Chapter 49 of 50 · 7342 words · ~37 min read

CHAPTER X

BACTERIA AND SANITATION

_Experiment 1._ =Yeast Plants.=--With a microscope examine a drop from a glass of water in which you have washed grapes or apples (Fig. 129).

_Experiment 2._ =Fermentation.=--Put a tablespoonful of sugar into this water and set the glass in a warm place for a day or two. Do you see any bubbles of gas? Have the odor and taste changed? Does the microscope show that the yeast plants are now more abundant? By fermentation, or the growth of yeast in sugar, sugar is changed into carbon dioxid, a gas, and alcohol, a liquid.

_Experiment 3._ =A Sanitary Map.=--Construct a sanitary map of the community. Indicate houses where consumption, typhoid fever, or other transmissible diseases have occurred, with number of cases. Mark location of stagnant waters where mosquitoes breed, mark garbage dumps, unclean streets. Suggest where improvements may be made in drainage, dust, noises, sunshine, shade, etc.

[Illustration: FIG. 129.--YEAST CELLS magnified 200 diameters, or 40,000 areas. Yeast plants multiply by budding. Notice small cells growing on larger and older ones.]

=Bacteria=, or microbes, the smallest living things, are visible only under a microscope of high power. (See “Plant Biology,” p. 182.) They obtain food either from dead tissue or from degenerate tissue of living plants and animals. The green plants and the animals now upon the earth have proved their _fitness to survive_ by successfully resisting these one-celled vegetable germs, or bacteria. Microbe diseases attack only the weaker individuals of the human species, or those who have gone to regions where there are microbes which their bodies have not yet acquired the power of resisting.

=Usefulness of Bacteria.=--Their chief work is to destroy dead tissue and return it to the soil and air for the use of green plants again, otherwise the earth would be filled with carcasses, etc. They are indispensable in soil formation. They give the agreeable flavors to butter and cheese, and cause milk to sour. A rod-shaped bacterium is called a _bacillus_ (Fig. 130); a spherical one is a _coccus_.

=Multiplication of Bacteria.=--This is by division or _fission_. Sometimes, instead of dividing, a little rounded mass known as a _spore_ appears. The spore breaks out and the bacterium itself perishes. Species which do not produce spores are readily destroyed, but spores have a hard, tough shell, and they may be dried or heated even to boiling without being killed. Spores float through the air and start new colonies. _Most common bacteria grow best between 70° and 95° F._ They render it difficult to preserve foods, _especially proteid foods_ (cheese, lean meat, eggs, etc.). Food decays slowly if at all below 70° and above 125°. Direct sunlight, or the temperature of boiling water (212° F.) kills bacteria but not spores. Pantries, kitchen, and sickrooms should have bright walls and all the light possible. Boiling water should be poured into the sink, and dish cloths should be thoroughly washed in boiling water.

=Diseases due to Bacteria.=--A germ disease is usually due partly or wholly to substances called toxins produced by the bacteria. Most disease germs attack a single organ of the body. _Diphtheria_ is caused by a species (Fig. 130) that grows on the mucous membrane of the throat; this germ produces a powerful toxin. The germs of _typhoid fever_ (Fig. 131) and _Asiatic cholera_ multiply in the small intestine. In both these diseases the source of infection is the diarrhœal discharges from the alimentary canal. Flies may carry the germs on their feet from the discharge to food. Sometimes typhoid fever cases occur throughout a town because the water supply has become contaminated by sewage. Cases may occur only in families that buy milk from a certain dairy, because the milk cans have been washed in contaminated water. In caring for a typhoid patient all suspicious material should be disinfected or burned. Germs of _tuberculosis_ (called _consumption_ if the disease is in the lungs) may float through the air. Recent investigations indicate, however, that infection usually occurs through the alimentary canal, the germs being swallowed, then absorbed and taken to the lungs in the blood or lymph. To prevent a patient from reinfecting himself in new parts of the lungs or elsewhere, he should carefully cleanse his teeth, mouth, and throat (by gargling with formal or lysol) before eating.

[Illustration: FIG. 130.--BACILLUS OF DIPHTHERIA.]

[Illustration: FIG. 131.--BACILLUS OF TYPHOID FEVER.]

[Illustration: FIG. 132.--CULEX OR COMMON MOSQUITO, above (possibly carries dengue fever). ANOPHELES OR MALARIAL MOSQUITO, below (not always infected). Body of malarial mosquito is never held parallel to the supporting surface (unless a leg is missing); it has five long appendages to the head, the culex (above) has only three. (Draw.)]

[Illustration: FIG. 133.--PROTECTIVE WHITE CORPUSCLE (phagocyte) digesting a microbe.]

=Mosquito Fevers.=--_Malaria_, _yellow fever_, and probably _dengue_ are transmitted each by a different genus of mosquito (Fig. 132). A mosquito of the malarial genus may bite a patient and suck into its body blood-corpuscles containing spores of the malarial parasite (a protozoan animal, see “Animal Biology,” p. 7). Afterwards a spore (in another stage) may be transmitted by this mosquito when it bites another person. The germ enters a red corpuscle, grows, and finally divides into many little spores. At this moment the corpuscle itself breaks up, setting free in the blood the spores and toxin formed. This causes the chill and fever. This development usually takes forty-eight hours, hence the fever occurs every other day. These mosquitoes _begin to fly at dusk_. How are they recognized? (Fig. 132.) They should be kept out of houses by screens or from the beds by netting. Kerosene should be poured on breeding places at the rate of one ounce for fifteen square feet of standing water. This should be repeated twice a month. Cactus macerated in water may be used, and forms a permanent film on the water. Stagnant pools may be filled or drained (Exp. 4). _Malarial patients should themselves be screened, as the chief source of danger to others_; for only mosquitoes who suck the blood of malarial patients will transmit the disease. Even then it is only transmitted to those whose white blood corpuscles are unable to protect them (Fig. 133).

=Further Means of Protection against Disease Germs.=--The best protection is physical vigor. There are certain substances called _opsonins_ which exist in the plasma of the blood of disease-resisting persons; these opsonins give the white corpuscles the power to devour disease germs. The serum of the blood also develops antitoxins which neutralize the toxins formed in disease. Not only can the white corpuscles and serum kill bacteria, but most of the secretions of the healthy body (gastric juice, nasal secretions, etc.) are bacteria-killing as well. Persons in a low state of health most readily succumb to disease. Excess in eating may lessen the germicidal power of gastric juice and inactivity that of the lymph. The same germ disease does not usually attack the same person twice, as the body becomes immune; that is, an opsonin, or an antitoxin, is developed which cures the first attack and remains to protect the body in future.

The periods of quarantine or isolation for several common germ diseases are given in the following table:--

=Water Supply.=--Bacteria are more abundant in flowing streams than in water standing in lakes or reservoirs (contrary to the usual belief). They are most abundant in rivers that flow through populous regions. They are comparatively scarce in dry, sandy soils, and very numerous in moist, loamy soils. The water of cities should never be taken from a stream or lake into which sewerage flows unless it is thoroughly filtered. Filters are constructed thus: first a layer of small stones, next a layer of coarse sand, lastly a layer of very fine sand on top, the total thickness being four or five feet. Beneficial microbes live upon the grains of sand and destroy all, or nearly all, of the dangerous microbes as the water slowly soaks through. The construction of such waterworks is left to sanitary engineers, of course, and the average citizen does not need to know the details.

=The department of street cleaning= should receive the willing coöperation of all citizens. Banana peelings, paper, etc., should not be thrown upon the street or school grounds. Garbage, ashes, and rubbish should be placed in separate cans, as the rules provide. Garbage cans, if not thoroughly cleaned, acquire unpleasant odors and breed flies and bacteria. They should be thoroughly washed with very hot water and sal soda and scalded with boiling water and scrubbed with an old broom.[11]

[11] The chief =Disinfectants= are: _fresh air_, _sunshine_, _heat_, _formaldehyde_, etc. Airing and sunning will destroy some germs in bedding and clothing as effectually as chemicals. Boiling and steaming are the best ways of applying heat. _Formaldehyde_ is a volatile liquid. After room is sealed and strips of paper pasted all over cracks, a specially constructed generator is applied to keyhole, and room kept closed for 12 hours. _Mercuric chloride_ (corrosive sublimate) is used 1 part to 1000 parts of water for disinfecting soiled clothing, towels, utensils, surgeon’s instruments, and wounds. In place of this, _carbolic acid_, 5 per cent solution, may be used, but it is not so good a germicide.

=The chief duties of the Health Department= are: quarantine isolation and disinfection, with the purpose of preventing or controlling contagious and infectious diseases; inspection of dairies, slaughterhouses, and other sanitary work; inspection of milk[12] and other food stuffs; the department gathers vital statistics; it enforces the rules for disinfection of public buildings.

[12] =Milk= may be sterilized by boiling, but boiled milk is not digestible nor nutritious. Milk may be Pasteurized by immersing bottles of milk in water which is kept nearly (but not quite) at boiling point (160° F.) for five minutes. But this makes the milk less valuable than fresh milk, and destroys beneficent microbes. Buttermilk has many such microbes, which kill injurious microbes and purify the stomach. Cleanliness, or an _aseptic_ condition, is far preferable to _antiseptics_.

=Importance of Coöperation with the Health Department.=--Only an ignorant and short-sighted person would fail to coöperate promptly and cheerfully with local or state health officers. It is for the benefit and protection of every one that the truth concerning contagious diseases be reported promptly. Only in this way may outbreaks of disease be prevented and many lives saved. He is a bad citizen and a public enemy who will conceal a case of disease dangerous to the community. Outbreaks of fatal diseases may be easily prevented or stamped out if the health officer is sustained and his directions carried out.

INDEX

I, V, X, etc. = Introduction: P = Plant Biology: A = Animal Biology: H = Human Biology.

Aboral surface, A 35.

Aborted seeds, P 166.

Absorption, H 106.

Abutilon, P 156.

Accessory fruit, P 164, 169.

Accommodation in eye, H 143, 153.

Acephala, A 107.

Acid, ix.

Adaptation to environment, P 6, A 148, 185, 201, 205, 207, H 19, 108, 109, 110.

Adenoid growths, H 86.

Adipose tissue, H 12.

Adulteration of food, H 93.

Adventitious roots, P 36; buds, P 114.

Aerial roots, P 34.

Aggregate fruit, P 168.

Air cells, H 75.

Air plants, P 35.

Akenes, P 165.

Albinism, H 16, 18.

Albumen, H 92.

Albumin, H 92.

Alcohol and circulation, H 67; and fermentation, H 158; and food, H 113; and muscles, H 50; and nerves, H 135; and skin, H 20.

Algar, P 179, 183, 195.

Alkaline, ix.

Alternation of generation, P 179, A 30, 31.

Ambulacral, A 36.

Ameba, A 10.

Americans, H 1.

Anadon, A 98.

Anatomy, H 9.

Anemophilous, P 149.

Animal food, H 95, 110.

Annual plant, P 17.

Antelope, A 215.

Antennæ, A 68, 87.

Anther, P 135, 144, 180.

Antheridium, P 178, 186, 198, 200, 202, 203.

Ant-eater, giant, A 199; spiny, A 196.

Ant-lion, A 91.

Ape, A 220.

Apical dehiscence, P 166.

Appendicitis, H 106.

Appendix, vermiform, H 106.

Appetite, H 94, 110.

Aptera, A 82.

Apteryx, A 174.

Aquarium, A 17.

Archegonium, P 178, 198, 200, 202, 203.

Argonaut, paper, A 107.

Arm, H 33.

Armadillo, A 200.

Arrowhead, H 2.

Arteries, H 51, 53, 54, 61.

Arthropoda, A 9, 125.

Arum family, P 140.

Ash, P 92.

Asiatic cholera, H 160.

Assimilation, P 97, H 90.

Association fibers, H 123, 126.

Asthma, H 86.

Astigmatism, H 144.

Athletics, H 46, 47.

Atwater’s experiments, H 113.

Auricle, H 53.

Automatic action, H 123.

Axil, P 112.

Axis, plant, P 15.

Axon, H 119.

Bacillus, H 158, 159.

Bacteria, P 39, 109, 182, H 158, 159, 160, 161.

Bandage, H 62.

Barberry, P 157, 193.

Bark, P 54, 66, 67.

Bark-bound trees, P 54.

Bast, P 61, 66.

Bat, A 202.

Baths, H 23, 24.

Batrachia, A 126.

Bean, P 20, 28, 39, 194, H 95, 96, 112.

Beaver, A 204.

Bedbug, A 92, 93.

Bee, bumble, A 89; honey, A 88.

Beebe’s experiments, Dr., H 113.

Beef, H 111; tea, H 111.

Beetle, A 90, 91.

Berry, P 167.

Biennial plant, P 17.

Big-headed turtle, A 149.

Bilateral, A 34, 49, 98.

Bile, H 105.

Bill of bird, A 151.

Biology defined, A 1, H 9.

Birds, A 150.

Blind spot, H 151.

Blood, H 58; quantity of, H 55; of insects, A 78.

Blood vessels, H 52; control of, H 58.

Board of Health, H 163.

Boll weevil, A 95, 96.

Boll worm, A 95, 96.

Bones, H 29; composition of, H 31; growth of, H 14, 36; forms of, H 28, 29, 34; structure of, H 30.

Bony tissue, H 13.

Borax, H 93.

Brace cells, P 67.

Bracts, P 134.

Brain, H 122; coverings of, H 125; of fish, A 118.

Branch, P 111, A 9.

Breathing, forms of, H 80; of bird, A 161; of insect, A 76; through mouth, H 85.

Breeding, plant, P 7, 8.

Bronchial tubes, H 75.

Bruises, H 62.

Bryophytes, P 181.

Bud propagation, P 121.

Budding, P 127, 128.

Buds, P 72, 82, 87, 111; flower, P 115; fruit, P 115.

Bureau of entomology, A 95.

Burns, H 24.

Burs, P 172, 174.

Bushes, P 191, A 171.

Butterfly, A 83.

Cabbage, P 113, H 95.

Cabbage butterfly, A 84, 86, 87.

Callus, P 56.

Calyx, P 133.

Cambium, P 63, 65.

Camel, A 214.

Candle, xv, A 5.

Cane sugar, H 92, 104.

Capillaries, H 52, 53, 56.

Capsule, P 165.

Carbohydrate, P 95, H 91, 95.

Carbon, vii, xviii, P 92.

Carbon, dioxid, A 24, P 22, 93, 106, H 60, 76, 81, 132; monoxid, H 85.

Carnivorous, P 99, H 111.

Carp, A 112, 117, 123.

Carpel, P 136.

Cartilage, H 13, 35.

Castor bean, P 24.

Cat, A 184.

Caterpillar, tent, A 84.

Catkin, P 158.

Caucasian, H 1, 2.

Caulicle, P 20, 22, 25.

Cedar apple, P 194.

Cell, P 42, 63, 145, 176, A 6, 7, H 5, 6.

Celom, A 46.

Cephalopod, A 106.

Cerebellum, H 122, 124.

Cerebro-spinal system, H 128, 129.

Cerebrum, H 122, 125, 126.

Chelonia, A 143.

Chemistry, xv.

Chemical symbols, xv.

Chest, H 32.

Chewing, H 90, 101.

Chimpanzee, A 219, 221.

Chirping, A 66.

Chitin, A 77.

Chlorophyll, P 86, 94, 101, 183, 186.

Cholera, H 160.

Choroid, H 150, 152.

Chyme, H 103.

Cigarettes, H 67, 86.

Cilia, A 14, 20, 101, 103, H 76.

Ciliated chamber, A 17.

Cion, P 125.

Circulation, H 51; and breathing, H 58; and exercise, H 67; hygiene of, H 68; in ameba, A 12; in insect, A 77; in fish, A 117; portal, H 60, 105; pulmonary, H 60; renal, H 60.

City, H 4.

Cladophylla, P 100.

Clam, hardshell, A 104; softshell, A 104.

Class, A 9.

Classification, of animals, A 8, 125; of birds, A 177; insects, A 82; mammals, A 193.

Cleft graft, P 126.

Cleft leaf, P 75.

Cleistogamous, P 151.

Click-beetle, A 91.

Climate, and clothing, H 25; and brain work, H 68; and early man, H 2.

Climbing plants, P 129.

Clitellum, A 43, 47.

Cloaca, A 18.

Clot, H 61.

Clothes moth, A 84, 92, 93.

Clothing, H 16, 25.

Clover, P 39.

Club mosses, P 203.

Cluster, flower, P 155, 159; centrifugal, P 156, 159; centripetal, P 156; indeterminate, P 156.

Coagulation, H 61.

Cockroach, A 71.

Cocoon, A 84.

Codling moth, A 84, 86, 87, 95.

Cœlenterata, A 28.

Colds, care of, H 69, 86.

Coleoptera, A 82.

Collecting insects, A 72.

Colon, H 106, 111.

Colonies, plant, P 11.

Colorado beetle, A 90, 91.

Coloration, warning, A 84, 146; protective, A 34, 37, 49.

Colors of flowers, A 85.

Comparative study, A 85, 108, 122, 223; moth and butterfly, A 85.

Composite flowers, P 140.

Compositions, subjects for, H 15, 50, 116, 141.

Compound substance, vii.

Congestion, H 68.

Conjugation, P 185.

Conjunctiva, H 150.

Connective tissue, H 11, 54, 120.

Consumption, H 159.

Convolution, H 126.

Cooking, H 114.

Coördination, H 124.

Copper head, A 145.

Coral, A 31.

Coralline, A 31.

Coral snake, A 145, 146.

Cork, P 66, 67.

Corn, P 3, 25, 26.

Cornea, H 150.

Corolla, P 133; funnel form, P 138; labiate, P 138; personate, P 139; rotate, P 138; salver form, P 138.

Corpuscles, origin of, H 30; red, H 59; white, H 59, 60, 65, 68.

Corset, H 58, 80, 87.

Cortex, P 44.

Corymb, P 159.

Cotton plant, P 7, A 95.

Cotyledon, P 20.

Cricket, A 71.

Cross-fertilization, A 25.

Crowd poison, H 82.

Cryptogam, P 176, 180, 183-204.

Cuckoo, A 179.

Currant, P 157.

Cuttings, P 121, 123, 124.

Cuttlefish, A 107.

Cyme, P 159, 160.

Cypræa, A 104.

Cysts, A 13.

Cytoplasm, H 6.

Darwin, A 48, 148.

Debates, subjects for, H 141.

Deciduous, P 82.

Decumbent, P 50.

Degeneration, H 3, 4, 141.

Dehiscence, P 144, 164.

Deliquescent, P 51.

Dendron, H 119.

Dependent plants, P 106.

Dermis, H 17.

Devil’s horse, A 71.

De Vries, A 148, 224.

Dextrin, H 112.

Diaphragm, H 77, 78.

Dichogamy, P 144.

Dicotyledon, P 20.

Dicotyledonous stems, P 61.

Digestion, P 95, H 89, 96, 100.

Digitate, P 74.

Digits, A 222, H 111.

Dimorphous, P 144.

Diœcious, P 138, 170.

Diphtheria, H 160.

Diptera, A 82.

Disease, defined, H 5.

Disinfection, H 163.

Dispersal of seeds, P 172.

Dissection, P 30.

Division of labor, A 27, 29, H 8.

Dodder, P 35, 106.

Dog, A 224.

Dolphin, A 209.

Doodle bug, A 91.

Dorsal, A 43.

Dove, A 179.

Dragon fly, A 93.

Drainage, H 158, 161.

Dropsy, H 64.

Drugs, H 60, 130, 133.

Drupe, P 168.

Drupelet, P 168.

Duckbill, A 196.

Dust, H 82, 158.

Ear, of bird, A 151; of frog, A 131; of fish, A 112; of man, H 154.

Earthworm, A 42.

Echinoderms, A 9, 34, 125.

Ecology, P 14, H 9.

Economic importance of birds, A 167; insects, A 93; mollusks, A 105; rodents, A 206.

Ectoderm, A 26, 87.

Ectoplasm, A 11, 14.

Egg, of insect, A 81; of hen, H 95, 96, 112.

Elaters, P 198.

Element, viii.

Embryo, P 26, 180.

Embryo sac, P 180.

Enamel, H 98.

Endoderm, A 26, 27, 37.

Endodermis, P 44.

Endoplasm, A 11, 14.

Endosperm, P 21, 24.

Energy, H 96, 140; in ameba, A 12; organic, A 2, 3; plant, A 2, 3, 5.

Entomophilous, P 148.

Environment, P 6, A 148, H 2, 3, 4, 48.

Enzyme, H 100.

Epicotyl, P 23, 25.

Epidermis, of leaf, P 86, 87; of man, H 17; of mussel, A 98.

Epigeal, P 23.

Epiphyte, P 35, 110.

Epithelial, H 12, 54.

Equisetums, P 201.

Erect posture, H 3.

Esophagus, H 74, 101.

Essays, subjects for, H 15, 25, 50, 116.

Essential organs, P 135.

Ethiopian, H 12, 18.

Evaporation, viii.

Excretion, A 12.

Excurrent, P 51.

Exercise, H 45, 48, 49, 57, 67.

Expiration, H 79.

Explosive seeds, P 172.

Eye, H 149; of bird, A 150; of frog, A 30; of grasshopper, A 67, 79; of fish, A 111.

Fainting, H 57.

Family, A 8.

Fangs, venomous, A 145.

Farmers’ bulletins, A 95.

Fatigue, of muscles, H 45; of nerves, H 130, 131, 136.

Fats, test for, xi.

Fatty tissue, H 12, 103.

Feather, A 155.

Fehling’s solution, xi.

Ferment, H 100, 103, 104, 158.

Fermentation, P 190, H 158.

Fern, P 176.

Fertilization, P 144; cross, P 144, 146, A 85; self, P 145, 147, 188.

Fiber, H 2.

Fibrin, H 61.

Fibro-vascular bundles, P 61, 90.

Field study, P 3, 6, 8, 14, 19, 27, 46, 57, 71, 84, 91, 101, 110, 118, 128, 132, 143, 152, 162, 170, 174, 181, A 10, 22, 42, 71, 72, 97, 127, 165, 166, 167, 184.

Filament, P 135.

Filter, H 163.

Fins, A 110, 113.

Flagellum, A 21, 27.

Flatworm, A 49.

Flavors, H 142, 147.

Flea, A 92, 93.

Flight, of bird, A 157, 175; of moth, A 84.

Floral envelopes, P 133.

Florets, P 140.

Flower, P 133, 180, A 85; apetalous, P 136; clusters, P 155; complete, P 136; diclinous, P 137; double, P 142; imperfect, P 137; incomplete, P 136; lateral, P 136; naked, P 136; perfect, P 137; pistillate, P 137; regular, P 138; staminate, P 137; sterile, P 137; solitary, P 156; terminal, P 156.

Fly, horse, A 81; house, A 92, 93.

Foliage, P 16.

Follicle, P 165.

Food, H 88; defined, H 114; of birds, A 177.

Food stuffs, H 91.

Food tube, of bird, A 163; of fish, A 116; of insect, A 76; of man, H 97; of mussel, A 102.

Foot, H 29.

Foraminifera, A 15, 18.

Forestry, P 68.

Formaldehyde, H 163.

Formalin, H 93.

Framework of plant, P 15.

Frog, A 128.

Frond, P 176, 178, 181.

Fruit, P 163, H 95.

Fucus, P 186.

Funaria, P 201.

Function, A 1, H 9.

Fungi, P 187.

Fungus, P 107, 108, 184, 187, 195.

Gametophyte, P 179.

Gamopetalous, P 134.

Gamosepalous, P 134.

Ganglion, A 45, H 120.

Ganglionic system, H 127.

Garbage, H 163.

Gasteropod, A 108.

Gastric juice, H 103.

Gastrula, A 7.

General sensation, H 144, 145.

Generation of plants, P 16.

Genus, A 8.

Geographical barriers, A 148.

Geotropism, P 44, 47.

Germination, P 22, 23, 27.

Gila monster, A 147.

Gills, of mussel, A 100; of fish, A 115.

Glands, lymphatic, H 65.

Gland tissue, H 13.

Glomerule, P 160.

Gnawing mammals, A 203.

Gopher, pouched, A 204.

Gorilla, A 221.

Grafting, P 125.

Grain, H 95, 112.

Grantia, A 18.

Grape sugar, x, H 88, 92.

Grasshopper, A 70.

Grit cells, P 67.

Guard cells, P 88.

Gullet, H 74, 94, 101.

Gymnastics, H 47.

Gymnosperm, P 26, 170.

Gypsy moth, A 95.

Habit, H 131.

Hairs, P 87, H 19.

Hands, H 4; defined, A 220.

Headaches, H 132, 133.

Heart, human, H 51, 52; insect, A 77; sound of, H 60.

Heating, H 84.

Hemiptera, A 82.

Hemoglobin, H 59, 81.

Herb, P 17.

Heredity, A 147, 153, H 4.

Hessian fly, A 95.

Hill, Dr. L. H., quoted, H 140.

Hilum, P 21, 26.

Hip, H 4, P 168.

Hollyhock, P 147.

Homology, P 135.

Horned toad, A 140.

Host, P 107.

House fly, A 92, 93.

Houstonia, P 107.

Human species, H 1, A 220.

Hydra, A 22.

Hydranth, A 29.

Hydrochloric acid, H 103.

Hydroid, A 28, 29, 30.

Hygiene, H 49, 66, 80, 107, 129, 141.

Hymenoptera, A 82.

Hyphæ, P 107, 188.

Hypocotyl, P 22.

Hypogeal, P 23.

Hypostome, A 23.

Ichneumon fly, A 89.

Imago, A 81.

Immunity, H 158, 160.

Indehiscent, P 164.

Indian, H 2.

Indusium, P 177.

Inflammation, H 68, 86.

Inflorescence, P 155, 160.

Infusoria, A 16.

Inhibit, H 68.

Inorganic, A 1.

Insecticides, A 95.

Insects, A 73, 75; biting, A 82; classified, A 82; sucking, A 82.

Inspiration, H 77.

Instinct, A 80, 121, H 49.

Intercostal, H 77.

Internode, P 52.

Intestinal gland, H 104.

Intestine, H 98, 103, 106.

Involucre, P 34, 141, 163, 164.

Iodine test for starch, x.

Iris, H 143, 151.

Iron, vii, P 39.

Iron tonics, H 90.

Isoëtes, P 203.

Ivory, H 98.

Jacana, Mexican, A 178.

Jay, blue, A 181.

Jelly fish, A 29, 30.

Joints, H 29, 35, 36.

Kangaroo, A 198.

Key fruit, P 164.

Kidneys, of fish, A 117; of insects, A 76; of man, H 26, 27; of mussel, A 102; of worm, A 45.

Kinetoscope, H 151.

Labial palpi, A 68, 74, 101.

Labium, A 68, 74.

Laboratory, P 3.

Labrum, A 68, 74.

Labyrinth, H 157.

Lacteal, H 64, 65, 104, 105.

Lady bug, A 91.

Lamellibranch, A 107.

Landscape, P 13.

Lark, meadow; A 182; sky, A 179.

Larkspur, P 148, 149.

Larva, A 81.

Larynx, H 72.

Lasso cell, A 34.

Lateral spinal curvature, H 37.

Latex tubes, P 67.

Leaf, apex of, P 80; base of, P 80; function of, P 92; margin of, P 80; structure, P 86.

Leaf scar, P 90.

Leaves, arrangement of, P 82; shapes of, P 78, 85.

Leg, of bird, A 152; of horse, A 210; of insect, A 74; of man, H 33.

Legume, P 165, H 95.

Legume family, P 35, 169.

Lemur, A 220.

Lenticel, P 89.

Lepidoptera, A 82, 87.

Lichens, P 195.

Ligneous, P 17.

Lime water, xx, H 70.

Liver, H 105.

Liverworts, P 196.

Lobes of leaf, P 75.

Lobule of lung, H 75.

Locule, P 136, 163, 166.

Loculicidal dehiscence, P 166.

Louse, A 92, 93.

Lumber, P 68.

Lungs, of bird, A 165; of man, H 76.

Lycopodium, P 204.

Lymph, H 52, 62, 63.

Lymphatics, H 62, 63.

Lymph spaces, H 63.

Macrospore, P 203, 204.

Madreporite, A 35.

Malaria, H 160.

Malay, H 1.

Mammal, A 184, H 111; classified, A 193; defined, A 189.

Manatee, A 209.

Mandibles, A 68, 74.

Mantis, praying, A 3.

Mantle, A 99.

Marchantia, P 196.

Maxillæ, A 68, 74.

Maxillary palpi, A 68, 74.

May beetle, A 90, 91.

May fly, A 83.

Measuring worm, A 81, 84.

Medulla, H 122, 123.

Medullary ray, P 64.

Medusa, A 31.

Mesoglea, A 26.

Mesophyll, P 86.

Metamorphosis of insect, A 80, 81, 82.

Metazoan, A 1.

Micropyle, P 21, 26.

Microscope, P 21, 26.

Microspore, P 203.

Midrib, P 77.

Migration of birds, A 171, 173.

Milk, H 91, 95, 96, 112.

Mimicry, A 146.

Mind and health, H 129.

Minerals, xiv, H 90, 91, 93, 95.

Mint family, P 139.

Mistletoe, P 109.

Moccasin, A 145.

Mold, P 188.

Mole, A 201.

Mollusk, A 9, 97, 125.

Molting, A 69, 174.

Mongolian, H 1.

Monkey, A 220.

Monocotyledons, P 20, 25, 63.

Monœcious, P 138, 150, 170.

Morphine, H 105.

Morula, A 7.

Mosquito, A 92, 93, 96, H 160, 161.

Mosses, P 199.

Moss, Spanish, P 110.

Moth, A 83.

Mother-of-pearl, A 99.

Motor, cell, H 120; fiber, H 120.

Mullein, P 87.

Municipal sanitation, H 162, 163.

Muscadine, P 36.

Muscles, H 39; arrangement of, H 41; control of, H 39, 44; function of, H 39, 43; growth, H 42; kinds of, H 39; structure of, H 39.

Muscles and health, H 45.

Muscular sense, H 142, 146.

Muscular tissue, H 11.

Mushroom, P 107, 194.

Mussel, A 96, 103.

Mycelium, P 107, 108, 188.

Mychorrhiza, P 108.

Nails, H 19.

Narcotic, H 137, 148.

Nasal tone, H 144.

Natural selection, P 8, A 148.

Nautilus, chambered, A 107.

Nectar, A 8, P 148.

Nephridium, A 45.

Nerve, H 119; spinal, H 127; cranial, H 127.

Nerve cell, H 119; fatigue of, H 130.

Nerve center, H 117, 120.

Nerve fiber, H 119.

Nerve tissue, H 11.

Nerves, vaso-motor, H 23.

Nervous children, H 135.

Nervous system, of bee, A 78; of man, H 117; of mussel, A 102.

Nest building, A 166, 182.

Neuron, H 118.

Neuroptera, A 82.

Neutral substances, ix.

Nitella, P 187.

Nitric acid test for proteid, xi.

Nitrogen, viii, P 39, 40, H 81.

Nitrogenous compounds, xi.

Nodes, P 20, 52.

Nodules, P 39, 40.

Nose bleed, H 52.

Nostoc, P 184.

Nostril, of bird, A 151; of fish, A 112.

Notebooks, P 3.

Nucleolus, A 6, H 6.

Nucleoplasm, H 7.

Nucleus, P 144, 185, A 6, 11, 14, H 6, 18.

Nutrients, H 91.

Nuts, P 164, H 95.

Octopus, A 106.

Oil gland, H 20.

Oils, test for, xi.

Okapi, A 214.

Oleander, P 86.

Omnivorous, A 47, H 111.

One-celled animals, A 7.

Oögonia, P 186.

Opossum, A 197; H 4.

Opsonin, H 162.

Optic nerve, H 151, 152.

Oral surface, A 35.

Orang, A 222.

Orbit, H 149.

Orchid, P 35, 110.

Order, A 9.

Organ, A 1, H 9.

Organic, xiv, A 1.

Organism, A 1.

Orthoptera, A 82.

Oscillatoria, P 184.

Osculum, A 18.

Osier, Dr. William, quoted, H 133.

Osmosis, P 42, 48.

Outdoor life, H 5, 22.

Ovary, P 135, 144, 163, 170, A 25, 37, 117.

Overgrowth, P 12.

Oviduct, A 46.

Ovule, P 144, 186.

Oxidation, xii, A 3, 4, 5, H 14, 90, 91, 120.

Oxygen, viii, A 4, 5, H 4, 76, 81, 140.

Oyster, A 104.

Palisade cells, P 86.

Palmate, P 74.

Pancreas, H 104.

Panicle, P 158.

Papilla, H 17.

Pappus, P 141.

Paramecium, A 13.

Parasites, P 107, A 49, 93.

Parenchyma, P 60, 86.

Partridge, A 178.

Pearls, A 105.

Peccary, A 217.

Pedicel, P 162.

Peduncle, P 62.

Peltate, P 77.

Pelvis, H 33.

Pepsin, H 103.

Perch, A 109, 110, 123.

Perennial, P 17.

Pericarp, P 164, 165, 169.

Peristalsis, H 102, 106, 127.

Peritoneum, H 106.

Pests, insect, A 93.

Petals, P 134.

Petiole, P 76.

Phagocyte, H 161.

Pharynx, H 73, 85, 101.

Pheasant, A 174.

Phenogam, P 177, 180.

Phosphorus, vi.

Photo-synthesis, P 94, 101.

Phyllotaxy, P 84.

Physics, xiv.

Physiology, H 9.

Pigment, H 18.

Pine cone, P 27, 170.

Pinna, P 181.

Pinnate, P 74.

Pinnatifid, P 76.

Pistil, P 135.

Plantain, P 157.

Plant societies, P 9.

Plants, unlikeness of, P 9.

Plastron, A 141.

Pleura, H 76.

Plexus, H 128.

Plumule, P 20, 23, 25.

Plur-annual, P 18.

Pod, P 164.

Poison, H 137.

Pollen, P 135, 144, 180, A 85.

Pollen basket, A 88.

Pollination, P 144, 145; artificial, P 153.

Polyp, A 9, 22, 125.

Polypetalous, P 134.

Polysepalous, P 134.

Polytrichum, P 199.

Pome, P 169.

Portal vein, H 105.

Portuguese man-o’-war, A 28.

Posterior curvature of spine, H 37.

Potato, H 92, 95, 112; bug, A 90.

Practical questions, H 50, 69, 87, 112, 136.

Primates, A 220.

Primitive man, H 3.

Primrose, P 149.

Proboscis, of butterfly, A 83, 87; elephant, A 207.

Prolegs, A 84, 87.

Propagation by buds, P 121.

Prop-roots, P 36.

Protection of birds, A 171.

Protective resemblance, A 34, 146.

Proteid, xi, H 88, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 104.

Proterandrous, P 146.

Proterogynous, P 146.

Prothallus, P 178, 202.

Protoplasm, xiv, P 42, 94, 97, 185, A 6, 11, H 5, 6, 59, 106, 118.

Protozoa, A 7, 9, 11, 125.

Pruning, P 105.

Pseud-annual, P 17.

Pseudoneuroptera, A 82.

Pseudopod, A 11.

Pteridophytes, P 181, 201, 203.

Ptyalin, H 100.

Puffball, P 194.

Pulse, H 55.

Pure food law, H 93.

Pylorus, H 103.

Pyxis, P 166.

Quarantine, H 163.

Quarter-sawed, P 70.

Quill, A 156.

Rabbit, A 205, 223.

Radial symmetry, A 34, 125.

Ration, daily, H 94, 96.

Rattlesnake, A 145.

Reaction, H 151, 152.

Receptacle, P 134, 163.

Rectum, A 134, H 97.

Reflex action, H 121.

Regeneration of lost parts, A 37.

Rennin, H 103.

Reproduction, A 12, 15, 20, 25, 37, 46, 120.

Reptiles, A 139.

Respiration, cellular, H 81; human, H 70; hygiene of, H 80; in plants, P 97, 103.

Resting spore, P 184, 185, 189, 191, 192.

Retina, H 151, 152.

Rhizome, P 52, 202.

Rhizopoda, A 16.

Road runner, A 169.

Robin, A 183.

Root cap, P 44.

Root climber, P 129.

Root hairs, P 41, 42, 46.

Rootlet, P 41.

Root pressure, P 99, 104.

Roots, and air, P 41; forms of, P 32; function, P 38; structure, P 38, 43; systems, P 32.

Rotifer, A 49.

Round worm, A 49.

Ruminant, A 213.

Rust, P 192.

Salamander, A 134, 138, 139.

Saliva, H 96, 100, 112.

Salt, x, H 93.

Samara, P 164.

Sand, xiii.

Sandworm, A 49.

Sanitary map, H 158.

San José scale, A 95.

Sap, P 67.

Saprophyte, P 107, 108.

Scab in sheep, A 95.

Scales, of bird, A 161; fish, A 110; moth, A 89.

Scallops, A 104.

Scape, P 161.

Scarab, A 90, 91.

School and health, H 135.

Sclerotic, H 150.

Scouring rush, P 203.

Scramblers, P 129.

Sea anemone, A 33.

Sea fan, A 32.

Sea horse, A 124.

Sea urchin, A 38.

Seed, P 20, 163, 180; coat, P 21.

Selaginella, P 204.

Selection, natural, P 8; artificial, P 8.

Sense, muscular, H 143; thermic, H 142.

Senses of insects, A 76.

Sensory, cell, H 120; fiber, H 120, 121.

Sepal, P 133, 169.

Septicidal capsule, P 166.

Serum, H 61.

Sessile, P 77.

Setæ, A 43, 48.

Sexual selection, A 174.

Shark, A 121.

Shelf fungus, P 194.

Shoes, H 48.

Shoulder, H 32.

Shrub, P 19.

Sick headache, H 133.

Sieve tubes, P 66.

Silicle, P 167.

Silique, P 167.

Silkworm, A 84, 86, 95.

Silver scale, A 83.

Siphon, A 101.

Siphonoptera, A 82.

Skeleton, of bird, A 152; cat, A 188; frog, A 131; of fish, A 113; man, H 28; chart of, A 218.

Skin, H 16.

Skull, H 63; mammalian, A 194.

Sleep, H 130.

Slipper animalcule, A 13.

Sloth, A 199.

Slug, A 105.

Smell, H 147.

Snail, A 105.

Societies, P 9.

Soil, P 40, 47, A 48.

Soredia, P 196.

Sori, P 177, 192.

Souring of milk, H 158.

Spadix, P 140.

Sparrow, A 182; English, A 170.

Spathe, P 138, 140.

Specialization, A 20, 27, 66, 210, H 8.

Species, A 8.

Spermary, A 25, 27.

Spermatophytes, P 180.

Spicule, A 18.

Spider, A 94.

Spike, P 157.

Spinal cord, H 120, 121.

Spinal deformities, H 37.

Spine, H 31.

Spiracle, A 77, 87.

Spirogyra, P 184.

Sponges, A 17, 125; glass, A 19; horny, A 19; limy, A 19.

Spontaneous combustion, xiii.

Sporangium, P 177, 186, 188, 201, 203, 204.

Spore, P 176, 178, 181, 184, H 159.

Sporophyll, P 180, 201.

Sporophyte, P 177.

Sports, A 148, 224.

Sprain, H 38.

Squash bug, A 93, 95.

Squid, A 106.

Stamen, P 135.

Starch, x, P 95, 101, H 88, 91.

Starvation, H 138.

Stem, P 49; endogenous, P 59; exogenous, P 61; kinds of, P 49.

Sterilizing wounds, H 163.

Stickleback, A 119.

Stigma, P 135, 144, 145.

Stimulant defined, H 137.

Stipule, P 76, 84.

Stock, P 125.

Stomate, P 87.

Stone age, H 2.

Stone fruit, P 168.

Storage of food, P 99.

Street cleaning, H 163.

Struggle to live, P 4, 6, A 147, H 4.

Study, comparative, A 82, 149, 223.

Style, P 135, 163.

Sugar, H 91, 100.

Sulphur, vii.

Summer-spore, P 191.

Sun energy, P 95, A 2, H 91.

Sunlight, A 2, H18.

Survival of fittest, P 7, A 147, H 4, 141.

Sutures, H 35.

Swarm-spores, P 186.

Sweat gland, H 20.

Symbiosis, P 196.

Sympathetic system, H 127, 129.

Syngenesious, P 141.

Synovial fluid, H 36.

Tadpole, A 126, 134.

Tanner, Dr., H 138.

Tapeworm, A 49.

Tarantula, A 94.

Taste, H 110, 143, 146.

Tear gland, H 149.

Teeth, H 88, 98, 99, 111; of frog, A 130.

Teleutospores, P 192.

Temperature, H 21; nerves of, H 142, 146.

Tendon, H 41.

Tendril, P 101.

Terrapin, A 143, 144.

Thallophyte, P 181, 184.

Thallus, P 184, 197.

Thompson, Sir Henry, on smoking, H 87.

Thoracic duct, H 64, 65, 105.

Thorns, P 101.

Thought questions, H 20, 27, 79, 107, 109, 116.

Thyrse, P 160.

Thyroid gland, H 97.

Tillandsia, P 110.

Timber, decay of, P 195.

Tissue, H 7, 10, P 60, 62.

Toad, A 137.

Toadstool, P 194.

Tobacco, and heart, H 67; and lungs, H 86; and taste, H 148; when enjoyable, H 87.

Tortoise, A 140, 143, 144.

Torus, P 134, 169.

Touch, H 145, A 119.

Toxin, H 160, 161.

Toyi Niku, Madame, quoted, H 141.

Trachea, H 74.

Tracheid, P 65.

Transpiration, P 98, 103.

Trap-door spider, A 94.

Tube feet, A 35.

Tuberculosis, H 5, 160.

Tumble bug, A 90, 91.

Turtle, A 140, 143, 144.

Twiners, P 129, 131.

Typhoid fever, H 159.

Umbel, P 159.

Umbo, A 98.

Undergrowth, P 12.

Ungulate, A 212.

Urea, H 94.

Uric acid, H 114.

Urinary tubule, H 27.

Vacuole, A 11, 12, 14.

Valve, P 164, H 51, 53, 57.

Vampire, A 203.

Variation, A 147, P 2.

Variety, A 8.

Vaso-motor nerves, H 23, 68.

Vaucheria, P 186.

Vegetables, H 95, 112.

Venomous snakes, A 143.

Vent, A 42.

Ventilation, H 71, 82, 83.

Ventral, A 43.

Ventricle, H 53.

Vermes, A 9, 125.

Vermiform appendix, H 4, 106.

Vertebra, H 71, 82, 83.

Vertebrates, A 9, 125.

Vertebrate skeletons, A 218.

Verticellate, P 84.

Vestigial organs, H 106.

Villi, H 104.

Vinegar, H 94.

Viscera, H 127; of bird, A 163.

Vitreous humor, H 152.

Voluntary act, H 122, 124.

Warning sound, A 147.

Wasps, digging, A 89.

Water-pore, P 88.

Waterworks, H 163.

Weevil, A 90, 91, 96.

Whale, A 208.

Wheat rust, P 192.

White corpuscles, H 59; origin of, H 61; work of, H 60, 161, 162.

White weed, or ox-eye daisy, P 155.

Whorled, P 84.

Willow mildew, P 190.

Wind travelers, P 173.

Wings, of grasshopper, A 67; of bird, A 153, 158.

Woodpecker, A 180.

Woody fiber, P 17.

Worms, A 42.

Wounds of plants, P 56.

Written exercises, H 15, 50, 116.

Yeast plants, P 190, H 158.

Yellow fever, H 160.

Yellow spot, H 151.

Zoology defined, A 1.

Zoophytes, A 33.

Zygnema, P 185.

Zygospore, P 185, 189, 190.

LESSONS IN HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY

By W. M. COLEMAN. x + 271 pages. 198 illustrations (16 colored, 13 full-page plates). 60 cents _net_.

In _Lessons in Hygienic Physiology_ the study of physiology is simplified without weakening the presentation of its three essential principles--the biological principle of environment, the chemical principle of oxidation, and the physical principle of energy. The subject is approached throughout from the standpoint of health, because this is the most useful as well as the most interesting point of view. The question of temperance is treated fully, but at the same time in a conservative manner. The book is fully illustrated, one hundred and ninety-eight figures being furnished, sixteen of which are colored. The _Lessons_ is suited to the needs of teachers who may find the _Elements_ somewhat too advanced for their classes.

ELEMENTS OF PHYSIOLOGY

By W. M. COLEMAN. xii + 364 pages. A very full course in Physiology and Hygiene. Profusely illustrated in black and white and in colors. 90 cents _net_.

This book has an exceptionally large number of illustrations--two hundred and forty-eight, of which eight are full-page colored plates. The need for a compound microscope is largely obviated by sixty microscopic views of cells and tissues. The _Elements_ is provided with a _Colored Manikin_ arranged to show every important organ in its natural position with reference to the organs before it, behind it, and around it. Since every pupil has the manikin while studying each lesson, it is really more serviceable than the manikins usually found in schools. This book contains twenty-five Thought Lessons of about ten questions each, logically developing different lines of thought; also three hundred questions in Applied Physiology.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

Sixty-four and Sixty-six Fifth Avenue, New York

BOTANY

An Elementary Text for Schools. By L. H. BAILEY, Director of the College of Agriculture, and Professor of Rural Economy in Cornell University. Revised and enlarged. Illustrated. 12mo. Half leather. xiv + 355 pages. $1.10 _net_.

_The subjects treated are_ four in number: the nature of the plant itself, the relation of the plant to its surroundings, the minute structures of plants, and the determination of the kinds of plants. Each of these subjects is practically distinct, so that the teacher may begin where he will.

The _five hundred illustrations_ in the book are an important as well as an attractive feature. They are not pictures merely--they are illustrations of the subject-matter; many of them are reproductions of photographs.

A _flora_ containing descriptions of more than six hundred common wild and cultivated plants, with keys to the natural orders, completes the book.

LESSONS WITH PLANTS

Suggestions for Seeing and Interpreting Some of the Common Forms of Vegetation. By Professor L. H. BAILEY. Illustrated. 12mo. Half leather. xxxi + 491 pages. $1.10 _net_.

The book is based upon the idea that the proper way to begin the study of plants is by means of plants, instead of formal ideas or definitions. Instead of a definition as a model telling the pupil what he is to see, the plant shows him what there is to be seen, and the definition follows. In this way the pupil soon begins to generalize, and the conclusion reached is the true definition.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

Sixty-four and Sixty-six Fifth Avenue, New York

Transcriber’s Notes

Inconsistent and obsolete spelling, hyphenation, etc. have been retained, except as listed below.

Depending on the hard- and software used to read this text and their settings, not all elements may display as intended. Scales and factors of enlargement or reduction as given in illustration captions are not necessarily correct.

Page P 65, legend with Fig. 78: reference letter f does not appear in the illustration.

Page P 107, (b, Fig 132): reference letter b does not appear in the illustration.

Page P 111: the text refers to an apple bud in Fig. 137, the illustration caption refers to an apricot bud.

Page A 16-A 17: there is no Fig. 20 in the source document.

Page A 96: there is no caption or other explanation with the third illustration (hazelnut leaf, fruit and insect).

Page H 8, ... canals instead of railroads for their commerce (see Fig. 84): it is not clear which illustration is referred to; Fig. 84 does not show this distinction.

Page H 11, ... called nerve fibers (Fig. 142): there is no Fig. 142, nor is it clear to which figure showing nerve fibers this phrase refers.

Page H 88, Practical Question 6: the reference to Chapter VI is included in Chapter VI.

Page H 105, ... fresh milk is an emulsion of cream (Fig. 98): Fig. 98 shows something unrelated.

Page H 161, Page H 161: Stagnant pools may be filled or drained (Exp. 4): there are only three experiments with this chapter; Experiment 3 mentions stagnant water.

Changes made:

Footnotes, tables and illustrations have been moved out if text paragraphs.

Some minor typographical errors and missing or extraneous punctuation have been corrected silently; where relevant, illustration captions have been standardised. Blanks to be filled out have been standardised to a series of underscores.

The parts of the book have been included in the page numbering: lower case Roman numerals for the index, prefixes I, P, A and H for the Introduction and the parts on plants, animals, and humans respectively.

Page I ix: page number P 1 inserted in Table of Contents for Part I