Chapter i outlines the location of cities and classifies them

according to their purpose. The rest of the book is taken up with government, finance, administrative problems, such as health, police, education, housing, zoning, and the effect of the city on the citizens. (III, 3, 4; V, 4, 5; VI; VII, 2; IX.)

3. A classification in use especially among the geographers is that arising from differences in site. It is important to distinguish between the general situation of a city, i.e., its location with reference to the surrounding territory and the means of communication with other centers of population and resources, and its immediate local setting which influences its structure and growth and brings with it certain other more deep-seated consequences.

Biermann, Charles. “Situation et Site de Lausanne,” _Bull. Soc. Neuchateloise de Geog._, XXV (1916), 122–49. Reviewed in _Geog. Rev._, VI (1918), 285.

Distinguishes between general location and immediate site as factors determining the character of the city. Emphasizes the limitations imposed on the modern city by its medieval defensive system. (III, 1, 2; VI, 3.)

Brunhes, Jean. _Human Geography: An Attempt at a Positive Classification, Principles and Examples._ Translated by T. C. LeCompte (Chicago and New York, 1920).

The most comprehensive and basic work in human geography at the present time available. Discusses the city as a form of occupation of the soil. Describes the principles and gives many illustrations of the effect of location on the growth and the character of cities. (I, 1; II, 2, 3; III; IV; VII, 1, 2.)

King, C. F. “Striking Characteristics of Certain Cities,” _Jour. School Geog._, IV (1900), 201–7, 301–8, 370–91. (III, 1, 2, 4, 6.)

Semple, Ellen C. “Some Geographical Causes Determining the Location of Cities,” _Jour. School Geog._, I (1897), 225–31.

Smith, Joseph Russell. _Human Geography: Teachers’ Manual_ (Philadelphia and Chicago, 1922).

4. Cities may be classified according to the functions they characteristically perform in national or world economy. The competitive process tends to operate between cities as well as within cities, so as to give each city a rôle defining its status in the world-community. The capital city has certain features which distinguish it from a commercial and industrial city. The railroad city is fundamentally different from a resort city, from the religious Mecca, the university seat, and the international port. Even within these classes we find further specialization. Thus, we have a steel city, a film city, an automobile city, a rubber city, and a tool city. The ecological process on a national and world-wide scale is not sufficiently well known at the present time to permit of any definite system of classification, but that there is a strong tendency toward functional specialization between cities as entities is no longer open to doubt.

Cornish, Vaughan. _The Great Capitals: An Historical Geography_ (London, 1922).

A study of the variations within the type of city serving as a political center. A work which has given a great deal of impetus to the study of functional types of cities. (III, 1.)

“F.O.B. Detroit,” _Outlook_, III (1915), 980–86.

A sample of the industrial type of city which is built around the production of a single product—the automobile. (IV, 6; IX, 1.)

Homburg, F. “Capital Cities,” _Jour. Geog._, XIX (January, 1920), 8–15.

Kellogg, Paul U. (editor). _The Pittsburgh District_ (New York, 1914).

Introductory volume of the Pittsburgh Survey, one of the most comprehensive studies of an industrial, urban area. Contains material bearing on many phases of city structure and city life. (V; VI; VII; VIII; IX, 1, 3.).

Kenngott, George F. _The Record of a City: A Social Survey of Lowell, Massachusetts_ (New York, 1912).

A cross-section of a typical manufacturing city. (V; VI; VII; VIII; IX, 1, 3.)

McLean, Francis H., Todd, Robert E., and Sanborn, Frank B. _The Report of the Lawrence Survey_ (Lawrence, Massachusetts, 1917). (V; VI; VII; VIII; IX, 1, 3.)

“The Right of the Community to Exist,” _Living Age_, CIII (October 4, 1919), 46–48.

Roberts, Peter. _Anthracite Coal Communities_ (New York, 1904).

A study of mining communities in the United States. (V; VI; VII; VIII; IX, 1, 3.)

Steele, Rufus. “In the Sun-Spot,” _Sunset_, XXXIV (1915), 690–99.

A study of Los Angeles, the city of moving pictures. (IV, 6; IX, 1.)

Semple, Ellen. “Some Geographical Causes Determining the Location of Cities,” _Jour. School Geog._, I (1897), 225–31.

——. _Influences of Geographic Environment, on the Basis of Ratzel’s System of Anthropogeography_ (New York, 1911).

A comprehensive work dealing with the factors in the natural environment in relation to the settlement and the activity of man. (III, 2, 3.)

Tower, W. S. “Geography of American Cities,” _Bull. Amer. Geog. Soc._, XXXVII (1905), 577–88.

Distinguishes between industrial, commercial, political, and social centers and suggests that cities might combine several of these functions. Gives examples of each type, pointing out their distinctive characteristics. (III, 2, 3.)

Wood, Arthur Evans. _Some Unsolved Problems of a University Town_ (Philadelphia, 1920.)

A study of housing, public health, and dependency in Princeton, New Jersey. (VI, 10; VII, 5.)

In the current periodical literature one can find numerous articles dealing with the various functional types of cities of the present day. The _National Geographic Magazine_ has many numbers which are devoted to individual cities from this standpoint.

5. The town, the city, and the metropolis are genetically related concepts which represent three successive stages of an ever widening zone of interrelationships and influences. The town represents a local aggregation which is intimately bound up with a rather narrow surrounding rural periphery. It is the product of limited means of communication and constitutes a more or less self-sustaining economic unit. The city is a more highly specialized unit and, as a result, is a part of a wider interrelated area, while the metropolis tends to become a cosmopolitan unit based upon a relatively high degree of development of the means of communication. The differences between these three urban types is not only expressed in terms of number of inhabitants and area of occupation, but also in social organization and in attitudes. There is a tendency to divide the United States up into provinces according to the zone of influence of the greater metropolitan units dominating the surrounding territory and dependent upon it.

Cottrell, E. A. “Limited Town-Meetings in Massachusetts,” _Nat. Mun. Rev._, II (July, 1918), 433–34.

While dealing primarily with an administrative problem, points out one of the essential differences between town and city. (V, 3; VI, 7; IX, 3.)

Febvre, Lucien. _A Geographical Introduction to History._ Translated by E. G. Mountsford and T. H. Paxton (New York, 1925).

Contains a clear statement of the problems of human geography. Part III, chap. iii, on towns is suggestive. (I, 1; II; III.)

Gide, Charles. “L’habitation hors la ville,” _Revue Economique Internationale_ (January, 1925), 141–57.

Gilbert, Bernard. _Old England: A God’s-Eye-View of a Village_ (Boston, 1922).

A cross-section of village life and economy.

Gras, Norman S. B. “The Development of Metropolitan Economy in Europe and America,” _Amer. Hist. Rev._, XXVII (1921–22), 695–708.

Differentiates clearly between manorial, village, town, city, and metropolitan economy. (I, 4; II; III, 1; IV, 1, 2, 6; X, 1, 2.)

Lasker, B. “Unwalled Towns,” _Survey_, XLIII (March 6, 1920), 675–80.

Lohman, K. B. “Small Town Problems,” _Amer. City_, XXIII (July, 1920), 81.

Maine, Sir H. S. _Village Communities in the East and West_ (7th ed.; London, 1913).

The most authoritative English study of the village. (II, 1, 2; III, 1; IV, 3; VI, 7; X, 2.)

McVey, Frank L. _The Making of a Town_ (Chicago, 1913). (IV, 1, 2, 3; V, 4, 5; VI; VII, 1.)

Shine, Mary L. “Urban Land in the Middle Ages,” in volume, _Urban Land Economics_, Institute for Research in Land Economics (Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1922).

Shows the transition from town to city life. Contains valuable collection of material on the medieval city. (I, 2, 4; II, 2, 3; III; V, 4, 5; VI; VII, 2, 5; IX, 1; X, 1, 2.)

Sims, Newell Leroy. _The Rural Community, Ancient and Modern_ (New York, 1920). (II, 1, 2; III, 1, 6; IV, 1; V, 3.)

Slosson, P. “Small-Townism,” _Independent_, CVI (July 9, 1921), 106–7. (X, 2, 3.)

Wilson, Warren H. _Quaker Hill: A Sociological Study_ (New York, 1907).

A picture of a community held together by religious and social bonds. Shows the transition from a primary to a secondary type of contact. (V, 3; VII, 2; IX, 3.)

6. The city may be the unplanned product of the interaction of successive generations with the environment, or it may be the result of intentional activity with a specific end in view. We hear of ancient cities springing up at the will of an emperor bent on glorifying his name. There are cities in America that are the premeditated product of individuals or corporations bent on creating an adjunct to a factory. There are capital cities in America owing their existence to the decisions of a legislature. The planned city differs from the “natural” city not only in its structural form but in its functional aspects and its capacity for growth. Probably no planned city can grow into a metropolis if it does not somehow find for itself an important function in world-economy and earn its place in the competitive process.

Aurousseau, M. “Urban Geography: A Study of German Towns,” _Geog. Rev._, XI (October, 1921), 614–16.

A review of a German work (Geisler, Walter, “Beiträge zur Stadtgeographie.” _Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde_, Nos. 8–10 [Berlin, 1920], 274–96). Shows the influence of the old town plan on the development of the modern city. (II, 2, 3; III.)

Bodine, H. E. “Study of Local History Teaches Value of City-Planning,” _American City_, XXV (September, 1921), 241–45.

Cushing, C. P. “Rambler on the Standardized City,” _Travel_, XXIX (July, 1917), 40.

Ely, Richard T. “Pullman: A Social Study,” _Harper’s New Monthly Magazine_, LXX (December, 1884), 453–65.

While more of a general survey than a special study of the influence of the city plan upon the actual growth of the city, it does show some disharmonies arising out of the attempt to control a planned urban project in the face of growth and unexpected complications. (IV, 4; VII, 3; IX, 1.)

Ormiston, E. “Public Control of the Location of Towns,” _Econ. Jour._, XXVIII (December, 1918), 374–85.

Shows some of the abortive attempts to establish towns in unfavorably situated environments. Suggests public control as a possible preventive measure, if based on thorough study of all factors involved in the possibilities for growth and development. (III, 2, 3, 4; IV, 6.)

Whitbeck, R. H. “Selected Cities of the United States,” _Jour. Geog._, XXI (September, 1922), 205–42.

Contains several maps showing city structure.

The city-planning literature contains many instances of comparisons between planned cities and natural cities as well as examples of the effects of the city plan on the actual development of the city, and the opposite phenomenon—the effect of the natural development of the city on the city plan.

IV. THE CITY AND ITS HINTERLAND

Far from being an arbitrary clustering of people and buildings, the city is the nucleus of a wider zone of activity from which it draws its resources and over which it exerts its influence. The city and its hinterland represent two phases of the same mechanism which may be analyzed from various points of view.

1. Just as Galpin, in his _Social Anatomy of a Rural Community_, was able to determine the limits of the community by means of the area over which its trade routes extend, so the city may be delimited by the extent of its trading area. From the simpler area around it the city gathers the raw materials, part of which are essential to sustain the life of its inhabitants, and another part of which are transformed by the technique of the city population into finished products which flow out again to the surrounding territory, sometimes over a relatively larger expanse than the region of their origin. From another point of view the city sends out its tentacles to the remotest corners of the world to gather those sources of supply which are not available in the immediate vicinity, only to retail them to its own population and the rural region about it. Again, the city might be regarded as the distributor of wealth, an important economic rôle which has become institutionalized in a complex financial system.

Chisholm, George G. “The Geographical Relation of the Market to the Seats of Industry,” _Scott. Geog. Mag., April, 1910_.

Galpin, C. J. “The Social Anatomy of an Agricultural Community,” Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Wisconsin, _Research Bulletin 34_ (Madison, Wisconsin, 1915).

Deals primarily with trade routes of an agricultural area, but throws considerable light on the urban trade area. (V, 2; X, 2.)

Levainville, Jacques. “Caen: Notes sur l’évolution de la fonction urbaine,” _La Vie Urbaine_, V (1923), 223–78.

Through its emphasis on the economic functions of the city this study makes clear the significance of the trade areas.

Newspapers, business houses, and mail-order houses in particular have published numerous discussions and graphic statements of their circulation or their trade relations with the surrounding territory. Such documents are to be found in numerous specialized trade and commercial journals. In addition there are government reports and publications of chambers of commerce bearing on this question.

2. One of the outstanding prerequisites of any city is a local transportation system which makes possible ready access of the population living in diverse sections to their places of work, the centers of trade, of culture, and of other social activities. The city consists of not merely a continuous densely populated and built up area, but of suburbs and outlying regions which by means of rapid transit are within easy reach of urban activities. This area has been termed the commuting area. Although the inhabitants of this larger area of settlement may not be under the same taxing, policing, and governing authorities as the inhabitants of the city proper, they think of themselves as part of the same metropolis and actively participate in its life.

Edel, Edmund. _Neu Berlin_, volume L in “Grossstadt Dokumente Series,” edited by Hans Ostwald, Berlin, 1905.

Discusses the changes brought about by recent growth in the city of Berlin, with emphasis on the recently built-up suburbs. (VII, 1, 2, 4.)

Lueken, E. “Vorstadtprobleme,” _Schmollers Jahrb._, XXXIX (1915), 1911–20.

Discussion of the governmental and technical problems brought about by the rise of the suburbs. (IV, 3; V, 1; VI.)

Wright, Henry C. “Rapid Transit in Relation to the Housing Problem,” in _Proceedings of the Second National Conference on City Planning_ (Rochester, 1910), pp. 125–35.

Considers the possibility of distributing the urban population in the suburbs by building up a rapid transit system. (VI, 2, 3, 10.)

3. That part of the inhabitants of a given metropolitan area who actually are under the same administrative machinery may constitute only a relatively small part of the inhabitants of the metropolitan district as a whole. The size of the administrative unit tends to lag behind the size of the metropolis proper. Suburbs are incorporated gradually, and changes in charters and legal organization often do not keep pace with the rapid expansion of the district. The city of London proper is only a relatively small part of metropolitan London. As a result of such anomalous situations many difficulties occur in interpreting statistical data compiled by governmental agencies.

Gross, Charles. _Bibliography of British Municipal History_ (New York, 1897). (I, 2; VI, 7.)

Howe, Frederic C. _European Cities at Work_ (New York, 1913).

A general survey of the structure and the government of the European city. (II, 3; VI; VII, 1.)

——. _The British City: The Beginnings of Democracy_ (New York, 1907). (II, 2, 3; VI.)

Kales, Albert M. _Unpopular Government in the United States_ (Chicago, 1914).

A discussion of the administrative problems of the city, emphasizing the anomalous situations brought about by legal restrictions in the face of urban development. (VI, 7; X, 1, 2.)

Maxey, C. C. “Political Integration of Metropolitan Communities,” _National Munic. Rev._, XI (August, 1922), 229–53. (IV, 2; VI, 7.)

Wilcox, Delos F. _The American City: A Problem in Democracy_ (New York, 1906).

A work dealing mainly with the administration of the city. Chapter i, “Democracy and City Life in America,” chapter ii on “The Street,” and v on “The Control of Leisure” are suggestive. (VI; VII, 5.)

4. One of the latest phases of city growth is the development of satellite cities. These are generally industrial units growing up outside the boundaries of the administrative city, which, however, are dependent upon the city proper for their existence. Often they become incorporated into the city proper after the city has inundated them, and thus lose their identity. The location of such satellites may exert a determining influence upon the direction of the city’s growth. These satellites become culturally a part of the city long before they are actually incorporated into it.

Taylor, Graham Romeyn. _Satellite Cities: A Study of Industrial Suburbs_ (New York and London, 1915).

The most comprehensive study of its kind. (III, 4; VII, 2; IX, 1.)

Wright, R. “Satellite Cities,” _Bellman_, XXV (November 16, 1918), 551–52.

5. The city has come to be recognized as the center of culture. Innovations in social life and in ideas gravitate from the city to the country. Through its newspapers, theaters, schools, and museums, through its traveling salesmen and mail-order houses, through its large representation in the legislatures, and through many other points of contact with the inhabitants of the rural periphery about it, the city diffuses its culture over a large area. The city is in this respect an important civilizing agent.

Desmond, S. “America’s City Civilization: The Natural Divisions of the United States,” _Century_, CVIII (August, 1924), 548–55.

Holds that America is creating a new type of city civilization of a decentralized type. Several outstanding American cities are described as cultural entities and as exerting a dominating influence over a large rural area, thus suggesting the emergence of cultural provinces. (III, 1, 2, 3; IX, 2.)

Petermann, Theodor. “Die geistige Bedeutung der Grossstädte,” in the volume, _Die Grossstadt_ (Dresden, 1903).

One of the best concise statements on the cultural significance of the city from the standpoint of the rural periphery. (IV, 6; IX, 1, 2; X, 1, 2, 3.)

Wells, Joseph. _Oxford and Oxford Life_ (London, 1899).

An example of a cultural type of city from the functional standpoint, and its influence. (II, 2, 3; III, 4.)

There are a number of studies of cities as cultural centers. The city of Moscow has often been described as the city of churches, for instance, and as such has exercised an influence over the life of Russia all out of proportion to its function in other respects. Similar studies are available of Rome, Venice, Dresden, and a number of others.

6. With the advent of modern methods of communication the whole world has been transformed into a single mechanism of which a country or a city is merely an integral part. The specialization of function, which has been a concomitant of city growth, has created a state of interdependence of world-wide proportions. Fluctuations in the price of wheat on the Chicago Grain Exchange reverberate to the remotest part of the globe, and a new invention anywhere will soon have to be reckoned with at points far from its origin. The city has become a highly sensitive unit in this complex mechanism, and in turn acts as a transmitter of such stimulation as it receives to a local area. This is as true of economic and political as it is of social and intellectual life.

Baer, M. _Der internationale Mädchenhandel_, Vol. XXXVII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Shows that the large city is the center of the world white-slave traffic. (III, 4; VII, 5; IX, 4.)

Bernhard, Georg. _Berliner Banken_, Vol. VIII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

While primarily a study of Berlin banks, shows the large city as the center of the economic life of the world. (III, 4; V, 1; IX, 1, 4.)

Jefferson, Mark. “Distribution of British Cities and the Empire,” _Geog. Rev._, IV (November, 1917), 387–94.

“English cities are unique in that they have taken the whole world for their countryside.... The conception of the British empire as the direct result of English trade in English manufactures, which in turn are largely a response to English treasures in coal and iron, is strongly reenforced by the distribution of her great cities.” (III, 4; VI, 8.)

Olden, Balder. _Der Hamburger Hafen_, Vol. XLVI in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

The influence of world-commerce on the city. (III, 3, 4; IV, 4; V, 1; IX, 1, 4.)

Penck, Albrecht. _Der Hafen von New York_, Vol. IV of the collection, “Meereskunde” (Berlin, 1910).

An excellent view of the traffic in the harbor of New York. (III, 2, 3, 4.)

Zimmern, Helen. _Hansa Towns_ (New York, 1895).

An historical example of a typical function of cities in world-economy. (I, 2; II, 2.)

V. THE ECOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION OF THE CITY

Just as the city as a whole is influenced in its position, function, and growth by competitive factors which are not the result of the design of anyone, so the city has an internal organization which may be termed an ecological organization, by which we mean the spatial distribution of population and institutions and the temporal sequence of structure and function following from the operation of selective, distributive, and competitive forces tending to produce typical results wherever they are at work. Every city tends to take on a structural and functional pattern determined by the ecological factors that are operative. The internal ecological organization of a city permits of more intensive study and accurate analysis than the ecology of the city from the external standpoint. For the latter phase of the subject we will have to rely on further investigations of the economists, the geographers, and the statisticians. The facts of the local groupings of the population that arise as a result of ecological factors are, however, readily accessible to the sociologist.

I. Plant ecologists have been accustomed to use the expression “natural area” to refer to well-defined spatial units having their own peculiar characteristics. In human ecology the term “natural area” is just as applicable to groupings according to selective and cultural characteristics. Land values are an important index to the boundaries of these local areas. Streets, rivers, railroad properties, street-car lines, and other distinctive marks or barriers tend to serve as dividing lines between the natural areas within the city.

Addams, Jane. _A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil_ (New York, 1912).

A discussion of vice and the vice district in Chicago. (V, 4; VI, 6.)

Anderson, Nels. _The Hobo: The Sociology of the Homeless Man_ (Chicago, 1923).

The study of a typical deteriorated area in the city where the homeless men congregate. (VII, 5; IX, 4.)

Bab, Julius. _Die Berliner Bohème_, Vol. II in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

An intimate study of a natural area which has developed an exotic atmosphere as a result of the social isolation of its members and their peculiar personalities. At the same time furnishes an excellent history of a local community and is a unique contribution to the mentality of city life. (V, 3; VII, 2; IX, 2, 3, 4.)

Booth, Charles. _Life and Labor of the People of London_ (London, 1892).

The most comprehensive study of London in existence. Especially interesting in this connection for its description of the natural areas of that city. Volume V, on East London, offers a wealth of insight into city life. These volumes cover almost every phase of city life and should be cross-referenced with most of the categories suggested in this outline.

Brown, Junius Henri. _The Great Metropolis: A mirror of New York_ (Hartford, 1869).

Gives a view of New York at about the middle of the nineteenth century. Is of interest for a comparative study of the city then, and now from the point of view of its natural divisions. (VII, 2; IX, 1.)

Denison, John Hopkins. _Beside the Bowery_ (New York, 1914). (VII, 2.)

Dietrich, Richard. _Lebeweltnächte der Friedrichstadt_, Vol. XXX in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A view of Berlin’s bright-light area. (VI, 6; VII, 2, 5; IX.)

Goldmark, Pauline. _West-Side Studies_ (New York, 1914).

Historical and social investigations of local urban areas, especially from the point of view of social welfare and pathology. (V, 2, 3; VI; VII, 2, 5; VIII; IX, 1.)

Harper, Charles George. _Queer Things about London; Strange Nooks and Corners of the Greatest City in the World_ (Philadelphia, 1924). (II, 3; V, 2, 3; VI, 3, 5, 8, 10.)

Kirwan, Daniel Joseph. _Palace and Hovel, or Phases of London Life; Being Personal Observations of an American in London_ (Hartford, 1870). (II, 3; VI; VII, 2; IX, 1, 4.)

Ostwald, Hans O. A. _Dunkle Winkel in Berlin_, Vol. I in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A description of the more obscure areas in Berlin, particularly those of the underworld. (II, 3; VII, 2; IX, 2, 3, 4.)

Scharrelmann, Heinrich. _Die Grossstadt; Spaziergänge in die Grossstadt Hamburg_, 1921.

Sketches of city areas encountered in a walk about the city.

Seligman, Edwin R. A. (editor). _The Social Evil, with Special Reference to Conditions Existing in the City of New York_ (New York and London, 1912).

The vice area of a large city. Typical of a number of surveys of moral areas in the larger cities of the United States. Compare, for instance, with the report of the Illinois investigation, _The Social Evil in Chicago_. (VII, 2, 5; IX, 1.)

Smith, F. Berkley. _The Real Latin Quarter_ (New York, 1901). (V, 3; VII, 2; IX, 2, 3, 4.)

Strunsky, Simeon. _Belzhazzar Court, or, Village Life in New York City_ (New York, 1914). (V, 2, 3; VII, 2; IX, 2, 3, 4.)

Timbs, John. _Curiosities of London_ (London, 1868). (IX, 1, 4.)

Werthauer, Johannes. _Moabitrium_, Vol. XXXI of the “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A report of a personal investigation of the rooming-house area of Berlin. (VII, 2, 4; IX, 2, 3, 4.)

Woods, Robert A. _The City Wilderness: A Settlement Study of South End, Boston_ (Boston and New York, 1898).

One of a number of similar studies viewing the city and its slums from the standpoint of the settlement worker. (V, 2, 3; VI; VII, 5.)

Young, Erle Fiske. “The Social Base Map,” _Jour. App. Sociol._, IX (January-February, 1925) 202–6.

A graphic device for the study of natural areas. (VII, 2.)

2. The neighborhood is typically the product of the village and the small town. Its distinguishing characteristics are close proximity, co-operation, intimate social contact, and strong feeling of social consciousness. While in the modern city we still find people living in close physical proximity to each other, there is neither close co-operation nor intimate contact, acquaintanceship, and group consciousness accompanying this spatial nearness. The neighborhood has come to mean a small, homogeneous geographic section of the city, rather than a self-sufficing, co-operative, and self-conscious group of the population.

Daniels, John. _America via the Neighborhood_ (New York, 1920). (V, 3; IX, 3.)

Felton, Ralph E. _Serving the Neighborhood_ (New York, 1920). (V, 3; VI, 4.)

Jones, Thomas Jesse. _The Sociology of a New York City Block_, “Columbia University Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law,” Vol. XXI (New York, 1904).

A minute cross-section of a congested urban block. (VI; VII, 2, 4, 5; VIII; IX, i, 3.)

McKenzie, R. D. _The Neighborhood: A Study of Local Life in Columbus, Ohio_ (Chicago, 1923).

An excellent study of local groupings. (V, 1, 3; VII, 1, 2, 4, 5.)

Perry, Clarence A. “The Relation of Neighborhood Forces to the Larger Community: Planning a City Neighborhood from the Social Point of View,” _Proceedings of the National Conference of Social Work_ (Chicago, 1924), pp. 415–21. (V, 2, 3; VII, 5.)

White, Bouck. _The Free City: A Book of Neighborhood_ (New York, 1919).

A fantastic, sentimental picture of what city life might become if the author’s views of social organization were a reality. (V, 3, 5; IX, 1, 2, 3.)

Williams, James M. _Our Rural Heritage; the Social Psychology of Rural Development_ (New York, 1925).

A book which has as its subject matter the analysis of rural life in New York State up to about the middle of the last century. Chapter iii deals with the distinction between neighborhood and community. (V, 3; X, 1, 2, 3.)

3. The local community and the neighborhood in a simple form of society are synonymous terms. In the city, however, where specialization has gone very far, the grouping of the population is more nearly by occupation and income than by kinship or common tradition. Nevertheless, in the large American city, in particular, we find many local communities made up of immigrant groups which retain a more or less strong sense of unity, expressing itself in close proximity and, what is more important, in separate and common social institutions and highly effective communal control. These communities may live in relative isolation from each other or from the native communities. The location of these communities is determined by competition, which can finally be expressed in terms of land values and rentals. But these immigrant communities, too, are in a constant process of change, as the economic condition of the inhabitants changes or as the areas in which they are located change.

Besant, Walter. _East London_ (London, 1912).

A remarkable account of an isolated community in a metropolis. (V, 1; VII, 2; IX, 1, 2, 3, 4.)

Buchner, Eberhard. _Sekten und Sektierer in Berlin_, Vol. VI in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1904).

An intimate account of the habitat of the many obscure religious sects that congregate in local communities in the large city. (VII, 2; IX, 2, 3, 4.)

Burke, Thomas. _Twinkletoes: A Tale of Chinatown_ (London, 1917).

A romantic account of London’s Chinatown. (VII, 2.)

Daniels, John. _In Freedom’s Birthplace_ (Boston and New York, 1914).

The Negro community in Boston. (VII, 2.)

Dreiser, Theodore. _The Color of a Great City_ (New York, 1923).

The various aspects of city life by an observer with keen insight and rare literary genius. (IX, 2, 4)

Dunn, Arthur W. _The Community and the Citizen_ (Boston, 1909).

An elementary textbook in civics. Gives a simple presentation of the concept community. (V, 3, 2; I, 4; II, 3; IV, 3; VI.)

Eldridge, Seba. _Problems of Community Life: An Outline of Applied Sociology_ (New York, 1915).

A sociological textbook dealing with the various phases of community organization and disorganization. (V, 2, 4, 5; VI; VII, 5; VIII; IX, 3.)

Hebble, Charles Ray, and Goodwin, Frank P. _The Citizens Book_ (Cincinnati, 1916).

Discusses the foundations of community life, its cultural activities, business interests, governmental activities, and gives suggestions on the future city. (VI, 7; IX, 3.)

Jenks, A. E. “Ethnic Census in Minneapolis,” _Amer. Jour. Sociol._, XVII (1912), 776–82.

The ethnic groupings in a large city.

_Jewish Community of New York City: The Jewish Communal Register of New York City_ (New York, 1917–18).

A collection of studies on the organization, size, distribution, history, and activities of the New York Jewish Community. (VII, 2, 3, 4, 5; IX, 3, 4.)

Katcher, Leopold (pseudonym, “Spektator”). _Berliner Klubs_, Vol. XXV in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

An inside view of club life in Berlin. (VI, 6; IX, 1, 2, 3, 4.)

Lucas, Edw. V. _The Friendly Town: A Little Book for the Urbane_ (New York, 1906). (V, 1; IX, 2, 3.)

Maciver, R. M. _Community; a Sociological Study, Being an Attempt to Set Out the Nature and Fundamental Laws of Social Life_ (London, 1917).

Distinguishes between natural areas and communities, showing how occupational and cultural groupings enter into the political process. (IV, 3; V, 1, 2, 4; VI, 7.)

Maurice, Arthur Bartlett. _The New York of the Novelists_ (New York, 1916).

The New York as seen through the eyes of literary men.

Park, Robert E., and Miller, H. A. _Old-World Traits Transplanted_ (New York, 1921).

A study of immigrant communities. (VII, 2, 5; IX, 3, 4.)

Sears, C. H. “The Clash of Contending Forces in Great Cities,” _Biblical World_, XLVIII (October, 1916), 224–31. (VII, 5; IX, 1, 3.)

Symposium, “The Greatest Negro Community in the World,” _Survey Graphic_, LIII (March 1, 1925), No. 11.

A collection of articles on the Negro community in Harlem, New York. (VII, 2, 3; IX, 1, 3, 4; X, 1.)

Williams, Fred V. _The Hop-Heads: Personal Experiences among the Users of “Dope” in the San Francisco Underworld_ (San Francisco, 1920). (VII, 2; IX, 3, 4.)

4. The city may be graphically depicted in terms of a series of concentric circles, representing the different zones or typical areas of settlement. At the center we find the business district, where land values are high. Surrounding this there is an area of deterioration, where the slums tend to locate themselves. Then follows an area of workmen’s homes, followed in turn by the middle-class apartment section, and finally by the upper-class residential area. Land values, general appearance, and function divide these areas off from each other. These differences in structure and use get themselves incorporated in law in the form of zoning ordinances. This is an attempt, in the face of the growth of the city, to control the ecological forces that are at work.

Cheney, C. H. “Removing Social Barriers by Zoning,” _Survey_, XLIV (May, 1922), 275–78. (V, 1, 5; VII, 2.)

Eberstadt, Rudolph. _Handbuch des Wohnungswesens und der Wohnungsfrage_ (4th ed.; Jena, 1910).

An encyclopedic work on housing, city-zoning, and planning. (VI, 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10; VII.)

Kern, Robert R. _The Supercity: A Planned Physical Equipment for City Life_ (Washington, D.C., 1924).

A planned model city with co-operative services of many sorts, with zoning as an important feature. (V, 5; VI.)

Wuttke, R. _Die deutschen Städte_ (2 vols.; Leipzig, 1904).

A collection of articles on various technical phases of city life. Article 4, “Die Baupolizei,” by Oberbaukommissar Gruner, is a discussion of the public regulation of buildings and the function of zoning and building codes in the modern city. (VI; VII, 3; VII, 1, 2.)

In addition there are available reports of zoning commissions of the various cities and numerous articles in magazines dealing with the administrative aspects of city life, such as _The American City_, in which digests, criticisms, and discussions of these zoning devices may be found.

5. The needs of communal life impose upon the city a certain degree of order which sometimes expresses itself in a city plan which is an attempt to predict and to guide the physical structure of the city. The older European cities appear more like haphazard, unplanned products of individualistic enterprise than the American cities with their checkerboard form. And yet, most European cities were built according to some preconceived plan which attempted to take account of the needs of the community and the limitations of the environment. There is a tendency, however, for the city to run counter to the plan which was laid out for it, as is seen, for instance, in the problems of city-planning of the city of Washington. The fact is that the city is a dynamic mechanism which cannot be controlled in advance unless the conditions entering into its genesis and its growth are fully known. City-planning, which has grown into a highly technical profession, is coming to be more concerned with studying the problems of a changing institution, with city growth, and the forces operating in city life than with the creation of artistic schemes of city structure. On the one hand the importance of devising a scheme of wholesome, orderly existence in the city is being recognized, on the other hand, the limitations of any attempt to make the city conform to an artificial plan impresses itself upon the experience of the technicians engaged in this work.

Agache, Auburtin and Redont. _Comment reconstruire nos cités destruites_, reviewed in _Scott. Geog. Mag._, XXXIII, 348–52, and _Annales de Geog._, January, 1917, by F. Schrader.

A criticism of suggested plans for the reconstruction of cities in the French devastated area. (III, 6.)

American Institute of Architects. _City-Planning Progress in the United States_ (New York, 1917).

Bartlett, Dana W. _The Better City: A Sociological Study of a Modern City_ (Los Angeles, 1907). (III, 6.)

_English Catalogue_, “International Cities and Town-Planning Exhibition, Gothenburg, Sweden, 1923.”

A comprehensive summary of the town-planning movement. A work to be consulted by all students of the subject. (II, 3; V, 4.)

Geddes, P. _Cities in Evolution: An Introduction to the Town-Planning Movement and the Study of Civics_ (London, 1915).

An introductory statement by the foremost authority in England. (II; III; IV, 2; V, 4; VI, 3, 5, 6, 9; VII, 1, 2.)

Haverfield, F. J. _Ancient Town Planning_ (Oxford, 1913). (II, 1; III, 6.)

Hughes, W. R. _New Town: A Proposal in Agricultural, Industrial, Educational, Civic, and Social Reconstruction_ (London, 1919).

Lewis, Nelson P. _The Planning of the Modern City: A Review of the Principles Governing City-Planning_ (New York, 1916).

Mulvihill, F. J. “Distribution of Population Graphically Represented as a Basis for City-Planning,” _American City_, XX (February, 1919), 159–61. (VII, 2.)

Purdom, C. B. _The Garden City_ (London, 1913). (IV, 6.)

Roberts, Kate L. _The City Beautiful: A Study of Town-Planning and Municipal Art_ (New York, 1916). (VI, 3, 5, 6.)

Sennett, A. R. _Garden Cities in Theory and Practice_ (2 vols.; London, 1905). (III, 6.)

Stote, A. “Ideal American City,” _McBride’s_, XCVII (April, 1916), 89–99.

Symposium. “Regional Planning,” _Survey Graphic_, May 1, 1925.

Contains a series of suggestive articles on various aspects of city growth and city-planning. (V, 5; VII, 1, 2, 3; III, 6.)

Tout, T. F. _Medieval Town-Planning_ (London, 1907). (II, 2; III, 6.)

Triggs, H. Inigo. _Town Planning_ (London, 1909).

VI. THE CITY AS A PHYSICAL MECHANISM

The aggregation of large numbers of human beings within a restricted area, as is represented by the modern city, makes possible, and at the same time makes imperative, the communal effort to satisfy certain essential needs of all the inhabitants. The manner in which these needs are met has become institutionalized. The facilities which have been created to meet these needs make up the physical structure of the city as a social mechanism.

1. The need for uninterrupted water supply, fuel, and light have brought it about that the means of satisfying these wants are either in the hands of the city as a corporate body, or, if in private hands, are controlled and regulated by the city government. These public utilities are of interest to the sociologist only in so far as they have a bearing on group life and call forth attitudes, sentiments, and behavior which influences the group. These factors may have an important relation to the ecological organization of the city, and may furnish indexes to the selective and distributive processes which result in the grouping of the population. The lighting of the city may have a direct bearing on the crime of the city, the water supply, on the health, etc. The regulation of public utilities may become issues at elections and call forth factionalism, thus bringing into play the social groupings in the community.

Fassett, Charles M. _Assets of the Ideal City_ (New York, 1922).

A brief statement of various structural aspects of the city, with a bibliography. (V, 4, 5; VI.)

Grahn, E. “Die städtischen Wasserwerke,” in Wuttke, _Die Deutschen Städte_ (Leipzig, 1904), pp. 301–44.

A statement of the water-supply problem in German cities.

Höffner, C. “Die Gaswerke,” in Wuttke, _Die Deutschen Städte_ (Leipzig, 1904), pp. 198–238.

A statement of the evolution and present status of the technique of gas supply in the modern city.

Jephson, H. L. _The Sanitary Evolution of London_ (London, 1907). (VI.)

Kübler, Wilhelm. “Über städtische Elektrizitätswerke,” in Wuttke, _Die Deutschen Städte_, pp. 239–300.

An account of the municipal electricity works in German cities.

Most books on the modern city contain a chapter on public utilities, and a great many technical journals and municipal reports are accessible giving detailed accounts of various aspects of both the technical, the administrative, and the functional sides of the public utility situation.

2. One of the most characteristic features of city life is the high degree of intercommunication. This is made possible by technical devices, such as the telephone, street cars, and the automobile. While the sociologist has no intrinsic interest in these technical devices, they become an object of study as factors entering, for instance, into the problem of mobility of the city population.

D’Avenel, G. le Vicomte. _Le Mécanisme de la Vie moderne_ (3 vols.; Paris, 1922).

Among many other aspects of the city as a physical mechanism, has a chapter on publicity, urban transportation, and communication. This work has gone through many editions and is written in a popular style. (VI; IX, 1.)

Harris, Emerson Pitt. _The Community Newspaper_ (New York, 1923). (IX, 3.)

Kingsbury, J. E. _The Telephone and Telephone Exchanges: Their Invention and Development_ (London and New York, 1915).

Lewis, H. M., and Goodrich, E. P. _Highway Traffic in New York and Its Environs_ (New York, 1924).

The results of a study embodied in a report for the Committee on a Regional Plan for New York and its Environs. (IV, 2; V, 4, 5; VI, 2; VII, 2, 4.)

Park, Robert E. _The Immigrant Press and Its Control_ (New York, 1922).

A study of the organization and the influence of the press in the immigrant communities of the large city (IX, 3.)

The municipal transportation and communication question has developed a large literature which is to be found in many separate works on the telephone, telegraph, radio, street-car systems, busses, automobile, mail service, newspaper, and railways as well as in municipal reports, technical and administrative journals, and textbooks on the city.

3. The existence of streets, pavement, alleys, sewers, and other devices of the same sort that characterize the city as a physical mechanism influence the behavior of the person and the group, and as such are of interest to the sociologist.

Hirschfeld, Magnus. _Die Gurgel Berlins_, Vol. XLI in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A study of the main street of Berlin from the standpoint of its effect on the individual and as a revelation of city life. (VI, 2; VII, 2, 4.)

Quaife, Milo Milton. _Chicago’s Highways, Old and New_ (Chicago, 1923).

The changes wrought in the character of the city as viewed from the point of view of the streets. (VI, 2; VII, 1, 2.)

Whipple, G. C. “Economical and Sanitary Problems of American Cities,” _American City_ (February, 1921), p. 112. (VI.)

4. The many devices in the realm of public safety and welfare which are the characteristic product of the city, such as fire department, police, health inspection, and the manifold activities of the social agencies concern the sociologist as typical expressions of group life in the city environment.

Addams, Jane. _Twenty Years at Hull House; With Autobiographical Notes_ (New York, 1910).

City life as seen in a typical social agency—the social settlement. (V, 2, 3; VII, 5.)

Assessor (pseudonym). _Die Berliner Polizei_, Vol. XXXIV in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A personal account of the police force of the modern city. (IX, 1.)

Anonymous. _Berliner Gerichte_, Vol. XXIV in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Daily experiences in a typical city court.

Carbaugh, H. C. _Human Welfare Work in Chicago_ (Chicago, 1917).

A brief account of the various specialized social agencies operating in the large city. (VII, 5; IX, 1.)

Fitzpatrick, Edward A. _Interrelationships of Hospital and Community_, reprint from _Modern Hospital_, February, 1925. Pamphlet.

A sketch of the possible place and nature of a health agency in a modern urban community.

Fosdick, Raymond, and Associates. _Criminal Justice in Cleveland_, directed and edited by Roscoe Pound and Felix Frankfurter (Cleveland, 1922). (VI, 7.)

Fosdick, Raymond B. _European Police Systems_ (New York, 1915).

——. _American Police Systems_ (New York, 1920).

Harrison, Shelby M. _Public Employment Offices; Their Purpose, Structure, and Method_ (New York, 1924). (IX, 1.)

Richmond, Mary E. _The Good Neighbor in the Modern City_ (Philadelphia and London, 1913).

Suggestions to the layman about the social agencies and their work in the large modern city. (V, 2; VII, 5.)

Wilson, Warren H. _The Evolution of the Country Community: A Study in Religious Sociology_ (Boston, New York, Chicago, 1912).

Gives types of organizations and institutions. (V, 3; X, 2.)

In almost every large city the number of social agencies and public institutions is so large and their work so varied that directories of these agencies have been made available. In addition, reports and surveys of many cities are at hand, and the periodical literature is tremendous.

5. The cultural needs of the community find expression in the city in the form of schools, theaters, museums, parks, monuments, and other public enterprises. They exert an influence extending beyond the boundaries of the city itself, and may be regarded as agencies for the definition of the person’s wishes. They are indicative of the level of social life which the community has achieved.

Carroll, Charles E. _The Community Survey in Relation to Church Efficiency_ (New York, 1915).

Typical of studies bearing on the place of religious and cultural agencies in city life. (X, 2.)

For a basic statement of the problem of education in the modern city, compare Dewey, John, _Democracy and Education_ (New York, 1916).

Moore, E. C. “Provision for the Education of the City Child,” _School and Society_, III (February 19, 1916), 265–72.

Phelan, J. J. _Motion Pictures as a Phase of Commercialized Amusement in Toledo, Ohio_ (Toledo, Ohio, 1919).

Tews, Johannes. _Berliner Lehrer_, Vol. XX in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

An intimate study of a professional group in the large city. (IX, 1.)

Trawick, Arcadius McSwain. _The City Church and Its Social Mission_ (New York, 1913).

Turszinsky, Walter. _Berliner Theater_, Vol. XXIX of “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905). (III, 4; V, 1; VI, 6.)

Ward, Edward J. _The Social Center_ (New York and London, 1915). (VI, 6; VII, 5.)

6. The leisure-time activities which the city produces are so intimately connected with the life of the people that they furnish clues as to the pathology or disorganization typical of city life. The dance hall, the movie, the amusement park, the back-yard or vacant lot improvised playground, and the many other forms of public, commercialized, or improvised recreation facilities are phases of group life which cannot escape the Sociologist.

Arndt, Arno. _Berliner Sport_, Vol. X in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Describes various specialized, institutionalized, and commercialized forms of sport life in Berlin. (IX, 2, 4.)

Bowman, LeRoy E., and Lambin, Maria Ward. “Evidences of Social Relations as Seen in Types of New York City Dance Halls,” _Jour. Social Forces_, III (January, 1925), 286–91. (IX, 2, 3, 4.)

Buchner, Eberhard. _Berliner Variétés und Tingeltangel_, Vol. XXII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Analysis of various types of the variété, cabaret, and burlesque, and the development of these institutions in the city. (IX, 1, 3, 4.)

Günther, Viktor. _Petersbourg s’amuse_, Vol. XXXII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

The recreational activities of the Russian capital. (III, 4; V, 1; IX, 2.)

Herschmann, Otto. _Wiener Sport_, Vol. XII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Describes the recreational activities of the dominant population groups in Vienna. (IX, 4.)

Ostwald, H. O. A. _Berliner Kaffeehäuser_, Vol. VII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Human behavior in the coffee houses of Berlin. (IX, 1, 4.)

——. _Berliner Tanzlokale_, Vol. IV in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Intimate glimpses of the diverse types of dance halls and their habitués. (V, 2, 3; VII, 5; IX, 1, 4.)

Phelan, John J. _Pool, Billiards, and Bowling Alleys as a Phase of Commercialized Amusement in Toledo_ (Toledo, 1919). (VII, 5)

Rhodes, H. “City Summers,” _Harper’s_, CXXXI (June, 1915), 2–15.

The seasonal aspects of city recreation.

7. The city government shows, perhaps more clearly than many other phases of city life, the extent to which the city has revolutionized social life and has changed the habits and attitudes of the people. In the city government we can see the various local, national, cultural, and interest groups attempting to exert their influence. In the city we see the political boss as a typical product of an anomalous situation. Here we find such phenomena as non-voting, the clash between local and occupational groups, and many other disharmonies between the needs of the people and the institutions that are present to satisfy them.

Bruere, Henry. _The New City Government_ (New York, 1913).

A study of the commission form of government in cities.

Capes, William Parr. _The Modern City and Its Government_ (New York, 1922).

Clerk (pseudonym). _Berliner Beamte_, Vol. XLIII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A study of the types of civil servants developed by modern city government. (IX, 1, 2, 4.)

Cleveland, Frederick A. _Chapters on Municipal Administration and Accounting_ (New York, 1909 and 1915).

Cummin, G. C. “Will the City-Manager Form of Government Fit All Cities—Large Cities—Machine-Controlled Cities?” _National Municipal Rev._, VII (May, 1918), 276–81.

Ely, Richard T. _The Coming City_ (New York, 1902).

An address taking up some of the problems connected with the government, public interest in administration, and corruption in the modern American city. (VII, 5.)

Gilbert, Arthur Benson. _American Cities: Their Methods of Business_ (New York, 1918).

Goodnow, Frank J. _City Government in the United States_ (New York, 1904 and 1909).

Hill, Howard C. _Community Life and Civic Problems_ (New York, 1922).

An elementary textbook for community civics classes. (V, 3; VI.)

McKenzie, R. D. “Community Forces: A Study of the Non-Partisan Municipal Elections in Seattle,” _Journal of Social Forces_ (January, March, May, 1924).

A study of the relation between local groupings and political attitudes. (IV, 3; V, 1, 2, 3; VII, 5; IX, 3.)

Munro, W. B. _Municipal Government and Administration_ (New York, 1923). (II, 3; IV, 3; VII, 1.)

——. _The Government of American Cities_ (3d ed.; New York, 1921).

A standard textbook on city government in the United States. By the same author, a companion volume, _The Government of European Cities_. (VI, 7; IV, 3.)

Odum, Howard W. _Community and Government: A Manual of Discussion and Study of the Newer Ideals of Citizenship_ (Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 1921).

Steffens, Lincoln. _The Shame of the Cities_ (New York, 1907).

An exposure of corruption in city governments. (VII, 5.)

Toulmin, Harry A. _The City Manager: A New Profession_ (New York, 1915). (IX, 1.)

Weber, G. A. _Organized Efforts for the Improvement of Methods of Administration in the United States_ (New York and London, 1919).

Weyl, Walter E. “The Brand of the City,” _Harper’s_, CXXX (April, 1915), 769–75.

Wilcox, Delos F. _Great Cities in America: Their Problems and Their Government_ (New York, 1910). (IV, 3; VI; VII, 1, 5.)

Zueblin, Charles. _A Decade of Civic Development_ (Chicago, 1905).

A discussion of the state of American city civilization at the beginning of the twentieth century. (V, 4, 5; VI; VII, 1; VIII, 1.)

8. The complexity, specialization, and dependence of the city are seen clearly in the methods by which the city gets its food supply and other vital necessities for the existence of the population. The food trains, milk trains, cattle trains, the miles of refrigerator cars and coal cars that daily enter the large city, the warehouses and the stores, the countless delivery wagons that line the streets—all these are evidence of what a tremendously complex and efficient organization has grown up to meet the urgent wants, the desires for subsistence and for luxury of our millions of city-dwellers. Here too we sometimes see examples of what anxiety and what calamity might result from the slightest interruption or dislocation in the methods of supplying the city with these varied specialties. The department store and the chain store are characteristic city institutions, corresponding to the grouping of the city population.

Colze, Leo. _Berliner Warenhäuser_, Vol. XLVII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Berlin stores. (III, 4; IV, 1; V, 1; IX, 1.)

Loeb, Moritz. _Berliner Konfektionen_, Vol. XV in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Ready-made clothing establishments. (V, 1, 4; IX, 1.)

Parker, Horatio Newton. _City Milk Supply_ (New York, 1917). (IV, 1.)

Shideler, E. H. “The Business Center as an Institution,” _Jour. Appl. Sociol._, IX (March, April, 1925), 269–75.

An outline of the local trade center in the urban community and its significance in city life. (IV, 1; V, 1, 2, 3; VII, 1, 2.)

9. One of the latest phases of city development is the direct result of the invention of a new technique of building. Steel construction has made possible the skyscraper, the elevated railroad, and the subway, and thus introduced a new dimension into city growth. This new technique has made possible a density, per unit of ground surface, which has given the city an entirely new complexion. The full effects of this new invention are still not fully known.

Holborn, I. B. S. “The City: The Outer Expression of an Inner Self,” _Art World_, III (December, 1917), 217–21. (III, 1; IX, 2.)

Mumford, Lewis. _Sticks and Stones: A Study of American Civilization_ (New York, 1925).

An evaluation and critique of the architectural aspects of American cities and their cultural significance. (V, 5; VI, 9; X, 2.)

Nichols, C. M. (editor). _Studies on Building-Height Limitations in Large Cities_ (Chicago, 1923).

Written from the point of view of the real-estate profession.

Schumacher, Fritz. “Architektonische Aufgaben der Städte,” in Wuttke, _Die Deutschen Städte_, pp. 47–66.

Discussion of the changing needs and methods in urban construction.

The literature on the significance of the steel-construction technique is still very small. The professional engineers and architects have contributed some to their journals, but the interpretation of their contributions is still to be made.

10. Land values are the chief determining influence in the segregation of local areas and in the determination of the uses to which an area is to be put. Land values also determine more specifically the type of building that is to be erected in a given area—whether it shall be a tenement house, an office building, a factory, or a single dwelling—what buildings shall be razed, and what buildings are to be repaired. The technique of determining city land values has developed into a highly specialized and well-paid profession. Land values are so potent a selective factor that the human ecologist will find in them a very accurate index to many phases of city life.

Aronovici, Carol. _Housing and the Housing Problem_ (Chicago, 1921).

A study of the relation between rent, income, and housing.

Arner, G. B. L. “Urban Land Economics,” in volume, _Urban Land Economics_, Institute for Research in Land Economics (Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1922).

Gives a summary of land values in New York City and an outline of the subject. (VII, 1, 2.)

George, W. L. _Labor and Housing at Port Sunlight_ (London, 1909). (III, 4, 6; V, 4, 5; IX, 1.)

“Housing and Town Planning,” _Ann. Amer. Acad._, LI (January, 1914), 1–264.

An excellent collection of authoritative articles on housing, city planning, city land values, transportation, and government. (III, 6; IV, 1, 2, 3; V; VII; VIII.)

_Hull House Maps and Papers_ (New York, 1895).

A presentation of nationalities and wages in a congested district of Chicago together with comments and essays on problems growing out of the social conditions. (VII, 2, 3, 4, 5; IX, 3.)

Hunter, Robert. _Tenement Conditions in Chicago: Report by the Investigating Committee of the City Homes Association_ (Chicago, 1901). (VII, 5.)

Hurd, Richard M. _Principles of City Land Values_ (New York, 1924).

Land valuation on the basis of city growth. Shows that the coming of the automobile, making available large tracts for residential purposes, the radio, and other devices for intercommunication have not materially changed the general principles of city growth. Contains maps and photographs showing foot-front values for various cities and land utilization. (VII, 1, 4; VI, 2.)

Morehouse, E. W., and Ely, R. T. _Elements of Land Economics_ (New York, 1924).

An introduction to land valuation. Chapter vi, on urban land utilization. (VII, 1, 2; X, 2.)

McMichael, Stanley L., and Bingham, Robert F. _City Growth and Values_ (Cleveland, 1923).

An authoritative statement. (VII, 1.)

Olcott, George C. _Olcott’s Land Value Maps_ (annually, Chicago, 1909–25).

Valuations of Chicago real estate.

Pratt, Edward Ewing. _Industrial Causes of Congestion of Population in New York City_ (New York, 1911).

Contains an excellent bibliography. (III, 4; V, 1, 2, 4, 5; VI, 2, 3; VII, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.)

Reeve, Sidney A. “Congestion in Cities,” _Geog. Rev._, III (1917), 278–93.

Regards congestion as a growing menace to public health and social stability, and analyzes the causes and suggests remedies. (V, 4, 5; VI; VII, 1, 2, 5; VIII 1.)

Riis, Jacob A. _How the Other Half Lives: Studies among the Tenements of New York_ (New York, 1890 and 1914).

This together with his other book, _The Battle with the Slum_ (New York, 1892), has done much to call public attention to the tenement problem of the large American city and to invite remedial legislation. (V, 1, 2, 4, 5; VII, 1, 2, 5.)

Schumacher, F. “Probleme der Grossstadt,” _Deutsche Rundschau für Geog._, CXXC (July 5, 1919), 66–81, 262–85, 416–29. (V; VI; VII; VIII.)

Smythe, William Ellsworth. _City Homes on Country Lanes: Philosophy and Practice of the Home-in-a-Garden_ (New York, 1921). (V, 5.)

Stella, A. “_The Effects of Urban Congestion on Italian Women and Children_,” _Medical Record_, LXXIII (New York, 1908), 722–32. (V, 1, 3; VIII, 1.)

Südekum, Albert. _Grossstädtisches Wohnungselend_, Vol. XLV in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A description of a typical tenement area in the European city and its effects on human behavior. (VII, 5; IX, 3.)

Veiller, Lawrence. “The Housing Problem in America,” _Ann. Amer. Academy_, XXV (1905), 248–75.

In this article, as well as in his later works (for instance, _Housing Reform_ (New York, 1910)), the writer, who has been regarded as one of the foremost housing students in America, outlines some of the social consequences of bad housing in the modern city and questions the adequacy of democratic form of government in the slum areas. (V; IX, 3.)

VII. THE GROWTH OF THE CITY

The growth of the city has been described as the outstanding characteristic of modern civilization. The sociologist is interested in the processes underlying this phenomenon.

1. One of the most obvious phases of this growth is the addition in numbers and the expansion in area of the city. This has been accurately measured by the statisticians and geographers. The typical process of expansion is from the core of the city outward toward the periphery. While ample materials for such studies of processes exist, their interpretation and analysis is yet to be undertaken. In the process of growth the city tends to become empty, as concerns habitations, at the center. This phenomenon is referred to as “city-building.”

Ballard, W. J. “Our Twenty-nine Largest Cities, _Jour. Educ._, XXCIII (April 27, 1916), 468.

Bassett, E. M. “Distribution of Population in Cities,” _American City_, XIII (July, 1915), 7–8.

Bernhard, H. “Die Entvölkerung des Landes,” _Deutsche Rundschau für Geog._, XXXVII (1914–15), 563–67.

Of twenty-one countries examined, all showed an increase in urban population between 1880–1910, in most cases far exceeding the natural increase in population, and a decrease in percentage of rural population. (VII, 3; VIII, 1; X, 2.)

Brown, Robert M. “City Growth and City Advertising” (Abstract of paper read at 1921 Conference of American Geographers), _Ann. Assoc. Amer. Geog._, XII (1922), 155.

A discussion of the causes of growth of American cities with an analysis of the one hundred cities showing the largest gains since 1910. Classification as to type of advertising campaigns used.

Bushee, F. A. “The Growth of Population of Boston,” _Pub. Amer. Statistical Assoc._, VI (1899), 239–74. (VIII, 3.)

_City-Building: A Citation of Methods in Use in More Than One Hundred Cities for the Solution of Important Problems in the Progressive Growth of the American Municipality_ (Cincinnati, 1913). (V, 4, 5; VI; VII, 5.)

“City Growth by Dead Reckoning,” _Literary Digest_, XXCII (August 9, 1924), 12.

Fawcett, C. B. “British Conurbations in 1921,” _Sociol. Rev._, XIV (April, 1922), 111–22.

Feather, W. A. “Cities That Make Good,” _Forum_, LVII (May, 1917), 623–28.

Gregory, W. M. “Growth of the Cities of Washington,” _Jour. Geog._, XIV (May, 1916), 348–53. (VII, 3.)

“How Big Should a City Be?” _Literary Digest_, LI (August 28, 1915), 399–400.

James, Edmund J. “The Growth of Great Cities,” _Ann. Amer. Academy_, XIII (1899), 1–30. (VII, 2, 3.)

Traces the growth of the cities and the genesis of the problems connected with it.

Jefferson, Mark. “Great Cities of the United States in 1920,” _Geog. Rev._, XI (July, 1921), 437–41.

Martell, P. “Die Bevölkerungsentwicklung der Stadt Berlin,” _Allgemeines Statistisches Archiv_, X (1917), 207–15. (VII, 3; VIII, 1.)

Püschel, Alfred. _Das Anwachsen der Deutschen Städte in der Zeit der mittelalterlichen Kolonialbewegung_ (Berlin, 1910).

Contains fifteen city plans. Traces the growth of cities in the medieval period and the changes in city structure. (II, 2; VII, 2.)

Ridgley, D. C. “Sixty-eight Cities of the United States in 1920,” _Jour. Geog._, XX (February, 1921), 75–79.

One of a series of postcensus-report analyses of the growth of the urban population.

Roth, Lawrence V. “The Growth of American Cities,” _Geog. Rev._, V (May, 1918), 384–98.

Holds that the growth of the cities of the United States has passed through four periods, each of which in its turn was the response to the commercial and industrial development of a new geographical region. Distinguishes between site and situation in city growth, and is here concerned mainly with general situation as a contributory influence. (III, 2, 3, 4.)

Sedlaczek. “Die Bevölkerungszunahme der Grossstädte im XIX Jahrhundert und deren Ursachen,” _Report of the Eighth International Congress of Hygiene and Demography_ (Budapest, 1894). (VII, 3; VIII, 1; X, 1.)

United States Bureau of the Census. _A Century of Population Growth_ (Washington, 1909). (VII, 3; VIII; X, 2.)

United States Bureau of the Census. _Population: Fourteenth Census of the United States_ (3 vols.; Washington, 1920). (VII, 3; VIII, 1, 2; IX, 1; X, 2.)

Van Cleef, E. “How Big Is Your Town?” _American City_, XVII (November, 1917), 471–73.

Weber, Adna Ferrin. _The Growth of Cities in the Nineteenth Century: A Study in Statistics_, “Columbia University Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law” (New York, 1899).

Besides being the most important book on the growth of the city from a statistical standpoint, it contains many other features of great value to the student of the city, especially of the influence of the urban environment on the population. (VII, 2, 3; VIII.)

“Why Cities Grow,” _Literary Digest_, LVIII (August 17, 1918), 22–23.

Zahn, F. “Die Volkszählung von 1900 und die Grossstadtfrage,” _Jahrbuch für Nationalökonomie und Statistik_, XXCI (1903), 191–215. (VII, 3.)

2. Every addition in numbers and expansion of the city area is accompanied by the redistribution and re-allocation of the whole population. Some elements are given a new locus, while others shift but little as a result of the stimulus incident to the arrival of newcomers. This redistribution of the city population has become a constantly operating process in view of the constant growth of the city either through natural increase of the population or through migration from without.

Allison, Thomas W. “Population Movements in Chicago,” _Jour. of Social Forces_, II (May, 1924), 529–33. (V, 1, 3; VII, 4.)

Aurousseau, M. “Distribution of Population: A Constructive Problem,” _Geog. Rev._, XI (October, 1921), 568–75.

“Density concerns itself with the number of people per unit of area; distribution deals with the comparative study of density from area to area; and arrangement considers the way in which people are grouped. Grouping is the fundamental concept....” (I, 1; IV, 1; X, 2.)

Bushee, F. A. “Ethnic Factors in the Population of Boston,” _Pub. Amer. Statistical Assoc._, Vol. IV, No. 2, pp. 307–477. (V, 1, 2, 3.)

Douglas, H. Paul. _The Suburban Trend_ (New York, 1925).

Traces the movement toward decentralization in the larger American urban communities. (VII, 2, 1, 4; IV, 2; III, 5; V, 4.)

Hirschfeld, Magnus. _Berlins drittes Geschlecht_, Vol. III in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A study of the homosexuals in Berlin as a sample of the grouping of population in the large city. (V, 1, 3; VII, 5.)

Hooker, G. E. “City-Planning and Political Areas,” _Nat. Mun. Rev._, VI (May, 1917), 337–45. (IV, 3; V, 1, 4, 5; VI, 7.)

The London Society. _The London of the Future_ (New York and London, 1921).

An excellent view of the processes bringing about the allocation of the population and the trend of growth of the city from the core pressing outward toward the periphery. (II, 3; III, 1, 5, 6; IV; V; VI; VII; VIII, 1, 2, 3; IX, 1, 2, 3, 4.)

Ripley, W. Z. “Racial Geography of Europe,” _Popular Science Monthly_, LII (1898), 591–608; XIV, “Urban Problems.” See also his “Races of Europe,” chap. xx, on “Ethnic Stratification and Urban Selection.” (V, 3.)

Salten, Felix. _Wiener Adel_, Vol. XIV in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Shows the local grouping of the nobility in the large European city. (IX, 4.)

Schmid, Herman. _City bildung und Bevölkerungsverteilung in Grossstädten: Ein Beitrag zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des modernen Städtewesens_ (München, 1909).

Shows that the normal process of growth of the city is by emptying at the center, and redistributing its population around the periphery. (Compare Mark Jefferson, “The Anthropography of Some Great Cities: A Study in Distribution of Population,” _Bull. Amer. Geog. Soc._, XLI (1909), 537–66. (VII, 4, 5.))

Williams, James M. _An American Town: A Sociological Study_ (New York, 1906).

Primarily an analysis of an American community from a socio-psychological standpoint. Contains some interesting facts on growth and distribution of population. (III, 5; V, 1, 2, 3; IX, 1, 3.)

Winter, Max. _Im unterirdischen Wien_, Vol. XIII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A description of Vienna, showing the processes of segregation, allocation, and communication at work in the city population. (V, 1; VI, 4, 6; VII, 5; IX, 3, 4.)

3. During the latter part of the nineteenth century the expressions, “the flight from the country,” and “the drift to the city” began to be heard. The rapid increase in population of the cities was found to be due not to natural increase, i.e., excess of births over deaths, but to migration from the surrounding rural area. In America the rapid increase in the size of the cities was due chiefly to an increasing stream of European immigrants who avoided the farm but were attracted to the urban environment. Population statisticians have been alert to discover whether this process is continuing or whether a change is taking place. Improvements in rural life and conscious efforts to control the movement of population have been observed as to their possible effect on the rural-urban population equilibrium.

Ashby, A. W. “Population and the Land,” _Edinburgh Rev._, CCXXIV (1916), 321–39. (X, 1, 2.)

Ballod, C. “Sterblichkeit und Fortpflanzung der Stadtbevölkerung,” _Jahrbuch für Nationalökonomie und Statistik_, XXXIII (1909), 521–41. (VIII, 1, 3.)

Bauer, L. _Der Zug nach der Stadt_ (Stuttgart, 1904). Reviewed in _Archiv f. Rassen u. Gesellschaftsbiologie_, II, 300. (VII, 1.)

Beusch, P. _Wanderungen und Stadtkultur: eine bevolkerungspolitische und sozialethische Studie_ (München-Gladbach, 1916).

Böckh, R. “Der Anteil der örtlichen Bewegung an der Zunahme der Bevölkerung der Grossstädte,” _Congress Intern. d’Hygiène et de Démographie_ (Budapest, 1894). (VII, 1.)

Bowley, A. L. “Births and Population in Great Britain,” _Econ. Jour._, XXXIV (June, 1924), 188–92. (VII, 1; VIII, 1.)

Bryce, P. H. “Effects upon Public Health and Natural Prosperity from Rural Depopulation and Abnormal Increase of Cities,” _Amer. Jour. Public Health_, New York, V, 48–56. (VIII; X, 1, 2.)

Cacheux, E. “Influence des grandes villes sur la dépopulation,” _Rev. Philanthrop._ Paris, XXXVII (1916), 513–18. (VIII; X, 1.)

Dickerman, G. S. “The Drift to the Cities,” _Atlantic Monthly_, CXI (1913), 349–53. (IX, 2; X, 1, 2.)

Dittmann, P. _Die Bevölkerungsbewegung der deutschen Grossstädte seit der Gründung des deutschen Reiches_ (Bamberg, 1912). (VII, 1.)

Groves, E. R. “Urban Complex: A Study of the Psychological Aspects of the Urban Drift,” _Sociol. Rev._, XII (1920), 73–81. (IX, 2; X, 2.)

Hecke, W. “Volksvermehrung, Binnenwanderung, und Umgangssprache in den österreichischen Alpenländern und Südländern,” _Statist. Monatsschr._, XXXIX (1913), 323–92. (VIII, 1. 3; X, 2.)

Hoaglund, H. E. “The Movement of Rural Population in Illinois,” _Jour. Pol. Econ._, XX (1912), 913–27.

Mayr, G. von. _Die Bevölkerung der Grossstädte_, in “Die Grossstadt” (Dresden, 1903).

One of the best statements of the problem. (VII, 1, 2; VIII, 1, 2, 3.)

Prinzing, Dr. F. “Die Bevölkerungsentwicklung Stockholms, 1721–1920,” _Jahrbuch für Nationalökonomie und Statistik_, XLVII (1924), 87–93.

An excellent case study of the situation in a modern European city. (VII, 1; X, 1, 2.)

——. “Einheimische und Zugezogene in den Grossstädten,” _Zeitschr. für Sozialwiss._, VII (Berlin, 1904), 660–67.

Ravenstein, E. G. “The Laws of Migration,” _Jour. Royal Statist. Soc._, XLVIII (1885), 167–227. (X, 2.)

Spencer, A. G. “Changing Population of Our Large Cities,” _Kindergarten Primary Mag._, XXIII (1910), 65–71.

Steinhart, A. _Untersuchung zur Gebürtigkeit der deutschen Grossstadtbevölkerung, Entwicklung, und Ursachen_, “Rechts und Staatswissenschaftliche Studien,” Heft 45 (Berlin, 1912). (VIII, 1; X, 2.)

Voss, W. “Städtische Kleinsiedlung,” _Archiv für exacte Wirtschaftsforschung_, IX (1919), 377–412.

Weisstein, G. “Sind die Städte wirklich Menschenverzehrer?” _Deutsche Städte Ztg._ (1905), pp. 153–54.

4. The mobility of a city population incident to city growth is reflected in the increased number of contacts, changes of movement, changes in appearance, and atmosphere of specific areas due to succession of population groups, and in differences in land values. Mobility implies not mere movement, but fresh stimulation, an increase in number and intensity of stimulants, and a tendency to respond more readily to new stimulation. The process by which the city absorbs and incorporates its own offspring or foreign elements into its life, and what becomes of them, may be referred to as the metabolism of city life. Mobility is an index of metabolism.

Bercovici, Konrad. _Around the World in New York_ (New York, 1924).

Discusses the local communities and the sifting process in the large city. (VII, 1, 2; IX, 3; V, 1, 2, 3.)

Digby, E. “The Extinction of the Londoner,” _Contemp. Rev._, London, XXCVI (1904), 115–26. (VII, 2, 3; VIII, 1; IX, 2, 3.)

Herzfeld, Elsa G. _Family Monographs; The History of Twenty-four Families Living in the Middle West Side of New York City_ (New York, 1905).

Examples of extreme mobility (tendency to migrate) in the tenement district. (VII, 5.)

Meuriot, P. “Les Migrations internes dans quelques grandes villes,” _Jour. Soc. Stat._, Paris, L (1909), 390. (V, 1; VII, 2.)

Prinzing, F. “Die Bevölkerungsbewegung in Paris und Berlin,” _Zeitschr. für Soziale Medizin_, Leipzig, III (1908), 99–120.

Stephany, H. “Der Einfluss des Berufes und der Sozialstellung auf die Bevölkerungsbewegung der Grossstädte nachgewiesen an Königsberg i. _Pr._,” _Königsb. Statist._, No. 13, 1912. (VII, 2, 3.)

Weleminsky, F. “Über Akklimatisation in Grossstädten,” _Archiv für Hygiene_, XXXVI (1899), 66–126. (VII, 3, 5; VIII, 1.)

Woods, Robert A. _Americans in Process: A Settlement Study, North- and West-End Boston_ (Boston, 1902). (VII, 2; V, 3; IX, 3.)

Typical of a number of settlement studies giving a view of the effect of the city on its foreign population.

5. City growth may be thought of as a process of disorganization and reorganization. Growth always involves these processes to some extent, but when the city grows rapidly we see the disorganization assuming proportions which may be regarded as pathological. Crime, suicide, divorce, are some of the behavior problems in which social disorganization, when viewed from the personal side, expresses itself. The disappearance of the neighborhood and the local community with its personal forms of control is one of the immediate causal elements in this process.

Addams, Jane. _The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets_ (New York, 1909). (V, 1, 2, 3; IX, 3; X, 2.)

Bader, Emil. _Wiener Verbrecher_, Vol. XVI, “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905). (VI, 4; VII, 5; IX, 4.)

Bonne, G. “Über die Notwendigkeit einer systematischen Dezentralisation unserer Grossstädte in hygienischer, sozialer, und volkswirtschaftlicher Beziehung,” _Monatschr. für soz. Med._, I (Jena, 1904), 369, 425, 490. (V, 5; VIII.)

Buschan, G. H. _Geschlecht und Verbrechen_, Vol. XLVIII, “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Some observations on the natural history of the city population. Very fragmentary. (VIII, 2; IX, 3, 4.)

Chalmers, Thomas. _The Christian and Civic Economy of Large Towns_ (Glasgow, 1918). (IV, 5; VII; VIII, 1, 4.)

Classen, W. F. _Grossstadt Heimat: Beobachtungen zur Naturgeschichte des Grossstadtvolkes_ (Hamburg, 1906).

Classen, W. _Das stadtegeborene Geschlecht und seine Zukunft_ (Leipzig, 1914).

Henderson, C. R. “Industry and City Life and the Family,” _Amer. Jour. Sociol._, XIV, 668. (VIII, 1, 2, 3.)

Lasson, Alfred. _Gefährdete und verwahrloste Jugend_, Vol. XLIX, “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

The dangers confronting youth in the city and juvenile delinquency. (IX, 4.)

Marcuse, Max. _Uneheliche Mütter_, Vol. XXVII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905). (VIII, 1, 3; IX, 3.)

Illegitimacy in Berlin. Types of unmarried mothers.

Ostwald, H. O. A. _Das Berliner Spielertum_, Vol. XXXV in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905). (VI, 6; IX, 4.)

Gambling in the city.

——. _Zuhältertum in Berlin_, Vol. V, “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905). Panderers and their victims in the city. (IX, 1, 4.)

Schuchard, Ernst. _Sechs Monate Arbeitshaus_, Vol. XXXIII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Six months’ experiences in the workhouse of the city, where the opportunity to observe social disorganization is great. (VI, 4; IX, 3, 4.)

Sears, Charles H. _The Redemption of the City_ (Philadelphia, 1911).

Sharp, Geo. W. _City Life and Its Amelioration_ (Boston, 1915).

Steiner, Jesse F. “Theories of Community Organization,” _Jour. Social Forces_, III (November, 1924), 30–37. (V; VIII, 3.)

——. “A Critique of the Community Movement,” _Jour. App. Sociol._, IX (November-December, 1924), 108.

Problems of social control in relation to community organization and disorganization. (V; VIII, 3.)

Stelze, Charles. _Christianity’s Storm Center: A Study of the Modern City_ (New York and Chicago, 1907).

Strong, Josiah. _The Challenge of the City_ (New York, 1907).

From a religious and moral standpoint. (X, 1, 2.)

Thomas, W. I., and Znaniecki, Florian. _The Polish Peasant in Europe and America_, Vol. V, “Organization and Disorganization in America” (Boston, 1920). (V, 3; VII, 2.)

“The Tragedy of Great Cities,” _Outlook_, CXXVI (1920), 749–50.

Werthauer, Johannes. _Sittlichkeitsdelikte der Grossstadt_, Vol. XL in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A collection of typical city delinquencies of the sex type. (V, 4; IX, 4.)

VIII. EUGENICS OF THE CITY

Considerable literature has grown up recently dealing with the biological aspects of city life. Detailed studies as to the effect of city life on the human stock remain to be made. On the basis of the material now available, however, fruitful avenues of research are opened, and certain tentative conclusions may be entertained.

1. The changes incident to city life in the birth, death, and marriage rates of the population are noticeable on the basis of statistics. These phenomena permit of sociological interpretation and analysis. The difference between the urban and the rural span of life offers a similar problem to the investigator. The proportions of the human scrap-heap and its social consequences in the city have been recognized as an important phase of urban existence.

Bailey, W. B. _Modern Social Conditions: A Statistical Study of Birth, Marriage, Divorce, Death, Disease, Suicide, Immigration, etc., with Special Reference to the United States_ (New York, 1906). (VII, 5; VIII.)

Bajla, E. “Come si distribuiscono topograficamente le malattee contagiose negli aggregati urbani,” _Attualita Med. Milano_, V (1916), 542–46.

The local distribution of contagious diseases in the urban area.

Barron, S. B. “Town life as a Cause of Degeneracy,” _Pop. Sci. Mo._, XXXIV (1888–89), 324–30. (X, 2.)

Billings, J. S. “The Mortality Rates of Baltimore; Life Table for Baltimore; Mortality in Different Wards; Causes of Disease,” _Baltimore Med. Jour._, X (1883–84), 487–89. (V, 1.)

“Biological Influences of City Life,” _Literary Digest_, LII (February, 1916), 371–72.

“Birth- and Death-Rates in American Cities,” _Amer. City_, XVI (1917), 195–99.

Bleicher, H. “Über die Eigentümlichkeiten der städtischen Natalitäts- und Mortalitätsverhältnisse,” _Intern. Kongr._ für Hygiene und Demographie (Budapest, 1894). (VIII, 3.)

The peculiarities of urban birth and death rates.

Dublin, Louis I. “The Significance of the Declining Birth-Rate,” _Science_, (new series), XLVII, 201–10.

Fehlinger, Hans. “De l’influence biologique de la civilization urbaine,” _Scientia_, X (1911), 421–34. (VIII, 3.)

Guilfoy, W. H. _The Influence of Nationality upon the Mortality of a Community, with Special Reference to the City of New York_, “Department of Health of New York City Monograph Series 18,” 1919. (V, 1, 2, 3.)

——. _An Analysis of the Mortality Returns of the Sanitary Areas of the Borough of Manhattan for the Year 1915_, “Department of Health of New York City Monograph Series 15,” 1916.

Hammond, L. J., and Gray, C. H. “The Relation of the Foreign Population to the Mortality and Morbidity Rate of Philadelphia,” _Bull. Amer. Acad. of Med._, XIV (1913), 113–29. (V, 1.)

Harmon, G. E. “A Comparison of the Relative Healthfulness of Certain Cities in the United States, Based upon the Study of Their Vital Statistics,” _Publ. Amer. Statist. Assoc._, XV (Boston, 1916), 157–74.

Holmes, Samuel J. _A Bibliography of Eugenics_, “University of California Publications in Zoölogy,” Vol. XXV, Berkeley, California, 1924.

Contains a chapter on “Urban Selection and the Influence of Industrial Development on Racial Heredity.” Has served as a source of many references listed in this bibliography. (VIII.)

Love, A. G., and Davenport, C. B. “Immunity of City-Bred Recruits,” _Arch. Med. Intern._, XXIV (1919), 129–53.

Macpherson, J. “Urban Selection and Mental Health,” _Rev. of Neurol. and Psychiatry_, I (1903), 65–73. (VII, 2, 5; IX, 2, 3, 4; X, 3.)

Meinshausen: “Die Zunahme der Körpergrösse des deutschen Volkes vor dem Kriege; ihre Ursachen und Bedeutung für die Wiederherstellung der deutschen Volkskraft,” _Archiv für Hygiene und Demographie_, XIV (1921), 28–72.

Points out degeneration of urban youth. (VII, 3; X, 3.)

Pieper, E. “Über die Verbreitung der Geschlechtskrankheiten nach Stadt und Land mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Verhältnisse der Stadt Rostock und des Staates Mecklenburg,” _Arch. für Soz. Hygiene und Demographie_, XIV (1923), 148–87. (X, 2.)

Sarker, S. L. “The Comparative Mortality of the Towns of the Nadia District,” _Indian Med. Gaz._, LII (Calcutta, 1917), 58–60.

Walford, C. “On the Number of Violent Deaths from Accident, Negligence, Violence, and Misadventure in the United Kingdom and Some Other Countries,” _Jour. Royal Stat. Soc._, XLIV (1881), 444–521.

Number of violent deaths in cities greater than rural region. (X, 2.)

Weber, L. W. “Grossstadt und Nerven,” _Deutsche Rundschau_, CLXXVII (December, 1918), 391–407. (IX, 2, 4.)

Weiberg, W. “Zur Frage nach der Häufigkeit der Syphilis in der Grossstadt,” _Arch. Rass. und Gesellsch. Biol._, Vol. XI, 1914; 3 articles.

Whipple, G. C. _Vital Statistics: An Introduction to Demography_ (New York, 1923). (VII, 1; VIII, 2, 3; IX, 2.)

2. The relative differences in the age and sex groups, in the city as over against the country, and in the various areas in the city are indicative of fundamental processes tending to produce typical results.

Baker, J. E. “City Life and Male Mortality,” _Publ. Amer. Statist. Assoc._, XI (1908), 133–49. (VIII, 1.)

Böckh, R. “Sterbetafeln C (für Grossstädte); Die fünfzig Berliner Sterbetafeln,” _Bericht über 14ten Intern. Kongr. Hygiene_, III (Berlin, 1908), 1078–87. (V, 1, 2, 3, 4; VIII, 1.)

Heron, David. _On the Relation of Fertility in Man to Social Status and on the Changes in This Relation That Have Taken Place during the Last Fifty Years_ (London, 1906). (VII, 1, 5; VIII, 1.)

Röse, C. “Die Grossstadt als Grab der Bevölkerung,” _Aerztliche Rundschau_, XV (München, 1905), 257–61. (VII, 3; VIII, 1.)

3. Whether the conditions of city life have an influence on the fecundity of women and the size of the family is an aspect of city life inviting accurate study, attempts at which have already been made.

Haurbeck, L. “Der Wille zur Mutterschaft in Stadt und Land,” _Deutsche Landwirtsch. Presse._, XI (1915), 12. (VIII, 1, 2; X, 2.)

Kühner, F. “Stadt und Bevölkerungspolitik,” _Städte-Zeit_, XIV (1917), 306.

Lewis, C. F., and J. N. _Natality and Fecundity: A Contribution to National Demography_ (Edinburgh, 1906).

Based on statistics in the Scottish birth register of 1855. (VIII, 1, 2.)

Manschke, R. “Innere Einflüsse der Bevölkerungswanderungen auf die Geburtenzahl,” _Zeitschr. für Sozialwiss., neue Folge_, VII (1916), 100–115, 161–74. (VII, 3; VIII, 1, 2; X, 2.)

Morgan, J. E. _The Danger of Deterioration of Race from the Too Rapid Increase of Great Cities_ (London, 1866). (VII, 1, 3; VIII, 1.)

Prinzing, F. “Eheliche und uneheliche Fruchtbarkeit und Aufwuchsziffer in Stadt und Land in Preussen,” _Deutsche Med. Wochenschrift_, XLIV (1918), 351–54. (VIII, 1; X, 4.)

Theilhaber, F. A. _Das sterile Berlin_ (Berlin, 1913). (VIII, 1, 2.)

Thompson, Warren S. “Race Suicide in the United States,” _Sci. Mo._, V, 22–35, 154–65, 258–69. (VIII, 1; X, 2.)

“Urban Sterilization,” _Jour. Hered._, VIII (1917), 268–69. (VIII, 1.)

IX. HUMAN NATURE AND CITY LIFE

The city is remaking human nature and each city is producing its own type of personality. These influences of city life are of prime interest to the sociologist. The materials bearing on this question are not primarily those collected by the scientist, but by the artist. It requires insight and imagination to perceive and to describe these deep-seated changes which are being wrought in the nature of man himself.

1. The division of labor and the fine specialization of occupations and professions that is so distinctly characteristic of city life has brought into existence a new mode of thought and new habits and attitudes which have transformed man in a few generations. The city man tends to think less in terms of locality than he does in terms of occupation. In a sense he has become an adjunct of the machine which he operates and the tools he uses. His interests are organized around his occupation, and his status and mode of life is determined by it.

Bahre, Walter. _Meine Klienten._ Vol. XLII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Specialization and professional types and classes as seen from a lawyer’s office. (IX, 4.)

Benario, Leo. _Die Wucherer und ihre Opfer_, Vol. XXXVIII in “Grossstadt Dokumente.” (IX, 3, 4.)

The profession of money-lending in the large city and the behavior patterns that this professional group exhibits. (IX, 3, 4.)

Burke, Thomas. _The London Spy: A Book of Town Travels_ (New York, 1922). (II, 3; V, 1, 2, 3; IX.)

Donovan, Frances. _The Woman Who Waits_ (Boston, 1920).

The impressions and occupational experiences of a waitress in Chicago. (IX, 2, 3.)

Hammond, J. L., and Barbara. _The Skilled Labourer, 1760–1832_ (London, 1919).

The emergence of occupational types in the course of industrial evolution. (III, 4; IV, 6.)

Hammond, J. L., and Barbara. _The Town Labourer, 1760–1832: The New Civilization_ (London, 1917). (II, 3; III, 4; IV, 6; IX, 2, 3; X, 2.)

Hyan, Hans. _Schwere Jungen_, Vol. XXVIII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Describes the life of an occupational group—the pugilists—in the large city (Berlin). (V, 1, 3; VI, 6; IX, 4.)

Mayhew, Henry. _London Labour and London Poor: A Cyclopaedia of the Condition and Earnings of Those That Will Work, Those That Cannot Work, and Those That Will Not Work_ (London, 1861–62), 4 vols.

A description of occupational types created by city specialization. (II, 3; VII, 5; IX, 4.)

Noack, Victor. _Was ein Berliner Musikant erlebte_, Vol. XIX in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

The experiences of a Berlin musician in his occupational life. Showing the evolution of an occupational type, with many highly specialized subtypes. (IX; X, 2.)

Roe, Clifford. _Panders and Their White Slaves_ (New York and Chicago, 1910). (V, 1; VII, 5.)

Rowntree, B. Seebohm, and Lasker, Bruno. _Unemployment: A Social Study_ (London, 1911).

Simkhovitch, Mary K. _The City Worker’s World in America_ (New York, 1917). (V, 1, 2, 3; VI, 10; VII, 2, 5.)

Solenberger, Alice W. _One Thousand Homeless Men: A Study of Original Records_ (New York, 1914).

What a social agency’s records reveal about occupational careers in the city. (VI, 4; VII, 4, 5; VIII, 1.)

Veblen, Thorstein. _The Instinct of Workmanship, and the State of the Industrial Arts_ (New York, 1914).

Showing the development of the specialization of labor and its effect on human behavior. (IX, 2.)

Werthauer, Johannes. _Berliner Schwindel_, Vol. XXI in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Showing the extent to which fraud has become a technical profession. (VII, 5; IX, 2, 4.)

Weidner, Albert. _Aus den Tiefen der Berliner Arbeiterbewegung_, Vol. IX, in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

The significance of the labor movement in the large city. (V, 1, 4; VII, 5; IX, 2, 3, 4.)

2. There is a city mentality which is clearly differentiated from the rural mind. The city man thinks in mechanistic terms, in rational terms, while the rustic thinks in naturalistic, magical terms. Not only does this difference exist between city and country, it exists also between city and city, and between one area of the city and another. Each city and each part of the city furnishes a distinct social world to its inhabitants, which they incorporate in their personality whether they will or no.

Carleton, Will. _City Ballads, City Festivals, and City Legends_ (London, 1907). (X, 2.)

Grant, James. _Lights and Shadows of London Life_ (London, 1842).

Giving a view of the picturesque aspects of the modern city.

——. _The Great Metropolis_ (London, 1836). (III, 5; IV, 6; V, 3; IX.)

Marpillero, G. “Saggio di psicologia dell’urbanismo,” _Revista Italiana di Sociologia_, XII (1908), 599–626.

Morgan, Anna. _My Chicago_ (Chicago, 1918).

A city from the standpoint of the social aristocracy. (V, 3.)

Seiler, C. Linn. City Values. “An Analysis of the Social Status and Possibilities of American City Life” (University of Pennsylvania, Ph.D. Thesis, 1912).

Simmel, G. _Die Grossstädte und das Geistesleben_, in “Die Grossstadt” (Dresden, 1903).

The most important single article on the city from the sociological standpoint.

Sombart, Werner. _The Jews and Modern Capitalism_, translated from the German by M. Epstein (London and New York, 1913).

The best study of a city people and the influence of city life on their mentality. (IX, 1, 4; X, 3.)

Spengler, Oswald. _Der Untergang des Abendlandes: Umrisse einer Morphologie der Weltgeschichte_, Vol. II (München, 1922), chap. II, “Städte und Völker,” pp. 100–224. (II; VII, 1, 5; IX, 1.)

Winter, Max. _Das Goldene Wiener Herz_, Vol. XI in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A study of the financial nexus in city life. (IX, 4.)

Woolston, H. “The Urban Habit of Mind,” _Amer. Jour. Sociol._, XVII, 602 ff.

3. The medium through which man is influenced and modified in the city is the intricate system of communication. The urban system of communication takes on a special form. It is not typically the primary, but the secondary, contact that it produces. The public opinion that is built up in the city and the morale and _ésprit de corps_ growing out of it relies on such typical media as the newspaper rather than the gossip monger; the telephone and the mails rather than the town meeting. The characteristic urban social unit is the occupational group rather than the geographical area.

Chicago Commission on Race Relations. _The Negro in Chicago_ (Chicago, 1922).

A study growing out of the Chicago race riots, showing the growth of public opinion and the behavior of crowds and mobs in the city. (V, 1, 3; VII, 2.)

Follett, Mary P. _The New State: Group Organization the Solution of Popular Government_ (New York, 1918).

Analyzes the conditions under which public opinion of today is formed and suggests local organization as a possible way out. (V, 3; VII, 5; IX, 1.)

Howe, Frederic C. “The City as a Socializing Agency,” _Amer. Jour. Sociol._, XVII, 509 ff. (VII, 5.)

——. _The City: The Hope of Democracy_ (New York, 1905).

Has chapters on the new city civilization, the causes of political corruption, and gives a general description of city life, showing in particular the problems of public opinion it creates. (V; VI; VII, 1, 2.)

Park, Robert E. “The Immigrant Community and the Immigrant Press,” _American Review_, III (March-April, 1925), 143–52. (V, 3.)

Triton (pseudonym). _Der Hamburger “Junge Mann,”_ Vol. XXXIX in “Grossstadt Dokumente.”

Shows the effect of the city and the contacts it makes possible on the development of an _ésprit de corps_ and a type. In this case the young office clerks of Hamburg are shown to be a product of the international character of the port of Hamburg. (IV, 6; IX, 1, 2, 4.)

4. The final product of the city environment is found in the new types of personality which it engenders. Here the latent energies and capacities of individuals find expression and locate themselves within the range of a favorable milieu. This possibility of segregating one’s self from the crowd develops and accentuates what there is of individuality in the human personality. The city gives an opportunity to men to practice their specialty vocationally and develop it to the utmost degree. It provides also the stimulus and the conditions which tend to bring out those temperamental and psychological qualities within the individual through the multiple behavior patterns which it tolerates.

Hammer, Wilhelm. _Zehn Lebenslaufe Berliner Kontrollmädchen_, Vol. XVIII in “Grossstadt Dokumente.”

The life-history of ten Berlin prostitutes with a suggested classification of types. (VI, 4; IX, 1.)

Deutsch-German, Alfred (pseudonym). _Wiener Mädel_, Vol. XVII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

An intimate study of the types of girls to be found in the large city. (IX, 2, 3.)

Flagg, James M. _City People. A Book of Illustrations_ (New York, 1909).

Freimark, Hans. _Moderne Geistesbeschwörer und Wahrheitssucher_, Vol. XXXVI in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Fortune-tellers and persons in the “occult fields” in the modern city. A study of magical vestiges in city mentality. (IX, 1, 2.)

Hapgood, Hutchins. _Types from City Streets_ (New York, 1910).

——. _The Spirit of the Ghetto_ (New York and London, 1909).

An intimate study of life in the New York Jewish quarter with a graphic presentation of personality types. (V, 2.)

Hecht, Ben. _A Thousand and One Afternoons in Chicago_ (Chicago, 1922).

Journalistic sketches of Chicago scenes, experiences, and types. (V, 3; IX.)

Mackenzie, C. “City People,” _McClure’s_, XLVII (August, 1916), 22.

Markey, Gene. _Men About Town: A Book of Fifty-eight Caricatures_ (Chicago, 1924).

Mensch, Ella (pseudonym). _Bilderstürmer in der Berliner Frauenbewegung._

Types found in the feminist movement of Berlin. (IX, 2, 3.)

X. THE CITY AND THE COUNTRY

The city and the country represent two opposite poles in modern civilization. The difference between the two is not merely one of degree, but of kind. Each has its own peculiar type of interests, of social organization, and of humanity. These two worlds are in part antagonistic and in part complementary to each other. The one influences the life of the other, but they are by no means equally matched. The analysis of these differences, antagonisms, and interacting forces has not passed even the descriptive stage.

1. The ancient city was regarded as a parasitic growth. It dominated the country by skill and by force, but contributed little to its welfare. The modern city, too, is often regarded as a superfluous burden which the rural sections are carrying. This view of the matter is fast passing away, however, as the city extends its influence, not by force, but by fulfilling a set of functions upon which the rural population has become dependent. The economists have been especially concerned with the antagonistic interests which the city and the country have presented. These antagonisms have come to play a political rôle which influences local, national, and international affairs.

Bookwalter, J. W. _Rural Versus Urban; Their Conflict and Its Causes: A Study of the Conditions Affecting Their Natural and Artificial Relation_ (New York, 1911). (X, 2.)

Damaschke, Adolf. _Die Bodenreform: Grundsätzliches und Geschichtliches zur Erkenntnis der sozialen Not_ (19th ed.; Jena, 1922). (VI, 10.)

Reibmayr, A. “Die wichtigsten biologischen Ursachen der heutigen Landflucht,” _Arch. für Rass. und Gesellsch. Biol._, VII (1911), 349–76.

Decrease in rural population of Germany. Shows also unfavorable effects of alcohol, venereal disease, and other factors on population of city, and the effects of the city on the country. (VII, 2, 5; VIII, 1.)

Ross, E. A. “Folk Depletion as a Cause of Rural Decline,” _Publ. Amer. Sociol. Soc._, XI (1917), 21–30. (VII, 3; VIII, 1, 3; X, 2.)

Roxby, P. M. _Rural Depopulation in England During the Nineteenth Century and After_, LXXI (1912), 174–90. (VIII, 3.)

“Rural Depopulation in Germany,” _Scient. Amer. Suppl._, LXVIII (1908), 243. (VII, 3.)

Smith, J. Russell. _North America: Its People and Resources, Development, and the Prospects of the Continent as an Agricultural, Industrial, and Commercial Area_ (New York, 1925).

One of the best geographical discussions of the relation between country and city. (I, 1, 4; III, 2, 3, 4.)

Vandervelde, E. _L’exode rural et le retour aux champs_ (Paris, 1903). (VIII, 3.)

Waltemath. “Der Kampf gegen die Landflucht und die Slawisierung des platten Landes,” _Archiv für Innere Kolonisation_, IX (1916–18), 12.

2. As a result of city life new forms of social organization have been developed which are foreign to the country. The family, the neighborhood, the community, the state have become transformed by city needs into new institutions with a different organization and with a different set of functions. The social processes that characterize rural life do not apply in the city. A new moral order has developed which is fast breaking down the precedents of an earlier epoch of civilization.

Bowley, A. L. “Rural Population in England and Wales: A Study of the Change of Density, Occupations, and Ages,” _Jour. Royal Stat. Soc._, LXXVII (1914), 597–645. (VII, 2; VIII, 2.)

Brunner, Edmund de S. _Churches of Distinction in Town and Country_ (New York, 1923). (VI, 5.)

Busbey, L. W. “Wicked Town and Moral Country,” _Unpop. Rev._, X (October, 1918), 376–92. (X, 3.)

Cook, O. F. “City and Country, Effects of Human Environments on the Progress of Civilization,” _Jour. Hered._, XIV (1921), 253–59.

Galpin, Charles J. _Rural Life_ (New York, 1918).

One of the best analyses of rural life available, and of great value as a basis for comparison between city life and country life. (IV, 1, 2, 5; V, 1, 2, 3; X, 1, 3.)

Gillette, J. M. _Rural Sociology_ (New York, 1922). (IV; V, 1, 2; VI, 8; X, 1, 3.)

Groves, E. R. “Psychic Causes of Rural Migration,” _Amer. Jour. Sociol._, XXI (1916), 623–27. (IV, 5; VII, 3; X, 1, 3.)

Jastrow, J. “Die Städtegmeinschaft in ihren kulturellen Beziehungen,” _Zeitschr. für Sozialwiss._, X (1907), 42–51.

Indicates institutions to which urban life has given impetus.

Morse, H. N. _The Social Survey in Town and Country Areas_ (New York, 1925).

Peattie, Roderick. “The Isolation of the Lower St. Lawrence Valley,” _Geog. Rev._, V (February, 1918), 102–18.

An excellent study of provincialism as a result of isolation. (IV, 5.)

Prinzing, F. “Die Totgeburten in Stadt und Land,” _Deutsche Med. Wochenschr._, XLIII (1917), 180–81.

The number of still births indicates the technique available in city and country. (VIII, 1.)

Sanderson, Dwight. _The Farmer and His Community_ (New York, 1922). (V, 1, 2, 3.)

Smith, Arthur H. _Village Life in China: A Study in Sociology_ (New York, Chicago, and Toronto, 1899).

The oriental village and its place in social organization.

Thurnwald, R. “Stadt and Land im Lebensprozess der Rasse,” _Arch. für Rass. und Gesellsch. Biol._, I (1904), 550–74, 840–84.

Contains excellent bibliography. (VII, 3; VIII, 1, 3.)

Tucker, R. S., and McCombs, C. E. “Is the Country Healthier Than the Town?” _Nat. Mun. Rev._, XII (June, 1923), 291–95. (VIII, 1.)

Welton, T. A. “Note on Urban and Rural Variations According to the English Census of 1911,” _Jour. Royal Stat. Soc._, LXXVI (1913), 304–17. (VII, 3; VIII; X, 1.)

3. The rustic and the urbanite not only show certain fundamental differences in personality, but the variations found in the city far exceed the country, and the rate at which new types are constantly being created in the city far exceeds that of the country. The rural man still is to a great extent the product of the nature which surrounds him, while the urbanite has become a part of the machine with which he works, and has developed as many different species as there are techniques to which he is devoted. The attitudes, the sentiments, the life organization of the city man are as different from the country man as those of the civilized man are from the primitive. As the city extends its influence over the country the rural man is also being remade, and ultimately the differences between the two may become extinguished.

Anthony, Joseph. “The Unsophisticated City Boy,” _Century_, CIX (November, 1924), 123–28. (VII, 5.)

Coudenhove-Kalergi, H. “The New Nobility,” _Century_, CIX (November, 1924), 3–6.

A concise analysis of the outstanding differences in the personality of the rustic and the urbanite. (IX, 1, 2, 3, 4; X, 1, 2.)

Humphrey, Z. “City People and Country Folk,” _Country Life_, XXXVII (January, 1920), 35–37.

McDowall, Arthur. “Townsman and the Country,” _London Mercury_, VIII (August, 1923), 405–13. (IV, 5; IX, 2; X, 1, 2.)

Myers, C. S. “Note on the Relative Variability of Modern and Ancient and of Rural and Urban Peoples,” _Man_, VI (London, 1906), 24–26.

An anthropological study. (VIII.)

Vuillenmier, J. F. “A comparative Study of New York City and Country Criminals,” _Jour. Crim. Law and Criminol._, XI (1921), 528–50. (VII, 5; IX, 2.)

XI. THE STUDY OF THE CITY

Attempts to understand the city and city life have resulted in two types of studies. On the one hand there are the investigations into special phases of the subject, and on the other are a number of systematic, generally co-operative, scientific approaches to the city as a whole. The increased attention which the city has been receiving at the hands of various types of experts has brought into existence a number of organizations and institutions which regularly occupy themselves with the collection of information relating to the city. This has given rise to a number of technical journals which are of great importance to the student of the city.

1. There are available at the present time a number of fairly exhaustive systematic studies of various cities. In most instances they represent the combined efforts of many students, extending over a period of years, to explore the realms of urban life in diverse parts of the world, generally with a definite objective in view. Only a few of such studies have been listed under this category.

Booth, Charles. _Life and Labor of the People of London_ (16 vols.; London, 1892).

Attempts to describe the people of London “as they exist in London under the influence of education, religion, and administration.” Required seventeen years for its completion. Contains a wealth of information about the city and city life.

Gamble, Sidney D. _Peking: A Social Survey_ (New York, 1921).

Harrison, Shelby M. _Social Conditions in an American City: A Summary of the Findings of the Springfield Survey_ (New York, 1920).

Johnson, Clarence Richard. _Constantinople Today, or the Pathfinder Survey of Constantinople: A Study in Oriental Social Life_ (New York and London, 1923).

Kellogg, Paul U. (editor). _The Pittsburgh Survey_ (6 vols.; New York, 1914).

Kenngott, George F. _The Record of a City: A Social Survey of Lowell, Massachusetts_ (New York, 1912).

Ostwald, Hans O. A. “Grossstadt Dokumente,” (Berlin, 1905).

A series of fifty volumes by various authors giving accounts of personal experience and investigation in the local communities and among various groupings and personality types in the city of Berlin and in some other large cities of Europe.

Rowntree, B. Seebohm. _Poverty: A Study of Town Life_ (London, 1901).

Rowntree, B. S., and Lasker, Bruno. _Unemployment: A Social Study_ (London, 1911).

2. The social survey is not only a technique which has been employed to study the urban community, but has grown into a movement of considerable proportions. From another standpoint the social survey may also be regarded as a means of control. Many of the “surveys” are merely single investigations of administration, housing, justice, education, recreation, in urban and rural communities, carried on by the group itself or by some outside experts called in for the purpose. Others are highly integrated studies of the community in all its phases. There is a tendency at the present time for systematic social research to take the place of the social survey in the study of community life. The latter emphasizes diagnosis and treatment, while the former strives to develop methods of disinterested research into various aspects of city life.

Aronovici, Carol. _The Social Survey_ (New York, 1916).

Burns, Allen T. “Organization of Community Forces,” _Proceedings of Nat. Con. Charities and Corrections, 1916_, pp. 62–78.

Elmer, Manuel C. “Social Surveys of Urban Communities,” Ph.D. Thesis, University of Chicago (Menasha, Wisconsin, 1914).

Considers the social survey up to 1914 and outlines the scope and methods of the urban community survey. Also his “Technique of the Social Surveys” (Lawrence, Kansas, 1917).

Kellogg, P. U., Harrison, S. M., and Palmer, George T. _The Social Survey Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science in the City of New York_, Vol. II (July, 1912), 475–544.

“The Social Survey and Its Further Development,” _Publ. Amer. Statist. Assoc._, 1915.

3. While there are many periodicals which contain departments devoted to the urban community, such as the _Survey_, the _Journal of Social Forces_, and a number of others, the following are listed as typical of periodicals exclusively concerned with various phases of the study of the city.

_The American City_ (monthly), New York. Now in its thirty-second volume.

_American Municipalities_ (monthly), Marshalltown, Iowa. Now in its forty-ninth volume.

_Municipal and County Engineering_ (monthly), since 1890. Indianapolis, Indiana.

_The Municipal Journal and Public Works Engineer_ (weekly). Now in its thirty-fourth year. London.

_The National Municipal Review_ (monthly), published by the National Municipal League. Now in its fourteenth volume. New York.

_Die Städte-Zeit._ In its fourteenth volume in 1917.

_Der Städtebau. Monatsschrift für die künstlerische Ausgestaltung der Städte nach ihren wirtschaftlichen, gesundheitlichen, und sozialen Grundsätzen_ (monthly), since 1904. Berlin.

_The Town-Planning Review._ The journal of the department of civic design of the school of Architecture. University of Liverpool. Now in its eleventh volume. Liverpool.

_La Vie Urbaine._ Volume VII in 1924.

LOUIS WIRTH

INDEXES

SUBJECT INDEX

Age, the _New York_, 139

Areas: natural, 6, 50–51, 54, 77, 188; of vice and poverty, 55; “bright light,” 56; local trade, 67; commuting, 184; of deterioration, 193

Attitudes: sentiments and interests, 16, 22; and money, 17

Automobiles: and community growth, 70; and vice, 107

Bohemia, 150

Chain stores, characteristic of city, 202

Chicago: Little Sicily, 10, 56; the Gold Coast, 10; regional planning association of, 48; the Loop, 51; the Ghetto, 56; population of, 60; land values in, 61; occupations in, 57; ecological forces in, 147; Black Belt of, 147

Church, the, and city life, 24

Cities: classified by functions, 178; satellite, 185; as cultural centers, 186; systematic studies of, 226

City, the: A product of nature, 1–2; an ecological unit, 2; natural habitat of civilized man, 2; population of, 5, 6, 8; and human nature, 4, 46, 63; and the division of labor, 14; and primary relations, 23; vice and crime in, 25; and secondary relations, 26; and intellectual life, 30; crusades in, 33; and politics, 34; advertising in, 37; a melting-pot, 40; rewards eccentricity, 41; growth of, 47; population groups, 47; expansion of, 49; age groups in, 47; aggregation, 48; defined, 165, 169; statistics of, 167; and economic development, 168; natural history of, 170; bibliographies of, 174; types of, 175; relation to town and metropolis, 180; and ecological organization, 187, 196; as a physical mechanism, 195; and politics, 201; growth of population in, 208–9, 212; as a parasitic growth, 222

City-building, 206

City life: biological aspects of, 214; and the new moral order, 223

City man, the, life-organization of, 225

City mentality, 219

Colonies: immigrant, 26; and second generation, 28

Communication: mechanism of, 29, 197; and the newspaper, 39; and social contagion, 45

Community: defined, 64, 115, 144; and human nature, 65; four types of, 66; agricultural, 68; skeletal structure of, 73; and moral codes, 105–6; and the delinquent, 111; local, 114, 191; measure of efficiency, 118; institutions of, 199

Community-center associations, 117

Community organizations, 114

Competition, and the struggle for space, 63, 64, 71

Conurbation, 49

Crisis: financial, 21; defined, 27; positive law, 28

Cultural areas. _See_ Bohemia, Ghetto, Gold Coast

Culture, city-born, 2; urban life and, 3; and political organization, 116–17; and the local community, 145–46

Dance hall, public, and the neighborhood, 151

Delinquency triangle, the, 152

Department store, characteristic city institution, 202

Division of labor, the, and new modes of thought, 217

Ecological organization, of the city, 2, 115

Ecology: human, 2, 63, 145; succession, 50, 75; centralization, 51; climax, 68, 77; culmination, 71; invasion, 72, 74, 76

Economic organization, 116

Family, modern, as an environment for children, 104

Gangs, boys’, 113

Geography, urban, 165

Ghetto, 150

Group, primary: defined, 23; primitive society, 36; politics, 37

Hobo, the mind of, 158, 160; colleges, 159

Hobohemia: the home of homeless men, 54; as a cultural unit, 150

Human nature: man, a “city-building animal,” 2; and city life, 40, 217

Industry, and community growth, 70

I.W.W.: and casual labor, 159; songs of, 160

Juvenile delinquency, 110

Land values: and community organizations, 149; and local segregation, 203

Literacy, and city life, 139

Local community, 114. _See_ Community

Locomotion: mind as an incident of, 156; characteristic of animals, 157; and social organization, 157

London, East, 10

Magic: as emotional expression, 127; a form of thought, 129; transition to science, 132

Magic, Thorndyke’s _History of_, 127

“Main stem,” the, 54

Markets, and news, 19

Metabolism, social, 54

Mobility: measurement of, 17, 60; and money, 18; and news, 22; and routine, 58; and disorganization, 153; an index of metabolism, 211

Moral region, defined, 45

Natural areas. _See_ Areas

Negro migration, and delinquency, 108

Neighborhood, and the community, 148; recreation centers, 151; and politics, 153; and social research, 155

Neighborhood institutions, 146

Neighborhood, scientific basis for study of, 154

Neighborhood work, scientific basis for, 142

News, and crisis, 19; defined, 93

_News-Letter, Boston_, the 83

Newspapers: why shocking, 3; as means of social control, 38; definition of, 80, 81–82; circulation, 80; and democracy, 85–86; two types of, 93; metropolitan and provincial, 94; Sunday, 96; and community morale, 220; _New York Gazette_, _Herald_, _Sun_, _Times_, _Tribune_, _World_, 89–96; _San Francisco Examiner_, 89–96; _St. Louis Post Dispatch_, 89–96

New York: studies of population in, 5; Harlem, 8; Chinatown, 10; Greenwich Village, 10; foreign-language press in, 27; Bureau of Research, 39; city plan, 48; transportation, 60

Obeah: Negro magic, 123; and Negro mentality, 133; fashions in, 135; and popular medicine, 138; in New York City, 139

Occupational group, the, characteristic urban social unit, 220–21

Playgrounds, as character-forming agencies, 111–12

Population: cycle, 71, 74; sifting of, in city, 79

Position, the concept of, 64

Press: power of, 90, 91; party, 90; independent, 90, 94; yellow, 94

Primitive mentality, 124–25, 126, 140

Psychic compensation, Alfred Adler’s theory of, 101–2

Public opinion, and gossip, 85

Reform, and militant minorities, 28

Reporters, parliamentary, 87

Sage Foundation, the, city-planning studies of, 5

St. Lucia, obeah in, 136

San Francisco, Chinatown, 10

_San Francisco Examiner_, 150

Science, geographical limitations of, 139

Seattle, 76, 78; age and sex groups in, 78

Segregation, 5, 40, 56; segregated areas, 9; and occupations, 57

Settlement, the, and neighborhood work, 142

Skyscraper, and population density, 203

Slum, the, 148

Social agencies, 109–10

Social Centers, location of, 150

Social control: changes in, 31; and vice, 32; and advertising, 37; public opinion and, 38; and city life, 107; as type-factors, 143

Social distances, 145

Stock exchange, a measure of mobility, 26

Temperament, and city life, 45

Town-planning, 115

Transportation, an ecological factor, 69

Virgin Islands, changing mental habits of natives, 140

Wanderlust, and the romantic temperament, 158

Wishes, defined, 119

INDEX TO AUTHORS

Adams, 145

Addams, Jane, 188, 198, 212

Agache, Auburtin, 194

Agache, Redont, 194

Allison, Thomas W., 208

Anderson, Nels, 54, 62, 109, 158, 188

Anthony, Joseph, 225

Arndt, Arno, 200

Arner, G. B. L., 204

Aronovici, Carol, 204, 227

Ashby, A. W., 209

Assessor (pseudonym), 198

Aurousseau, M., 165, 181, 208

Bab, Julius, 188

Bader, Emil, 212

Baer, M., 187

Bagehot, Walter, 17

Bahre, Walter, 217

Bailey, W. B., 214

Baillie, J. B., 138, 139

Baily, W. L., 172

Bajla, W. B., 214

Baker, J. E., 216

Ballard, W. J., 206

Ballod, C., 210

Barron, S. B., 214

Barrows, Harlan H., 166

Bartlett, Dana W., 194

Bassett, E. M., 206

Bauer, L., 210

Bax, E. B., 171

Beard, C. A., 172

Below, George von, 168

Benario, Leo, 218

Benson, E., 171

Bercovici, Konrad, 211

Bernhard, Georg, 187

Bernhard, H., 206

Besant, Walter, 11, 26, 191

Beusch, P. 210

Bierman, Charles, 177

Billings, J. S., 214

Bingham, Robert F., 75, 204

Blanchard, Raoul, 166

Blankenburg, R., 167

Bleicher, H., 214

Böckh, R., 210, 216

Bodine, H. E., 182

Bonne, G., 212

Bookwalter, J. W., 222

Booth, Charles, 188, 226

Bowley, A. L., 210, 223

Bowman, LeRoy E., 200

Brown, Junius Henri, 188

Brown, Robert M., 206

Bruere, Henry, 201

Brunhes, Jean, 65, 178

Brunner, Edmund, deS., 223

Bryce, James, 34, 38

Bryce, P. H., 210

Bücher, Karl, 167, 172

Buchner, Eberhard, 191, 200

Burgess, Ernest W., 64, 144

Burke, Thomas, 191, 218

Burns, Allen T., 227

Busbey, L. W., 223

Buschan, G. H., 212

Bushee, F. A., 206, 208

Cacheux, E., 210

Capes, William Parr, 201

Carbaugh, H. C., 198

Carleton, Will, 219

Carroll, Charles E., 199

Chalmers, Thomas, 212

Cheney, C. H., 193

Cheney, Edward Potts, 168

Chisholm, George G., 166, 183

Classen, W. F., 212, 213

Clemens, Samuel, 42

Clements, F. E., 68, 74

Clerget, Pierre, 170

Clerk (pseudonym), 201

Cleveland, Frederick A., 201

Colze, Leo, 202

Consentius, Ernest, 171

Cook, O. F., 223

Cooley, Charles Horton, 23

Cornish, Vaughn, 178

Cottrell, E. A., 180

Coudenhove-Kalergi, H., 225

Coulanges, Fustel de, 170

Coulton, George Gordon, 171

Cruickshank, J. Graham, 123

Cummin, G. C., 201

Cunningham, William, 167

Cushing, C. P., 182

Damaschke, Adolph, 222

Daniels, John, 190, 191

D’Avenel, G. le Vicomte, 197

Davenport, C. B., 215

Davis, W. S., 170

Day, Clive, 168

Denison, John Hopkins, 188

Desmond, S., 186

Deutsch-German, Alfred (pseudonym), 221

Dewey, John, 199

Dickerman, G. S., 210

Dietrich, Richard, 189

Digby, E., 211

Dillen, Johannes Gerard van, 168

Dittmann, P., 210

Donovan, Frances, 218

Douglass, H. Paul, 68, 208

Dreiser, Theodore, 191

Dublin, Louis I., 215

Dunn, Arthur W., 191

Ebeling, Martin, 172

Eberstadt, Rudolph, 193

Edel, Edmund, 184

Eldridge, Seba, 191

Elmer, Manuel C., 227

Ely, Richard T., 182, 201, 204

Ende, A. von, 173, 174

Faris, J. T., 176

Fassett, Charles M., 196

Fawcett, C. B., 206

Feather, W. A., 206

Febvre, Lucien, 180

Fehlinger, Hans, 215

Felton, Ralph E., 190

Fitzpatrick, Edward A., 198

Flagg, James M., 221

Fleure, Herbert John, 175

Follett, Mary P., 220

Fosdick, Raymond, 198

Fowler, W. W., 170

Fraser, E., 175

Freimark, Hans, 221

Friedländer, L., 170

Galpin, C. J., 182, 183, 223

Gamble, Sidney D., 176, 226

Geddes, Patrick, 176, 194

Geisler, Walter, 181

George, M. Dorothy, 173

George, W. L., 204

Gide, Charles, 180

Gilbert, Arthur Benson, 201

Gilbert, Bernard, 180

Gillette, J. M., 70, 224

Goldmark, Pauline, 189

Goodnow, Frank J., 201

Goodrich, E. P., 197

Goodwin, Frank P., 192

Grahn, E., 196

Grant, James, 219

Gras, Norman S. B., 168, 180

Gray, C. H., 215

Green, Alice S. A., 171

Gregory, W. M., 206

Gross, Charles, 184

Groves, E. R., 210, 224

Guilfoy, W. H., 215

Günther, Viktor, 200

Hadley, A. T., 69

Hammer, Wilhelm, 221

Hammond, Barbara, 218

Hammond, J. L., 218

Hammond, L. J., 215

Hanslik, Erwin, 176

Hapgood, Hutchins, 221

Hare, Augustus J. C., 173, 174

Harmon, G. E., 215

Harper, Charles George, 189

Harris, Emerson Pitt, 197

Harrison, Shelby M., 198, 226, 227

Hassert, Kurt, 166

Haurbeck, L., 216

Haverfield, F. J., 195

Hebble, Charles Ray, 192

Hecht, Ben, 221

Hecke, W., 210

Henderson, C. R., 213

Heron, David, 216

Herschmann, Otto, 200

Herzfeld, Elsa G., 211

Hessel, J. F., 173

Hill, Howard C., 201

Hirschfeld, Magnus, 197, 208

Hoaglund, H. E., 210

Höffner, C., 196

Holborn, I. B. S., 203

Holmes, Samuel J., 215

Homburg, F., 176, 179

Hooker, G. E., 208

Howe, Frederic C., 173, 185, 220

Hughes, W. R., 195

Humphrey, Z., 225

Hunter, Robert, 204

Hurd, Richard M., 204

Hyan, Hans, 218

Irwin, Will, 93, 95, 173

Izoulet, Jean, 169

James, Edmund J., 207

Jastrow, J., 224

Jefferson, Mark, 166, 176, 187, 207, 209

Jenks, A. E., 192

Jephson, H. L., 196

Johnson, Clarence Richard, 173, 226

Johnson, James Welden, 8

Johnson, R., 61

Jones, James Jesse, 190

Kales, Albert M., 185

Katcher, Leopold, 192

Kellogg, Paul U., 179, 226, 227

Kenngott, George F., 179, 226

Kern, Robert R., 193

King, C. F., 178

King, Grace, 174

Kingsbury, J. E., 197

Kirk, William, 173

Kirwan, Daniel Joseph, 189

Knowles, L. C. A., 66, 70

Kübler, Wilhelm, 196

Kühner, F., 216

Lambin, Maria Ward, 200

Lasker, Bruno, 180, 218, 226

Lasson, Alfred, 213

Levainville, Jacques, 183

Lévy-Bruhl, 123 ff.

Lewis, C. F., 216

Lewis, H. M., 197

Lewis, J. N., 216

Lewis, Nelson P., 195

Lippmann, Walter, 85, 93, 97

Loeb, Jacques, 30

Loeb, Moritz, 202

Lohman, K. B., 180

Love, A. G., 215

Lucas, Edw. V., 192

Lueken, E., 184

McCombs, C. E., 224

MacDonough, Michael, 87

McDowall, Arthur, 225

Maciver, R. M., 192

MacKenzie, C., 222

McKenzie, R. D., 190, 201

McLean, Francis H., 179

McMichael, Stanley L., 75, 204

Macpherson, J., 215

McVey, Frank L., 181

Maine, Sir H. A., 181

Manschke, R., 217

Marcuse, Max, 213

Markey, Gene, 222

Marpillero, G., 219

Martell, P., 207

Maunier, René, 169

Maurice, Arthur Bartlett, 192

Maxey, C. C., 185

Mayhew, Henry, 218

Mayr, G. von, 210

Meinshausen, 215

Mensch, Ella (pseudonym), 222

Mercier, Marcel, 177

Meuriot, P. M. G., 167, 211

Miller, H. A., 192

Moore, E. C., 199

Morehouse, E. W., 204

Morgan, Anna, 219

Morgan, J. E., 217

Morgan, W. S., 173

Morse, H. N., 224

Mowrer, Ernest R., 62

Mulvihill, F. J., 185

Mumford, Lewis, 203

Munro, W. B., 60, 201

Myers, C. S., 225

Nichols, C. M., 203

Noack, Victor, 218

Ober, Frederick A., 132

Odum, Howard W., 202

Olcott, George C., 205

Olden, Balder, 187

Ormiston, E., 182

Ostwald, Hans O., 189, 200, 213, 226

Palmer, George T., 227

Park, Robert E., 64, 119, 144, 192, 197, 220

Parker, Horatio Nelson, 203

Payne, George Henry, 89

Pearl, Raymond, 120

Peattie, Roderick, 224

Penck, Albrecht, 187

Perry, Clarence A., 190

Petermann, Theodor, 186

Phelan, John J., 200

Pieper, E., 215

Pirenne, Henry, 172

Pollock, H. M., 173

Pratt, Edward Ewing, 205

Preuss, Hugo, 172

Prinzing, F., 210, 211, 217, 224

Purdom, C. B., 195

Püschel, Alfred, 207

Quaife, Milo Milton, 197

Ratzel, Friedrich, 177

Ravenstein, E. G., 211

Reckless, Walter C., 62

Reeve, Sidney A., 205

Reibmayr, A., 222

Reuter, E. B., 167

Rhodes, Harrison, 176, 200

Richmond, Mary E., 198

Ridgley, Douglas C., 177, 207

Riis, Jacob A., 205

Ripley, W. Z., 209

Roberts, Kate L., 195

Roberts, Peter, 179

Roe, Clifford, 218

Röse, C., 216

Ross, E. A., 223

Rostovtzeff, Michael, 171

Roth, Lawrence V., 207

Rowntree, B. Seebohm, 218, 226

Roxby, P. M., 223

Salten, Felix, 209

Sanborn, Frank B., 179

Sanderson, Dwight, 224

Sarker, S. L., 215

Schäfer, D., 167

Scharrelmann, Heinrich, 189

Schmid, Herman, 209

Schrader, F., 166

Schuchard, Ernest, 213

Schumacher, Fritz, 203, 205

Sears, Charles, 192, 213

Sedlaczek, 207

Seiler, C. Linn, 219

Seligman, Edwin R. A., 189

Semple, Ellen C., 178, 179

Sennett, R. A., 195

Sharp, George W., 213

Shideler, E. H., 62, 203

Shine, Mary L., 181

Simkhovitch, Mark K., 218

Simmel, Georg, 219

Sims, Newell Leroy, 72, 181

Slosson, P., 181

Smith, Adam, 13

Smith, Arthur H., 224

Smith, F. Berkley, 189

Smith, Joseph Russell, 69, 166, 178, 223

Smythe, William Ellsworth, 205

Solenberger, Alice W., 218

Sombart, Werner, 168, 220

Spencer, A. G., 211

Spengler, Oswald, 1, 2, 3, 220

Steele, Rufus, 179

Steffens, Lincoln, 202

Steiner, Jesse F., 213

Steinhart, A., 211

Stella, A., 205

Stelze, Charles, 213

Stephany, H., 212

Stote, A., 195

Stow, John, 172

Strong, Josiah, 173, 213

Strunsky, Simeon, 189

Südekum, Albert, 205

Sumner, Charles, 36

Taylor, Graham Romeyn, 185

Tews, Johann, 199

Theilhaber, F. A., 217

Thomas, William I., 19, 27, 99, 108, 119, 128, 213

Thompson, Warren S., 217

Thorndyke, Lynn, 123

Thrasher, F. M., 62, 111

Thurnwald, R., 224

Timbs, John, 189

Todd, Robert E., 179

Toulmin, Harry A., 202

Tout, T. F., 195

Tower, W. S., 179

Traquair, Ramsay, 73

Trawick, Arcadius McSwain, 199

Triggs, H. Inigo, 195

Triton (pseudonym), 221

Tucker, R. S., 224

Turszinsky, Walter, 199

Uhde-Bernays, Herman, 176

Van Cleef, E., 207

Vandervelde, E., 223

Veblen, Thorstein, 219

Veiller, Lawrence, 205

Villchur, Mark, 81

Voss, W., 211

Vuillenmier, J. F., 225

Waentig, H., 168

Walford, C., 216

Wallas, Graham, 82, 104

Waltemath, E., 223

Ward, Edward J., 199

Warming, Eugenius, 145

Weatherly, U. G., 131

Weber, Adna Ferrin, 57, 207

Weber, G. A., 202

Weber, L. W., 216

Weiberg, W., 216

Weidner, Albert, 219

Weisstein, G., 211

Weleminsky, F., 212

Wells, Joseph, 186

Welton, T. A., 224

Werthauer, Johannes, 189, 214, 219

Weyl, Walter E., 202

Whipple, G. C., 197, 216

Whitbeck, R. H., 182

White, Bouck, 190

Wilcox, Delos F., 185, 202

Williams, Fred V., 192

Williams, James M., 190, 209

Wilson, Warren H., 72, 181, 198

Winter, Max, 209, 220

Wood, Arthur Evans, 179

Woods, Robert A., 7, 154, 189, 212

Woolston, Howard, 220

Wright, Henry C., 177, 184

Wright, R., 185

Wuttke, R., 193

Young Erle Fiske, 190

Zahn, F., 208

Zimmern, Alfred E., 171

Zimmern, Helen, 187

Znaniecki, Florian, 128, 213

Zorbaugh, H. W., 62

Zueblin, Charles, 173, 202

PRINTED IN THE U.S.A.

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Footnote 1:

Oswald Spengler, _Der Untergang des Abendlandes_, IV (München, 1922), 105.

Footnote 2:

Oswald Spengler, _Untergang des Abendlandes_, IV, 106.

Footnote 3:

Robert A. Woods, “The Neighborhood in Social Reconstruction,” _Papers and Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Society, 1913_.

Footnote 4:

James Welden Johnson, “The Making of Harlem,” _Survey Graphic_, March 1, 1925.

Footnote 5:

“Wenn wir daher das Wort [Natur] als einen logischen Terminus in der Wissenschaftslehre gebrauchen wollen, so werden wir sagen dürfen, dass Natur die Wirklichkeit ist mit Rücksicht auf ihren gesetzmässigen Zusammenhang. Diese Bedeutung finden wir z. B. in dem Worte Naturgesetz. Dann aber können wir die Natur der Dinge auch das nennen was in die Begriffe eingeht, oder am kürzesten uns dahin ausdrücken: die Natur ist die Wirklichkeit mit Rücksicht auf das Allgemeine. So gewinnt dann das Wort erst eine logische Bedeutung” (H. Rickert, _Die Grenzen der naturwissenschaftlichen Begriffsbildung_, p. 212).

Footnote 6:

Walter Besant, _East London_, pp. 7–9.

Footnote 7:

Adam Smith, _The Wealth of Nations_, pp. 28–29.

Footnote 8:

Walter Bagehot, _The Postulates of Political Economy_ (London, 1885), pp. 7–8.

Footnote 9:

Cf. W. I. Thomas, _Source Book of Social Origins_, p. 169.

Footnote 10:

Charles Horton Cooley, _Social Organization_, p. 15.

Footnote 11:

Walter Besant, _East London_, p. 13.

Footnote 12:

William I. Thomas, “Race Psychology: Standpoint and Questionnaire with Particular Reference to the Immigrant and Negro,” _American Journal of Sociology_, XVII (May, 1912), 736.

Footnote 13:

_Reports of the United States Immigration Commission_, VI, 14–16.

Footnote 14:

Jacques Loeb, _Comparative Physiology of the Brain_, pp. 220–21.

Footnote 15:

_Ibid._, p. 221.

Footnote 16:

James Bryce, _The American Commonwealth_, I, 566.

Footnote 17:

Sumner, _Folkways_, p. 12.

Footnote 18:

Cf. Bryce, _The American Commonwealth_, p. 267.

Footnote 19:

“British Conurbations in 1921,” _Sociological Review_, XIV (April, 1922), 111–12.

Footnote 20:

See E. H. Shideler, _The Retail Business Organization as an Index of Community Organization_ (in preparation).

Footnote 21:

For a study of this cultural area of city life see Nels Anderson, _The Hobo_, Chicago, 1923.

Footnote 22:

Weber, _The Growth of Cities_, p. 442.

Footnote 23:

Adapted from W. B. Munro, _Municipal Government and Administration_, II, 377.

Footnote 24:

_Report of the Chicago Subway and Traction Commission_, p. 81, and the _Report on a Physical Plan for a Unified Transportation System_, p. 391.

Footnote 25:

Data compiled by automobile industries.

Footnote 26:

Statistics of mailing division, Chicago Post-office.

Footnote 27:

Determined from _Census Estimates for Intercensal Years_.

Footnote 28:

From statistics furnished by Mr. R. Johnson, traffic supervisor, Illinois Bell Telephone Company.

Footnote 29:

From 1912–23, land values per front foot increased in Bridgeport from $600 to $1,250; in Division-Ashland-Milwaukee district, from $2,000 to $4,500; in “Back of the Yards,” from $1,000 to $3,000; in Englewood, from $2,500 to $8,000; in Wilson Avenue, from $1,000 to $6,000; but decreased in the Loop from $20,000 to $16,500.

Footnote 30:

Nels Anderson, _The Slum: An Area of Deterioration in the Growth of the City_; Ernest R. Mowrer, _Family Disorganization in Chicago_; Walter C. Reckless, _The Natural History of Vice Areas in Chicago_; E. H. Shideler, _The Retail Business Organization as an Index of Business Organization_; F. M. Thrasher, _One Thousand Boys’ Gangs in Chicago; a Study of Their Organization and Habitat_; H. W. Zorbaugh, _The Lower North Side; a Study in Community Organization_.

Footnote 31:

_Encyclopedia Americana_, New York (1923), p. 555.

Footnote 32:

As indicated later on in this paper, ecological formations tend to develop in cyclic fashion. A period of time within which a given ecological formation develops and culminates is the time period for that particular formation. The length of these time periods may be ultimately measured and predicted, hence the inclusion of the temporal element in the definition.

Footnote 33:

The word “position” is used to describe the place relation of a given community to other communities, also the location of the individual or institution within the community itself.

Footnote 34:

Park and Burgess, _Introduction to the Science of Sociology_, p. 509.

Footnote 35:

Although the actions of individuals may be designed and controlled, the total effect of individual action is neither designed nor anticipated.

Footnote 36:

_Human Geography_, p. 52.

Footnote 37:

Brunhes points out by a series of maps the very intimate relation between the distribution of human habitations and the water systems of different countries. He also demonstrates the relation of the modern industrial community to the regions of coal deposits.

Footnote 38:

The close relation existing between the coal and iron areas and the location of modern industrial communities has frequently been pointed out. L. C. A. Knowles says: “Apart from special and exceptional circumstances industry in Europe and the United States tends to grow up within easy railway access to the great coal areas and on these areas the population is massed in towns” (_The Industrial and Commercial Revolutions in Great Britain during the Nineteenth Century_, p. 24).

Footnote 39:

To be sure, if the interests in question are commercialized, the growth of the community is subject to the same laws of competition as the other types of communities, with the exception that change is likely to be more rapid and fanciful.

Footnote 40:

See H. P. Douglass, _The Little Town_, p. 44.

Footnote 41:

F. E. Clements, _Plant Succession_, p. 3. Carr-Saunders refers to the point of population adjustment to resources as the “optimum.”

Footnote 42:

J. Russell Smith, _Industrial and Commercial Geography_ (1913), p. 841.

Footnote 43:

A. T. Hadley, “Economic Results of Improvement in Means of Transportation,” quoted in Marshall, _Business Administration_, p. 35.

Footnote 44:

L. C. A. Knowles, _The Industrial and Commercial Revolutions in Great Britain during the Nineteenth Century_ (1921), p. 216.

Footnote 45:

See Gillette, _Rural Sociology_ (1922), pp. 472–73.

Footnote 46:

For a good statistical summary of the decline in village population in the United States from 1900 to 1920 see Gillette, _op. cit._ (1922), p. 465.

Footnote 47:

Warren H. Wilson, “Quaker Hill,” quoted in Sims, _Rural Community_, p. 214.

Footnote 48:

In actual count of some thirty-odd communities in and around Seattle this was about the sequence of development.

Footnote 49:

The axial or skeletal structure of civilization, Mediterranean, Atlantic, Pacific, is the ocean around which it grows up. See Ramsay Traquair, “The Commonwealth of the Atlantic,” _Atlantic Monthly_, May, 1924.

Footnote 50:

Compare F. E. Clements, _Plant Succession_, p. 6.

Footnote 51:

For good discussions of the effect of new forms of transportation upon communal structure see McMichael and Bingham, _City Growth and Values_ (1923), chap. iv; also Grupp, _Economics of Motor Transportation_ (1924), chap. ii.

Footnote 52:

By actual count in the city of Seattle over 80 per cent of the disorderly houses recorded in police records are obsolete buildings located near the downtown business section where land values are high and new uses are in process of establishment.

Footnote 53:

A term used by members of the Department of Sociology in the University of Chicago.

Footnote 54:

This has also been suggested by the Chicago group.

Footnote 55:

Walter Lippmann, _Public Opinion_, pp. 361–62.

Footnote 56:

Michael MacDonagh, _The Reporters’ Gallery_. Pp. 139–40.

Footnote 57:

George Henry Payne, _History of Journalism in the United States_, p. 120.

Footnote 58:

William I. Thomas, _The Unadjusted Girl—with Cases and Standpoint for Behavior Analysis_, _Criminal Science_, Monograph No. 4, Boston, 1923.

Footnote 59:

Thomas and Znaniecki, _The Polish Peasant_, I, 87–97, quoted in Park and Miller, _Old-World Traits Transplanted_, p. 34.

Footnote 60:

_Ibid._, II, 259, quoted in Park and Miller, _Old-World Traits Transplanted_, pp. 39–40.

Footnote 61:

W. I. Thomas, _The Unadjusted Girl_, p. 71.

Footnote 62:

Robert E. Park, “The Significance of Social Research in Social Service,” _Journal of Applied Sociology_ (May-June, 1924), pp. 264–65.

Footnote 63:

J. Graham Cruickshank, _Black Talk_, p. 8.

Footnote 64:

Archbishop E. J. Hanna, head of the Catholic diocese of California, recently, during the drouth on the Pacific Coast, issued formal instructions to the pastors of all Catholic churches to offer the following prayer immediately after mass: “O God, in whom we live and move and are, grant us seasonal rain that we, enjoying a sufficiency of support in this life, may with more confidence strive after things eternal.”—From _Los Angeles Evening Herald_, January 17, 1924.

Footnote 65:

Thomas and Znaniecki, _The Polish Peasant in Europe and America_ (Boston, 1918), I, 3: “The oldest but most persistent form of social technique is that of ‘ordering-and-forbidding’—that is, meeting a crisis by an arbitrary act of will decreeing the disappearance of the undesirable or the appearance of the desirable phenomena, and the using arbitrary physical action to enforce the decree. This method corresponds exactly to the magical phase of natural technique. In both, the essential means of bringing a determined effect is more or less consciously thought to reside in the act of will itself by which the effect is decreed as desirable, and of which the action is merely an indispensable vehicle or instrument; in both, the process by which the cause (act of will and physical action) is supposed to bring its effect to realization remains out of reach of investigation.”

Footnote 66:

The following telegram was recently in the _San Francisco Bulletin_: “Stanford University, Jan. 24, 1924—Stanford has established what is termed a unique course in the curriculum of western universities. It teaches scientific yell-leading, according to the rally committee, which sponsors the course. The course is open to sophomores only. Practices will be held in Encina gymnasium.”

Footnote 67:

Frederick A. Ober, _A Guide to the West Indies Bermudas_, New York, 1908, p. 351.

Footnote 68:

J. B. Baillie, _Studies in Human Nature_, p. 242.

Footnote 69:

A distinction made by Professor Robert E. Park.

Footnote 70:

Park and Burgess, _Introduction to the Science of Sociology_, p. 163.

Footnote 71:

P. 163.

Footnote 72:

One of the committees of the Chicago Council of Social Agencies has a subcommittee which is studying this problem in connection with the subject of uniform districts for social agencies. Several departments of the city government are interested in considering the possibilities of uniform administrative districts.

Footnote 73:

See chapter “The Growth of the City” for a more elaborate analysis of urban expansion (pp. 47–62).

Footnote 74:

Numbers in parentheses after titles indicate that the work cited contains material bearing on the topics in the outline corresponding to these numbers.

------------------------------------------------------------------------

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES

1. Silently corrected palpable typographical errors; retained non-standard spellings and dialect. 2. Reindexed footnotes using numbers and collected together at the end of the last chapter. 3. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_.