CHAPTER X

A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE URBAN COMMUNITY

The task of compiling a bibliography on the city which is to be of use to the sociologist involves many difficulties. The materials are scattered over many fields of investigation ranging all the way from the various branches of the natural and social sciences to the practical arts and crafts. Much of the material is highly technical and abstract, while the rest is popular and full of human interest. If one attempts to survey the whole field he is likely to be led into tempting bypaths which lead far afield and in the end arrive nowhere. Moreover, the bibliographer has neither chart nor compass to guide him in his search, for the sociologist himself is not yet certain of the meaning of the concept “city” and of the relationship of his science to the phenomenon.

Specialization has gone so far that no one can hope to become an expert in more than one field in a lifetime. The sanitary engineer, interested in urban sanitation, is mainly concerned with drainage systems, pumps, sewer pipes, and incinerators; but the accountant, the political scientist, and the sociologist are not primarily interested in these matters. At first glance the sociologist might be tempted to pass over such material as lying outside his province, while he would be less likely to pass over materials relating to parks, playgrounds, schools, infant mortality, city-planning, and non-voting, because these institutions and processes have traditionally held the sociologist’s interest. And yet it is within the realm of possibility that such a question as that of the type of sewer pipe that is to be employed in a city drainage system may become one with which the sociologist is as legitimately concerned as the question of city-planning or juvenile delinquency.

The problem of deciding what is pertinent and what is extraneous is, then, obviously an important one. While the sociologist may be intensely interested in a subject matter pertaining to another science or craft, he has his own distinctive point of view, methodology, and objective, and since he cannot be an expert engineer, city manager, and sociologist all at the same time, he must accept the data of these other specialists when they happen to form the subject matter of his investigation. The sociologist is no more a housing specialist or a zoning specialist or a social case worker in a metropolitan social agency than he is an urban engineer or health officer, but he may have an important contribution to make to all of these activities, and may in turn acquire from these technicians a body of materials which shed light on his own problems and yield to sociological analysis. What is to be included or excluded from a sociological bibliography of the city depends upon the sociological definition of the city.

Although the literature on the city extends as far back as the city itself, the subject is now being studied with renewed interest and with a new point of view. If we were compiling a complete bibliography we would most likely begin with the classical discussion of Socrates in the second book of Plato’s _Republic_ and follow the increasingly complex and scattered writings up to the present day, when we can scarcely find a science that does not have something to contribute to the subject. But this is not the aim of this bibliography. The attempt is here made to note just that part of the literature which has something to offer to the sociologist in the way of source material, point of view, method, and interpretation. A great deal, no doubt, has been included which is of little value. At the same time much has been necessarily omitted which is important. Some effort was made to avoid excessive duplication, but this attempt has not been wholly successful. The list of books and articles includes many works which were inaccessible at the time the bibliography was compiled, and whose contents could therefore not be examined. They are included because either the titles were suggestive or else the reputation of the authors merited attention.

The contribution which a bibliography is able to make to the study of any subject lies probably as much in the viewpoint it incorporates and the method of presentation it uses as in the references it presents. The scheme of classification here employed may lay claim to offering a rather new approach to the study of the city. It will probably have to be modified as new material is discovered and as the sociologists themselves continue to make their own distinctive contributions. It ought to offer an index to the aspects of the city that promise most in the way of results from research. At the same time it may be of assistance in organizing and funding the rapidly increasing body of knowledge concerning the sociology of the city.

A TENTATIVE SCHEME FOR THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LITERATURE OF THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE CITY[74]

I. The City Defined

1. Geographically: by site, situation, topography, density

2. Historically: by political status, title, law

3. Statistically: by census

4. As an economic unit

5. Sociologically

II. The Natural History of the City

1. Ancient cities: Asia, Egypt, Greece, Rome

2. The medieval city

3. The modern city

III. Types of Cities

1. Historical types

2. Location types: sea coast, inland, river, lake

3. Site types: plain, valley, mountain, hill, harbor, island

4. Functional types: capital, railroad, port, commercial, industrial, resort, cultural

5. The town, the city, and the metropolis

6. Structural types: the natural city and the planned city

IV. The City and Its Hinterland

1. The trade area

2. The commuting area: the metropolitan area

3. The administrative city

4. The city and its satellites

5. The city and its cultural periphery

6. The city and world economy

V. The Ecological Organization of the City

1. Natural areas

2. The neighborhood

3. The local community

4. Zones and zoning

5. The city plan

VI. The City as a Physical Mechanism

1. Public utilities: water, gas, electricity

2. Means of communication: telephone, mails, telegraph, street-car, busses, automobile

3. Streets and sewers

4. Public safety and welfare: fire, police, health departments, social agencies

5. Schools, theaters, museums, parks, churches, settlements

6. Recreation

7. City government: the city manager, the boss

8. Food supply, stores (department and chain stores)

9. Steel construction: the skyscraper

10. Housing and land values

VII. The Growth of the City

1. Expansion

2. Allocation and distribution of population: “city-building”

3. Population statistics: natural growth and migration

4. Mobility and metabolism in city life

5. Social organization and disorganization and city growth

VIII. Eugenics of the City

1. Birth, death, and marriage rates: the span of life

2. Sex and age groups

3. Fecundity

IX. Human Nature and City Life

1. The division of labor: professions and specialization of occupations

2. The mentality of city life

3. Communication: contacts, public opinion, morale, _ésprit de corps_

4. City types

X. The City and the Country

1. Conflicts of interest

2. Comparison of social organization and social processes

3. Differences in personality types

XI. The Study of the City

1. Systematic studies of cities

2. The technique of the community survey

3. Periodicals on the city

I. THE CITY DEFINED

Differences in standpoint and method in the various sciences show graphically in the definitions that each formulates of the same object. This is strikingly illustrated by a comparison of the definitions held by various scientific groups of the phenomenon of the city.

1. The city has been regarded by geographers as an integral part of the landscape. From this standpoint the city is an elevation, rising from the ground like a mountain. Such observations as changes in wind velocity and atmospheric conditions produced by the city regarded as an obstruction of the landscape have been noted. Human geography has lately come to regard the city as the most significant human transformation of the natural environment, and as part of the general product arising out of man’s relation with the natural environment. Urban geography has recently been gaining ground as a phase of regional geography. The location, physical structure, size, density, and economic function of cities are the chief factors emphasized. A substantial literature has grown up which has a direct bearing on the Sociological study of the city.

Aurousseau, M. “Recent Contributions to Urban Geography,” _Geog. Rev._, XIV (July, 1924), 444–55.

A concise statement of the geographical approach to the city, with a bibliography of the most authoritative and recent literature. Points out the recency of the study of urban geography and the difficulties involved in the methods. (II, 3; III.)

Barrows, Harlan H. “Geography as Human Ecology,” _Annals of the Association of American Geographers_, Vol. XIII (March, 1923), No. 1.

While not specifically concerned with the city, defines the viewpoint and method of the geographer.

Blanchard, Raoul. “Une méthode de géographie urbaine,” _La Vie Urbaine_, IV (1922) 301–19.

An exposition of the principles and methods of urban geography by one of the leading authorities. (III, 2, 3, 4, 6.)

Chisholm, G. G. “Generalizations in Geography, Especially in Human Geography,” _Scott. Geog. Mag._, XXXII (1916), 507–19. (III, 2, 3, 4.)

Hassert, Kurt. _Die Städte geographisch betrachtet_ (Leipzig, 1907).

One of the early outlines of urban geography. (III, 2, 3, 4, 6.)

——. “Über Aufgaben der Städtekunde,” _Petermann’s Mitteilungen_, LVI (Part II, 1910), 289–94. (III.)

Jefferson, M. “Anthropography of Some Great Cities: A Study in Distribution of Population.” _Bull. Amer. Geog. Soc._, XLI (1909), 537–66.

Argues the need for a geographical definition of the city and suggests one based on density of population. (I, 3, 4; III; VII, 2.)

Schrader, F. “The Growth of the Industrial City,” _Scott. Geog. Mag._, XXXIII (1917), 348–52.

An extensive review of an article by Professor Schrader printed in _Annales de Géographie_, January, 1917. A statement of the forces responsible for the emergence of the geographical entity “the city,” especially of the industrial city. (I, 4; III, 2, 3, 4; IV, 1, 6; V, 5; VII, 1.)

Smith, J. Russell. “The Elements of Geography and the Geographic Unit,” _School and Society_, Vol. XVII, No. 441. (III, 2, 3, 4.)

2. The rise of the city introduced an entirely novel element into the historical process. As a result we find the historians among the first to study this phenomenon of human aggregation which culminated in the city. The historian is mainly interested in tracing the development of this new form of social life from the standpoint of structure and formal organization. The origin of the city has been traced, the ancient cities have been described, the Greek city-state, Rome, the rise of the medieval city, and its transformation into the modern city have found an important place in historical literature. The earlier studies are mainly political in nature. Only recently have historians devoted themselves to describing the new modes of life to which the city gave rise, and the interrelations between city and country. The city has been regarded chiefly as a political unit. The name “city” was given to a settlement because it had achieved a certain degree of political autonomy from the central government, or as an honorary title conferred for service rendered to a superior political entity, or, finally, as a result of incorporation or legal enactment.

Bücher, Karl. “Die Grossstädte in Gegenwart und Vergangenheit,” in the volume, _Die Grossstadt_, edited by Th. Petermann, Dresden, 1903. (I, 4; II; III; IV.)

Cunningham, William. _Western Civilization_ (Cambridge, 1898–1900).

Has many references to the changing historical conceptions of the city. (I, 4; II. 2, 3.)

_The Encyclopedia Americana_, 1918 edition, Vol. VI, article, “City.” (II; IV, 3.)

_The Encyclopedia Brittanica_, 1911 edition, article, “City.” (II; IV, 3.)

Schäfer, D. “Die politische und militärische Bedeutung der Grossstädte,” in the volume _Die Grossstadt_, edited by Th. Petermann, Dresden, 1903.

A summary of the city as a political unit, together with its function from the military standpoint. (II; III, 1, 2, 3, 4; IV, 5.)

3. The statisticians have at various times been forced to define a city because census-taking and interpreting presupposes the existence of definite statistical units. The principal statistical methods of defining the city are: (1) by extent of the area of settlement, and (2) by number of inhabitants. In the history of the United States Census the city has been variously defined as an incorporated community of 8,000 inhabitants or more, then of 4,000, and at the present time of 2,500 inhabitants.

Blankenburg, R. “What Is a City?” _Independent_, XXCV (January 17, 1916), 84–85.

Meuriot, P. M. G. “Du criterium adopté pour la définition de la population urbaine,” _Soc. de Statist. de Paris_, LV (October, 1914), 418–30.

Reuter, E. B. _Population Problems_ (Philadelphia and London, 1924).

Shows the changing statistical definitions of the city adopted at various times by the United States Census. Contains a great deal of other material relating to urban population. (VII, 2, 3; VIII, 1, 2.)

4. The economists have been interested in tracing the development of the city as an economic unit. The city, from this standpoint, may be regarded as typical of a certain stage in economic development. The rise of the city is intimately associated with the transition from handicraft to machine industry, the division of labor, the market, and exchange. Besides the great number of economic histories which trace the general movement toward urban economy there are many monographs of special cities whose economic history has been studied, and some instances of present-day developments in metropolitan economy.

Below, George von. “Die Entstehung des modernen Kapitalismus und die Hauptstädte,” _Schmollers Jahrbuch_, XLIII (1919), 811–28. (III, 4; IV, 1, 4, 6.)

Cheney, Edward Potts. _Industrial and Social History of England_ (New York, 1910). (II, 2, 3; IV, 6.)

Day, Clive. _History of Commerce_ (New York, 1920). (II; III, 4; IV, 6.)

Dillen, Johannes Gerard van. _Het Economisch karakter der Middeleeuwsche Stad._ I. _De Theorie der gesloten Stad-Huishanding_ (Amsterdam, 1914). (II, 2; III, 4, 5; IV, 6.)

Gras, Norman S. B. _An Introduction to Economic History_ (New York, 1922).

Considerable material on the rise of the city as an economic unit. (II, 2, 3; III, 4, 5; IV, 1, 2, 6; X, 1.)

Sombart, Werner. _The Quintessence of Capitalism: A Study of the History and Psychology of the Modern Business Man._ Translated by M. Epstein (New York, 1915). (II, 3; IV, 6; IX; X; 3.)

Waentig, H. “Die wirtschaftliche Bedeutung der Grossstädte,” in the volume, _Die Grossstadt_, edited by Th. Petermann, Dresden, 1903.

A thorough study of the increasing significance of the city as an economic unit. (III, 4; IV, 6.)

5. A sociological definition of the city must recognize that such a complex phenomenon cannot be adequately characterized in terms of any one single distinguishing mark or any set of formal and arbitrary characteristics. The city is, to be sure, a human group occupying a definite area, with a set of technical devices, institutions, administrative machinery, and organization which distinguish it from other groupings. But in this conglomeration of buildings, streets, and people the sociologist discovers a psychophysical mechanism. For him the city is a set of practices, of common habits, sentiments and traditions which have grown up through several generations of life and are characteristic of a typical cultural unit. Within this larger entity which is called the city he sees many other groupings of people and areas which are the result of growth and of a continuous process of sifting and allocation, each one of which areas has a character of its own and produces its special type of inhabitant. He sees a number of occupational and cultural groups whose interests and characteristics mark them off one from the other, but who, nevertheless, are conscious of their membership in some common larger group known as the city, and who participate in its life.

From another point of view the city is an institution which has arisen and maintains itself to some extent independently of the population because it satisfies certain fundamental wants, not only of the local inhabitants, but also of a larger area which has become dependent upon what the city has to give.

The city, finally, may be regarded as the product of three fundamental processes: the ecological, the economic, and the cultural, which operate in the urban area to produce groupings and behavior which distinguish that area from its rural periphery.

Izoulet, Jean. _La Cité moderne et la métaphysique de la sociologie_ (_Paris_, 1894).

Maunier, René. “The Definition of the City.” Translated by L. L. Bernard, _Amer. Jour. Sociol._, XV, 536–48.

A critical examination of the existing definitions of the city in the light of sociological theory. (I, 1, 2, 3, 4.)

Almost every textbook in the field of sociology has some sort of a working definition of the city. In addition there are available the various conceptions of the city underlying the social surveys.

II. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE CITY

The history of the city is almost synonymous with the history of civilization. The sociologist is interested in the natural history of the city as a phase of social evolution. Unlike the historian, he is not aiming to get the concrete facts of the rise and the decay of any particular city, but rather seeks to find in the study of the history of various cities the genesis of the typical city as a basis for the classification of types of cities and of social processes, irrespective of time and place.

1. Most of our ideas as to the origin of the city we owe to the findings of the archeologists. Exactly when cities began to appear in the story of mankind is still a doubtful question. We hear of cave cities in the paleolithic age. When we come down to historic times we find numerous cities whose main purpose was defense. The ancient cities of Memphis, Thebes, Babylon, and several others were already imposing aggregations of human beings and were centers of administration and of culture. Such a vast literature exists on the Greek city-state and on Rome, that is available in almost any library, that only a few references need be cited here.

Clerget, Pierre. “Urbanism: A Historic, Geographic, and Economic Study,” _Smithsonian Institution Annual Report, 1912_ (Washington, D.C., 1913), pp. 653–67. (II, 2, 3; III; V, 1, 2, 3; VI; VII; VIII.)

Coulanges, Fustel de. _The Ancient City: A Study of the Religion, Laws, and Institutions of Greece and Rome_ (Boston, 1894). Translated by Willard Small.

Davis, W. S. _A Day in Old Athens: A Picture of Athenian Life_ (New York, 1914).

Fowler, W. W. _The City-State of the Greeks and Romans_ (London and New York, 1895). (I, 2.)

Friedländer, L. _Roman Life and Manners under the Early Empire._ Authorized translation by L. A. Magnus from the 7th rev. ed. of the _Sittengeschichte Roms_ (London, 1908–13), 4 vols. (III, 4.)

Rostovtzeff, Michael. “Cities in the Ancient World,” in volume _Urban Land Economics_, edited by R. T. Ely, Institute for Research in Land Economics, Ann Arbor, 1922.

Zimmern, Alfred E. _The Greek Commonwealth: Politics and Economics in Fifth-Century Athens_ (2d rev. edition; Oxford, 1915).

2. Historians are still doubtful whether the medieval city was the product of a continuous growth starting with Rome or whether, around the year 1000, the city was born anew after some centuries of reversion to a simpler form of social life. There is little doubt, however, that the medieval city not only had a different structure but also played a decidedly different rôle than the Greek or the Roman city. The typical medieval city was fortified and had achieved a certain degree of political autonomy from the central government. It played its leading rôle, however, as the center of trade and commerce and the home of the guilds. With the sixteenth century there came an important change over the urban life of Europe. New inventions, such as that of gunpowder, made the city wall obsolete. The beginnings of industry spelled the doom of the narrow guild system. In the light of this new order of things the medieval city of a former day—which was really a town—either had to adapt itself to the new forces that had become operative and join the ranks of growing cities or else become sterile and sink into decay.

Bax, E. B. _German Culture, Past and Present_ (London, 1915).

Traces the development of the medieval German city. (II, 3).

Benson, E. _Life in a Medieval City, Illustrated by York in the Fifteenth Century_ (London, 1920).

Consentius, Ernst. _Alt-Berlin, Anno 1740_ (2d ed.; Berlin, 1911).

One of a great number of special studies in the early history of German towns and cities. (III, 6.)

Coulton, George Gordon. _Social Life in Britain from the Conquest to the Reformation_ (Cambridge, 1918).

Green, Alice S. A. (Mrs. J. R.) _Town Life in the Fifteenth Century_ (2 vols., New York, 1894). (III, 5.)

Pirenne, Henry. _Medieval Cities: Their Origins and the Revival of Trade._ (Princeton, N.J., 1925).

Traces the growth of cities and their institutions in relation to the revival of trade. (I, 4; III, 4; IV, 4; VII, 1.)

Preuss, Hugo. _Die Entwicklung des Deutschen Städtewesens_ (Leipzig, 1906).

A standard history of the development of the German city. (I, 2; II, 3; IV, 3; VI, 7; VII, 1.)

Stow, John. _The Survey of London_ (1598) (London and New York, 1908).

3. The modern city marks the advent of a new epoch in civilization. Its rise has been accompanied by, and, in turn, is the result of a profound revolution in economic, political, intellectual, and social life. The modern man is to so great an extent a product of the modern city that in order to grasp the full significance of the transformation the city has wrought we must get a view of its origins and development. The city, as we find it today, is by no means a finished product. Its growth is so rapid and its energy so great that it changes its complexion almost daily, and with it the character of mankind itself.

Baily, W. L. “Twentieth Century City,” _Amer. City_, XXXI (August, 1924), 142–43.

Beard, C. A. “Awakening of Japanese Cities,” _Review of Reviews_, LXIX (May, 1924), 523–27.

Bücher, Karl. _Industrial Evolution._ Translated by S. M. Wickett (London and New York, 1901).

The modern city from the standpoint of industrial society. (II, 1, 2; III, 4, 5; IV, 6; VII, 1; IX, 1.)

_Die Stadt Danzig: ihre geschichtliche Entwickelung und ihre öffentlichen Einrichtungen_ (Danzig, 1904).

Shows the development of a modern city and its characteristic institutions. (III, 1, 2, 3; VI.)

Ebeling, Martin. “Grossstadtsozialismus.” Vol. XLIV of _Grossstadtdokumente_, edited by Hans Ostwald (Berlin, 1905).

A cross-section of the modern city from the standpoint of the workingman. (IV, 3, 6; V, 2, 3; VI; VII, 2, 5; VIII, 1.)

Ende, A. von. _New York_ (Berlin, 1909).

Typical of a great number of descriptions of cities by travelers and writers of tourists’ guidebooks. The best known are those of Baedeker, of Leipzig, covering every important European city.

George, M. Dorothy. _London life in the XVIIIth Century_ (New York, 1925).

Contains an excellent selected bibliography on the city of London. A cross-section of London life on the threshold of the modern era. (III; VII, 1, 2.)

Hare, Augustus J. C. _Paris_ (London, 1900).

One of a series of books of various European cities, being intended as a guide for tourists.

Hessel, J. F. _The Destiny of the American City._ Champaign, Illinois, 1922.

The trend of American city growth and its problems.

Howe, Frederic C. _The Modern City and Its Problems_ (New York, 1915).

A short outline of the development of the modern city, a statement of the implications of city civilization, a discussion of the city as a physical mechanism, and suggestions for an extension of the principle of municipal ownership and management, city-planning, and co-operation. (III, 5; IV, 2, 3; V, 4, 5; VI; VII, 1, 2; IX, 3.)

Irwin, Will. _The City That Was: A Requiem of Old San Francisco_ (New York, 1906).

Johnson, Clarence Richard (editor). _Constantinople Today, or, the Pathfinder Survey of Constantinople: A Study in Oriental Social Life_ (New York and London, 1923). (III, 2; V; VI; VII; VIII; IX, 1, 3.)

Kirk, William (editor). _A Modern City: Providence, Rhode Island, and Its Activities_ (Chicago, 1909). (III, 4; VI; VII.)

“London: A Geographical Synthesis,” _Geog. Rev._, XIV (1924), 310–12.

A summary of the co-ordinated geographical study of a modern city. (III; IV; V; VI, 3.)

Pollock, H. M., and Morgan, W. S. _Modern Cities_ (New York, 1913).

A general study of American cities and their problems. (III, 6; V, 5; VI.)

Strong, Josiah. _The Twentieth Century City_ (New York, 1898).

Zueblin, Charles. _American Municipal Progress_ (new and revised edition; New York, 1916).

Attempts to formulate a science of “municipal sociology.” (VI; VII; VIII, 1.)

Almost every modern city has several histories of its recent development, and the current magazines contain a great deal of general information about particular cities. The list of typical works on the modern city might be extended indefinitely, but the numerous bibliographies already available make this task unnecessary. There are published bibliographies of some of the more important European and American cities. Books on London, for instance, are so numerous that there exists in the city of London a library devoted exclusively to works on that city. A similar volume of literature is available about Paris, Rome, and other centers of culture around which there has grown up an historical tradition which gives to the locality a world-wide human interest. There are a number of books on such cities as Moscow, the city of churches, which emphasize the fact that this metropolis has occupied a position of dominance in Russian life because of its spiritual leadership, which expresses itself institutionally in its magnificent cathedrals. There are other Meccas of this sort, the literature on which would occupy many pages.

The inclusion of such books as Augustus Hare’s _Paris_ and von Ende’s _New York_ in this list might well raise the question as to why these two rather unimportant works were included and others of a similar nature excluded. Their pertinence in this connection was thought to lie in the fact that they are typical of books on many cities which are intended as guides to tourists or represent accounts of travelers, which are not included in this bibliography, but which might prove of interest to the student dealing with the individualities and eccentricities of individual cities.

There has grown up in recent years a renewed interest in the variety and diversity of American cities. Many such books have appeared, often in series including several cities, which give more than a traveler’s account, and actually succeed in entering into the spirit of the city. Grace King’s volume on New Orleans is perhaps the best, if not the most representative, of these American volumes.

III. TYPES OF CITIES

Each city, like every other object in nature, is, in a sense, unique. A scientific study of the city presupposes, however, that a study of a number of cities will reveal certain classes or types, the members of which have certain common characteristics which mark them off from other types. There are, obviously, many criteria, on the basis of any one of which cities might be classified and distinguished from each other. Certain fundamental types appear in the literature of the subject of which the sociologist may profitably take note.

1. One of the very first characteristics that we observe about a city is its age. The difference between European and American cities in this respect is so obvious as to be inescapable. The cities of Western Europe, when compared with some of those of the Orient, again show their relative youth. A detailed study of the city reveals this important conservative influence of the early experiences of a city. Streets, walls, names, and the tradition that has grown up through centuries of existence leave their indelible impress upon the city as we find it today. Experienced observers are able to distinguish cities belonging to one historical period from those of another by their appearance, just as they are able to differentiate between the cities of adjoining countries. These differences show themselves not only in a dominant type of architecture, but also in general atmosphere, the mode of life of the inhabitants, and the activities that find expression in the life of the people.

Fleure, Herbert John. “Some Types of Cities in Temperate Europe,” _Geog. Rev._, X, No. 6 (1920), 357–74.

Traces the historical influences on the character of cities. (II; III, 2, 3, 5, 6.)

——. _Human Geography in Western Europe: A Study in Appreciation_ (London, 1919). (III.)

Fraser, E. “Our Foreign Cities,” _Sat. Eve. Post_, CXCVI (August 25, 1923), 14–15.

The background of its inhabitants gives the city its dominant atmosphere. (V, 3; VII, 2, 3.)

Gamble, Sidney D. _Peking: A Social Study_ (New York, 1921).

A survey of an oriental city. Incidentally reveals a strange variety of the modern city. (II; III, 4, 6; IV, 3; V; VI; VII; VIII; IX, 3.)

Hanslik, Erwin. _Biala: eine deutsche Stadt in Galizien_ (Wien: Teschen und Leipzig, 1909).

The persistence of a historical type in a changing environment. (III, 6.)

Homburg, F. “Names of Cities,” _Jour. Geog._, XV (September, 1916), 17–23.

Rhodes, Harrison. _American Towns and People_ (New York, 1920).

Uhde-Bernays, Herman. _Rothenburg of der Tauber_ (Leipzig, 1922).

One of a series of volumes on “cities of culture.” The persistence of the historical influences on the atmosphere of cities. (III, 6.)

2. The means of communication that are in use at any given period in history determine the location of human settlements. For this reason the dominant location of the ancient and medieval city was on the seacoast or near a navigable body of water. The founding and the development of cities still depends on their location with reference to the means of communication in use and the consequent accessibility of the region. The coming of the railroads made large inland cities possible. Settlements located favorably along the seacoast or along an important river or lake enjoy a natural advantage which has an important bearing on their growth. Location is an important competitive element which produces fundamental types.

Faris, J. T. “The Heart of the Middle West,” _Travel_, XLII (December, 1923), 30–34.

Geddes, Patrick. “Cities, and the Soils They Grow From.” _Survey Graphic_ (April, 1925), pp. 40–44.

A rather philosophical conception of the city as related to the natural environment. Suggestions concerning geotechnics, afforestation, and regional development. (III, 2, 3; V, 5.)

Jefferson, Mark. “Some Considerations on the Geographical Provinces of the United States,” _Ann. of the Ass. of Amer. Geographers_, VII (1917), 3–15.

Develops the theory that the country as a whole can be divided into provinces according to location on seacoast, inland lake, river, etc., and that the cities of each province are characterized by factors arising out of their location. (III, 3, 4; IV, 1, 6.)

Mercier, Marcel. _La Civilisation Urbaine au Mzab: Étude de Sociologie Africaine_ (Alger, 1922).

The study of an African city in a desert region, whose immediate site is determined by water supply and transportation routes. The directions and the limitation of the social activities of the community are dictated by the environment. (III, 1, 6; IV, 1, 6; V, 1; VI; VII, 2; IX, 1.)

Ratzel, Friedrich. “Die geographische Lage der grossen Städte,” in volume “_Die Grossstadt_,” edited by Th. Petermann, Dresden, 1903.

A thoroughgoing consideration of the location types of cities by one of the earliest and most competent students of the subject. Offers the theory, also held by Cooley (C. H. Cooley, _The Theory of Transportation_) that cities arise at the end of a route of transportation, or at a juncture of several such routes, or at the point where one route of transportation joins another; where, for instance, a land transportation route ends and a waterway begins. Ratzel also gives one of the earliest and soundest geographical definitions of the city: “A permanent condensation (or dense settlement) of human beings and human habitations covering a considerable area and situated in the midst (or at the juncture) of several routes of transportation.” (I; II; III, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6; IV, 1; V, 5; VII, 2.)

Ridgley, Douglas C. “Geographic Principles in the Study of Cities,” _Jour. of Geog._, XXIV (February, 1925), 66–78.

A reiteration of Cooley’s theory: “Population and wealth tend to collect wherever there is a break in transportation.” (I, 1; VII, 1, 2.)

Wright, Henry C. _The American City: An Outline of Its Development and Functions_ (Chicago, 1916).