sales to Germany, in all probability transferred to the Central Powers), and the Netherlands $16,000,000; sales to the Argentine were nearly $13,000,000, while Uruguay took about four and a half million dollars’ worth of goods. Apparently, trading between Brazil and her South American neighbours on the same side of the Andes has been greatly increased during 1916, Argentina buying unprecedented amounts of sugar, as well as maintaining her imports of matte. During 1915, the total sales of Argentina to Brazil were worth over 89,000 contos, or something like $22,000,000, of which nearly $20,000,000 were accounted for by wheat and wheat flour. At the same time Brazil sold to the Argentine 42,226 contos’ worth (say $10,560,000) of goods, of which nearly 70 per cent was accounted for by matte sales, with 15 per cent of tobacco.

Brazilian imports show important changes in places of origin since the European War; formerly Great Britain was by far the greatest seller to this country, supplying nearly a third of the total goods purchased. In 1911 the order in importance of countries selling to Brazil were Great Britain, Germany, the United States, France, Argentina, Portugal, Belgium; in 1912 and 1913 the same order was maintained, but with Germany increasing her sales at a greater rate than Great Britain, while the United States also showed gains.

In 1914, with the outbreak of war, England still retained her top place, but with reduced values, while the United States drew second, Germany third and the Argentine fourth. In 1915, the United States sold more goods than any other country, and Great Britain came second, maintaining her command of the market in cotton piece goods in a remarkable manner, and holding over half of the coal sales in the latter item until 1916, when United States’ sales replaced the Welsh coal, whose export was then prohibited. Development of South Brazilian coal fields also helped to supply the home market to an increasing degree. During 1921–2 Britain recaptured much of her coal sales, and the share of the United States fell almost to pre-war conditions, from top place (81%) in 1920.

In U. S. currency, Brazil imported nearly $146,000,000 worth of goods in 1915, the United States selling about $47,000,000, England nearly $32,000,000 worth, while Germany’s former average of fifty-two millions was reduced to two. Many of these changes were due to the abnormal war situation, and while it could not be expected that the United States would retain an advantage due to the elimination of competitors, she was still the greatest supplier of goods in 1920, selling over twice as much as her nearest rival, Britain, or goods worth $52,000,000, in comparison with Britain’s $25,000,000. The European countries organized for overseas trading are making strenuous and determined efforts to regain the commerce built up by the transportation lines and development work financed from Europe; although they awaited the end of the war to renew these efforts. Probably the best recommendation of the United States to a large share in Brazilian imports lies not in commissions and reunions, but in her extensive purchases of Brazilian raw material.

Broadly speaking, nearly sixty per cent of Brazilian imports are manufactured goods. Large quantities of machinery, steel rails, locomotives, etc., are usually imported every year for the construction work needed in a vast and young country. Over twenty-four per cent of the total purchases are of foodstuffs with wheat and wheat-flour largely preponderant: last year one-fifth of the total imports of Brazil were credited to these two items. About ten per cent of Brazilian purchase money is paid for coal. Financial stringency due to abnormal conditions has cut down Brazilian imports in a salutary manner—and fortunately for Brazilian merchants and retailers, stores were at the outbreak of hostilities largely overstocked by the unprecedentedly large purchases of 1913, when $326,000,000 was paid for imports.

As a result of big sales and reduced buying, Brazil in 1915 had a trade balance in her favour of about 440,000 contos of reis (exports 1,022,634 contos and imports 582,996 contos) the equivalent of nearly $140,000,000 in United States currency. This balance appears to have largely remained abroad to help meet Brazilian indebtedness, and helped to steady exchange. This surplus of export values dropped well below 400,000 contos in 1916 and 1917, and to 148,000 in 1918, but rose to the unprecedented height of 845,000 in 1919, when the milreis soared to the rather inconvenient exchange value of 18 pence. The years 1920 and 1921 witnessed adverse balances of trade, with the milreis fallen below 8 pence, 1922 showing trade recoveries practically to pre-war values. Brazil has weathered many a storm commercially and industrially because the world needs her raw material; she has every reason for confidence in the future.

_State_ _Capital_ _Area Sq. _Population_ Kilometers_ Alagôas Maceió 58,500 785,000 Amazonas Manáos 1,895,000 390,000 Bahia São Salvador 427,000 2,500,000 Ceará Fortaleza 104,250 1,000,000 Federal District Rio de Janeiro 1,116 1,200,000 (São Sebastião) Espirito Santo Victoria 45,000 400,000 Goyaz Goyaz 747,000 300,000 Maranhão São Luiz 460,000 500,000 Matto Grosso Cuyabá 1,379,000 245,000 Minas Geraes Bello Horizonte 575,000 4,500,000 Pará Belem 1,150,000 660,000 Parahyba Parahyba 75,000 600,000 Paraná Curityba 250,000 500,000 Pernambuco Recife 128,400 2,100,000 Piauhy Therezina 301,800 425,000 Rio de Janeiro Nictheroy 69,000 1,300,000 Rio Grande do Norte Natal 57,500 410,000 Rio Grande do Sul Porto Alegre 236,500 1,500,000 Santa Catharina Florianopolis 43,535 450,000 São Paulo São Paulo 290,876 3,000,000 Sergipe Aracajú 39,090 450,000 Acre Territory 191,000 100,000

The Territory of Acre was legally acquired from Bolivia by the Government of Brazil in 1903 but had been populated and the rubber reserves worked by Brazilian _seringueiros_ for at least ten years previously. Their entry into Bolivian lands was the cause of much friction until the final settlement by the payment by Brazil of £2,000,000 for this rich area.

[Illustration: [Agriculture Map]]

BRAZILIAN TERMS

_Alagôano_: native of Alagôas. Native of Amazonas State, _amazonense_. Native of Bahia, _bahiano_; of Ceará, _cearense_; of Espirito Santo, _espirito-saniense_; of Goyaz, _goyano_; of Maranhão, _maranhense_; of Matto Grosso, _matto-grossense_; of Minas Geraes, _mineiro_; of Pará, _paraense_; of Paraná, _paranaense_; of Piauhy, _piauhyense_; of Parahyba, _parahybano_; of Pernambuco, _pernambucano_; of São Paulo, _paulista_; of Santa Catharina, _catharinense_; of Rio Grande do Norte and Rio Grande do Sul, _riograndense do norte_, or _riograndense do sul_; of Sergipe, _sergipano_. A native of the north is a _nortista_; of the south, a _sulista_; of Brazil, in general, _brasileiro_.

_Aviador_: properly, _aviator_, but has special meaning on the Amazon; is applied to the dealer who supplies the _seringaes_ with outfit and food for the season, and who purchases the rubber crop. The _aviado_ is the customer of the _aviador_.

_Bateia_: bowl for washing out placer gold.

_Borracha_: any kind of rubber in Brazilian; the term _goma_ is also sometimes used, but applied only to latex of _hevea brasiliensis_.

_Braços_: lit. “arms,” that is, labourers; hands.

_Cabotagem_: Brazilian navigation, whether coastal or riverine.

_Caipira_: countryman from the south—“hayseed.” The equivalent type from the north is a _matuto_.

_Capoeira_: second growth of vegetation after land has been cleared. Also applied to kind of basket made of native grass; also to the Brazilian equivalent to jiu-jit-su; genuine capoeira adepts have remarkable muscular control. The term _capoeira_ is also applied to a certain dance.

_Capim_: grass (plural, _capins_) of different kinds, as _capim gordura_, capim panasco, capim sertão, etc.

_Carioca_: native of Rio de Janeiro City—from the Carioca fountain, once fashionable centre of city.

_Carreiro_: by-path of the interior.

_Colono_: labourer imported, whether from another country or a sister State.

_Conto_: (of reis); one thousand milreis, or 1,000,000 reis. In paper, worth normally over £66, but since European War value fluctuates about £50, or say $250.

_Engenho_: sugar mill.

_Estrada de Ferro_: railroad; _Rede ferroviario_, railway system, lit. “net” of railways.

_Fazenda_: in South, any farm or estate of coffee, cacao, cattle, etc.; in north more exclusively applied to cattle farm. _Fazendeiro_, farmer or estate owner.

_Fallencia_: failure, bankruptcy.

_Farinha_: flour. — de mandioca, of two kinds “white” and “yellow,” made from root of one of the Euphorbias.

_Feijão_: beans, red, black or white, universal Brazilian food; _feijoada_, special dish made with beans, dried meat, pepper, mandioca flour, etc.

_Flagellados_: lit. “the scourged,” applied to people from the northern drought districts.

_Fluminense_: native of Rio de Janeiro State, from Lat. flumen, river; Portuguese discoverers thought Rio Bay mouth of a river, and so named it “River of January.” There is no river, but the name remains, and the _fluminenses_ are proud to call themselves “river folk.”

_Frigorifico_: cold storage, properly; applied to packing-houses also.

_Gaiola_: properly, cage; also applied to small open boats traversing Amazonian fluvial network.

_Garimpeiros_: diamond hunters of Brazilian interior.

_Herva_: lit. herb: applied to the leaf of _ilex paraguayensis_, known in Brazil as _herva matte_ and in Spanish America as yerba maté. _Herval_, forest of trees from which leaf is obtained: pl. _hervaes_.

_Matadouro_: slaughterhouse.

_Matto_: wild Brazilian woodland: _matteiro_, expert forester.

_Modinha_: Brazilian folk-song: term _fado_ also used.

_Parecer_: lit. opinion; generally applied to views given upon public matters by eminent men.

_Paroara_: person going from another district to work in the Amazon rubber country.

_Pauta_: rate of export tax; changed frequently in response to international market prices for such Braz. goods as cacao, rubber, tobacco, sugar, etc.

_Patrão_: owner or manager of estate or business.

_Pelle_: ball of rubber made by seringueiros.

_Praieiro_: one who lives by the _praia_, or shore.

_Rebanho_: stock of animals, herd or flock.

_Regatão_: row-boats of petty traders upon Amazonian waterways.

_Resaca_: violent wave-movement, often seen in Rio and Recife, when a receding meets an oncoming wave and water is thrown up; _resacas_ along the Rio sea-front often throw spray sixty feet into the air.

_Romaria_: pilgrimage made by religious-minded to the places where there are churches containing images of special devotion.

_Safra_: time of harvest; the crop yield is the _colheita_.

_Seringa_: gum of _hevea brasiliensis_; _seringueira_, rubber tree; _seringueiro_, man who collects rubber; _seringal_, rubber district in forest—pl. _seringaes_.

_Serra_: mountain range; _serro_, small hill. (_Montanha_, mountain.)

_Sertão_: Brazilian interior; pl. _sertões_. _Sertanejo_, _sertanista_, one who dwells in the sertão.

_Tropa_: troop—generally of mules, used for cargo carrying in interior of central and northern states; term also used in original sense of military regiment or battalion; _tropeiro_, the conductor of a troop of cargo mules or other animals.

_Vaqueiro_: (from _vaca_, cow)—employee specially employed upon stock-breeding estates. Compare with _gaucho_, the cowboy of the South.

[Illustration:

MAP OF BRAZIL

Adapted from the Railway Map arranged by Dr. Miguel Calmon for the Brazilian Government

]

INDEX

A. B. C. Treaty, 120–122.

Acre Territory, 194, 204, 324.

Affonso Penna, 81; colony, 71.

Agricultural methods, 256, 257.

Agua-marinhas, 260.

Aguas Virtuosas, 315.

Alagôas, 39, 151, 271, 297, 324.

Alagoinhas, 150.

Albuquerque, Jeronymo, 37.

Alcobaça, 155.

Alto da Serra, 130.

Alves, Rodrigues, 81, 106, 174.

Amazonas, State, 180–234, 297, 313, 319.

Amazon river, 161, 162; basin, 3, 73; rubber industry, 180–234; Navigation company, 161.

Anchieta, José de, 22.

Apartaçao do gado, 85.

Aracajú, 150, 151, 324.

Araguary, 141.

Araguaya, 155.

Aramina fibre, 253.

Arantes, Dr. Altino, 70, 139; also see footnote to p. 144.

Araxá, 315.

Area of States, 324.

Argentina, 5; railways, 135, 138, 158; sugar, 243; trade with Brazil, 321.

Atalaia, 151.

Automobile roads, 127, 128.

Auxiliaire railway, 137.

Avenida Paulista, 67, 127.

Avenida Rio Branco, 105.

Aviador, 198, 199.

Babassú, 274.

Bacharel, Bacharelismo, 83.

Baependy, Visconde de, 61.

Bahia, city (São Salvador), settlement, 18, 19; captaincy-general, 36; Dutch seizure, 38, 39, 40, 44; Dom João, 50; negroes, 82; churches, 91; tobacco, 247.

Bahia, State, colonies, 60, 61; mule troops, 86; roads, 128; railroads, 130, 150; coffee, 178; debt, 297; tobacco, 245, 246, 247; cacao industry, 254–256; oranges, 258; mines, 259, 260, 262; factories, 265, 270; exports, 319.

Banco do Brasil, 51.

Bandeiras, 25–33.

Bangú factory, 272.

Banks, foreign and Brazilian, 303–305; British, capital, 290; National City, 296.

Barbosa, Ruy, 99, 106.

Barra, 32.

Barra do Córdoba, 153.

Barreiros, 151.

Barretos, packing-house at, 140, 211, 212.

Bartholomeu Bueno da Silva, 32.

Belem (Pará), 153, 298. _See_ Pará.

Bello Horizonte, 141, 144, 261, 298.

Bem Fica, 147.

Berrogain & Cia, 207.

Berwind Coal Co., 165, 296, 322.

Betun or petum (tobacco), 245.

Bicho, 87, 88.

Bilac, Olavo, 99, 100.

Blumenau of Brunswick, Herr, 58; town, 138.

Bolivia, railway links, 135.

Bom Successo, 70.

Borba Gato, 31.

Borda do Campo, 22.

Brack, 291.

Braganza, 153.

Branco river, 159, 202.

Braz Cubas, 22.

Braz, Dr. Wencesláo, 54, 156.

Braz (suburb of S. Paulo), 268.

Brazil, discovery of, 11–14; name, 15; capitanias, 17, 18, 19; export of tobacco, 247; nuts, 274, 311.

Brazil Railway Co., 137, 142, 143, 297.

Brazil-wood, 15, 20, 41, 46.

British investment, 287–290.

Bureau in Paris, 103, 175.

Cabedello, 152.

Caboclo, 4.

Cabotagem, 123, 150.

Cabral, Captain, 14.

Cacao, culture and export, 254–258.

Cacequy, 137.

Cachaça, 241.

Cachoeiras (Itapemirim), 146.

Caeté, 48.

Cai-Uby, 23.

Caixa de Conversão, 172, 277, 278, 279.

Cajazeiras, 153.

Calmon, Dr. Miguel, 193, 229, 272.

Cametá, 48.

Caminho do Padre José, 125.

Camocim, 152.

Campinas, 141, 273.

Campos, 146, 147, 241, 290.

Campos Salles colony, 69.

Cananea, 64.

Cannavieiras, 64.

Cantareira Tramway, 139; ferries, 147.

Cape St. Augustine, 11.

Capitanias, 17, 18, 19, 36.

Caracú cattle, 217, 218.

Caramarú, 18; town, 140.

Caravellas, 149, 159.

Carbonados (diamonds), 259.

Cardoso de Almeida, 158.

Careta, 85.

Carioca cotton mill, 290.

Carnauba wax, 152, 318.

Carvalho, Dr. Daniel de, 270.

Castilloa elastica, 182, 202, 203.

Catalão, 141.

Cattle, 40; introduction, 208; industry, 209–219.

Cattley, William, 309.

Caxambú, 315.

Caxias, 153, 155, 249.

Ceará, capitania of, 19, 86; droughts in, 152; railways, 152; labour from, 184, 197, 198; cattle, 218; lace, 254, 274; factories, 271; debt, 297; exports, 319; area, 324.

Central Railway, 141, 144, 145, 146, 261.

Centro Industrial, 227, 271, 272.

Cereals, 248–252.

Chaves, Alfredo, colony of, 249.

Cincinato Braga, 217.

Ciudad Real, 23, 24, 28.

Clarke’s shoe factories, 290.

Class distinctions, 79, 80.

Climate, contrasts, 4; variety of soil and climate, 6; suited to immigrants, 73; effect on roads, 128, 216, 217, 248, 274.

Coal, used, 146; mining, 263.

Coats’ cotton mill, 290.

Coconut oil factory, 275.

Coelho, Duarte, 14, 15, 20.

Coffee drinking, 88.

Coffee industry, 167–180; coffee exports, 175.

Colonization, Ch. 2, p. 56.

Columbus, 13.

Commerce, exterior, 316.

Commerciantes, 81.

Companhia de Viação S. Paulo-Matto Grossi, 136.

Companhia do Commercio do Brazil, 42.

Companhia Frigorifica e Pastoril, 140.

Comtists, 91.

Conde d’Eu railway, 151.

Conference, 228, 270.

Conquista, 149.

Conspiracy of Minas, 49.

Copaiva, (Copahyba), 39, 313.

Corcovado, 4.

Correia de Sá, 44.

Corsairs, 35.

Corumbá, railway to, 135, 136.

Cory Coal Co., 165, 290, 322.

Cotton, raw, export of, 226, 227; weaving, 268–273; industry, 219–234.

Court of Cartago, 121, 122.

Couto de Magalhães, 108.

Cozinha bahiana, 108.

Cratheus, 152.

Cruz, Dr. Oswaldo, 106, 195.

Cubatão, old road to, 126; dye factory, 273.

Curityba, 68, 127, 133, 139, 235.

Curralinho, 144.

Currency, system, 281, 282.

Curvello, 144.

Cuyabá, 33, 46, 159, 160, 324.

Defesa da Borracha, 193, 206.

Diamantina, 33, 144.

Diamonds, 259, 317.

Dois Irmãos Mountains, 117.

Dom João, 50.

Dom Pedro I, 51.

Dom Pedro II, 52, 53.

Dona Anna Pimentel, 208.

Donatarios, 19, 44.

Dona Thereza (colony in Pará), 58.

Drugs, 311, 314.

Duarte Coelho, 14, 15, 20.

Duder, 290.

Dumont coffee estates, 168.

Dutch, seizure of coast, 35; West India Co., 38; establishment in Pernambuco, 38–41; result of occupation, 42.

Dutra, Dr. Firma, 136.

Dyes, 272, 273.

Education, 115–118.

Electric power, Paulo Affonso falls, 155; used for manufacturing, 265, 270; falls available, 273.

Elpidio de Salles, 157.

Emancipated colonies, 71.

Emboabas, Guerra dos, 47.

Empire established, 52; abolished, 53.

Engenho Novo, 60.

Entradas, 24, 25.

Erechim, 72.

Esperanza, Porto, 136.

Espirito Santo State, mines, 30; early history, 36, 43; colonies, 60, 61, 62, 71; railroads, 148, 149; coffee, 178; monazite sands, 262; factories, 271; debt, 291, 292.

Estação da Luz, 131.

Estacio de Sá, 44.

Estrella, 62, 63.

Euclydes da Cunha, 193.

Export taxes of States, 302, 303.

External debts of States and Cities, 291, 292.

Fabrica da Pedra, 155.

Fabric-weaving mills in all Brazil, 268–269.

Factories in São Paulo, 265, 267, 268, 269.

Falls in exchange, 283, 284.

Farquhar, interests, 142–144, 162, 173.

Federal debts, 299, 300, 301.

Federal District, 270, 271, 291, 298.

Federal revenues, 302.

Feijó, Father Diogo, 52, 129.

Feira dos bizerros, 85.

Fernando Noronha, 15.

Fernão Dias, 29, 30, 31.

Festas, 92, 93.

Fibres, 252, 253, 254.

Fibres used by natives, 110.

Finance, 276.

Finger of God, 4.

Florianopolis, 6, 324.

Folklore, 92, 108.

Formosa, 145.

Fortaleza, 6, 152, 324.

France Antarctique, 43.

French investment, 286, 292, 293; early settlements, 17, 37, 38.

French trade, 321.

Frey Tiburcio, 101.

Frontin, 145, 159.

Fruits, 258.

Funilense Railway, 139.

Future colonization, 73, 74, 75.

Garanhuns, 151.

Gardner, Dr. George, 308, 309.

Gavião Peixoto, 69.

“General Mines,” 124.

German investment, 293.

Germans, colonization, 57–62; influence and language, 117, 118.

Goeldi, Dr. Emil, 229.

Gold mines, discovery, 30, 32, 33, 45, 46.

Gold mines in operation, 259.

Gonçalves, Dias, 100.

Good manners, Brazilian, 76, 77.

Goodyear Tire Co., 206.

Gordon, John, 262.

Goyana tribes, 29.

Goyaz, 2, 26, 27, 32, 44, 73, 141, 160, 161, 324.

Goytacazes, Capitania, 48.

Graciosa road, 127.

Granja, 152.

Grão Pará, 44.

Grass lands, 214, 215, 216.

Great Western of Brazil railway, 130, 149, 151, 152.

Green, Dr. Edward, 222, 228.

“Green Sea of Darkness,” 12.

Guanabara, Alcindo, 193; Bay, 126.

Guaraná, 313.

Guarany nucleo, 72.

Guayará, 24.

Guayra falls, 273.

Gymnasio Anglo-Brazileiro, 117.

Hamburg, “Colonizing Union of,” 59.

Hammocks, 253.

Hansa, 138.

Henry, the Navigator, 12.

Herkmann, Elias, 39.

Herva matte outlet, 133; industry, 234–238.

Hevea brasiliensis, 181; seeds taken by Wickham, 188; varieties, 194.

Hide exports, 218, 219.

Highroads, 124–129.

Horsemanship, skill in, 86.

Huber, Dr. Jacques, 229.

Huguenots, 43, 44.

Icelanders, 62.

Iguape, 63, 64; footnote on 140.

Iguassú falls, 273.

Iguatú, 152.

Ilha de Johannes, 48.

Ilhéos, 6, 43, 48, 149.

Imbatuba, 138.

Immigration table, 72; See colonization; effect on Brazilian society, 78, 79.

Imperial road to Petropolis, 126.

Imports, 322, 323.

Imposto do Consumo, 266.

Independence, 52.

Indians, 109–113.

Inglotina, 272.

Inheritance of French ideas, 77.

Investment, 285.

Ipecacuanha, 39, 312.

Iquitos, 162.

Iron deposits, 261.

Isabel, Princess, 53, 80.

Itabira (iron), 261.

Itacoatiara, 162.

Itajahy, 63.

Italian immigrants, 66, 67.

Itamaracá, 41, 48.

Itanhaen, footnote on, 140.

Itapemirim, 146.

Itapura, 135, 137, 162.

Itatiaya, mountain, 3.

Itú, College at, 49.

Ivahy, 71.

Jaborandi, 39, 313.

“Jacaré Assu”, 62.

Japanese colony in São Paulo, 70, 71.

Jaraguá, 151.

Jardim Botanico, 229.

Jatobá, 155.

Jesuino Marcondes colony, 71.

Jesuits, 22–25, 28, 33, 34, 48, 111; old Jesuit road, 125, 126.

João Alfredo, 81.

João Pinheiro, 72.

Joazeiro, railway to, 130; steamboats touching at, 144.

Joinville (Dona Francesca) 58, 59, 138.

Jornal do Commercio, 9, 101, 102, 103.

Jorge Tibiriça colony, 69.

José do Patrocinio, 108.

Juiz da Fora, 125.

Jupiá, 137.

Juquiá, 64.

Kapok (paina), 252, 253.

Labour, origin and locality, 82.

Lace-making, 254, 274.

Lagôa dos Patos, 117, 137, 163.

Laguna Mirim, 238.

Lambary, 315.

Land for immigrants, 73.

Langgard, Dr. T. J. H., 313.

Lauro Muller colony, 138.

Leopoldina Railway, 130, 146, 147.

Light and Power companies, 273, 296.

Literature, 97, 98, 99.

Lloyd Brasileiro, 162, 163, 164.

Loddiges, 309.

Lotteries, public, 87.

Lundgren, 231.

Macahé, 146.

Macáu, 274.

Macedo, J. M. de, 79, 98, 99.

Maceió, 6, 151.

Mackenzie College, 116.

Madeira-Mamoré, 136, 142, 154, 292, 293.

Maize (milho), 251, 252.

Malho, journal, 83.

Mamelucos, 18, 25.

Manáos, 3, 6, 105, 159, 162, 185, 186, 187, 192, 197, 201–2, 298.

Mandioca, 84, 252.

Mangabeira, 182, 185.

Manganese, 261, 262, 317, 318.

Mangrove, dye from, 272.

Maniçoba rubber, 152, 182.

Mantiqueira mountains, 3.

Manufactures, 264–275.

Mappin, 289, 290.

Maranhão, 33, 37, 42, 44, 48, 49, 60, 86; railways, 153; coffee, 178; factories, 270; babassú nuts, 274.

Marcgrav, 39, 307, 313.

Maribondo falls, 273.

Martim Affonso, 18, 21.

Martinho Prado colony, 70.

Martius, 3, 307.

Matarazzo, 248.

Match industry, 264.

Matte (Herva), 68, 234–238, 318.

Matto Grosso, 2; first entries, 26, 27; captaincy, 44; sertões, 78; railways, 135, 139, 160, 161; export taxes, 303.

Medicinal plants, 311–314.

Mem de Sá, 23, 43.

Mercantile Marine, 166.

Mestizos, 82.

Métayer system, 61.

Milho, (maize), 251, 252.

Mills, flour, 251; sugar, 241; fabric-weaving, founded in Pará and Maranhão, 224; in Minas, 225; Petropolis, 264; S. Paulo, 265–8; all Brazil, 268–272; cotton mill near Pernambuco, 231–233.

Minas Geraes, products, 6; early foundations, 26, 30, 44, 47; colonization, 71; roads, 127; coffee and cotton, 178; cattle lands, 216, 218; cotton weaving, 225; iron deposits, 148, 161; gold mines, 259; factories, 269, 271; debt, 298; exports, 319.

Mucury, 59.

Nabuco, Joaquim, 106.

Nassau, Prince John Maurice of, 39.

Natal, 152, 324.

Native races, 109–114.

Navigação Bahiana, 150, 162.

Nazareth, 150, 162.

Negroes, first introduced, 37, 82; slavery abolished, 53; eminent men, 108, 109.

Negro river, 159, 185, 202.

Newspapers, 101–105.

Nictheroy, 147, 324.

Nine principal export articles, 318, 319.

Nossa Senhora d’O, 60.

Nova Europa, 69.

Nova Friburgo, 57, 147.

Nova Lusitania, 20.

Nova Odessa, 68.

Nova Veneza, 69.

Novels, 98, 99.

Nucleos, 58–72.

Obidos, 162.

Ojeda, Alonzo de, 13.

Olinda, 38, 91, 231, 244.

Oliveira, Alberto de, 100.

Oranges of Bahia, 258.

Orchids, 309, 310.

Orgão mountains, 4.

Orellana, 16.

Osasco, packing plant, 143, 211, 212.

Ouro Preto, 46, 124, 259.

Packing-houses, 210–212.

Pagés, 111, 112.

Paina (kapok fibre), 252–3.

Paper money in circulation, 281, 282.

Pará City (Belem); foundation, 19; settlements, 37; Jesuits, 48; newspapers, 105; schools, 116; shipping, 162; coffee, 178; modern works, 185; rubber, 192, 197, 201; debt, 298.

Parahyba, 41, 241, 271.

Paranaguá, 133.

Paranápanema river, 140.

Paraná river, 23, 27, 124, 126, 136, 162.

Paraná State, immigrants, 62, 68, 71; land, 73; matte forests, 133; railways, 138, 139; pine forests, 235; coal, 263; factories, 271; debts, 291; exports, 319.

Pará State, 4; Portuguese colonies, 60; imports, 196; nut export, 274; debt, 298; exports, 319.

Paraty, 138.

Parceria system, 61.

Parnahyba river, 155.

Pastures, 215, 216, 218.

Patronato Agricola, 67, 169.

Paulista, Railway, 140.

Paulo Affonso falls, 124; railway line, 155.

Pauta, (export tax rate), 203.

Peçanha, 60.

Pedra Preta, 152.

Pelotas, 298.

Pernambuco, 17, 19, 20, 128, 129, 137, 241, 319; Dutch control, 38–41; land, 73; labour, 82; tropeiros, 86; churches, 91; industries, 265, 271; cotton cloth factory, 230–232; sugar, 244.

Petropolis, 58, 126, 127, 147, 264, 270, 273, 290.

Piassava, fibre, 254.

Piauhy, 153, 155, 241, 271, 324.

Pineapples, 258, 311.

Pinto, Dr. Costa, 273.

Pinzon, 11.

Piquery River, 23.

Piracicaba, school, 63, 64; sugar mill, 217, 242; agricultural college, 257.

Piranhas, 155.

Pirapora, 144, 145.

Piso, 39, 307, 312, 313.

Pita, fibre, 253.

Plantation rubber, first experiments, 189, 190, 191; tax on, 204.

Plants sent to Europe from Brazil, 306–314.

Poets, Brazilian, 99, 100.

Pombal, Marquis of, 45, 47, 48, 224.

Ponta da Areia, 149.

Ponta Grossa, 138, 139.

Population, 55; separate states, 324.

Porto Alegre, 6, 298, 324.

Porto Seguro, 14, 48; Visconde de (Varnhagen, historian), 47, 106.

Ports opened to world commerce, 50; modern port works, 54.

Pottery, Marajó, 109, 110.

Prado, Conselheiro Antonio, 140.

Praia Formosa, 147.

Press, 100–105; first established, 50.

Putz, Theodore, 207.

Quedas, Sete, 273.

Queimados, 130.

Queiros, Luis de, 19.

Railroads, construction, 129; Great Western, 130, 151, 152; S. Paulo Railway, 131–133; Paranaguá, 133; links with other republics, 135, 136; Northwestern, 135, 136; Rio Grande, 137; Santa Catharina, 139; in S. Paulo, 139–141; Minas, 144; from Rio, 146, 147; Espirito Santo, 148, 149; Bahia, 149, 150; Sergipe, 150; Pernambuco, 151, 152; other northern States, 152, 153; Pará, 153; Madeira-Mamoré, 154; lines passing falls, 154, 155; operation systems, 156, 157; Federal and private control, 157, 158; railways projected, 159–161.

Raiz da Serra, 130.

Ramalho, João, 18, 21.

Rapadura, 241.

Raposo, Antonio, 27–29.

Recife, 105, 151, 298.

Religion, 89–92.

República de Piritinim, 58.

Republic inaugurated, 53.

Ribeiro, João, 27, 28.

Riberão Preto, 141.

Rio Branco, Barão de, 119; Visconde de, 81, 106.

Rio de Janeiro city, 4, 5, 6, 43, 44, 50, 51, 54, 76, 85, 97, 104, 127, 137, 260.

Rio de Janeiro State, 60; sugar growing, 244; factories, 265.

Rio Grande do Norte, 41, 86, 241, 271, 298.

Rio Grande do Sul, Spanish in, 25, 47; colonization, 72; land, 73; wine, 88; Germans, 117, 118; railways, 137, 138; docks, 138; pastures, 141; tobacco, 246, 248; wheat, 248–251; coal, 263; exports, 320; Rio Grande city, 137.

Rio Negro, colony in Paraná, 58, 138, 139; Negro River, 159, 185, 202.

Rio Pardo colony, 62.

Rocha Pombo, 26.

Romero, Sylvio, 107, 108.

Roncador, 141.

Rondon, Colonel Candido, 48, 106, 112, 129, 273.

Rodrigues, José Carlos, 106.

Rua do Ouvidor, 105.

Rubber, 180–208; table of prices, 188; world’s crop, 205; factories, 206, 207.

Russian settlers, 68, 72; carters of Paraná, 129.

Sabará mines, 31.

Sabaúna, 70.

Salt industry, 274.

Salto Grande, line to, 136.

Salutaris, 315.

Sampaio, historian, 26.

Santa Anna do Livramento, 141.

Santa Barbara, 64, 65.

Santa Catharina, land, 73; roads, 128; railways, 138, 141; cereals, 249; coal mines, 263; factories, 270; debt, 298.

Santa Isabel, colony, 58.

Santarem, 64, 159, 162.

Santo André, 22, 23.

Santos, 133.

São Bernardo, 22, 70.

São Felix, 150, 247.

São Francisco, river, gold-miners’ route, 46, 124; projected railway, 129; railway passing falls, 155.

São João del Rey mine, 259.

São Leopoldo, colony, 57.

São Lourenço, 315.

São Luis, 153.

São Luiz, 324.

São Paulo, City, 6; settlement, 18, 19, 23, 28, 29, 32, 34; wealth, 67; social life, 97; newspapers, 104; schools, 115, 116, 117; Pure Coffee Company, 179; railroads, 131, 132, 133, 135, 137, 141, 145; factories, 265, 267, 268, 269.

São Paulo State, 5, 6; early history, 18, 19, 21–35, 44, 46; colonization system, 68–71; education, 115–117; coffee industry, 168–180; sugar, 244; manufacturing taxes, 267; industries, 269–273; debts, 291, 298; exports, 319.

São Pedro de Alcantara, 57.

São Salvador (Bahia), 149.

São Sebastião (Rio de Janeiro), 44, 149.

São Vicente, settlement, 18, 22; sacking, 35, 43, 48.

Sapucaia nuts, 274.

Schmidt, Francisco, 168.

Schools and Colleges, 116, 117.

Semi-precious stones, 260.

Sergipe, 150, 241, 269, 271, 324.

Seringueiro, cost of outfit, 197.

Serra Doirada, 32.

Serra do Mar, 125, 126, 128, 130–133.

Serrinha, 139.

Serro Frio, 30.

Sertanejo, 84, 85.

Sertanistas, 28.

Sertão, 25.

Sete Lagôas, 144.

Sete Quedas, 273.

Shipping, 161–166.

Silk industry, 264.

Silva, 60.

Sinimbú, 60, 63.

Skins, export, 318, 319.

Sloper, 291.

Solis, 16.

Sorocabana, railway, 136, 139.

Souza, Eloy de, 192, 195, 199; Affonso de, 18, 21.

Spanish rule, 35, 36.

Stage, 100.

State Debts, 297, 298.

States, shares in export trade, 319, 320; area and population, 324.

Steamship lines, 164, 165; British, 290.

Stevenson, 290.

St. John’s Day observances, 92.

Sugar, 238–245; mills, 241; export, 243.

Sumidouro mines, 29, 30.

Swiss settlers, 56.

Tamoyo Indians, 21, 43.

Tapajoz river, 64, 159, 162, 188.

Taunay, Visconde de, 98.

Taxes upon industries, 267.

Terms, Brazilian, 325–327.

“Terra dos Papagaios”, 15.

Thereza Christina railway, 144.

Therezina, 324.

Theodore Wille & Co., 172.

Theophilo Ottoni, 61; town, 149.

Thevet, André, 245.

Thomé de Souza, 34, 43.

Tibagy, 29.

Tibiriça, 18, 23, 136, 162.

Tieté river, 124.

Tijuca, 4.

Tiradentes, 50.

Tobacco, 245–248; export, 246; price, 247.

Tocantins, 155, 162.

Toledo, Pedro de, 230.

Tombu, 29, 30.

Trade, ten-year periods, 317; balance, 323.

Transportation, 123–166.

Travellers in Brazil, 3.

Treasury Bills, 279, 280.

Treaty of Tordesillas, 12.

Tres Barras lumber mills, 138.

Tres Forquilhas, 57.

Triangle of Minas, 128, 218, 273.

Tropeiro, 86, 87.

Tupan, 111.

Tupi-Guarani tribes, 109.

Uberaba, 141, 218.

United States Immigrants, 63, 64.

United States interests, 294–297.

U. S. purchases from Brazil, 320.

U. S. Steel Corporation, 261.

Uricury nuts, 201.

Urubupunga falls, 273.

Urucú dye, 272.

Uruguay link with Brazil, 135.

Valorization of Coffee, 171–174.

Vergueiro family, 61.

Vespucci, 13, 14.

Viação Bahiana, 158.

Viçosa, 151.

Victoria, 147, 148.

Villa Americana, 63.

Villa Rica, 46.

Villegaignon, 43.

Wars, 119.

Waterfalls, power used or available, 265, 273.

Weaving industry, 268–271.

Wheat production, 249.

Wickham, 180, 188, 189.

Wileman, 121; Review, 9.

Willekens, Admiral, 38.

Willis, Dr. John, 229.

Wilson Coal Co., 165, 290, 322.

Wine, national, 88, 89, 274.

Women, position and education of, 94, 97.

Writers, 98–100.

Xarque, 209.

Ypiranga, 52, 268.

Zé Povo, 84.

Zebu cattle, 217.

Printed in the United States of America.

-----

Footnote 1:

Martim Affonso’s capitania, then the most southern part of Portuguese territory, had one hundred leagues of coastline, with headquarters at S. Vicente; next came Santo Amaro (Itamaracá) and Parahyba do Sul (present Rio de Janeiro State); Espirito Santo; Porto Seguro; Ilhéos, stretching up to the south of the Bahia; Bahia itself, running from the Bay to the mouth of the S. Francisco river; Pernambuco; Maranhão, divided into 3 captaincies of which two, totalling 150 leagues, went to João de Barros, the third, of 75 leagues, to Fernão Alvares de Andrade; most northerly came Ceará.

Footnote 2:

Calculation of the Brazilian historian Theodoro Sampaio.

Footnote 3:

Brazilian historians differ as to dates, but Southey says that the first discovery of gold in Matto Grosso was made in 1734 by Antonio Fernandez de Abreu.

Footnote 4:

Portugal swallowed her loss without much protest, there was no serious excitement in Brazil, and the Portuguese troops stationed in Brazil were shipped home without violence from more than one district.

Footnote 5:

Bought by the Rio _Jornal do Commercio_ company at end of 1916 and now published as the _Jornal do Commercio de São Paulo_.

Footnote 6:

There is another railroad running off from Santos. It does not attempt the Serra, but follows the flat coast to Itanhaen port, and then turns a few miles inland, passing Prainha, until junction is effected with the Iguape river. Boats sail down from this point to Iguape port, notable as the scene of settlement of Japanese rice growers a few years ago.

Footnote 7:

The Continental Products Company: capital and personnel came from the Sulzberger house in Chicago.

Footnote 8:

Message of Dr. Altino Arantes to the S. Paulo Legislature, July 14, 1916:

“Foreign capital flowed here in search of convenient employment, but, instead of being destined to new enterprises in the development of the great latent wealth of our State, it was localized in railways already prosperous, whose income and control are by way of being totally alienated, with grave prejudice and serious threats to the future of our State....

“It would be, in truth, blamable want of foresight to allow what is our own to pass to strange hands, when we created it at the cost of our best efforts, constituting thus the most worthy exemplification of our industry and our energy.”

Footnote 9:

Government: South of Pernambuco, Pernambuco Central, Paulo Affonso.

English: Conde d’Eu, Recife and São Francisco, Central Alagôas, Natal and Nova Cruz. The Conde d’Eu dated from 1857.

Footnote 10:

For details of extreme interest in this connection, see _A Madeira-Mamoré_ by Julio Nogueira, printed by the Jornal do Commercio press of Rio in 1913, and _A Crise da Borracha_, by Eloy de Souza, printed by the Imprensa Nacional, Rio, in 1915.

Footnote 11:

32 to 36 milreis for the first year and 40 afterwards, for Type Seven beans.

Footnote 12:

Alqueire = 40 litres: Farinha = flour (of mandioca).

Footnote 13:

Professor Green says that he found one of these tree cottons in Rio Grande do Norte, of the Mocó variety, sixteen years old and still yielding beautiful cotton.

Footnote 14:

In 1915 Brazil imported 805,000 barrels of American flour, 56% of the total and 605,000 barrels from the Argentine, or 41%, the remaining 4% coming from Uruguay; at the same time she imported 14,000,000 bushels of wheat, of which nearly 12,000,000 came from Argentina and about 2,000,000 from the United States. This wheat, at five bushels to the barrel, made another 2,750,000 barrels of flour, and the total Brazilian consumption may be reckoned at about 4,200,000 barrels of wheat-flour of foreign, plus 407,000 of native, origin. The c. i. f. price of United States flour in Brazil in 1915 averaged $7.49 a barrel, while Argentine was able to deliver hers, c. i. f., for $5.28.

Footnote 15:

Dr. Costa Pinto reckons over 58,500 tons; he counts 49,648 looms and 1,464,218 spindles, each spindle taking 40 kilos of cotton annually.

Footnote 16:

_Bertholettia excelsa._

Footnote 17:

Refusal to accept its own paper would of course have had the immediate effect of dangerously depressing all Government issues.

Footnote 18:

There are in existence small copper coins, relics of the day long past when less than a hundred reis would buy something, but they are not in circulation because they have no purchasing power. The post office sometimes presents them as change for some fraction of 100 reis, and the recipient usually puts them into the hand of the first _mendicante_ encountered outside.

Footnote 19:

Since 1916 half a dozen Federal or State loans have been made to Brazil, successfully floated by New York financial houses.

Footnote 20:

Brazil Railways securities are listed in dollars because the company which bought up or leased a number of European-constructed enterprises, was, although financed entirely with French, Belgian and British money, registered in the State of Maine.

Footnote 21:

Five years.

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TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES

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166 between 15,000,000 “Foreign” and between 15,000,000 “Foreign” and 10,000 Brazilian 10,000,000 Brazilian

293 million pounds sterling, fifteen million pounds sterling, fifteen hundred lives, is said to hundred livres, is said to

● Typos fixed; non-standard spelling and dialect retained. ● Used numbers for footnotes, placing them all at the end of the last chapter. ● Enclosed italics font in _underscores_.