PART 4

. THE PERITONEUM

This visceral envelope is principally important because of the fatal character of its acute inflammations. In man peritonitis of acute origin and type is commonly secondary to a focus of progressive inflammation in some abdominal organ and usually speaks for the virulence of the primary disease and for the low resistance of the serous membrane. Because of this vulnerability, greater foresight is attempted to prevent the extension of acute intra-abdominal inflammations and under operative conditions punctilious care is used to avoid contamination of the general peritoneal cavity. Involvement of the peritoneum in septicemic states is relatively uncommon in man, but seemingly more frequent in the lower mammal. This surface seems more resistant to infection at operation in the lower animals since post-operative peritonitis after castration and experimental procedure is certainly infrequent; our data will permit no percentage figures of vulnerability under such conditions. Judging, however, from the number of times at which the diagnosis of acute peritonitis has been made, the lower animal has a decidedly low percentage resistance although its pathological states are primary or secondary to conditions unusual in man. Among the 5365 autopsies acute peritonitis appears in the diagnoses 137 times or 2.4 per cent.; mammals, 57 or 3 per cent.; birds, 80 or 2.3 per cent.

The exact causes are usually obvious, practically always so in human medicine, but a number of cases escape adequate explanation. From a practical standpoint two origins are important to zoological collections, trauma and intestinal perforations by sharp objects. Ungulata frequently suffer abdominal injuries in fighting, as do rodents. Peritonitis sometimes supervenes even in the absence of penetrating wounds, probably by reason of damage to the intestine whereby its permeability is increased. Pointed objects are frequently swallowed by animals and perforation occurs. The danger of feeding split bone to carnivores is well known; some years ago we lost two tigers and a lion in this manner.

Ileus, in one of the several forms, has been an occasional cause of peritonitis in primates and ungulates. The extension of purulent inflammation, abscesses and the like is easy to understand, but we have seen several cases of apparent extension from enteritis without perforation. The reason for this is probably in the kind of enteritis. Monkeys with amœbiasis and gallinaceous birds with enterohepatitis have supplied most of the cases, these infestations of the gut wall being deep and spreading so that a chance is afforded to penetrate the serosa along blood and lymph vessels. One case in a deer seemed to originate from a simple catarrhal colitis; trichocephalus in the colon may have helped. Parasites are not very potent in causing an acute peritonitis, but aggravate the action of other agents. Septicemic states are at the bottom of 24 per cent. of our cases of peritonitis. This is particularly true of birds, it being recognized that their acute general infections frequently have such an effect, but the primates and carnivores also have a vulnerable peritoneum when septicemia exists. The principal outstanding visceral lesions in the mammalian cases is pneumonia; in birds it is cholera and plague. The rupture of eggs in birds lays the foundation of a peritonitis, while bacteria from the oviduct or cloaca complete the process. Chronic peritonitis is not common. It is usually due to parasites or to tuberculosis. There has been observed, however, no complete general involvement of the peritoneal cavity including the liver and spleen, sometimes called “sugar-icing,” and believed to be tuberculous in origin. The only tumor found in very close association with the peritoneum occurred in a Chapman’s Zebra (_Equus burchelli chapmani_) in which animal a fibromyoma seemed to spring from a loop of intestine and grow away from the gut wall. It was undergoing myxoid change.

SECTION VIII THE URINARY TRACT

THE KIDNEY.

The kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra remain comparable in all mammals excepting the monotremes where there is no urinary passage through genital openings, the urine being ejected through the vesicoanal pouch, a sort of cloaca. In the bird the first two parts remain as in mammals while the ureters terminate in a hernia-like pouch of the rear wall of the cloaca. It would seem from this arrangement that ureteral transmission of infection from the anal area to the kidneys would be facilitated in the lowest mammals and in the Aves. Variations in size, shape and position exist to a minor extent in the higher orders but in all forms, the system remains a post-peritoneal structure.

Differences in construction are to be seen for example, in the single pyramidal kidneys of marsupials and certain rodents, in the lobulated organ of bears, cattle and seals, in the twisted viscus of horses, but these gross appearances do not destroy the uniform scheme upon which the functionating unit is built. The single-lobed kidney discharges all its collecting tubules into one calyx while the multiple pyramids of the lobulated organ are fitted with individual calices which in turn empty into the pelvis proper; this is true whether the lobulations are retained, as in the bear, or are smoothed out in the course of development as in man. The secretory tubule remains in essentially the same form in all kidneys; the modern idea of its anatomy may be found in the work of Huber[32].

The most decided example of the lobulated kidney is to be found in the class Aves, wherein the organ consists of two or three large lobes lying in concavities of the sacrum, each lobe being made up of tiny lobules. The latter appear to the unaided eye as fairly distinct divisions whether viewed on the exterior or by cross section. There is a cortex and a medulla to each, the separation being clear in a large specimen, vague in a small one. These lobulations are quite well observed when the kidney is full of urates, a common finding in birds. Magnification of the avian kidney reveals an apparently simpler tubular arrangement than is found for mammals[33][34], yet the relation of vascular plexuses and secreting tubules remains similar.

From the standpoint of comparative pathology attention can be drawn to the glomerulus, to the interstitial tissue, and to the character of the epithelium. The tuft of intricately wound capillaries called the glomerulus has always been viewed as the part of the secretory unit chiefly concerned in urine production whether one accept the older idea that it excretes only fluid or the modern belief of many observers that all parts of the urine go out through it. In the mammal the tuft is closely wound, is surrounded by a distinct space and a limiting membrane of appreciable width called Bowman’s capsule; all this so-called Malpighian body has a breadth varying from 120 to 300 micra. There is however great variation in the size of this body when seen in the peripheral and deeper zones of the same organ, amounting at times to seventy per cent. of the diameter. The capillary congeries forming the avian tuft is by no means so delicate and one can see individual capillaries with more ease. It may be impossible to discover a space between the tuft and its exceedingly delicate capsule, the latter being usually applied closely to the vascular corpuscle. The whole breadth varies from 70 to 140 micra with an average of 110. There is more uniformity in size than in the mammalian organ.

Supporting tissues between the tubules seem less definitely nuclear in the bird than in the mammal, at least in so far as connective tissue is concerned, there being in the former only a few groups of mononuclears to be seen in the cortex. Perivascular tissues are reasonably rich. The epithelium of proximal and distal tubules is not easily fixed by our customary laboratory techniques, the best results being obtained by Zenker’s fluid. As seen in a routine specimen of a normal organ it is vacuolated or very palely stained. The individual cells stand out clearly and many present a pointed end to the tubular lumen.

KIDNEY WEIGHTS.

According to the work of Mangan[35] and of Alezais[36], the bird has an average kidney-to-body weight of 6.9 grams per kilo while man has a ratio of 4.3 grams, dog 5.9 grams and guinea-pig 8.5 grams. The first author would show that the fish-eating birds have the heaviest and vegetarian birds the lightest organ. Our own figures are limited to the weights of apparently normal organs in thirty-one mammals and five birds; they are as follows:

│per kilo of body weight Primates (5)│ 7.7 grams│ Carnivora (6)│ 7.6 grams│ Rodentia (2)│ 15. grams│ Hyracoidea (1)│ 7.5 grams│ Ungulata (9)│ 3.5 grams│ Edentata (1)│ 5.6 grams│ Marsupialia (7)│ 7.6 grams│ Monotremata (1)│ 11.2 grams│ │ │Average 7. Steganopodes (1)│ 9.1 grams│ Anseres (1)│ 3.9 grams│ Struthiones (3)│ 7. grams│ │ │Average 6.7 ────────────────┴───────────┴───────────

This to be sure is not a very exhaustive list but is the result of our routine observations and subject to all limitations of such work. Grossly diseased organs are naturally excluded. More avian weights are not available because of the difficulty of removing the organ from its bed, in a manner assuring us of completeness. I am inclined to view our mammalian records as fairly representative. Figures to be found in text- books of human and veterinary anatomy correspond to those given by the authors just quoted and in our own list. The values for rodents, hyraces, edentates and monotremes may be modified by more figures.

There is however one point which does not appear in the list. Small animals have relatively larger kidneys than large animals. This is perhaps most strikingly illustrated among the ungulates which have the lowest value quoted. A small deer had a kidney-to-body index of 5.9 grams per kilo while a camel had only 2.8. Judging by the work of Magnan the avian kidney should be larger than the mammalian, a conclusion with which I am inclined to coincide, even though the weights cited do not bear this out.

In so far as the function and chemistry of the kidney and its excretion are concerned this study can supply little. The general metabolism is known for most animals, it being dependent upon diet and gastrointestinal discharge of excrement. What lessons can be learned will be discussed by Dr. Corson-White in the section on diet. Our observations upon the ability of the kidney to excrete normal urine are limited to the examination of vesical contents at death or of the occasional specimen obtained in cages in the quarantine room. Renal disease was formerly considered of little or no importance in veterinary medicine or at least was studied only as a specific separate and occasional occurrence. Kitt[37] systematized the knowledge of the subject at the time he wrote but it remained for Hutyra and Marek in their text-book to emphasize its general importance and to clarify diagnostic measures. Breindl[38] pointed out that nephritis occurs more often in acute general diseases, notably the specific infections, than was customarily thought, thus placing the subject for the lower animal where it is in human medicine.

Renal disease is quite common among wild animals albeit there are certain orders in which the lesions are less conspicuous. Clinical diagnoses of nephritis, and this is the only diagnosis attempted, have been made on monkeys by examination of urine which shows the same characters as in the human disease. In ungulates more attention is to be placed upon the cellular contents of the urine since renal epithelium is apparently shed more readily and casts less often formed. Signs and symptoms of renal disease are limited to edema and uremia; cases of the latter are rare enough to discuss separately at the proper place.

ABSENCE OF ABNORMALITIES.

Abnormalities of size, shape and position of the kidney are frequently reported in literature of veterinary medicine and aplasia has been described. Our material has failed to present cases of horse-shoe kidney well known to occur in horses, cows, sheep and dogs. Wandering kidneys are also known but have not been seen in our wild animals. Shall these abnormalities be considered as due to degenerative changes in cross bred animals or as the result of the strain of domestication? To such a speculative question our material affords no answer.

HYPERTROPHY.

That the kidney has the power of hypertrophy in a compensatory manner is illustrated by two cases. A Japanese Macaque (_Macacus fuscatus_) ♂ apparently had suffered with a unilateral nephritis which had gone into a contracted stage. At all events much functionating tissue was gone, the organ irregular and small, being half or less of the size of the other organ which was larger than is considered normal for the species. Histologically the large organ was practically normal. A common opossum (_Didelphys virginiana_) suffered with a complete suppurative nephritis of the right side which completely destroyed the organ; the origin of this is not clear as no ascending disease could be determined and no certain acute infection had existed; decomposition precluded satisfactory bacteriology. The left kidney was nearly twice its normal size and involved in an early diffuse nephritis, with miliary abscesses, in which the glomeruli did not participate. There were in these sections evidences of regeneration, swollen reduplicated epithelial coverings presenting a picture similar to those seen in so-called chronic nephritis secondary to interstitial change.

INFILTRATIONS.

Pathological infiltrations of the renal structures are exceedingly uncommon. Early in our experience we were often perplexed at the appearance of certain organs, notably in carnivores and marsupials to which we were inclined to apply the term fat infiltration. However the absence of reasons for considering this picture pathological seemed sufficient cause to ignore the finding, and later Pfeiffer[39] called attention to the apparent inability of these kidneys to emulsify fat or at least to combine it in an invisible form, an ability possessed by the herbivorous organ. A monkey and a passerine bird only showed sufficient fat visible in the renal epithelium to warrant a denomination of fatty infiltration; these were both obese specimens. Amyloid infiltration occurred in four mammals and six birds, being a sequel of its usual causes, tuberculosis, chronic suppuration and osseous system disease. It is perhaps well to emphasize the fact that every organ the seat of amyloid deposit need not be enlarged. This teaching is common but I have seen human cases without enlargement and only two of the ten cases in these animals are noted as bulkier than normal.

DEGENERATIONS.

Degenerations represent the reaction of the kidney to toxic or infectious agents and might be considered as indicating the vulnerability of the organ. Their incidence does not coincide with that of nephritis as we shall see later. Any discussion of degenerative phenomena, and especially in the kidney, should be limited by a definition of what they are believed to be and their separation from inflammations. Degenerations are swellings, granularities, vacuolizations or infiltrations of tubular epithelium, changes which destroy the outline and internal structure, perhaps including the nucleus. No changes of the glomerular tuft or interstitial tissue are necessary for this conception since when these occur the picture becomes that of nephritis. In border-line cases it is safer to include the case under the latter heading since then the physiology is apt to be disturbed, albumen and casts appearing in the urine. Degenerations appear in various pathological states—toxemia, infection, prolonged congestion and others. The first named cause seems to be the most important in our records and the seat of the toxine production seems to be the intestine. Enteritis stands very high in the list of accompanying factors, especially in Carnivora, Primates and in Aves. Perhaps the most instructive cases are to be found in the Ungulata with toxic duodenitis. The kidney in these animals is deep red or purple, with a spanned capsule. The section surface bulges slightly, is of an opaque, dull purple color and shows a congested zone between cortex and medulla. Tubular epithelium may be found, under the microscope, sufficiently swollen to fill the lumina, in places being like ground glass, in others distinctly vacuolated. It cannot be stated absolutely which part of the tubule is usually affected; it seems more often the distal convoluted portions than other subdivisions. Glomeruli may be full of blood but there is no increase in cells nor any material in the capsular space. The urine is dark and may or may not show albumen. The kidney of kangaroos with streptothricosis is similar to the picture just given.

Mammals have shown a percentage incidence of renal degenerations of 4.8 per cent. while Aves show only 3. per cent. In order of incidence the carnivores head the list followed by Lemures, Accipitres, Rodentia, Primates and Marsupialia; the remaining groups show but a few cases. A form of degeneration is sometimes seen in the avian kidney the seat of excess urate collections, especially when these are arranged as so- called uratic infarcts. This last term has been applied to the streaking and mottling of human kidneys by the accumulations of these salts in a manner believed by some to be related to the formation of uratic calculi. The epithelium of such a kidney may show granularity and collections of acids and salts have been found in the lumina. In the bird on the other hand one frequently sees masses of urates in one lobule, or a part thereof, arranged to simulate closely the common infarct shape. Secretory cells in the affected area are hydropic, with absent or dislocated nucleus, or again they present a densely basic staining protoplasm. This form of kidney is well seen in what has been called here an uratic serositis, a coating of all somatic free membranes with a thin, white, granular film. We have tried with many techniques to preserve one of these cases but the deposit either dissolves or the whole specimen becomes opaque. Although the term infarct is applied to these lesions, they are of course not infarcts in the customary use of the term. True infarcts are exceedingly uncommon and, with the exception of one case which became infected and suppurated, have been negligible in our material.

HEMORRHAGES.

Hemorrhages into the kidney are found in acute infections and certain diseases like leucemia; they are of little moment. Perirenal hemorrhage is a somewhat striking and unusual affair. Recently I saw at a human autopsy of a young subject a subcapsular hemorrhage from the renal substance probably due to vascular rupture in an acute nephritis; there was no history of injury. There have been three cases of subcapsular hemorrhage in our records and as two of them represented the immediate cause of death, are interesting enough to record. An armadillo suffered an acute diffuse nephritis with much congestion but not enough to call it hemorrhagic. There was a large hemorrhage around the left organ, probably from a vessel near the hilum, sufficient to compress the kidney and cause it to atrophy. A lion presented an acute vegetative endocarditis with all its usual complications. The right renal capsule was distended with recent clot to a size which reached to the pelvic brim. Presumably an embolism caused thrombosis, ulceration and rupture of some middle size vessel. A dormouse suffering with an acute general infection probably emanating from the intestine, had several small recent clots separating the kidney from its capsule.

NEPHRITIS.

Nephritis, whether one begin its conception with the clinicopathological picture originally given by Bright, with the purely pathological classification of Weigert and Virchow or the modern tendency to subordinate all physical changes to clinical phenomena, is nevertheless a process of degeneration and inflammation affecting the secreting and supporting structures of the kidney and leading to some degree of impaired function. The disease is bilateral in so nearly every case that for practical purposes unilateral cases may be ignored. This implies that for some reason the renal tissues are generally susceptible to etiological agents so that when one side is affected its fellow seems always to participate or to follow. It seems desirable in studying nephritis to evaluate fully the mutual relations of functionating and supporting tissues and of the various sections of the first named. It is taught in many places that inflammations of one or another of these parts may occur independently, as for example a tubular nephritis, a glomerulonephritis and an interstitial nephritis. If however one reflect upon the dependence of the tubular function upon the glomerulus and _vice versa_ or upon the effect of inflammatory exudates in the supporting tissues upon the blood supply of the tubule, it becomes evident that only the most trivial or evanescent pathological changes in one can be without effect upon the others. It is difficult to see how, for examples, a glomerulus could remain normal if its associated tubule were destroyed or how if round cell infiltration or pus surround a capsule for any length of time, this structure could fail to be doomed. All this is by way of directing attention to the progress of physical damage in a kidney which has received injury sufficient to cause nephritis, but of course it does not explain the cause.

In classification of nephritis different commentators have employed different standards according as they viewed the acuteness or chronicity of the process, or as the principal functionating structures, glomerulus, tubular epithelium, blood vessels, or supporting connective tissues, presented the most conspicuous changes. To these, clinicians have added phenomena of constitutional complication or of direct renal insufficiency. These latter being unavailable for us, we must fall back upon a classification based upon physical changes and to this end we have always used a slight modification of the Weigert method. This classification offers little in the direction of etiology except that toxins are believed to cause tubular changes, bacteria to produce glomerular lesions and vascular deficiencies to lie at the root of chronic interstitial nephritis.

The origin of acute nephritis of chiefly degenerative character seems best explained by reference to some form of toxemia, whereas exudative processes, be they in glomerulus or supporting structures, seem to depend upon the direct action of bacteria. The origin of a chronic nephritis cannot be explained quite so readily. No one has answered with complete satisfaction whether a chronic process always begins with and proceeds from a single attack of acute disease, whether many acute attacks succeed upon one another or whether many small crops of agents successively attack the organ over a long time. Nor has an adequate explanation of the rôle of damaged blood vessels been given. It is reasonably easy in man to discover the existence of nephritis and of a possible cause; this is only true of acute cases in wild animals. Focal infections, those which might be the point of mobilization for bacteria sent to the kidneys, are frequently found in man but with exception of an occasional carious tooth, or a chronic osteitis are to be localized with difficulty in lower animals. In so far as the rôle of a single acute attack in the causation of chronic disease is concerned our material offers nothing, but some collateral or presumptive evidence may be mustered in regard to multiple infections.

Wild animals do not give evidence of repeated attacks of acute disease and indeed it would seem that they more often die of an acute infection than live to have it repeated. Evidences of chronic infection, not focal, are reasonably definite in forty-eight per cent. of the cases of chronic nephritis encountered here. This suggests strongly that in this material protracted infectious states offer opportunities for renal damage of progressive character. Vascular disease has been found twenty- eight times (see also section on arteries), in twenty-six of which the nephritis seemed due to or advanced by the damage to the vessels. This means further that only 14.3 per cent. of the chronic forms and 4 per cent. of the total seem closely related to disease of blood vessels.

Nephritis has been found in 12.2 per cent. of our total autopsies. Mammals show an incidence of 20.6 per cent., birds 7.7 per cent. Only the orders upon which more than one hundred autopsies have been held are subjected to separate analysis. Some of the remaining orders give very high figures which may indicate great renal vulnerability but it is deemed unfair to make statements upon them. Carnivorous mammals and birds lead their respective classes, the succeeding order of renal vulnerability being marsupials, ungulates, rodents, Primates, Galli, Striges, anserine birds, parrots, and doves. The leaders of this list, Carnivora and Accipitres, occupy a definite position in the analysis of acute and chronic lesions. Their kidneys show the smallest percentages of acute lesions and the highest percentages of chronic lesions. This would seem to indicate a resistance to acute injuries but susceptibility to prolongated or repeated infections or intoxications. The relation of chronic infection of some sort to chronic renal disease is not as clear as the influence of acute infection to acute nephritis. Taking Carnivora for example with 34.2 per cent. of chronic nephritis we find 22.4 per cent. with evident chronic inflammation while in the 55 per cent. of acute forms 40 per cent. are of acute infectious origin—the relation is as 64 is to 74.

While the relation of infection to nephritis is a consistent and perfectly acceptable one, the frequency of this disease in the carnivorous orders obliges one to think of high protein diet as a favoring factor. Renal disease is common enough in other orders, some strictly herbivorous, and it is fair only to emphasize which are the leaders in incidence. In so far as anatomy or habits are concerned no generalizations seem permissible. There is no relation of nephritis to the size of the kidney as given on a previous page, to the length of the alimentary tract, or to the expected longevity.

Toxic nephritis is a term applied when the kidney is the seat of epithelial degeneration, much congestion, perhaps leading to tiny hemorrhages, and definite swelling of the tuft without exudation into the capsular space. It is a severe grade of the degenerations already mentioned and is exemplified by the organ in cases of acute duodenitis of ungulates and in some monkeys dying after tuberculin injection. It seems especially to follow gastrointestinal diseases believed to be due to food intoxications. It seems important in monkeys and wild rodents. No adequate explanation is at hand for the latter.

As has already been stated vascular disease was present in twenty-six cases in a manner suggesting some relation to the cardiorenal complex but the only organ to which the term renal sclerosis of arteriosclerotic origin could be applied is that of an eagle; the autopsy is cited.

Bald Eagle (_Haliæetus leucocephalus_). ♀ General obliterating endoarteritis. Chronic interstitial nephritis. Passive congestion of liver. Chronic localized myocarditis. Near the apex of the heart the muscle shows a slight opacity. The kidney is enlarged, firm, section surface glistening. Both section and surface show a mottled brown and white appearance, following particularly on section the division into cortices and medullæ. Digestive system apparently normal. Microscopic section of heart muscle from the wall of the ventricle shows well preserved muscle fibres with a slightly unusual degree of pigmentation. Section from valve base shows a definite interfascicular and intrafascicular fibrosis which is co-extensive with a similar thickening of the endo- and pericardium. The new tissue under the latter is edematous. The valve itself is thickened the fibres swollen and hyaline. There is no reduplication of the endothelium. One artery in the muscle is obliterated. This is not associated with any degeneration of the muscle in the section. Section of kidney shows the pale areas noted grossly to be made up of groups of arteries with their extensive coalescing adventitiæ. The changes in the arteries are precisely the same as those seen in the liver but are more extensive. Connective tissue goes out from the arteries into the parenchyma distorting the tubules and enclosing the glomeruli so that the capsule of the latter is much thickened. Epithelium is granular, in some places absent, nearly always low. Section of liver shows general parenchyma practically normal with slight granularity in places and moderate passive congestion. Veins are negative but arteries show a general arteritis. The picture varies somewhat in different arteries ranging from a simple thickening of the adventitia to a change involving all three layers. There is hyaline change in the media in many sections. Lumen is in all cases reduced and in some there is active intimal proliferation in excess of what would be expected in connection with the medial change. A few of the arteries have their lumen completely obliterated.

This is meant to illustrate the picture of vascular disease in the kidney in the absence of satisfactory evidence that nephritis _per se_ antedated or accompanied changes in the vessels. In such cases vascular disease dominates, renal parenchymatous damage being relatively inconspicuous. Two old carnivores, a paradoxure and a skunk, presented shrunken kidneys with prominent wide-walled vessels but in these some definite evidence of old nephritis was at hand.

In so far as the relation of senility to nephritis is concerned the data at hand are not conclusive. In many old animals some degree of fibrosis is present without the existence of truly destructive changes in the parenchyma. Plimmer of London writes that there is increased nephritis in old age but from our material I would be inclined to put in that in many cases the nephritis was the reason for old age rather than that old age brought on a nephritis. However the exact length of life and of captivity is known in too few specimens to make a conclusion justified.

ASCENDING NEPHRITIS.

There is some difference of opinion as to the definition of the term ascending nephritis, a confusion arising partly from the intended meaning of the participial adjective, partly from the frequency with which infections or obstructions of the urinary outlets antedate or accompany suppurative nephritis. Perhaps our records may help to straighten out this matter.

Ascending nephritis means for our study an infection which passes from the pelvic surfaces of the pyramids outward toward the renal capsule. Thus it is immaterial whether there be or be not an obstruction lower down. Such forms of nephritis are infiltrative, frequently purulent and are dependent upon pyelitis or the settling of bacteria in the deepest parts of the medulla.

Three explanations are given in human medicine for the origin of this lesion. Some observers assume a direct transmission of bacteria up the ureter from an infected bladder or urethra, in a direction contrary to the urinary current. This, it is believed by some can occur only in the presence of physical obstruction, stone, kink, or pressure of adjacent masses upon the ureter, whereby its blood supply is damaged and infection facilitated. Others would explain the path of infection as the lymphatics of the ureteral wall which are infected at the opening in the bladder by a deep seated cystitis or by infection from a periproctitis or from the female genitalia. Still another explanation is offered by those who do not credit ascending infections. They would have it that pyelitis arises from bacteria in the blood stream and only in the presence of injury (_calculus_), ureteral dilation (slowly progressive stenosis, or kinks, floating kidney, pressure by pregnant uterus) and similarly operative factors. There should be excluded from this category cases of chronic nephrolithiasis, and of stone only in the pelvis. Under such conditions it is inevitable that a low grade of fibrosis with damage to the secretory structures should exist, even in the absence of active bacterial invasion. The cases are only important for our present subject when active bacterial infection is implanted upon them.

Among our autopsies there have been found fourteen cases of ascending nephritis and seven cases of pyelitis; the most instructive examples are mentioned briefly as follows: Five of this twenty-one were associated with general infectious diseases (three septicemias) and presented no evidence of ascending obstruction. Two of this five were a bear and a fox, the former suffering with streptothricosis septicemia, the latter with distemper; one was a fox whose pelvic and renal lesion seemed entirely primary for no apparent focus was detected; two were birds with acute general infection. These cases seem therefore to be instances of primary pyelitis. The following group includes cases with inflammation low in the urinary tract. A fox had a cystitis, urethritis and colitis, a distinct edema and congestion being found in the pelvis around the rectum. Two opossums had cystitis, one due to a traumatic urethritis, the other secondary to a prostatitis of undetermined causation. A raccoon had a chronic cystitis with swelling and edema of the first parts of ureter. A parrakeet showed ureteritis, pyelitis and nephritis from simple cloacitis.

Where obstruction was more definite the following cases were observed. Suppurative nephritis succeeded upon gangrenous cystitis after uterine prolapse in a deer. The following cases of pyelitis and nephritis were associated with calculus, only in the renal pelvis—an armadillo, Tasmanian devil, a deer and a goose. A cockatoo had a stone in the cloaca which seemed to cause a definite obstruction to both ureters and a catarrhal inflammation of the wall. Pyelitis and interstitial nephritis can also follow excessive urate collections in birds. At a later time this will be discussed more fully, but at this place two cases of distinct abscess formation in a renal lobule based upon urate collections may be mentioned since in a measure the lesions were dependent upon obstruction.

It is therefore evident that all the theories of the causation of pyelitis with resultant nephritis seem acceptable. It has been claimed that bacteria may be found in the blood stream before evidences of pyelitis present themselves. Concerning this our records offer no information, but it is worthy of note that five of twenty-one instances gave a picture of septicemia. It is, however, fair to state that, while mild cases of pyelitis occurred where there was, judging from the protocol and histological sections, obvious opportunity for its ascent, in ten other cases of cystitis and urethritis no pelvic or renal disease is recorded; two of these were acute exudative cystitis and one was a tumor. It seems that wild animals seldom live long enough to have obstructions exert back pressure of urine to the extent which one is accustomed to see in human medicine. Hydroureter and hydronephrosis have not been seen.

Abscess of the kidney has occurred occasionally in the metastatic form and only twice as the large destructive process such as is seen in the human being (surgical kidney). One massive abscess was seen involving about one-third of the organ, and this seems to have had a tuberculous basis. Another destructive purulent nephritis was quoted on page 268 when illustrating compensatory hypertrophy.

Examination of records and preserved specimens of nephritis reveals few striking differences which might be considered characteristic for the various orders. This is possibly due to the fact that the lesions have been classified under the same system, a method which has proven convenient and consistent. In support of this one might refer to that form of nephritis which gives the most definite clinical and pathological picture of renal disease, namely the chronic parenchymatous. This is fairly well represented in Primates, Carnivora and Ungulata. In one-fourth of the cases one finds distinct edema, especially in the body cavities, cervical and mediastinal tissues, and in one-fifth an appreciable grade of anemia; uremia was the terminal picture in one animal of each order.

HISTOLOGY OF NEPHRITIS.

An attempt to discover minute lesions peculiar to the various groups gives results that are far from satisfactory. With reserve it may be said that carnivorous animals show a tendency to greater interstitial and glomerular lesions than do herbivorous ones, and that casts are more often found, in all kinds of nephritis, in the former varieties. Rodents are conspicuous exceptions to this statement, since they frequently have glomerular lesions and casts in abundance; this exception exemplifies the unwisdom of drawing definite conclusions in this respect.

Birds as contrasted with mammals show very prominent tubular and inconspicuous glomerular lesions. The principal alterations seen in the avian kidney are round cell infiltrations of the deep cortical and outer medullary zones, and cloudy or hydropic swelling of the convoluted tubules. In chronic cases intertubular fibrosis is clear but not so definite as the perivascular, while the glomerular tufts are occasionally wholly normal. When these are destroyed it seems to have occurred by compression rather than by inflammation. A form of nephritis peculiar to birds might be termed local necrotizing. It seems to be due to local urate deposits and to have its origin like that form already mentioned under acute interstitial nephritis. It has been seen in avian gout, a condition in which the kidneys may or may not have visible masses of hardened urates in them. The gross picture is of a spotty pale organ of a gray-brown color. Minutely studied the medulla, adjacent cortical tubules and perhaps the pelvic tissues will present an opaque condition taking a diffuse basic dye. Crystals have not been seen. This form is especially common in Columbæ, Psittaci and Herodiones.

GENERAL EFFECTS OF NEPHRITIS.

The results of nephritis generally speaking are edema, anemia, cardiac hypertrophy, inflammations of the serous surfaces and uremia. Aside from the cases of chronic parenchymatous nephritis cited above, edema has been decidedly inconspicuous. It may be found in avian cases of acute and subacute nephritis, about the flanks and in the thoracic areolar tissues, but is only exceptionally perceptible before the body is opened. Anemia is almost never extreme. The bone marrow although mentioned in but few histories, seems unchanged. Cardiac hypertrophy was observed ten times in 652 cases of nephritis, twice in 460 acute and subacute cases, eight in 192 chronic cases. In the former no myocarditis was found, in six of the latter it was found. Clinical and pathological experience teaches that serous surfaces are frequently inflamed during a nephritis. Observations on our material coincide with this statement, but do not offer an explanation of it. The figures should be examined for mammals and for birds separately, since the serous cavities of the former are closed, separated, and protected, whereas a close apposition exists between the serous membranes and the lungs in birds, an arrangement facilitating infection from without. Nevertheless the bird has definitely less serositis accompanying nephritis than does the mammal—4.4 per cent., _versus_ 8.6 per cent. In the former class 70 per cent. of these accompany acute nephritis associated with acute general disease while only 45 per cent. of the 8.6 per cent. of mammals had serositis, acute nephritis and general infection. This indicates clearly that mammalian renal disease has some effect upon serous membranes other than the simple participating coincidence of the two types of changes during an acute general infectious disease. No one kind of nephritis was especially characterized by this complication.

Uremia, except under the best clinical conditions, is a term to use with caution. I have seen several monkeys, a few marsupials and carnivores and an occasional bird in a dazed ataxic condition, sometimes exhibiting an atypical clonic or tonic convulsion, with fixed, rather small pupils. To this picture I have applied the name uremia, and upon several occasions have found a severe grade of nephritis. I must admit having failed to find renal change, however, with this clinical picture, especially in the carnivores and parrots, animals which “throw fits” at times without apparent good reason. In so far as the monkey is concerned, I am satisfied that the picture is similar to that seen in the human being. The London Garden reports in 1917 the occurrence of uremia in a Mandrill (_Papio maimon_).

CALCULI.

Calculi are well known in the renal system of the domesticated animals so that it is not surprising to find them well represented all through the lower orders. Their structure, composition and effects do not differ, however, and it remains only to point out their distribution. One of the frequent results of renal and pelvic lithiasis is, however, missing in our records, namely hydronephrosis, and indeed a pressure dilatation of the ureter and pelvis has not been observed in all our experience. This would seem to be explained first upon the infrequency of stone, of obstructive new growths and inflammatory strictures and second by the fact that lower animals do not long survive conditions which would occasion back pressure upon the kidneys.

Definite renal and pelvic calculi have occurred in five Ungulata, one each in Edentata and Steganopodes. To these might be added cases of uratic sand in one Carnivora, one Marsupialia, and uratic stones of large size in the cloaca of two Passeres and one Accipitres. Uratic collections within the avian kidney have been mentioned and will be discussed later.

According to written descriptions and three preserved examples the calculi in four of the ungulates are mixed urates and carbonates, although one in a deer was said to be “mulberry” in surface. The specimens at hand are moderately hard with rough irregularly crystallized outer shells like carbonate deposits. Incomplete moulding to the calyx is found. The pelvic cavity while seeming to be enlarged is not distended nor do the stones assume the “antler” character and distort the pyramid. All the animals showing these stones have but a single pyramid in the kidney. The fifth example in the ungulate had early stones forming in the apex of the pyramid and not yet discharged into the pelvis. Four of these cases showed stones on both sides, one only in the left kidney.

The case among the Edentata concerned an Armadillo (_Tatu novemcinctus_), in the kidney of which there were definite smooth, round, hard pebbles in the right pyramid and several fine grains in the pelvis. There was a recent hemorrhage in the pelvis which, from local appearances and autopsy survey, was due to the lithiasis.

A Gannet (_Sula bassana_) represents the only avian true calculus. In this case many small, hard, yellow stones occupied the right pelves, which contained also loose urates. The lobules were much distorted and showed a mild interstitial change. This accumulation was confined to the left side. These well developed cases having been mentioned the next most important may be quoted:

Tasmanian Devil (_Sarcophilus ursinus_). Inactive and rather on the decline for several months. Chronic diffuse nephritis with acute interstitial exacerbation. Calculi in kidney pelvis. The kidney size is normal, shape irregular, capsule smooth, strips easily leaving a rough mottled green-brown surface. Consistency is soft, tough, resilient. Cortex slightly wide, medulla normal. On removal of capsule the surface is found very irregular and elevations from the surface are pale red gray-green color. These elevations do not correspond with any change in cortex on section. Section is smooth, solid, markings not clear but glomeruli are distincter than striæ. Line between cortex and medulla obscure. The left kidney contains sand-like calculi, possibly uratic, as there are some pale areas near point of pyramid which are firmer than rest of tissue and rather gritty. Microscopic section of kidney shows the architecture much disturbed by connective tissue overgrowth in outer layers of medulla and inner layers of cortex and following the medullary rays to the capsule. Tubules are compressed and distorted in the vicinity mentioned. Epithelium is elsewhere low, opaque and granular. The connective tissue about the glomeruli is thickened and hyaline as it is in most other places. Tufts are not yet compressed. Following medullary rays there is a recent round and polynuclear infiltrate both around and in tubules.

A Golden Cat (_Felis temminicki_) presented sand in the urethra, which had caused a traumatic urethritis and distention of the bladder. There was no evidence of renal urate collections, but a low grade prostatitis existed so that the bladder might have been distended before the urethra became inflamed, thereby giving opportunity for sand to form or to have arisen in the prostatic ducts.

Three birds, a Bunting (_Passerina ciris_), a Bulbul (_Chloropsis aurifrons_), and a Buzzard (_Buteo albicaudatus_), had large cloacal urate calculi which could obstruct the ureter but had failed to do so; one had an acute ascending pyelonephritis, however.

Excessive urate collections in ureters and kidneys occur all through the avian orders and in about the same percentages; meat and fish-eating birds have practically no cases, however. The condition seems at times the only finding at autopsy, or it may be associated with uratic serositis. Gout of birds is commonly accompanied by it, but need not be since two of the best examples of this disease had practically normal kidneys.

From these records it would seem that renal and pelvic calculi occur almost exclusively in herbivorous animals. At least true stones forming in the renal pyramid and pelvis are found most characteristically developed in the Ungulata, the typically herbivorous mammal. Judging by the bilateral distribution of stones and uratic collections, local processes, inflammation especially, have less to do with their production than the availability of precipitable inorganic salts in the urine.

TUMORS.

Tumors of the kidney have been observed sixteen times, fourteen of which were primary and two secondary. The latter two concerned an epitheliomatous metastasis from a malignant papilloma in the stomach of a Kangaroo (_Macropus rufus_) and a sarcoma growing like an infarct secondary to a mediastinal tumor in a Dorcas Goat (_Capra hircus_). The only important primary tumor of the kidney in a mammal was found in a Gray Squirrel (_Sciurus carolinensis pennsylvanicus_), a solid gray nodule composed histologically of large and small deeply staining cells, many containing large vacuoles and fitted with a small dark nucleus. The arrangement of the elements was in irregular acini or bundles and thereby suggested the tumor known as hypernephroma. A small nodular adenoma was found at the upper end of the right kidney in a common opossum (_Didelphys virginiana_) and seemed to be purely of renal construction in that an attempt to retain tubular arrangement was evident.

[Illustration:

FIG. 21.—CALCULI FROM RENAL PELVIS TO END OF URETHRA. COMMON RACCOON (PROCYON LOTOR). THESE STONES WERE PALE YELLOW-GRAY. THEY CONSISTED OF A URATIC BASE, BUT SOME PHOSPHATES AND CARBONATES WERE FOUND. THE RIGHT KIDNEY WAS NOT AFFECTED. THERE WAS ONE IRREGULAR CALCULUS AND THIRTY-SEVEN SMOOTH MASSES FROM BLADDER TO END OF PENIS. THIS CASE IS NOT INCLUDED IN STATISTICS. OCCURRING AFTER THEIR COLLECTION HAD CEASED. ]

Twelve primary tumors occurred in birds, and of these five were found among parrakeets, they being curiously enough all of the same type. These cases were all discovered in the undulated grass variety (_Melopsittacus undulatus_ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ♂ ) and, because of this fact and their histological similarity, have excited interest. Grossly they are irregularly nodular or lobulated tumors usually springing distinctly from one lobe, but sometimes destroying the whole organ; they are soft, resilient and hold their place well during manipulation. Sometimes one may detect the topography of the renal lobes on cross section while at other times the mass is homogeneous. Microscopically one finds the structure of papillary adenoma with cystic formations or the production of atypical solid nests of epithelia which would have to be called cancerous, for they certainly make no attempts to retain acinus or duct groupings. Carcinomatous areas have been discovered in two of these cases, not in the other three, which have been called papillary adenoma. One of the tumors was subjected to many sectionings and different stainings techniques to discover, if possible, animal and vegetable parasites; this search failed. One of these tumors produced hemorrhage by rupture of a pyramid but extension to adjacent tissue and metastases have not been seen. Pathologically these must be classified with the tumors but because of the number of closely similar growths in the same avian species housed in the same enclosure, the possibility of a parasitic cause will not be forgotten.

The remaining seven renal neoplasms are made up of two adenomata in a Jungle Babbler, (_Crateropus canorus_) and a red headed duck (_Fulligula ferina americana_), two adenocarcinomata in a saffron finch ♀ (_Sycalis flaveola_), and a chestnut-eared finch, ♂ (_Amadina castanotis_), two hypernephromata in an American robin, ♀ (_Planesticus migratorius_) and a European blackbird, ♀ (_Merula merula_), and a spindle celled sarcoma on a scaly ground dove ♀ (_Scardapella squamosa_). One adenocarcinoma sent out metastases to the lung, one hypernephroma had secondary growths in the lungs, the other in the liver. The sarcoma case presented a metastasis in the tibia.

Diseases of the lower parts of the urinary tract are not numerous and of incidental interest only; many are associated with or due to lesions in the genital organs, and will be referred to later. Cystitis is uncommon, only being observed some four times unrelated to prostatitis and vesiculitis. Two of these cases were secondary to a traumatic urethritis. No stones have been seen. A mixed cell sarcoma was found springing from the bladder wall in a Richardson’s Kangaroo Rat (_Perodipus richardsoni_). The written record has unfortunately been lost, but the preserved slide confirms the original diagnosis. Rupture of the bladder occurred in a Gray Fox with stenosis of the end of the penile urethra causing retention and secondary cystitis. Another stricture of the urethra in an Ocelot (_Felis chibigonazon_) caused great dilatation of the bladder. This animal is thought to have chewed off all the external genitalia because of lice, with the result that the stump of the urethra became involved in a contracting cicatrix. Opossums, raccoons and wild dogs have shown light cases of urethritis seemingly traumatic in origin, and two dogs had cystitis and urethritis associated with what was believed to be distemper.

SECTION IX THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

The mechanism and organs of reproduction differ so widely in the classes under discussion that it will be necessary to describe separately the alterations in mammals and in birds. Examples of abnormality and disease are not very numerous and I shall cite cases for many of the conditions rather than prepare comparative lists as has been possible in many foregoing sections. Some years ago Dr. Edward A. Schumann[40] studied the comparative anatomy and physiology of the mammalian female generative organs, and I shall condense and paraphrase his work. (The complete articles may be found as in the references below.) This gentleman, because of his gynecological experience and broad interest in comparative biology, has been consulted whenever unusual material from this tract has presented itself so that many of the descriptions that I shall employ are due to him. I take this opportunity to acknowledge with thanks his interest and helpfulness.

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY IN EXPLANATION OF HUMAN UTERINE ANOMALIES.

The development of the genital tract seems to be essentially the same through all orders in that the genital ridge forms the ovary and its attachments while the Mullerian ducts supply the tubes, uterus and vagina. Early in fetal life these two longitudinal ducts begin to approach one another, and by the end of the third month should be in the position which they are to retain for the full development of their end result. In the human being this position is complete union and fusion, with the production of a single tube from the uterine fundus to the exterior, while in the lowest mammals, edentates and marsupials, the two Mullerian ducts retain their lateral position, and upon completion of embryonal life a double tube from the ovaries to the exterior is found. If the normal fusion of the ducts does not take place, and if for any reason their proper relation is not reached, an abnormality will result varying according to the stage of development that has been reached. Thus in man instead of a single uterus of triangular shape and a single cervix, a double set of tubes may be found. It can be shown that the abnormalities of the human uterus are of definite and fixed types corresponding to an arrest of fusion or completion of the developmental cycle as given for the Mullerian ducts and further that these very deformities are comparable to normal organs of lower orders. In other words abnormalities in arrest of development in the human uterus represent normal types of lower uteri at various evolutionary stages. In monotremes there are two ovaries, tubes, uteri, cervices, a urogenital passage and a clitoris. This corresponds with Uterus didelphys with a single vagina. This abnormality while occurring in the lowest mammal, does not represent the most marked deformity known for the human being— that in which the double tube remains to the vaginal outlet, a condition found in the marsupials. In this order the uteri are entirely separate, and each is fitted with its own vagina. The next higher order, Edentata, seems somewhat out of place if it be judged by its female genitalia since it is possessed of a triangular uterus and single vagina but without distinct cervical segment; the tract is very similar to that of the Primates.

Rodents, in the various families, present no uniform uterine construction, there being four kinds corresponding to as many degrees of Mullerian duct fusion and differentiation. The lowest forms simulate the marsupials, another group is like the monotremes, a third shows a complete fusion with a single cordiform uterine body, while the last resembles somewhat the first, but the uterine divisions are bound together and the vagina is divided only half way down. The Insectivora occupy a transitional position resembling higher and lower groups in having a long uterovaginal canal, without distinct cervix, extending upward into long curved cornua. Cetacea (whales) have a highly rugous single vagina, a distinct, short uterine segment divided into two separate horns. The genitalia of Sirenia resemble those of the last group, but the cervix is better developed. In the last three orders the clitoris begins to be well developed and to present externally. Proboscidea have a single vagina separated from the short uterine body by three transverse folds corresponding to the cervix; the two cornua are long and wide.

“The foregoing orders present in their uteri all the essential characteristics of uterus bicornis unicollis with single vagina and are therefore the homologues of this anomaly in man.”

In the Perissodactyla, the bicornate uterus has a body of a little less than half the whole length; there is a sphincter at the lower end of the body but no projecting cervix. The cornua are longer still in the Artiodactyla and are coiled in a manner suggesting spiral sheep’s horns; there is a differentiated projecting cervix. In cats the length of the uterine body and of the cornua are almost equal and both are flat tubes; the cervix is prominent and the vagina long and rather smooth. The dog’s uterus is similar but the two cornua are bound together or fused before the point at which their termini enter that of the uterine body; the cervix is not very prominent, but well formed and the vagina is rugous. These types correspond to the uterus cordiformis. Lemurs have a common uterovaginal cavity like the Edentata. The lower monkeys possess a long slender uterus with definite superior lateral angles, the last vestiges of the cornua, a prominent cervix and a short rugous vagina. The higher apes have a uterine construction almost identical with that of man at the stage of infantile development.

“From the foregoing study it is clearly shown that every anomaly of the female genitalia in Man is in reality the result of atavism and hence, a degenerative change, and inasmuch as every special form of anomaly finds its counterpart in the normal anatomical arrangement of the analogous structures in one or another of the great mammalian groups, one additional item of proof is offered in support of that greatest of biological doctrines, the descent of Man from the lower forms of life.”

ANATOMY OF LABOR.

In a second article Schumann reviews the comparative anatomy of labor, demonstrating that the basic principles are essentially the same, alterations only being in the direction of accommodation to the pelvic construction. In order to make the analysis comparable with human conditions the pelvis is studied as if the animal were standing erect upon the hind limbs.

The salient points of difference between the quadruped pelvis and the biped, human type may be epitomized as follows: (a) The entire pelvis lies (with the animal in its normal station) in a generally horizontal position with a slight slope downward anteriorly. (b) The false pelvis is almost entirely wanting, there being practically no bony structures above the brim with the exception of the small upper portions of the ilia. (c) The pelvis in quadrupeds is never basin-shaped, the lateral walls from the iliac crests to the tuberosities of the ischia lying roughly parallel to each other and enclosing a pelvic cavity rectangular in outline. Only in the highest apes does the basin-shaped pelvis appear. (d) The angle of the axis from the promontory of the sacrum to the symphysis is always greater in the quadrupeds than in man, averaging in the former from 70 to 80 degrees, in the latter about 55 degrees, (e) The symphysis pubis is an extremely long joint, being frequently greater than half the length of the entire pelvis, (f) The sacroiliac joint is more or less movable in all quadrupeds, especially in young animals. The rotation of the sacrum on the ilia increases the anteroposterior (dorsoventral) diameter of the outlet and at the same time wedges apart the ilia, thus increasing the lateral diameter.

In regard to the forces of labor it is to be pointed out that in the lower mammals the pregnant uterus hangs below the pubic arch so that the fetus must rise at an angle of about 45 degrees to pass over the pelvic brim. In so doing it meets the narrowest part of the triangular bony pelvic inlet, the anterior pubic angle. Since the sacrum is above and out of the way, the lateral diameter is the one which must be suitable to the passage of the presenting part. This is the head in homo, the largest part of the fetus, but in lower animals either head or breech often accompanied by one or more extremities, may present; the head is not the largest part in lower mammalian fetuses. The uterine contraction proceeds as in man, the fundus and cornua acting alone until the cervix contains the fetus, at which time all parts contract. In the bicornate organ both sides must contract or the fetus might be forced from the gravid to the empty side. In multiparous animals with both uterine horns occupied, the fetuses lie head to head, breech to breech and are expelled alternately from each side.

In uniparous animals rotation is in the nature of an accommodation of the greatest diameter of the fetal body in cross section to greater axis of the mother—the dorsoventral. Uterine contractions cause the fetus to unfold from its elliptical form and to assume an extended position, permitting head or breech to enter the lower pelvis. The pubic angle having been passed and the extension of the presenting part being successfully accomplished, there is no striking difference in the manner of external expulsion of the fetus.

DYSTOCIA.

Dystocia in domesticated animals is a well studied subject, and its general clinical phases are fairly well known. Several cases have been observed, details of which are worthy of note since some of them are entirely complete.

Inertia uteri as a single non-obstructive condition seems not to have been observed here, although well enough known to veterinarians. Nor has a case of dystocia been seen as the result of excessive expulsive force. Obstruction to natural passage by bony deformities or malformations is a common occurrence in man but not so in lower animals. There may also be dystocia by reason of a normally formed but too small pelvis when the female has been impregnated by a much larger male, or if the female conceived before the pelvis has achieved its full growth.

Deformities may be due to irregularities of bony development, exostoses, fracture or diseases of the osseous system. A most interesting case of this type occurred in a Barbary ape (_Macacus innuus_) which had been in the collection for two years and was apparently in good health when discovered in labor.

No progress being made and the animal becoming shocked, an ineffectual attempt was made to deliver by version, the monkey dying during the operation. Upon autopsy the uterus contained a fetus apparently at term. The head was extended so that the face presented, but the head was not engaged. The cervix was fully dilated but the uterine muscle was relaxed and flaccid. The fetus was dead when the animal was first examined. The uterus contained two placentæ as is normal for these apes, the left placenta being the place of attachment of the fetus while the right one was somewhat smaller and presented no umbilical cord. The fetus was normal in size and form, the face was extended and its lower portion far advanced in a caput succedaneum. The measurements of the fetal were as follows: bitemporal 5.5 cm., biparietal 6 cm., occipitomental 8.5 cm., occipitofrontal 7.5 cm. The pelvis (dried specimen) presents a most interesting condition. The sacrum is bent sharply forward, carrying with it the border of the ilia, which are bent upon themselves forward and downward. The lateral walls of the pelvis are greatly narrowed, the ischia drawn inward. The pubes and the symphysis are fairly normal. The pelvic measurements are: diagonal conjugate 6 cm., true conjugate 4 cm., greatest transverse 4 cm.

It is apparent at a glance that here was an impossible labor, since the head of the fetus could not possibly enter the pelvis, the size of which, _intra vitam_, must have been less than the above measurements by reason of the soft parts. “This is in the experience of the writer a unique case of a complete obstetric history, plus the specimens, of labor with an osteomalacic pelvis in a wild animal.”

Another case may be added to those already reported by Dr. Schumann, as follows:

Hairy rumped Agouti (_Dasyprocta prymnolopha_). Dystocia. An apparently normal fetus occupies the left uterine horn. The nose was engaged in the pelvis and has been moulded in a curve pointing to the right. The fetus measures—bitemporal 30 mm., cervical-coronal 31 mm., length of fetus 17 cm. Pelvic inlet in the fresh state measures 18 mm. transversely and about 17 mm. anteroposteriorly. The umbilical cord is 10 cm. long and appears normal as do the membranes. Placenta presents as a spherical mass of hard dense consistency, 35 mm. in diameter and with apparently normal placental tissue occupying the lower border of this spherical mass. On section the mass shows areas of alternating soft red tissue separated by communicating trabeculæ of dense white fibroid tissue. This mass is distinctly encapsulated, but the nature of the enclosing membrane is indeterminate. The pelvis in dry state shows evidences of malformation due to trauma. The right ileum is pushed forward and inward carrying the acetabulum a short distance inward and backward. There is a marked thickening about the right acetabulum. At the upper portion of the symphysis there is marked bending backward toward the sacrum with thickening of the bone. The last sacral vertebra is sharply bent and anchylosed, forming an angle of sixty degrees. The pelvic measurements in the dry state—at superior strait-transverse 24 mm., right oblique 23 mm., left oblique 26 mm., true conjugate 22 mm., outlet 17 mm., between the ischiatic spines.

This is obviously a traumatic malformation and forms a relatively contracted pelvis. The delivery of an adult fetus is impossible.

Cape Hyrax (_Hyrax capensis_). Impossible labor due to malformation of the pelvis. This animal died as the result of shock and exhaustion of labor. She was pregnant of two fetuses, one of which was extracted manually by the keeper but was dead at birth. Twenty-four hours later the animal was found dead. On autopsy there was present a fully developed fetus in the right cornu, the head just above the pelvic inlet. The left cornu was large and boggy. The myometrium of the right side was so thin as to be almost transparent. On examining the bony pelvis the reason for the dystocia is at once apparent. The sacrum is tilted to the right, and the body of the left ileum is bent sharply to the right, the pelvic inlet being obliquely contracted, the right oblique diameter being 16 mm. while the left is 23 mm.

The pelvic obliquity made the birth of a full sized fetus impossible, the one delivered being under developed. The myometrium was evidently stretched almost to the point of rupture when death occurred.

Obstruction to the birth canal by abnormalities in the soft parts, such as muscular rigidity, edema, or inflammation, tumors, atresia or developmental defects are occasionally seen by veterinarians but have not been encountered here.

Dystocia from uterine displacements are uncommon except such as may depend upon the failure of support by the abdominal wall, since this is the principal support of the organ especially when gravid. Hernia or hysterocele is known and anteflexion has been seen. Torsion, a rare human condition, is not uncommon in lower animals probably due to the loose dependent position of the pregnant cornua, attached only to the pelvic walls by slender inactive suspensory ligaments. A case may be reported, not originally described.

Canada Porcupine (_Erethizon dorsatus dorsatus_). Obstructed labor. This animal died from exhaustion due to an impossible labor. On autopsy the abdomen contained a moderate amount of clear serous fluid with one small blood clot. The right uterine cornu was distended with a fetus to about the same diameter as the uterine body. This cornu was congested and edematous and its walls very thin. The cornu was twisted one-half full turn from right to left, so that the pregnant portion overlaid the uterine body anteriorly. The torsion produced a compression of the vessels on the right side to the point of violent congestion of the cornu. There was no apparent rupture of the uterine walls, death having occurred from exhaustion. The fetus and its membranes were normal.

Many forms of abnormalities in position are recognized for domesticated animals, but since we know so little of the early stage in the wild specimens no data can be given.

Complicated labor in lower varieties of animals will follow lines similar to those for man and domesticated animals. Hemorrhage from trauma is not common at term, but several cases of abortion following injury have been seen. Postpartum hemorrhage might be expected in the higher apes which have a large discoid placenta similar to the human form, but when the placenta is more loosely attached and is subdivided as in lower forms, such bleeding is of no danger; when a cotyledon is torn from the ungulate uterine wall, a free hemorrhage sometimes occurs.

Geoffroy’s Marmoset (_Leontocebus geoffroyi_). Puerperal relaxation of the uterus with fatal hemorrhage. The uterus is 4 cm. long, 15 mm. wide at intertubal line. Uterine wall averages 2 mm. in thickness. Peritoneal surface is smooth, glistening and intact. Uterine musculature is soft and relaxed. Entire organ is intensely congested and on section uterine cavity contains a large firm blood clot completely filling it. Mucosa is of deep purple color, shows many fragments of decidua and is the seat of profuse hemorrhage.

Placenta previa is very rare. A row of cotyledons may form near the internal os, therefore like a placenta previa, but it appears to be of no consequence. Premature separation of the placenta is known to veterinarians, and is exemplified by the following case in our records:

Black Lemur (_Lemur macaco_) was found dead in its cage. Upon autopsy the uterus contained a small fetus with one leg and the tail protruding from the vulva. The fetus was normal in size. There was a large amount of free blood in the uterine cavity and extensive extravasation into the myometrium. The placenta was completely detached.

Rupture of the uterus and cervix have not been seen, but a traumatism of the vagina gave occasion for the following death:

Bactrian Camel (_Camelus bactrianus_) died of shock in labor. Upon autopsy the animal was found to have hydatid disease of the liver, lungs, and spleen, cirrhosis of the liver, and nephrolithiasis. Protruding from the vulva was a portion of the fetal membranes, the whole vaginal wall and several coils of intestine which had escaped through a large rent in the posterior vaginal wall. The anterior wall was swollen and edematous, the whole region surrounded by clotted blood. The cervix was obliterated, the membranes unruptured, the fetus in the normal extended head presentation. The veil-like placenta was somewhat injected but otherwise normal. There was some hemorrhage about the rectum but none in the free peritoneum.

This animal had broken her hind leg just above the fetlock three weeks before falling into labor, and was unable to stand. It is evident that the difficulty of delivery associated with an unnatural and forced posture due to the fractured leg was sufficient cause for the rupture of the vagina where the tissues were degenerated as a result of the coincident general disease.

Inversion of the uterus is one of the common accidents of labor among all animals, most frequently seen in ruminants. It is a condition more to be expected in lower animals than in man because of the long slender relaxed suspensory ligaments, the length of the uterus and the rigor of the contractions. The immediate causes are those operative for human beings. Three cases are recorded—one in an axis deer, one in an opossum, one in a mouse, the last being detailed in the following notes:

A Japanese Waltzing Mouse (_Mus wagnerii rotans_) died a few hours after an uneventful labor. On autopsy the entire uterus was found inverted and prolapsed, the organ the seat of a violent congestion, the animal having died of shock.

[Illustration:

FIG. 22.—INVERTED AND PROLAPSED UTERUS. JAPANESE WALTZING MOUSE (MUS WAGNERII ROTANS). UTERUS SHOWN LYING ON CARD. ]

THE PELVIS.

A study of the dynamics of the female pelvis from an evolutionary standpoint may explain some of the difficulties attending parturition. Starting from the biological law that morphology follows function and that the anatomy of a part alters to suit a changed physiology with such modifications as are necessary to fit each part properly to interact with other structures comprising the entire animal, it is evident that two great changes have occurred in the evolution of homo—the assumption of the upright posture and an increase of intellectual power necessitating a larger cranium of modified form. To this end also the pelvis would have to change both for support and to allow the passage of the enlarged head. The functions of the pelvis are (1) to attach the legs or hinder limbs to the trunk; (2) to furnish points of attachment and fulcra for the great muscles which move the limbs, and in the case of man, hold the trunk erect; (3) to provide egress and support for the terminal canals of the intestinal and urinary systems; (4) to provide for a birth passage; (5) to act as a shelf and support for the abdominal viscera. In quadrupeds the first four functions being perfectly served, there are fewer abnormalities of reproduction (and in the positions of viscera as well—ED.). In man natural selection weeded out narrow pelves, but the present product is as yet an imperfect structure for one of its main uses, parturition. It should be a funnel-shaped basin of the shape of the fetal head and of the same height at all points—that is not oblique, there should be no promontory, the pelvic symphysis should be short and the sacrum of the same height. This would obviate internal rotation now necessitated by the oblique pelvis; this does not occur in quadrupeds.

Tracing the evolution of the pelvis, it is to be found first in fishes where it is a loose disjointed, variable structure not attached to the spine; in some it consists merely of ischia. In reptiles the box assumes a form suggesting higher types. Passing from the toads to turtles and to the crocodiles, the elements which go to make up the pelvis assume a more and more osseous character and become more and more definitely articulated with the spine or with the differentiated sacrum. Its purpose in these low forms is mostly as a support for the muscles of the legs and back. Birds present an advance in pelvic construction but with a great preponderance of the vertebral column since thirteen to seventeen bones may fuse to form a sacral “roof.” The ilia, ischia and pubis are firmly combined. The box is long and narrow with a heavy part for the acetabulum and broad surfaces for muscular insertions. The pelvis of birds differs from that of cold-blooded vertebrates in the greater number of vertebral segments entering into its composition, and in their bony confluence. It differs from that of mammals by being unclosed by an anterior symphysis and by a widely perforate acetabulum. The ossification of the pelvic bones is to afford a support for the legs, and the open pelvis allows passage of the large brittle egg. The shape of the pelvis is of little importance in parturition in the foregoing animals, except for birds which bear large eggs when the pubis anteriorly is open for that purpose.

In monotremes one finds the reptilian type of pelvis with the three divisions of the innominate bone remaining separate. The pelvis is short, heavy and flat and is fitted with marsupial bones. The marsupial pelvis, possessing parallel walls made by the ilia and ischia and a long symphysis, resembles roughly a triangular prism. The sacrum is wedge- shaped, without a promontory and has a considerable movability. The marsupial bones are quite long. The triangular outlet is many times the size necessary for the passage of the fetus.

The rodent pelvis is difficult to summarize morphologically by reason of the great diversity of form occurring in the many genera of the order, but it may be said that here the pelvis is usually of a type rather higher in the scale than the other structural characteristics of the order would indicate. The outlet is more commonly ovate than rectangular, the ischia and ilia lie at a more marked angle to each other, and the true conjugate forms a lesser angle than is common in quadrupeds. The sacroiliac joint is, in general, freely movable.

The female insectivorous pelvis is relatively large, the sacroiliac junction usually being long and well knit while the pubes are slender, wide of angle as to their descending rami and there may be no symphysis, as in bats. Edentates have distinct bony unions of the elements of the innominate bone and of this to the sacrum which increases in width downward permitting a long synostosis with ischia and pubes; these joints are not movable. The pubes are slender and the symphysis short. The sacrosymphyseal angle is 80 degrees in the armadillo. The inlet is roughly triangular to almost round. Cetacea have no clearly developed pelvis, its place being represented by two long bones, larger in males, which seem to be the insertion of the genital erector muscles. There is no junction to form a pelvis nor is there an acetabulum. A pelvic box is absent in the Sirenia, but lateral processes from the lumbar vertebræ form a sort of ileum between which an ischium is located.

Proboscidea have a massive pelvis lying vertical to the spine. The iliac alæ are wide and deeply concave; the ischia are short, heavy and parallel to the ilia; the pubes are short and combined in a heavy symphysis; the sacroiliac joint is short, heavy and slightly movable; the outlet is ovate. In one specimen examined the length was 4 feet, symphysis 18 inches, true conjugate 19 inches, transverse diameter 17.5 inches; crests of iliac were 28 inches long.

Perissodactylic animals throughout this suborder have similar pelves except in so far as the obliquity is concerned. In the rhinoceros it is 90° with the spinal column, in the horse 135°; the angle of the true conjugate is 10° in the former, 50° in the latter. The lateral halves of the box are heavy and parallel; the symphysis is short in the rhinoceros, large in the horse; the outlet is ovoid. Artiodactyla, including pachyderms and ruminants, show a variety of shapes and constructions. Hippopotami have a short massive box tilted at about 150° from the spine, with widely flaring ilia and ischia; the pubes are slender but not combined in a strong symphysis. In ruminants the sacrum consists of four fused units; the sacroiliac joint is fairly movable; the obliquity is about 145°; ilia are long and slender and flaring; the ischia are broad and parallel with the ilia; pubes are slender but form a symphysis about two-fifths the total pelvic length; the infrapelvic angle is wide; the outlet of the pelvis is almost rectangular.

The general characteristics of the carnivorous pelvis may be summarized as consisting of a long strong symphysis, parallel lateral pelvic walls, a great sacrosymphyseal angle, and a marked separation of the bodies of the ischia. The sacroiliac joint is in general moderately movable.

The pelvis of lemurs is narrow, attached lightly to the slender sacrum, tilted at an angle of 140° and is possessed of a short weak symphysis; it resembles the structure in bats. In macaques the box is long, the sacrum wide, with a short iliac synostosis, the ilia long, narrow and curved out sharply, the ischia are continuous with the ilia and widely separated; the symphysis is short, about one-sixth the pelvic length; the angle of the superior strait is about 60°; the outlet is oval, the transverse diameter being short. The chimpanzee pelvis is made up of a wedge-shaped sacrum composed of three vertebræ, wide, flaring, concave ilia, stout well separated ischia with flattened tuberosities and a short symphysis parallel to the sacrum; the outlet is ovoid; true conjugate angle is 65°; the sacroiliac junction has little motility. In the gorillas the following points differ from the last described structure. Five vertebræ comprise the sacrum and the anterior surface is distinctly concave; the pelvic contour while still ovoid, has the two diameters more nearly equal; the pelvic angle is obtuse; the true conjugate is at an angle of 70°.

In man the salient features of the pelvis are—a broad, wedge-shaped sacrum, concave anteriorly, with wide articular surfaces and a limited motility; widely flaring ilia including the concave curvature of the body of the bone whereby the lateral diameter of the pelvic inlet becomes wider than in lower orders; short stout pubes with a narrowed angle beneath them; heavy blunt ischia with large tuberosities; true conjugate is at an angle of 55°. The human fetal pelvis resembles that of quadrupeds.

Study of these data indicates that the quadruped pelvis retains many things in common through all the orders especially in being a roughly rectangular structure lying chiefly horizontally, with a poorly developed false pelvis, straight ischia and a long symphysis pubis; the angle of the true conjugate is greater than in man and may be up to 80°. The long pubic synostosis changes the relation of the true and diagonal conjugate, but the former is no indicator of pelvic capacity, since in lower mammals the promontory of the sacrum lies anterior to the symphysis; the vertical diameter is a better measure of pelvic size and form. Sacral movement seems greater in lower animals especially in youth. The shape of the pelvic inlet is triangular in the lowest forms, the posterior base of this becoming wide as one ascends in a zoological line; the concavity of the ilia also increases so that the higher the animal the more curved are the lateral borders. In quadrupeds the anteroposterior diameter is greater than the lateral; the reverse is true in man. The long straight-sided quadruped pelvis is retained because of the direction of the forces from the legs, which is as much or more upon the anterior or pubic arch as upon the sacroiliac junction. In the semiupright position of the monkey the force is directed backward and downward upon the sacrum, this aiming to widen the pelvis by forcing the ilia apart. The effect of the upward force from the femora is to throw the pelvis upward and anteriorly by directing the line of action through the acetabula more toward the ventral surface. The sacroiliac ligaments hold the ilia firmly, their alæ being spread outward by the force from above. Elevation of the pubes shortens their symphysis and the true conjugate. By these changes the birth canal is shorter, entirely bony, with the upper inlet on the same plane, and promontory and symphysis are near enough the same level to be met at the same time by the engaging head. In these pelves the anteroposterior diameter is still long and superior rotation is not necessary.

In Man the force exerted on the pelvis from above is greatest among all animals and is greater when he is in active motion. The force is directed from above to the sacroiliac joint, the iliac bodies and the acetabular region while from below the pressure is directly exerted upon the last named. The force from above rotates the sacrum downward at its upper end, the attached sacroiliac ligaments at the same time pulling the alæ inward and throwing outward the lower end, the acetabular part. This tends to widen the pelvic box and to reduce its anteroposterior diameter. But the force acting from the legs and the adductors of the thigh push the lower parts of the ilia and the ischia and pubes apart, thus counterbalancing the effort of the force from above. The combined forces tend to bend the iliac bodies, thereby producing the curved lateral margins of the superior strait and making the lateral axis long. As between these two forces that from above is certainly the greater.

The effect of these forces can be followed by comparing a quadruped pelvis, a human fetal pelvis and an adult human one. The first two are similar chiefly in the shape of the inlet and the flat character of the ilia. This is strongly corroborative of the evolutionary development of the pelvis to meet the demand of the upright position. The effects of this evolution are as follows: First, to develop a forward inclination of the sacrum and a concavity in its surface anteriorly, second to increase greatly the iliopubic and ilioischiatic angles, third to cause the acetabula to move forward of the lumbosacral axis, fourth to shorten the bodies of the ilia and to develop in them a regularly curved surface, the concavity of which faces forward and inward, fifth to decrease the interpubic angle and accordingly to remove the triangular quality of the pelvic contour, sixth to increase the transverse diameter at the expense of the anteroposterior, and seventh to decrease greatly the sacrosymphyseal angle with the result that the entire pelvic cavity lies in one plane.

The effect of forces in alterations of the pelvic architecture may be seen in their several stages by the observation of the mammalian pelvis in the course of its evolution and development. The transitions in form are very gradual, but their gradations are well shown in the characteristic forms which have been described; the quadruped, monkey, anthropoid ape, human fetal and adult human type.

By an examination of the adult pelvis and fetal skulls it will be seen that the shape of the quadruped birth canal accommodates the fetal head nicely when in extension since there is no large posterior cranial development, the head and neck being of nearly the same thickness. In the monkey, where the facial angle increases, the head does not advance as a pointed presentation but as an irregular surface—the chin, forehead or occiput. It is only when the head has assumed a high facial angle and a well developed occipital lobe and the pelvic inlet has become transversely wide, that internal rotation is necessary.

Resuming a discussion of our records I shall at this place introduce additional cases of pathology in the parturient genital organ and then discuss the general system. Beside the cases of dystocia discussed in preceding pages there occurred in a deer a complete eversion of the uterus, which was incompletely involuted, accompanying prolapse of the rectum and bladder due to straining after severe injuries, probably inflicted by a male. The animal lived long enough to develop a purulent cystitis which spread to the vagina, uterus and pelvic soft parts. The left uterine cornu of an American bison was found to contain a decomposing fetus at about half term; general sepsis had supervened which led to the animal’s death in about a week, according to the keeper’s observations. The history of a monkey, followed through two pregnancies and finally dying of tuberculosis and sepsis is interesting.

Pigtailed Macaque (_Macacus nemestrinus_). Received March 5, 1903, died October 29, 1904. This animal gave birth on December 28, 1903 to a young one which appeared feet first; the arms appeared to have penetrated the septum between the vagina and rectum and protruded through the anus. Had to be cut off before delivery. She had a second young one October 21, 1904, which was properly delivered but was weak and lived two days, having received little attention from the mother. The mother since has been weak in the hind legs, eaten almost nothing and several times has passed a little blood in the stool. Lungs are partially collapsed; contain scattered small pinhead tubercles; right lower lobe contains a caseous nodule about the size of a cherry. Both pleuræ contain clear fluid. Abdomen contains a half pint of cloudy fluid. Omentum adherent along lower border and region of spleen and contains pinhead tubercles. Surface of the liver is studded with numerous pinpoint, pinhead and (old) pea sized tubercles. Some places in the liver seem to be the result of two invasions. Spleen presents small cherry sized tubercles thickly grouped together leaving small amount of splenic tissue to be seen. Kidneys contain pinhead to barley grain tubercles. Uterus is somewhat enlarged. External surface smooth. Section shows wall to be about one-quarter inch thick. Uterine cavity enlarged. Considerable bloody pus in uterine cavity. No communication can be found between the bladder and the vaginal wall or between the vaginal wall and the rectum. The intestines are negative. Mesenteric glands enlarged and caseous.

Abortion and miscarriage are occasionally seen in the monkeys, rodents and ungulates. The underlying reason for this can seldom be determined. A few cases seem to depend upon annoyance or abuse by cage-mates, a few to immaturity of the mother and some others seem the result of bone diseases such as osteomalacia. It does not occur regularly in any group or enclosure and appears to have no comparative pathological value.

Injuries of the external genitalia of the nature of lacerated wounds are occasionally seen in ungulates and carnivores, but never in monkeys. Acute vaginitis, sometimes localized into an abscess of the wall has been known to follow these traumata. Chronic changes have been met but once, which example will be detailed under another heading.

INFLAMMATIONS.

Endometritis has been observed sixteen times, as follows: Carnivora 10, Rodentia 3, Ungulata 2, Edentata 1. In searching for causes it was found that the association with a recent delivery of young, an abortion or the retention of a fetus, was responsible five times. Association with tumors of the uterus was noted four times. Injury preceded the condition on two occasions, while one instance seemed to be hematogenic, being secondary to a septic pneumonia. On four occasions the actual cause could not be established with satisfaction. Pathologically the traumatic and parturient cases were purulent while tumors seemed to produce a more exfoliative or hypertrophic inflammation.

Inflammation of the Fallopian tube has been observed but five times, and only in one of these did the uterine wall fail to participate in the disease. The animals affected were three carnivores, one rodent and one marsupial.

No particularly important association of this salpingitis and other pathology was noted, and indeed the only noteworthy lesion of the organ under discussion is now to be cited.

Nylghaie (_Boselaphus tragocamelus_). Chronic vaginitis, fibroma uteri, chronic tuberculous salpingitis. The vulva and lower half of the vagina are covered by a thin coating of yellowish mucus. Mucosa is mottled purple, irregular, in some places smooth and flat, and in others showing clear cysts with yellowish fluid contents. The upper part of the vagina shows a pedunculated fibroid extending from the cervix. This tumor measures 32 × 20 mm., and is attached to the posterior cervical wall by a broad pedicle and is of smooth surface. The right uterine wall shows a large fibroid which twists the uterine lumen to the left. The tumor in the right uterine cornu is nodular, measures 11 × 9 × 7 cm., shows many dilated veins coursing over the surface and one section shows a soft central necrotic area. The left uterine cornu shows a small fibroid at the lower end. There is a chronic endometritis present. The outer half of the right tube is the seat of firm nodular swellings, one of which proves to be a purulent salpingitis (tuberculous), the others calcareocaseous salpingitis. Both ovaries are fibroid and cystic. Microscopic section shows some exfoliation of the epithelium of the vagina. The uterine cornu is thickened and the fibrous tissue is greatly increased. The tube is the seat of a purulent salpingitis with an occasional broken down tubercle present. The ovaries show a mild degree of oöphoritis (Fig. 23).

OBSTRUCTIONS TO CONTINUITY OF BIRTH CANAL.

Obstruction to the lumen of the genital canal was observed in three mammals.

An American Bison (_Bison bison_), five years old and known to have been in captivity three years died of a chronic gastroenteritis and pulmonary parasites after many weeks of failing health. At autopsy a double hydrosalpinx, and probably unilateral hydrometra, with low grade cystic oöphoritis were found. A picture is reproduced. The notes are not perfectly clear as to the anatomy but from the gross specimen in preservative it would seem that the left uterine cornu was involved in the dilatation (Fig. 24).

[Illustration:

FIG. 23.—PEDUNCULATED FIBROMA OF CERVIX; INTRAMURAL FIBROMA OF UTERINE BODY; FIBROMA OF LEFT UTERINE CORNU; TUBERCULOUS SALPINGITIS AND MURAL METRITIS RIGHT SIDE. NYLGHAIE (BOSELAPHUS TRAGOCAMELUS). ]

[Illustration:

FIG. 24.—DOUBLE HYDROSALPINX AND UNILATERAL HYDROMETRA. BISON (BISON BISON). ]

Lion cub (_Felis leo_) had congenital cystic uterus. The only abnormality found is in connection with the internal genitalia. The vagina is 50 mm. long, uterus 23 mm. long, horns of uterus each 90 mm. long. The diameter of the uterus measures 10 mm. in both body and cornua, the latter being distended by clear watery fluid. They are symmetrically curved downward. They show no adhesions or obliteration of the os uteri to account for fluid retention. The probe is readily passed from the vagina to the end of the uterine horns. Vagina is patulous through its whole course. Ovary and tube normal.

An Axis Deer (_Cervus axis_) showed congenital hydrometra. This specimen is from a day old animal, consists of the genitalia in which the entire body of the uterus and both uterine cornua have been transformed into a thin-walled translucent cystic cavity containing clear fluid. The body of the uterus measures 15 mm. diameter, each cornu reaching the diameter of 5 mm. The cornua are curled not unlike ram’s horns, and are united by a line of adhesions above the body in the midline. From the ends of the convoluted and cystic uterus and cornua spring the normal tubes each with its ovary.

CYSTS.

Cysts have not been noticed in the lower genital canal, but it is true that this region is not exhaustively studied in routine autopsies; however, no large cysts have occurred there. Cysts of the ovary have been limited to the so-called cystic disease of this organ; one parovarian cyst has been found. These animals, two ungulates, two carnivores and a rodent, are noted as being young adults, only one of which was known to have borne young. In only one, the rodent, was there evidence of chronic peritoneal disease. The notes of the parovarian cyst case are as follows:

An Aoudad (_Ovis tragelaphus_) showed a ruptured parovarian cyst with normal right side pregnancy. The fetus, its placenta and membranes show no change. The right broad ligament and ovary are negative, the latter containing a red and gray corpus luteum. The left ovary is fibrotic and the left ligament is the seat of a large hematoma, which on section is found to contain thin sheets of gray translucent membrane, like walls of a cyst. The vessels are all distended. Arteries have stiff walls and are empty. Veins have well formed clot. The whole uterus and adnexa were slightly turned to the right, but the twist does not seem to have been sufficient to cause rupture of a broad ligament vessel. Microscopic section of the broad ligament shows a parovarian cyst into which there has been hemorrhage. The cyst is separated from the ovary proper by a short band of tissue which apparently consists of thinnedout ovarian cortex.

TUMORS.

Tumors of this tract in the mammals have been confined to the uterus proper, none having been found in the vagina, tubes or ovaries; in birds one oviductal growth and two ovarian tumors are recorded. These tumors are reported briefly according to their histological structures, a brief summary being added at the end.

A Black Lemur (_Lemur macaco_) showed a local leiomyofibromatous nodule on the lateral aspect of the uterine body near the cornu.

A nine banded Armadillo (_Tatu novemcinctus_) gave an interesting specimen which can be described as follows: The uterus is enlarged so that it measures 90 mm. from external os to fundus. Tubes and ovaries apparently normal. There is considerable grumous blood in the vagina and cervix; the former is normal. The cervix is pale and opaque in its lower half; upper half is slightly congested and mucosa decidedly rugous. The uterus itself shows an attenuated muscular wall with a thickened irregular mucosa which is the seat of pseudomembranous tabs of a dull red color, while the mucous membrane itself is irregularly red and yellow; also some grumous blood in the cavity. The size of the uterus is due to a large fibroma attached to the left lateral wall near the cornu. The mucous membrane of this is irregularly disturbed in some places, the tumor being partly bare. Here and there the mucous membrane shows the same degenerating hypertrophic character as seen on uterine wall. The tumor is attached to the wall by a narrow peduncle (Fig. 25).

A nylghaie with multiple fibromata has already been described.

A Jaguar (_Felis onca_) presented in the middle of the right uterine cornu a cystic resilient tumor 3 × 4 cm., which proved to be a fibroadenoma.

A lioness (_Felis leo_) presented a penetrating malignant adenoma of the uterine cervix upon which an active endometritis was implanted. The tumor penetrated the uterine wall, which gave way, an acute fatal peritonitis resulting. Metastases had occurred to the lung.

A Wild Boar (_Sus scrofa_) had a generalized ulcerating carcinoma of the uterine body.

An instance of chorionepithelioma in a Canada porcupine is worthy of separate description.

[Illustration:

FIG. 25.—PEDUNCULATED FIBROMA UTERI. NINE BANDED ARMADILLO (TATU NOVEMCINCTUS). ]

[Illustration:

FIG. 26.—FIBROMYOMA OF UTERUS. CORNUA AND TUBES. INDIAN ELEPHANT (ELEPHAS INDICUS). WHOLE MASS AS MOUNTED ON BOARD. IT MEASURED WHEN FRESH ABOUT SIX FEET ACROSS.

FIG. 27.—CROSS SECTION OF CORNU OF Fig. 26 AT HIGHER POWER. A PIECE CUT OFF WHERE THE PALE AREA SHOWS ON THE RIGHT CORNU OF THE OTHER FIGURE. ]

Canada Porcupine (_Erethizon dorsatus dorsatus_). Acute suppurative catarrhal endometritis, hemorrhage in myometrium, chorionepithelioma. In anterior abdominal wall a short quill was found imbedded. A very small quill was imbedded in the retrocervical muscles. A quill about 2 cm. long lies free in the peritoneal cavity attached by recent plastic adhesions to peritoneum over left pubic ramus. A fourth quill was adherent by recent fibrous lesions to anterior wall of cecum. Peritoneum contains a moderate excess of thin watery fluid. Liver and spleen are negative. Kidney is large, greenish yellow, firm, smooth and glistening. The right uterine cornu is subinvoluted (the animal was delivered of a fetus before arrival at the Garden, which was sixteen days before death). Its walls are thick and distinctly congested, the congestion being of inflammatory type. Microscopic section of uterus shows a regular, not ulcerated serosa. Subjacent fibrous tissue is loose and contains a granular precipitate together with a few red blood cells. Muscular bundles under this are widely separated evidently partly by trauma, but certainly also by edematous interstitial tissue in which fibrillæ are widely separated and between which free red blood cells and plasma cells are seen. Capillaries ramifying through muscular bundles are greatly distended and congested. Numerous large arteries are present in addition. Some of these contain pink granular material within their walls together with diffuse collection of red blood cells. Fibroblasts extend into this necrotic mass from other sections of the walls. Lumen of such arteries is diminished and in places quite obliterated by recent organization tissue. At many places in muscularis are large cells of irregular rounded form and some cytoplasms incline toward the basic tint with one or several large hyperchromatic nuclei. They are especially likely to occur close to a capillary. There is an especially large accumulation of these cells at that point of section farthest from fundus. Here these cells occur in chord-like masses which infiltrate the muscularis both internally and externally. This particular mass lies in the muscularis internal to great arteries and well removed from mucosa. In this mass are giant cells with multiple nuclei scattered through the whole cytoplasm together with smaller cells with exceptionally large hyperchromatic nuclei. Subepithelial tissue is especially congested and contains numerous fibroblasts together with a few well formed glandular acini. Lining epithelium is discontinuous, of simple tall columnar type, in places becoming flattened or even lost. Lumen of organ is practically completely occupied by pus.

The Indian Elephant “Empress” (_Elephas indicus_) showed calcified fibroids of the fimbriæ; gross and microscopic notes and a photograph are given. The uterus is bicornate in type. In its body there are numerous fibrous nodules 1 to 4 cm. diameter. They can be traced from the cervix to the ends of both horns and tubes. At the end of each tube there is a great mass of calcified partly conglomerate tumors some of which are partly, others quite, pedunculated. One specimen measuring 2 × 1 × 1½ cm. has a peduncle 15 cm. long. The mass on the right side weighs 3,926 grams, that on the left side about the same. Section of tumor from uterine cornu shows the classical appearance of a leiomyoma with usual whorling and interlacing bundles of involuntary muscle fibres. Degenerative and vascular changes not seen nor is there any notable addition of fibrous tissue. This latter tissue is shown only in small amounts at one end of section.

The preceding data record the discovery of three fibromata of the uterus and one of the fimbriæ; one fibroadenomata of the cystic type, one malignant adenoma, one adenocarcinoma, and one chorionepithelioma. They were found in Lemures 1, Carnivora 2, Ungulata 2, Proboscidea 1, Rodentia 1, and Edentata 1. Metastases occurred but once, to the lung. No secondary tumors were found in the uterus.

While upon the subject of neoplasms of the female genitalia, it may be well to describe the three instances found in the avian organs. A very definite case of adenocarcinoma occurred in the oviduct of an Undulated Grass Parrakeet (_Melopsittacus undulatus_), a variety of bird very susceptible to neoplasms. The notes in an abbreviated form are given:

Immediately under the ovary is an irregular mass measuring 2 cm. long, 1 cm. wide, 1 cm. deep. The lower part of the tumor thus comes to press against the cloaca. It is adherent anteriorly to the peritoneum. It apparently consists of two parts, an upper rounded larger, and a lower spherical smaller. Both parts are well encapsulated and separated from each other by a well defined constriction. The upper part has a pale opalescent appearance. It cut easily with moderate resistance. The lower portion externally has an egg-yellow color streaked with red. Upon section it has the same general appearance but contains in addition numerous small, irregular, yellow areas which mask the general opalescent appearance. The centre of this node contains an empty space (cyst) 1 × 2 mm. Microscopic section consists of an oval or elliptical mass showing over one convexity a depression simulating a constriction. A thin fibrous capsule extends over most of the section which is extra thick at the point of constriction. Constriction roughly divides the section into two. The upper portion consists of one or two coarse septa of fibrous tissue. From these central areas a delicate connective tissue framework extends peripherally. In this framework are great numbers of irregular gland spaces. These gland spaces are so closely placed in most cases that room is afforded for but one nucleus of the bundle. The gland spaces vary in size, some large, some small, and show grotesque shapes. The larger gland spaces here contain granular debris and pyknotic nuclei. Compound granule cells suggesting colostrum corpuscles may be seen in this debris. The epithelium of the gland spaces consists of a single layer of columnar epithelium of low cuboidal type. In places it is heaped up so as to present several layers. In places too it is not applied in a regular manner to the basement membrane but breaks through and then the cells extend in most disorderly fashion into the lymphatics of the stroma. At these points the nuclei are hyperchromatic. The lower portion follows closely the description given above save that the glandular spaces are much larger. They contain pink glandular material with admixture of compound granule cells. At the convexity of the tumor the acini are especially large. Here they contain a pink granular material which stains more intensely than the other granular contents and, too, inside of this intense pink material are sharply circumscribed areas of yet more intensely pink staining material. This latter substance has a streaming appearance under the high power. This streaming appearance is due to elongated areas of less dense material which are placed with their long axes parallel. This lower portion shows, furthermore, even with the naked eye, two large cysts which are lined by epithelium and contain a very small number of compound granule cells. The capsule at the lower pole is worthy of note from the extreme dilatation of its capillaries.

[Illustration:

FIG. 28.—PAPILLARY ADENOMA OF OVARY. WILD TURKEY (MELLEAGRIS GALLOPAVO). ]

A papillary adenoma was found in a wild turkey (Fig. 26) and a mixed cell sarcoma in a King parrakeet (_Apromictus cyanopygius_). None of these tumors sent out metastases.

Interest in the avian reproductive tract from a pathological standpoint centres around the tumors as already given, and abnormalities in egg- bearing. Among our specimens there have been many cases of soft shelled eggs apparently blocked in the oviduct, of “egg-binding” and of the inspissated-egg-remains in the abdominal cavity. These conditions are well known to veterinarians and are explained on the basis of improper food, immaturity of the bearing fowl, injury and inflammations of the cloaca and oviduct. I made an attempt to associate these conditions with infectious disease incidence and with the normal egg size. The results are not harmonious. No relation existed between general or local infection and any of these conditions. Gallinaceous birds with their large eggs show the highest percentage (2.3 per cent.), but Anseres with a somewhat larger relative egg size show 1.6 per cent. Passeres, with eggs of very variable size but relatively large pelves, have an incidence of .6 per cent. Struthiones’ eggs are relatively small; their incidence is 1.5 per cent.

Salpingitis occurred in seven cases, but there have been no evidences of an acute infectious disease such as is responsible for gleet.

THE MAMMARY GLAND.

This structure has been the seat of three inflammatory conditions and four tumors. The former occurred twice in nursing animals, one of which seemed to be suffering with distemper, another from puerperal sepsis, while the third case was probably traumatic. The animals were in order, a raccoon, a coati and a skunk. Four cancers of the breast have been observed, all richly cellular or glandular in type; none of the scirrhous variety has been encountered. Two of them were ulcerating and one was about to become so. One gave extension to the axilla and lung, one had penetrated the abdominal wall and grown around the kidney; the remainder had not yet extended. The animals were Black Bear (_Ursus americanus_) (thoracic mamma with extension), Common Opossum (_Didelphys virginiana_) (two sections of breast in pouch), two White footed Mice (_Peromyscus leucopus_) (posterior abdominal right gland and whole side). These animals were all adult but not old.

[Illustration:

FIG. 29.—ADENOCARCINOMA OF MAMMARY GLAND (TWO SECTIONS WITHIN POUCH). COMMON OPOSSUM (DIDELPHYS VIRGINIANA). ]

SECTION X THE MALE GENITALIA

Affections of the penis are limited to phimosis and occasional inflammations on a traumatic basis. The latter is best seen in carnivorous animals like raccoons and coatis, but has little pathological interest. Two cases of phimosis have been seen at the autopsy table and one in an animal (hyena) still living. The last was operated upon some years ago and has given no trouble since. The prepuce of this beast is seldom retracted, but no swelling or retention of urine has occurred. A Red River Hog (_Potamochœrus porous_) dying of a variety of lesions, was found to have contracted preputial opening, the edges of which were tight and adherent to the glans penis at various spots. The prepuce had been dilated with urine to a large size from which collection the fluid could be pressed dropwise only by considerable pressure. Opening the sac revealed forty to fifty gray white sand granules about the size of millet seeds. A gray fox (_Canis cinereo argenteus_) had a mild grade of phimosis; in this case probably traumatism had some etiological relation, for it is the one referred to before in which a terminal urethral stricture was followed by rupture of the bladder.

The testes have been peculiarly free of disease, only a small number of lesions having been found. A raccoon had an acute inflammation, traumatic in origin, and a few passerine birds were noted as showing involvement of this organ in the presence of some general infectious diseases. Two tumors were found in birds, none in mammals. The avian cases both occurred in Red shouldered Parrakeets (_Palæornis eupatrius_) and were round cell sarcomata, without metastases.

Acute inflammations of the prostate and Cowper’s glands occurred only once as secondary to pelvic infection. Chronic change was observed in these bodies on two occasions, and prostatic hyperplasia, commonly called hypertrophy, was seen thrice. The mammalian prostatic area is known to become overfilled with secretion and to be affected by inflammation when it is not discharged. This occurred in a wood rat (_Neotoma pennsylvanica_) and a wild boar (_Sus scrofa_), the former having the condition so marked that prostate and seminal vesicles were swollen backward into the pelvis like a tumor. Histologically one finds in these conditions an engorgement of the glandular and ductal spaces with a mucoid substance and a mild round and plasma cell infiltrate in the connective tissue; there are no marked evidences of active inflammation. The testes were not abnormal in these cases.

The three cases of “hypertrophy” of the prostate are worthy of separate record.

Indian Paradoxure (_Paradoxurus niger_) the prostate is greatly enlarged, of pale orange color, soft and does not exude pus on section or pressure.

Common Opossum (_Didelphys virginiana_) The prostate is enlarged, soft, gray-yellow. Urethra contains a little gray mucus but seems patulous. Seminal vesicles negative.

Rhesus Macaque (_Macacus rhesus_). Glandular hyperplasia of prostate. The bladder is collapsed. The opening of the urethra is occupied by a firm, friable yellow-white cast of matter apparently inspissated semen. Urethral mucous membrane normal. Prostate is 7 × 4.5 × 3 cm. firm, resilient, dull purple-gray, capsule negative. Section shows normal lobulations containing apparently normal secretion. Vasa negative. Testes negative. Microscopic section of prostate shows acini of various sizes lined by a single layer of tall vacuolated cells with nucleus at the bottom. Cells probably nowhere reduplicated. Acini nowhere grossly atypical but everywhere hyperplastic and dilated irregularly. Mass is adenomatous in general increase but no part is truly neoplastic. Interstitial tissue rather less than normal proportionately. No “amyloid” bodies.

[Illustration:

FIG. 30.—PAPILLARY ADENOMATOUS HYPERPLASIA OF THE PROSTATE GLAND. RING TAILED LEMUR (LEMUR CATTA). ]

Still another case of accessory sex gland enlargement was found in a Ring tailed Lemur (_Lemur catta_), this time, however, with more suggestion of a neoplastic change. The prostate of the lemur is normally large, pale gray-pink and rather firm. Histologically it is about equally glandular and fibrous. In this case the cellular activity is undoubted, and one must consider it adenomatous. The cause of death was enteritis, being perhaps more serious in the presence of the urethral obstruction.

The seminal vesicles are distended to 7 × 2 cm. with a thick boiled- starch-like material. Wall and mucosa are negative. Prostate large, tense and injected. Its cut surface is pale purple, homogeneous; character of fluid is normal although excessive. Urethra is occupied by a cast of rather tenacious starch-like matter which begins at neck of bladder and runs almost to meatus. Openings of excretory ducts are prominent. Mucosa and submucosa of urethra are deep purple and the former seems to be slightly opaque as if covered with desquamated epithelium. Testes and epididymes seem normal. Vasa deferentia are slightly distended with excess of normally turbid fluid. Microscopical section shows hyperplastic epithelial condition with accumulation of droplets of hyaline matter but there is no amyloid deposit. In places it is possible to see a hyperplastic and loosened epithelium with nuclei becoming vacuolated, and the whole being cast off. Less granular free globules suggest that this is the method of origin of the hyaline globules free in the acini. The picture is one of papillary adenoma. In some places there is surely reduplication of the lining cells. Connective tissue is deeply staining, compact and with adult nuclei. Growth is not very vascular. There are no corpora amylacea.

A case of tuberculous prostatitis and seminal vesiculitis was seen in a Japanese Macaque (_Macacus fuscatus_). Judging by the advanced stage of these lesions and their more recent character in other viscera, the disease was suspected as pelvic in origin, possibly due to infection by a thermometer. Whether or not such be the case cannot be established, but at all events, separate thermometers kept in carbolated vaseline were employed after this death. The females caged with this animal did not develop tuberculosis of the pelvic organs.

SECTION XI THE DUCTLESS GLANDS

THE THYROID BODIES.

The ductless glands occupying the anterior cervical regions, known as the thyroids and parathyroids are structures to be found in some form in all vertebrates, but increase in distinctness of outline and construction upward in the zoological scale. In the bird they present themselves as discrete rounded bodies lying well to the side of the midline resting usually upon the carotid artery or jugular vein or both. As one removes the skin reddish brown globular masses will be exposed to view, sometimes showing an irregular lobular outline, a variation due to separate but attached masses of parathyroid glandules; the latter may be yellowish or even white. For the most part, however, distinct thyroid and parathyroid bodies are separated with difficulty, and one must discover the latter by microscopical section. In the mammal these organs are by no means so readily found when removing the cervical integument, for they are usually buried beside the trachea and covered by sternohyoid and sternothyroid muscles. Their position, relative to the larynx and upper end of the sternum, varies considerably but this seems to have little importance in the enlargements to which the gland is liable. It is, however, lower, that is more posterior, than in the human being, rarely rising as high as the lateral thyroid cartilages. The principal lobes are elliptical or roughly triangular masses with their long axis corresponding to that of the animal’s body and apposed mesially to the trachea. When enlargement occurs it develops in the anterior or ventral direction, pushing through the cleft between the muscles and the trachea to present under the cervical skin. In quadrupeds it may become dependent and the swelling is nearer the sternum than is the case in man. The isthmus is a very variable structure, and its presence or absence cannot be said to be a constant character in any order, or indeed in any family. I have seen in old animals a fibrous band extending over the face of the trachea connecting the capsule of the lateral lobes, which might have been an isthmus at one time. From these few observations the idea of atrophic fibrosis occurred to me. Such may be the reason for the absence of this transverse link in some adult specimens.

The amount of thyroid tissue possessed by an animal might be judged by measurement or weight. The former is misleading since the density might vary, as it certainly does in the two classes and between certain orders in mammals. Actual weights would afford little comparison, whereas the weight in terms of total body weight may supply a guide to the amount of gland normal to an animal. There are given in Table 15 the grams-per- kilogram-body-weights of the thyroid bodies (thyroid and parathyroids both sides combined) of twenty animals whose gland seemed entirely normal at autopsy. They are all adult specimens, free of cretinoid characters and of bone or heart diseases, conditions which might reflect abnormalities to these glands. The list is too small to warrant any conclusions, but in one respect confirms Murray’s[41] observation and certain experimental work, notably of Vincent and Jolly[42] and Carlson, Rooks and McKie[43]. The carnivores have more thyroid than ungulates (averages .55 gm. _vs._ .18 gm.), but the marsupials on our list have nearly as high an average as the former, namely .44 gm. To these figures might be added others which I have worked out from the list given by Murray; it is only possible to compute the gram-perkilogram value for a few of his examples since the body weights are not given in all. Using 2.2 pounds as equal to one kilogram, the seal of 432 kilos had .03 gm. of thyroid, lion had .18 gm., leopard had .46 gm., a serval .36 gm., a skunk 2.35 gm., (was this normal?) while a single herbivore with the weight given was a porcupine having .25 gm. per kilo. The average of Murray’s carnivores is therefore .67 gm. per kilo of body weight, whereas our figure is .55 gm. That the incidence of thyroid abnormalities stands in direct relation to carnivorous character has been recognized before, and is abundantly borne out by our statistics, as will appear at a later place.

TABLE 15 _Showing Weights of Animals, of Their Thyroid Bodies and the Relation of These Weights Per Kilogram._ ═════════════════════════════╤═════════════╤═════════════╤═════════════ │Grams of Body│ Grams of │ Grams of │ │ Thyroid │ Thyroid per │ │ │Kilo of Body ─────────────────────────────┼─────────────┼─────────────┼───────────── Primates: │ │ │ Woolly Monkey │ 2,370│ 2.│ .84 Lagothrix lagotricha │ │ │ Carnivora: │ │ │ Wild Cat │ 8,180│ 2.│ .24 Felis ruffus │ │ │ Silver Fox │ 3,325│ 4.│ 1.2 Canis chama │ │ │ Kamchatkan Bear │ 31,800│ 22.│ .63 Ursus beringiana │ │ │ Lynx │ 9,500│ 1.│ .1 Felis canadensis │ │ │ Jaguar │ 29,500│ 16.│ .54 Felis onca │ │ │ Rodentia: │ │ │ Ground Squirrel │ 550│ 2.│ 3.6 Xerus capensis │ │ │ Ungulata: │ │ │ Zebra │ 340,000│ 64.│ .19 Equus burchelli │ │ │ Giraffe │ 384,000│ 45.│ .12 Giraffa camelopardalis │ │ │ Barasingha Deer │ 56,800│ 8.│ .14 Cervus duvanceli │ │ │ Kashmir Deer │ 56,800│ 20.│ .35 Cervus cashmirianus │ │ │ Urial │ 22,700│ 2.5│ .11 Ovis vignei │ │ │ Marsupialia: │ │ │ Kangaroo │ 18,000│ 10.│ .55 Macropus robustus (?) │ │ │ Tasmanian Devil │ 3,120│ 4.│ .13 Sarcophilus ursinus │ │ │ Wombat │ 26,000│ 7.│ .27 Phascolomys mitchelli │ │ │ Wallaby │ 3,360│ 3.│ .9 Genus and species (?) │ │ │ Edentata: │ │ │ Anteater │ 3,300│ 2.│ .6 Myrmecophaga tetradactyla│ │ │ Accipitres: │ │ │ Wedgetailed Eagle │ 2,300│ 1.│ .43 Aquila audax │ │ │ Struthiones: │ │ │ Rhea │ 18,000│ 5.│ .27 Rhea americana │ │ │ Emu │ 36,300│ 23.│ .63 Dromæus novæ-hollandiæ │ │ │ ─────────────────────────────┴─────────────┴─────────────┴─────────────

ANATOMY.

The minute anatomy of the normal thyroid is fully given in text-books, and is doubtless pictured in the minds of all but students of the subject as a fixed and definite affair. Such is not the case. There is certainly a variation in gross size under conditions of seasonal and sexual activity, and it would seem acceptably demonstrated that changes in diet, especially where meat is concerned, are associated with swellings or shrinkage of the glands. These gross changes must be due to alterations in histology. In youth also the bulk is larger, a condition due to cellular activity, while as middle age advances the thyroid becomes smaller and more balanced in its colloid and cellular proportions. I need not detail the ultimate constituents of the gland, but it is well to emphasize a few points which must be taken into consideration in microscopical diagnosis. In the first place, the lobules or acini are not all of the same size in normal organs. This is especially true in the normal adult gland but may be so in youth. The cells which form the inner lining of the acinus are low cuboidal in shape but the elements which lie under them are oval and do not change with hyperplasia of the former. The colloid which fills the glandular spaces is very susceptible to mechanical and chemical agencies. In material preserved in alcohol it may be shrunken away from the cells or heavily vacuolated, while in tissue preserved a long while in any liquid it may be found contracted or broken. Large vacuolated or vesicular cells are characteristic of the human parathyroid; this type is by no means so prominent in the lower animals, and in the few examples studied closely the arrangement is less definitely glandular than in man.

The avian thyroid is distinct from the mammalian in the delicacy of its fibrous framework and the flatter character of its epithelia. Acini are usually of more uniform size. Capsular vessels are prominent but internal vascularity is less in birds than in mammals and their goitres are not solid.

PHYSIOLOGY.

The physiological value of the thyroid-parathyroid complex has been the subject of extensive study and voluminous literature without exhaustion of the possibilities, but with the result that we are possessed of knowledge explaining certain phases of abnormality, even if the normal functions be not unexceptionally demonstrated. The accepted alterations of functions are hypothyroidism—inadequate physiology, and hyperthyroidism—excessive activity. Absence or atrophy of the thyroid bodies is usual in hypothyroidism, while enlargements, collectively called goitre, commonly accompany excessive function. Exemplifying the former, cretinism is the result of failure of normal function and development during fetal life while myxedema is the expression of the disappearance of thyroid secretion after it has once been operative; the latter may occur in infancy after nursing has ceased, or at any time that the thyroid may atrophy, during some of the forms of goitre for example. Hyperthyroidism may express itself, with or without visible enlargement of the thyroid body, in nervousness, gastrointestinal disturbances, tachycardia, loss of weight and exophthalmos. The first group, which might be called athyroidism, is often associated with alterations in the bony skeleton in the form of chondrodystrophy or of rickets, while some degree of osseous change is observed with myxedema. Goitre, be it simple or exophthalmic, may be followed by cardiac enlargement or by myocarditis.

The character of the thyroid secretion is not known except that it is influenced by the availability of iodine in the diet, but there are some other as yet unexplained features. The normal thyroid fed to cretins or persons suffering with myxedema, has the power to improve the condition apparently by supplying iodine and the other essential elements. Iodine is an important constituent of the gland, being present in combination with protein. Its quality varies indirectly with the amount of colloid and of hyperplasia (Marine). The administration of this element is beneficial in colloid goitre but is harmful in the toxic variety. Even though the administration of thyroid extract may relieve athyroidism, this procedure in normal animals fails to produce typical pictures of hyperthyroidism. Carnivora fed thyroid gland do not show toxic symptoms until excessive amounts are given, whereas herbivorous varieties are much more sensitive to this feeding.[44] Tachycardia, nervousness and exophthalmos are not produced by these experiments, an interesting observation since these signs are not recorded in wild animals, and only vaguely reported by veterinarians. Man is apparently very sensitive to thyroid dysfunction.

On the other hand, meat-eating animals are more sensitive to excision of the thyroid body than are grain eaters.[45] Chemical studies have shown that the thyroid is concerned in basal metabolism since this is increased in hyperthyroidism and decreased in myxedema; nitrogen output is much elevated.

Thyroid physiology stands probably in some relation to the cardiac mechanism since in simple colloid or simple hyperplastic goitre if of long duration, cardiac enlargement and disease may be greater than the excess work occasioned by the mere physical bulk of the enlarged gland in the neck would seem to warrant. A detoxicating function has been ascribed to the gland, but Murray discredits this on the ground that congestion occurs in infectious disease of warm blooded animals but not in snakes. He thinks the gland more likely stands in some connection with the thermoregulatory mechanism.

It is evident from the foregoing that the thyroid is closely related to protein metabolism, and that this is in some way connected with the ability the body possesses to use iodine in the food if it can get it. Feeding of meat to fish was found by Marine to increase the size of the thyroid. With all this in mind it is not astonishing that two-thirds of our cases of thyroid abnormalities were found in the order Carnivora.

The anatomical changes of the human thyroid that precede or accompany the various clinical pictures cannot be said to be uniform to a degree that one can even approximately predict in every case what will be found at operation, at autopsy or by the microscope. Furthermore, much discussion has existed upon the importance of the several changes, the association with clinical phenomena and the nomenclature. I shall not enter the academic discussion with our material because so much has depended, in human medicine, upon symptoms, signs and chemistry—data that we cannot adduce. Upon many occasions I have seen animals with very evident goitres, but have not been able to detect bulging of the eyes or especial nervousness. One striped hyena carried his mass for several years. It swelled up occasionally and seemed to cause dyspnœa. At one examination of the beast, to see if anything could be done for him, a large cyst broke under the examining hand, whereupon a deep inspiration was heard and relief was apparent. This handling was repeated twice, these times with the purpose of breaking cysts and when this was successful disappearance of the dyspnœa was observed. However, a similar attempt upon another hyena and a wolf failed possibly because no large thin-walled cyst was present. These and the case of the lion cub (page 170) are the only instances in which the enlarged thyroid seemed to have given serious difficulty, and the symptoms were probably due to pressure. Many, indeed most, enlarged thyroids have been found at autopsy, when the Garden personnel was unaware of their existence. Interesting notes of familial cretinism will be found under the appropriate heading.

PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY. CLASSIFICATION.

And now to return to the question of morbid anatomy of the thyroid gland, I shall begin by outlining briefly the classification to be used in analyzing our cases, a system which combines those of many pathologists, yet which I believe contains the essentials of all. The changes in the gland being hyperplastic and recessive, at times to a stage of atrophy, no clear cut definite line of demarcation separates all these pictures; instead they must be thought of as merging into one another. When the thyroid enlarges more or less continuously with a maintenance of considerable colloid, the picture is that of COLLOID GOITRE. The gland is pale, gelatinous, tense but resilient and may show large cystic areas with fluid contents. Microscopically studied the acini are overfilled with colloid yet the lining cells are retained but flattened. The cysts may show the ruptured septa of the original acini. Enlarged soft reddish glands are found at times to contain much colloid, nearly every acinus being distended with it, but in such organs the epithelia are high or even reduplicated; the amount of contents is the striking feature. These are termed HYPERPLASIA WITH COLLOID. Hyperplasia may go on with the absorption of colloid, HYPERPLASIA WITHOUT COLLOID. The gland is then a darker body of more solid character, red, dull purple or uniformly pale pink, somewhat dependent upon the blood content. By magnification one sees smaller acini with prominent high cuboidal or cylindrical epithelia and little or no colloid. The increase of cells seems to be due both to an increase in their size and number. As the proliferation increases the lining layer must be accommodated so that it bulges out into the lumen as a bud or papilla which, if it be extensive or universal in the thyroid, gives rise to the ADENOMATOID GOITRE OF PAPILLOMATOUS type. This growth is accompanied by much congestion and small or large hemorrhages may occur, forming cysts containing a blood stained fluid. Grossly such a gland has solid and cystic areas, is mottled red and gray or brown from old pigmentation and is usually of very irregular shape. These forms are more or less uniform and general, but in certain instances the hyperplasia tends to remain in isolated areas or nodules, and in these develop solid masses of thyroid epithelium, sometimes with a small lumen usually devoid of colloid, and a rather rich but loose fibrous supporting tissue, the whole picture resembling the microanatomy of the fetal gland; to these the name fetal adenoma has been given, but since they are not fetal in origin and do not behave like tumors I have called them NODULAR ADENOMATOID HYPERPLASIAS. The next step in hyperplasia would remove it from benign to malignant in pathological character, and the term NEOPLASTIC HYPERPLASIA is used; this must of course be limited to the epithelial growths, since sarcomata, while they occur in the gland, come from other cells.

The changes in atrophy consist in irregular distortion of the gland by fibrous tissue to which may be added large colloid or fluid cysts. There is no uniform finding in the thyroid for the diseases believed to be due to its atrophy, functionally at least, namely cretinism and myxedema. In the former there may be no thyroid, or it may rather closely resemble the normal organ while in the latter definite scarring and distortion is the rule. The gland acini are compressed, the cells vacuolated or crushed out of existence or there may be colloid cysts.

Inflammations occur as swellings of the interstitial tissues and of the acinus cells during many acute infections. Repetitions of this may leave a definite increase of connective tissue with large cells in the acini, a lesion which many observers have looked upon as underlying certain goitres and myxedema.

HYPERPLASIAS.

The cause of progressive hyperplasias has been ascribed to infection, to chemical substances in water and food, endogenous toxins, heredity and many other factors. While we can add nothing definite in this matter it is worthy of notice that all our animals are exposed to the same general climatic conditions, receive the same water, are fed from the same stocks and many varieties may be in charge of the same keeper. The influence of preëxisting infections cannot of course be measured. Inbreeding or captive breeding seems to have a very definite effect upon thyroid insufficiency as is well known and so sharply emphasized by McCarrison in his reference to intermarriage among certain Moslems; I shall cite the history of a wolf bitch which gave birth to three cretin litters while apparently well but mated to a goitrous male. These facts concerning the etiology are given merely to emphasize the high degree of probability that the distribution of the lesions of the thyroid gland among our specimens indicates the susceptibility of the various orders. This perhaps needs no emphasis for the carnivores, but it does for the marsupials. The literature contains many references to goitre in domesticated ungulates; this would give the impression that they are common among them, and so they may be, but this is not the case for wild ungulates. There being no doubt that the Carnivora have the highest incidence of thyroid enlargement, man being especially prone to it, and since goitre may be induced in fish by feeding meat, the inference is direct that high protein diet stands in some relation to this condition. Thirty-nine of our sixty thyroid lesions occurred in the order Carnivora; all the families of land varieties are represented; 8.1 per cent. of the specimens coming to autopsy showed definite thyroid alterations. However, marsupials have also a decided thyroid vulnerability as indicated by 4 per cent. of the specimens presenting abnormalities at death. Four of the seven cases were among the carnivorous opossums and “devils,” the remaining three being in herbivorous kangaroos. The influence of high protein diet is not evident in birds.

A discussion of the essential pathology can be based upon the accompanying table. In making a diagnosis care was used to exclude mild swelling of the gland seen in acute infectious disease and under conditions of sexual activity. The gross diagnosis was checked by microscopical section, and all but a very few have been reëxamined for the purpose of making the table.

TABLE 16. _Showing Distribution of Lesions in the Thyroid Body by Giving the Number of Cases Met in the Autopsies upon the Various Orders, According to the Classification Given in the Text._

═══════════╤═══════╤═══════╤═══════════╤═══════════╤═══════════ Order │ Cases │Colloid│Hyperplasia│Hyperplasia│ Papillary │ of │Goitre │ with │ without │Adenomatoid │Thyroid│ │ Colloid │ Colloid │Hyperplasia │Disease│ │ │ │ ───────────┼───────┼───────┼───────────┼───────────┼─────────── Carnivora │ 39│ 7│ 6│ 5│ 4 Rodentia │ 1│ │ │ │ Ungulata │ 2│ 1│ │ │ Marsupialia│ 7│ 1│ 1│ 1│ 1 Passeres │ 2│ 2│ │ │ Psittaci │ 2│ │ │ │ 1 Accipitres │ 1│ │ 1│ │ Galli │ 2│ 1│ │ 1│ Alectorides│ 1│ │ 1│ │ Anseres │ 3│ │ 2│ │ ───────────┼───────┼───────┼───────────┼───────────┼─────────── Total │ 60│ 12│ 11│ 7│ 6 ───────────┴───────┴───────┴───────────┴───────────┴───────────

═══════════╤═══════════╤═══════════╤══════╤═══════╤═══════ Order │ Nodular │ Malignant │Mixed │Sarcoma│Atrophy │Adenomatoid│Hyperplasia│Tumors│ │ │Hyperplasia│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ───────────┼───────────┼───────────┼──────┼───────┼─────── Carnivora │ 9│ 1│ 1│ 1│ 7 Rodentia │ │ │ │ 1│ Ungulata │ │ │ │ │ 1 Marsupialia│ 3│ │ │ │ Passeres │ │ │ │ │ Psittaci │ │ 1│ │ │ Accipitres │ │ │ │ │ Galli │ │ │ │ │ Alectorides│ │ │ │ │ Anseres │ │ │ │ │ ───────────┼───────────┼───────────┼──────┼───────┼─────── Total │ 12│ 2│ 1│ 2│ 8 ───────────┴───────────┴───────────┴──────┴───────┴───────

[Illustration:

FIG. 31.—HYPERPLASIA WITH COLLOID. AMERICAN BADGER (TAXIDEA TAXUS). MEASUREMENTS; 3 × 1.5 CM.; 3 × 1.5 × 1½ CM. ]

[Illustration:

FIG. 32.—ADENOMATOID GOITRE. RACCOON-LIKE DOG (CANIS PROCYONOIDES). ]

This rather diversified group of pathological lesions would warrant one to expect a notable number of instances of disease observed during life, suggesting that the thyroid was at fault; such, however, is not the case. In the first place, no case of exophthalmic goitre, as the symptom complex is known in man, has been observed, yet the anatomical alterations, hyperplasia without colloid, and with papillary or solid adenomatoid character, are abundantly represented. For the pathologist to accept a case as toxic goitre I would ask evidence of enlargement of the heart and perhaps in addition degeneration of the myocardium. The animal showing the closest resemblance to the disease in man was a Raccoon-like Dog (_Canis procyonoides_) whose history and notes are given in brief.

Raccoon-like dog (_Canis procyonoides_) ♀ . Acute hemorrhagic splenitis. Acute fermentative gastritis. Subacute catarrhal enteritis. Acute general infection. Hypertrophic cirrhosis of liver. Chronic interstitial nephritis. Hypertrophy of heart with acute myocarditis- infiltrative and parenchymatous. Chronic lymphadenitis with acute exacerbation. Epigastritic and gastric venous stasis. Nodular adenomatous goitre. The right thyroid is lower, both measure 4 × 3 × 2 cm., are soft, resilient with dense gray capsule. Section shows cysts filled with blood separated by pale septa of soft tissue of varying thickness. One similar mass under angle of jaw seemed like a lymph node but on section is like thyroid. Parathyroids not found. Pleuræ negative. Lungs are gray, collapsed except lower half of lower lobes which are slightly emphysematous and edematous. No consolidations. Pericardium contains about 3 cc. clear, colorless fluid. Epicardium is glistening, transparent and pale. Heart muscle is soft flaccid, pale mottled gray-brown. All chambers are distended with mixed clot. The coronary muscles and columnæ are mottled brown and gray. The tips at insertion of chordæ are pale. Streaks of gray run through muscles. One area 1 × 2 cm. of softening found in middle of left auricular muscle. Aorta negative. The liver is enlarged, surface rough and irregular, edges rounded and uneven, consistency firm and tough, color mottled deep red-brown. Section surface glistening, moist, granular, opaque. Lobular markings not lost but obscured. Connective tissue lines not clear but surely diffuse in lobules. Scars on surface leading to definite connective tissue strands about vessels and irregularly placed. Gall-duct patulous with limpid bile. Spleen is well forward in front and below stomach. It is much enlarged, soft, tough, has a smooth, tense capsule. Section surface shows homogeneous purple pulp with faint, narrow but tough trabeculæ. Follicles distinctly outlined, slightly large but merely of a slightly paler purple than pulp. On surface are many round 2–5 mm. sharply outlined gray thickenings of the capsule and immediately subjacent pulp. The right kidney’s lower half has been replaced by a thin-walled clear cyst 3 × 2.5 × 2 cm. The left kidney is small, capsule strips with difficulty tearing surface slightly. Surface and section are mottled pink and gray, glistening and opaque. It is firm, dense and tough, cortex narrow, medulla wide. Cortex has obscure, irregular markings with few small cysts, striæ and glomeruli, faintly visible, margin between layers irregular. Veins are distended over surfaces of stomach, under surface of diaphragm, in peritoneum over liver but not in abdominal wall. Stomach contains sour gas and water. Mucosa especially near cardia is deep purple. Rugæ are large and permanent but mucosa and submucosa are soft and on section congestion does not extend deep. The tips of the rugæ near pylorus are infiltrated and the infiltration is surrounded by a zone of congestion. Mucosa seems about to slough but has not separated. At pylorus mucosa becomes deep brown-red, dense, swollen, opaque and covered with a slimy, soft brown mucus. Folds are prominent but temporary. In jejunum and ileum mucosa is still swollen and opaque and rugæ are still larger than normal and temporary with a dense sensation on compressing them. The color is not brown but deep pink and yellow with areas of submucous injection. Follicles not visible. Colon is negative except for slight thickening of mucosa unaccompanied by congestion or opacity. Lymph glands of small omentum are small, firm, yellow, homogeneous; those of the mesentery are large, edematous, yellow brown and tense with lymph which escapes on section. Lymph channels up to mesenteric stalk can be traced.

HISTOLOGICAL NOTES.—Liver architecture much altered by passively dilated hepatic capillaries chiefly toward the centre of the distorted lobules. This distortion is in the form of irregular liver columns separated by irregular vessels and interlobular connective tissue. This latter is increased everywhere but is abnormal in distribution within the lobules. The connective tissue at the portal spaces is not so much increased but it shows most around arteries. Bile ducts seem not increased in numbers. Much bile pigment in large, coarse, dark brown masses chiefly settled within portal spaces. The cells show slight fatty infiltration. No multinucleation. Organ is not seriously robbed of functionating tissue. Alterations are not equally distributed over section. Spleen shows enormous congestion with edema of the few chords and perifollicular tissue left unengorged with blood. Follicles are negative. No connective tissue increase. Blood destruction not now active but there are many hemosiderotic masses irregularly scattered. The subcapsular areas are loose edematous follicles. Heart muscle fibres have lost all transverse striations, some are hyaline while others are fibrillar. The nuclei are decreased in number but there is no increase of connective tissue nuclei. No pigmentation. There are several areas of round and polynuclear cell infiltration and one distinct abscess in section. The perivascular tissues are edematous. Muscle fibres are large and wide. Thyroid made up largely of slightly enlarged acini in most of which a slightly eosin-stained hyaline collection is found. There are a few cysts containing a thrombus and hemorrhage. There are no typical colloid cysts. Some scars from old hemorrhages may be seen. There is much free blood in and between acini. Blood pigment free and in granule cells is abundant. Some acinus cells show fat droplets. Lung shows old interstitial tissue increase especially about vessels and a few scars, some of which are forming cartilage. These are deeply encapsulated. Mesenteric lymph nodes show trabecular thickening with active connective tissue formation which is also present about follicles and along edges of chords. Follicles lack germ centres, solidly lymphatic. About them and in and along chords are many tissue cells some of Maximov type and a few eosinophiles. Many of these and endothelial cells are phagocytic of red blood cells. (Fig. 32.)

Just at the time of completing this book another case strongly resembling exophthalmic goitre in man was encountered in a Gray wolf (_Canis lupus_). This animal had a history of enlarged neck and enlarging abdomen for about six months. His appetite and discharges remained about normal but weight was lost and activity reduced to a minimum. Attempts at removing the fluid believed to be in the peritoneum, by the use of diuretics, failing and the beast being in such poor shape, he was killed. An enormous adenomatoid goitre, concentric hypertrophy of the heart, passive dilatation of all cervical and thoracic veins, passive congestion of the liver and congestion of the portal area were autopsy diagnoses. It will be noted that no exophthalmos and nervousness were observed during life.

Bone disease and atheroma are at times associated with thyroid insufficiency in man. The former, aside from osteogenesis imperfecta of cretinism, occurred only once in a carnivore and once in a marsupial. There is but one case of atheroma among the sixty cases of thyroid disease.

The reaction of the avian thyroid in its hyperplasias is somewhat different from that of the mammalian. The delicacy of the septa and the relative paucity of vessels is perhaps the reason that the gross and microscopic pictures differ from those found in mammals. It should be emphasized, however, that while one can perceive a hyperplasia of the gland of both classes when the testes or ovaries are active, there appears less participation of the thyroid in birds in infectious diseases than is the case for mammals. In simple functional hyperplasia the capsular vessels are prominent, but the cross section need show no change. In the continued hyperplasias the organ remains more solid, being less apt to develop cysts; large cysts are occasionally seen, however, and in one case the entire gland was composed of them. Microscopically the differences are largely of degree in that the process is less frank in development, but the essential changes of swollen epithelia and condensed colloid remain the same.

ATROPHIES.

The thyroid gland in its functional capacity, may be considered to undergo hyperplasia and then atrophy of the parenchyma cells. Normally this would leave the colloid, the epithelia and the supporting tissue in proper balance, but in the presence of low grade inflammation or where an abnormally hyperplastic process retrogresses, the connective tissues may exceed their norm, the epithelia may be shed or remain high and the colloid be irregular in distribution. Such a state of atrophy may exist in fetal life, arise from unknown cause during a course of toxic goitre, or perhaps insidiously in chronic toxic conditions. When this occurs in fetal life cretinism or myxedema arises, when in later life, only the latter appears. Judged entirely by microscopic findings, eight instances of atrophic changes in the thyroid have been found. Three of these were in Carnivora and were secondary to definite goitres, but were not followed by myxedema; one of these three was a cretin. A brother of this cretin but not himself a cretin, died at the age of five months from acute dilatation of the heart, and with a decidedly atrophic thyroid gland. A lion showed a distorted gland, the result of chronic inflammation, a condition also present in a leopard, in the latter possibly in association with a general infection of the heart, vessels and kidneys of long standing. A case in a bear can only be explained on the basis of chronic intestinal toxemia. A camel is the only other variety of animal to show this regressive change. The beast suffered with a marked anemia with marrow atrophy and hydatid disease; calcification was found in the thyroid.

[Illustration:

FIG. 33.—COLLOID GOITRE WITH HEMORRHAGE FROM LEFT GLAND WHICH KILLED THE BIRD. BLACK AREA IS CLOTTED BLOOD. MUTE SWAN (CYGNUS OLOR ♂ ). ]

[Illustration:

FIG. 34.—AT THE LEFT, THE INSIDE OF THE CALVARIUM SHOWING HEMORRHAGIC PACHYMENINGITIS. AT THE RIGHT IS A FEMUR, SHORT AND HEAVY BUT WITH THIN CORTEX; CONSTRUCTION IS ORDERLY. CRETIN GRAY WOLF PUP (CANIS MEXICANUS). ]

As has been repeatedly stated, myxedema has not been seen, but hypothyroidism has expressed itself in these animals as cretinism. The most interesting pathological fact concerning the relation of the thyroid to this maldevelopment is that there is absolutely no uniform gross or microscopical change constantly present in the typical cases. This will become more evident as the following records of our cases are perused. In 1914 an apparently normal Gray Wolf bitch threw two normal young ones which died of lack of maternal care; they were not posted. The father of this litter died shortly and was found to have a sarcomatous hyperplasia of the thyroid. A year after the first lot a second litter was born of an apparently perfect father which still lives. This animal was purchased in the same lot with the mother, and the two could be related. The first father was not related to the female. This litter consisted of seven, two dying almost at once and burned, the other five not being especially good specimens. They died at ages ranging from two to five months and were all cretins or cretinoid. Two showed hemorrhagic pachymeningitis, one external, one internal, and the usual bulky skeleton of cretinism (Fig. 34). The bones were constructed in a rather orderly and somewhat graceful manner, the uncalcified epiphyses being only occasionally distorted. The same two animals, mated again in 1916, had as offspring seven pups. One evident cretin was killed while another runt was sacrificed and found to have fractures of both femora around which no trace of callus was discoverable (Fig. 35). Two other cubs were apparently normal, while the remaining three did not develop and soon showed the cretin characters. When this group was about three months old they were fed chopped horse thyroid; one improved decidedly, one slightly, the third not at all, but it might have been too weak to get its share. These animals lived from eight months to three years; the two good ones remain alive. In 1919 the mother was killed by her cubs, probably because she was weakened by long sickness. A papillary adenomatoid goitre, endocarditis, nephritis and chronic enteritis were found. The pathological changes in the thyroids of the cretins were as follows: In the second litter two cubs had hyperplasia with colloid, one had nodular adenomatoid change and the fourth showed distinct atrophy secondary to colloid increase. In the third group two had distinct colloid changes, once pure and once as a secondary process with some evidence of atrophy to alter the fibrous tissue and shape of the acini. The remaining four seem to be all colloid in character, but I am not satisfied with the description or sections so that I shall not offer an unqualified diagnosis. The adrenals of these animals all showed some medullary congestion but no change in the chromaffin or lipoidal content.

The deformative lesions of bones are frequently associated with lesions in the pituitary body. Several of our thyroid cases have been studied for such changes without their discovery. Indeed no gross alterations have been noted among many hundreds of hypophyses seen in removing the brain nor in a small number studied histologically. Those examined under the microscope have seemed to correspond to the descriptions given by Stendell in Oppel’s _Handbook of Comparative Microscopic Anatomy_.

[Illustration:

FIG. 35.—PATHOLOGICAL FRACTURE OF FEMUR. CRETIN GRAY WOLF PUP. ]

[Illustration:

FIG. 36.—ADENOCARCINOMA SARCOMATODES. ADENOMATOUS PORTION ATTACKING CAPSULE. RACCOON-LIKE DOG (CANIS PROCYONOIDES). ]

TUMORS.

True malignant hyperplasias of the thyroid epithelium in man are being more thoroughly studied in recent times so that similar lesions in the lower animals gain interest. The notes given below are of value as individual observations only, but since three were in carnivores, another indication is at hand of the vulnerability of this order. One of the cases is admitted upon diagnosis alone, the slides and records having been lost, but since the determination was made by Dr. C. Y. White, I am satisfied to accept it. The four of which notes are at hand are as follows:

Raccoon-like Dog (_Canis procyonoides_) ♂ . Adenocarcinoma sarcomatodes. Metastases to liver and lungs. Fatty degeneration of liver and kidney. Acute diffuse splenitis. Submucous hemorrhages in stomach. At level of thyroid cartilage on each side and removed 1 cm. from same is a rounded encapsulated nodule measuring 2.5 × 2 × 1 cm. Portions are hard, others fluctuate suggesting cystic degeneration. Below these nodules are two bodies also bilateral, evidently lobes of thyroid, each measuring 5 × 2.5 × 2.5 cm. They are firm with some foci of cystic softening. From a ruptured cyst of the right lobe grumous, red, malodorous material exudes. Peripheries of such cyst show greenish discoloration. Bodies as a whole are greenish black in color. They are well encapsulated, do not meet in midline but are joined at lower pole by firm, apparently colloid, material. All through lung especially under pleura there are dark red, rounded, firm, well circumscribed foci measuring 2–8 mm. diameter. They project markedly on pleural surface. No capsule can be made out. Upon incising they have lighter red centres and deeper peripheries. They cut with resistance and have no inclination toward a wedge shape. Surface is for most part smooth except where tumors are present. Organ is soft and distinctly yellow. All portions of liver contain rounded and irregular nodules, some deep, others superficial. They vary in size from 2 mm. to 3.5 cm. diameter. No capsule can be made out, yet they are circumscribed. The central portions of larger nodules are dirty gray and friable. Peripheral parts dark red. Smaller lesions are solid red and of fleshy consistency. Spleen is deep dark red, homogeneous. Histological section of thyroid shows firm, old, dense capsule very irregular in thickness seemingly on account of the penetration of the enclosed tumor cells. Such infiltration gives the inner outline of capsule a very irregular, bizarre appearance, and at times thins the capsule until it is reduced to nil. In one place the tumor elements appear outside the capsule at a point where a large vessel is apposed to outside capsule. The appearances within this capsule vary; in places the picture is that of a carcinoma. Small, round, interspersed with larger irregularly shaped acini are seen lined by a single layer of low cuboidal epithelium. Very frequently indeed the lining cells contain fine granules of golden brown pigment even where their lumina contain no blood. Some of the larger acini contain altered blood cells and a smooth, pink material, knife streaked and vacuolated peripherally. In some parts of section these acini are regular and well formed, in others they are very irregular and appear to be eroding the capsule. A second appearance concerns the connective tissue. Appearing in almost any part of the section and bearing no regular relation to the epithelial elements or the section in general are areas of closely packed large spindle cells with hyperchromatic nuclei. In another place such spindle cells are arranged purposefully to form irregular capillaries containing blood. A third appearance results from a combination of the first two. Here there are acini, between which run blood capillaries with remarkably rich and numerous embryonic lining cells. A section stained by Van Gieson stain proves that part of the pink intra-alveolar material is colloid. Every gradation can be made out in tint of this material from pink to salmon to orange. It is often very difficult or impossible to state whether a given blood-filled space is a blood vessel or an acinus with hemorrhage. In both structures the lining consists of flattened cells. In one there is the possibility of colloid, in the other of hematogeneous hyaline, both with peripheral vacuolization. Lung shows walls of alveoli thickened by young type of cells. Nuclei of cells lining bronchi are prominent, in good condition. Much coal pigment through whole section. Air sacs empty. There are several rounded nodes through section consisting of closely packed spindle and round cells. Blood is abundant in such nodules both in small lined spaces like capillaries and in larger necrotic foci where there is abundant blood pigment. In one place an irregular, large acinus is seen containing a smooth pink material. A large part of the interstitial tissue is diffusely infiltrated by the large, round cells with hyperchromatic nuclei (Figs. 36 and 37).

Prairie Wolf (_Canis latrans_) ♂ . Mixed tumor of thyroid. Metastases to lungs. The neck of the animal is enormously enlarged, the diameter exceeding that of the body. Thyroid is enormously enlarged to about the size of a child’s head, rather firm before incision. When incised about 300 cc. blood stained fluid drained. It is rather soft and quite friable looking as if made up of fatty and hemorrhagic matter. The lung is of mottled deep red color with here and there on surface small hemispherical areas about the color of the surrounding tissue but of slightly increased resistance. They are raised above the surface and measure 2–7 mm. in diameter. Histological section of thyroid shows a mixed tumor. It is not possible to say that it is a pure thyroid gland tumor. It is largely sarcomatous, the round cell alveolar arrangement dominant at one place, at another the short spindle cell but not typical, so-called spindle celled type. There are many areas of small and a few of large hemorrhage. Cartilaginous deposit is occurring at some places in the field showing the latter type of sarcoma. Section of lung contains a large sarcoma nodule. The cells consist of round cells without the large cartilage-like cells found in the original tumor mass.

[Illustration:

FIG. 37.—ADENOCARCINOMA SARCOMATODES. SARCOMATOUS PORTION. RACCOON- LIKE DOG (CANIS PROCYONOIDES). ]

[Illustration:

FIG. 38.—ADENOPAPILLOMATOUS HYPERPLASTIC PORTION OF THYROID. UNDULATED GRASS PARRAKEET (MELOPSITTACUS UNDULATUS). ]

Coypu (_Myocastor coypus_) ♂ . Sarcoma of right thyroid. The thyroids occupy a position deep in the neck upon the anterior vertebral muscles, the left higher than right, being up to level of top of thyroid cartilage. Only a half-inch of lower pole of right remains and it is like the left which is soft, deep brown-red, delicately lobulated, closely bound to trachea but movable in fascia. It is 30 × 10 × 3 mm. The upper part of the right organ is occupied by, or at least within the same capsule as a 25 × 15 × 10 mm. encapsulated, pink mass with many small vessels on its exterior. It is soft and on section the surface is mushy, of gray-pink-yellow, and seems to have an exceedingly delicate trabecular network. Posterior and superior to this, lying near the salivary glands but back of them is a similar mass 15 × 12 × 5 mm. Still another lies anterior to what remains of the right thyroid and is about 8 × 5 × 4 mm. The adrenals are 30 × 13 × 8 mm. slightly hard and not unlike a long kidney in arrangement. The cortex is wide, regular, brown or tawny, the medulla rich in vessels and deep brown. Histological section of thyroid is an almost completely cellular mass with here and there delicate and incomplete trabeculations. Small blood vessels are numerous and consist of a delicate line with a cell nucleus here and there, that is no true wall. It seems as if the blood channels were simply regular spaces through the cell mass. The cell type is mononuclear with definitely acidophilic “granuloid” somewhat vacuolated protoplasm. The nucleus is almost without exception eccentric, rather poor in chromatin but in places diffusely staining. Mostly, however, the nuclear skein is in spots or threads and fairly dense around margins, therefore not unlike a thyroid cell and a plasma cell. Here and there one finds compressed remains of thyroid acini. There is decided irregularity of size and shape in these cells. Its origin is not clear but this seems like a sarcoma of the thyroid.

Undulated Grass Parrakeet (_Melopsittacus undulatus_) ♂ . Medullary carcinoma of thyroid. On opening the body a mass 10 × 6 × 4 mm. is found in the upper thoracic region on the right side. A similar mass measuring 5 × 3 × 2 mm. lies in similar position on the left side. They are identified as thyroid glands only from their position and from the numerous large vessels which radiate from them. An especially large vessel leads directly to the heart. Long axes extend anteroposteriorly. The masses are of a firm gelatinous consistency, the color of carpenters glue in lower portions, shading off to a dirty canary yellow above. They have a translucent appearance in lower portions. The surface is fairly smooth, adherent latterly and posteriorly. They are well circumscribed. At one end of the histological section thyroid tissue is easily identified. It varies from normal in that its spaces are often very large, contain villus projections or may be completely filled by large compound granule cells with no colloid. Other acini are atypical and contain typical colloid. Continuous to such thyroid tissue is a very large, rounded tumor. It consists of round cells with round nuclei in which many mitotic figures may be seen. An arrangement into acini cannot be made out nor is colloid material abundant. In one or two places an irregular collection of such material may be seen with peripheral vacuolization but its confines are always indefinite. As far as section goes the mass is well encapsulated but the lymphatics are infiltrated by the tumor cells. The tumor, too, is sharply separated from the relatively normal thyroid. Irregularly scattered through section are remarkable cells with nuclei three or four times the size of other nuclei. They may be hyperchromatic or normally staining. (Figs. 38 and 39.)

The THYMUS BODY is a structure encountered in our specimens with greater regularity than is the case in human autopsy experience. However, no great size of the gland is observed, and there is no record or recollection of anything which could resemble an enlargement suggesting status thymicolymphaticus nor has a tumor with this organ as its origin been observed. In one case only did the thymus present what was believed to be an unusual size. An adult Gray Lagothrix (_Lagothrix lagotricha_) died with an acute intestinal infection. Its thymus was a large, soft, deep pink body lying in the anterior mediastinum, running up to the clavicular joints and down along the sternum. The death had ample explanation without any state of this organ. The thymus body has not been found enlarged in association with thyroid disease.

[Illustration:

FIG. 39.—MEDULLARY CARCINOMATOUS PORTION OF THYROID. UNDULATED GRASS PARRAKEET (MELOPSITTACUS UNDULATUS). ]

The SUPRARENAL or ADRENAL BODY is an organ of essentially the same general construction in the two classes here studied except that in birds the cortical portion may be imperfectly developed and in some of the lower groups is decidedly narrow. This outer zone may indeed be entirely missing since tissue comparable to it is distributed elsewhere in the body, notably with ganglia along the vertebral column. The organ is infrequently the seat of alterations, detectable either grossly or microscopically. Congestion and small hemorrhages are rather common in acute infectious disease especially when the respiratory system is involved, but these rarely destroy tissue or materially reduce the chromophilic cells. These circulatory disturbances have, however, been predominatingly among the mammals although birds have suffered with infections to a high percentage. The medulla is much more often the seat of congestion while, when hemorrhage has occurred, the cortex is apparently always involved. Lipoidal reduction has been seen in a few mammals, Primates and Carnivora, once to a state of complete exhaustion. More serious lesions have occurred eleven times, and since the cause and meaning of disease in this body are so vague it seems well to recite briefly each one.

A Weeper Cebus (_Cebus capucinus_) suffered for several months with constantly but slowly increasing skeletal deformity of the osteomalacic variety. He died after moving him to a new cage, his end being hurried by a scalp wound. At autopsy the skeletal condition was determined to be of the above named kind. The organs were in good condition. The adrenals were decidedly enlarged for a monkey of this size, measuring 1.8 cm. in length. The medulla was a solid, brownish, homogeneous portion covered with a very narrow, barely discernible cortical zone. This was apparently due to a uniform hypertrophy of the cells of the medulla. The testes were slightly atrophied and fibrotic. A Black Spider Monkey (_Ateles ater_) had a history of stiffness of legs for six months. This was probably a sign of osteomalacia since at autopsy this condition was found together with a secondary anemia, chronic gastritis, acute enteritis and brown atrophy of heart. The adrenal was knob-shaped, the cortex was wide, brown, regular, the medulla small gray-purple. “Histologically the capsule of the adrenal is thicker than is commonly seen in Primates and connective tissue bands between the units of the zona glomerulosa are somewhat stouter than common. The cells of this layer take the stain a little more deeply than usual, but are otherwise negative. The layer separating cortex and medulla is occupied by a band of well formed connective tissue which is not proceeding inward but outward and so encroaching upon the zona reticularis as to remove it completely in places, in others to make isolated islands of its cell groups. Fine lines of connective tissue are penetrating from this into the middle layer but not disturbing it as yet. The connective tissue septa penetrating the medulla are somewhat wider than one would expect but show no activity in their growth. The medulla is somewhat broken up, vacuolated and the chromophilic cells are not especially prominent, indeed some of them seeming to have undergone necrosis.” A puma (_Felis concolor_) died after a sickness of two weeks from acute gastroenteritis with its usual visceral associations, including acute nephritis, and with calcifications in the adrenals. These structures were quite firm and nodular, on section tough and resilient. “The cortex is irregular, brown, with paler brown medulla. Areas of calcifications appear as small dots, as linear formations and in some places seemingly around blood vessels. Histological section shows marked vacuolization of cells, particularly of cortex. There is a diffuse overgrowth of connective tissue which has become hyaline. Here and there small calcareous deposits may be seen but no massive areas as mentioned above.”

A Himalayan Thar (_Hemitragus jemlaicus_) came to his end, after a history of convulsions, from nephritis, which had resulted in general edema including the serous sacs, and an associated cardiac dilatation. His adrenal was egg-shape, of normal size, with a wide, irregular dull brown cortex and a homogeneous opaque, darker brown medulla. “Histologically the cellular structure of the cortex is partly destroyed, partly dropped out and partly disturbed by overgrowth of connective tissue. This connective tissue is quite prominent in the medulla where it is surely increased although it is made more prominent by absence of cells, some of which have been degenerated and some dislodged.” A Japanese Macaque (_Macacus fuscatus_) after drooping three weeks presented at autopsy the following numerous lesions: anemia, chronic atrophic gastritis, atrophy of heart muscle with regeneration, hemosiderin pigmentation of liver, perilobular fibrosis of liver, chronic diffuse nephritis (subcapsular type), congestion of spleen, fibrillar fibrosis of spleen, hemosiderin pigmentation of spleen, local amyloid infiltration of spleen, calcareous infiltration in medulla of adrenal. Grossly the adrenal showed a thick, orange yellow cortex and small solid, brown medulla. “Histologically the organ appears normal in all respects save for the presence of a few small irregular areas of calcification in the medulla. These occur apart from any recognizable necrotic or fibrous areas. In one place one appears to lie within the lumen of a blood vessel. No fibroses or special congestions found anywhere in the organ and cells show normal details and normal numbers of vacuoles.”

A California hair seal (_Zalophus californianus_) which had been refusing food and having loose stools for about ten days presented after death the following diagnosis: Hypernephroma of adrenal, chronic hypertrophic enteritis with acute exacerbation, hemorrhagic splenitis, passive congestion of liver, congestion and edema of lungs with catarrhal pneumonia, acute fibrinous pericarditis, chronic lymphadenitis, chronic interstitial nephritis. His right adrenal seemed about normal, being 5 × 2 × 1 cm. with a narrow, dull yellow cortex and a large mottled gray-brown medulla. The left one was 5 × 3 × 1 cm. The upper pole is swollen and contains in its centre a spherical tumefaction which is red, mottled, sharply outlined, with a suggestion of a capsule and slightly firmer than surrounding organ. “Histological section shows a capsule of very noticeable thickness but possibly not much in excess of normal. The cortex particularly in its deeper layers is much injected and in some places there has been hemorrhagic diffusion. In many places in the zona fasciculata, more especially near the periphery, there is breaking up of the cell tubes with an infiltration of large round cells and some chromatophilic cells. In other places this seems to have gone on to fibrous tissue increase and necrosis of the cortical fibrous cell types. The connective tissue layer below the cortex is wide and the spaces filled with blood. This connective tissue also surrounds islets of medullary cells which are not specially chromatophilic. The mass in the medulla is made up of varying sized alveoli surrounded by rather rare, highly vascularized connective tissue and enclosing islets of medullary cells. These alveoli may be subdivided by septa. Hemorrhage has occurred into many of them. The individual cell masses are made up of groups of rather large cells with illy defined margin, a granular, opaque but not vacuolated protoplasm. They have a bladder-like nucleus in which the centrosome is large and prominent. Definite mitotic figures could not be found, but mitosis is probably present. A few cells with double nuclei were seen and one with four. In many of these large islands the centre has gone to pieces from hemorrhage or necrosis. Some of the vessels are thrombotic and one shows a very pronounced periarteritis.” A brown cebus (_Cebus fatuellus_) was killed because of a poor tuberculin test chart. His organs were negative except the right adrenal body which was 3 × 1.5 cm., or four times the size of its fellow. It was a tense body with a smooth, mottled, deep yellow surface. On section there were deep yellow islands separated by pale brownish septa; the structure did not resemble adrenal. Histological section showed a hypernephroma of vacuolated cell type, roughly alveolar. Two other cases, which because of their microanatomy are to be called hypernephroma can be added to those just cited. One occurred in an undulated grass parrakeet (_Melopsittacus undulatus_), the other in a black duck (_Anas obscura_). As illustrative of this tumor the former will be cited in brief. “Hypernephroma of adrenal with hemorrhage into body cavity. A tumor approximating in size the head of the host extends from the region of the internal genitalia and adrenals lying more on the right than on the left side extending fully to cloaca and shoving all abdominal viscera forward. It has a pedicle springing from between the two upper lobes of the kidney where adrenals and internal genitalia are not distinguishable. Tumor is coarsely lobulated, well encapsulated, nowhere adherent. It has a pale, dirty yellow color, richly marked by red lines of congested vessels. It is fairly soft, _i.e._, about consistency of normal liver. Upon incising, the cut surface bulges markedly, is a dirty gray-yellow, blotched with darker gray areas, shows no internal hemorrhages or markings of special import. No metastases noted to any other organ. Microscopic section shows a light capsule surrounding the tissue of the tumor. The latter has a very scanty fibrous reticular framework showing no orderly or purposeful arrangement. Upon and between the reticulum, irregular and for the most part elongated collections of cells are placed. At times these present an elongated fascicular form, but this is not by any means a prominent feature. The cells themselves are large, rounded or polygonal, have coarsely granular cytoplasm which only in rare cases contains vacuoles. Nuclei of these cells stain very poorly, but it can be made out that they are of large epithelial type and of vacuolar appearance.”

A somewhat unusual tumor was encountered in a Polar bear (_Ursus maritimus_), an adenocarcinoma of the adrenal, when judged purely by its histology but a secondary tumor in the lung displayed the more familiar picture of large vacuolated cells as seen in hypernephroma. The diagnosis follows: “Scirrhous adenocarcinoma of adrenals, secondary carcinoma of lymph glands, secondary hypernephroma of lung, secondary carcinoma of diaphragm, acute mucopurulent bronchitis, acute catarrhal enteritis, chronic diffuse fibrous cholecystitis, cholelithiasis, slight acute interstitial pancreatitis, follicular hyperplasia of spleen with fibrosis, hydrothorax, hydropericardium, chronic hypertrophic osteoperiostitis, encysted trichina in diaphragm, fatty infiltration of diaphragm, chronic diffuse nephritis, chronic productive lymphadenitis, pigmentation of lymph gland. Both adrenals are smaller than normal, of woodeny consistency, the pale cortex and medulla are poorly separated from each other. The cut surface shows gray white and tawny mottling and occasional calcareous points. Histological section shows an extra capsule of fibrous tissue containing highly distended veins; the lining contains masses of tumor cells, many of which are necrotic. It is distinctly denser in type than normal and more abundant in places showing a proceeding fibrosis. Parenchyma shows but few irregular islands containing non-neoplastic cells, some of which are highly vacuolated, others are not. Interstitial tissues in peripheral parts are often grown together with the deeper portion where are intermixed tumor areas. The latter consist of small round acini of variable size lined by cells of active type. Nuclei are large and hyperchromatic, cytoplasm broad and disintegrating. Parts show necrosis and hemorrhage. Upon search transitionals from non-neoplastic to neoplastic cells can be discovered in same fasciculus.”

SECTION XII THE SKELETON AND ITS JOINTS

The bones with their articulations have been the subject of extensive study and research by zoologists in the direction of classification and evolution. Adaptation of the osseous construction to the needs of the animal is well appreciated biological knowledge. For example, the keel of the sternum in birds affords broad origins for the flying muscles, the pectorals, which also insert on the alæ of this bone and on the clavicle, and in addition use these latter formations as fulcra. So too the extremities of quadrupeds are angular in their upper two segments for the purpose of supplying a direct action of the flexors employed in running and leaping. The thick masseter muscle of carnivores is accommodated in the deep zygomatic fossa. Many other examples might be cited, but these serve to direct attention to the adaptation of function and construction. Pathological changes in our materials are however too few to permit conclusions as to possible relation of zoological position and development except such as may refer to deformity incident to the degenerative processes—rickets, osteomalacia and osteogenesis imperfecta, and in these conditions the alterations are merely passive accommodations to weakened support in order to obtain comfort. To put the matter in other words, it would seem that, aside from the diseases just named, there is no outstanding change in the skeletal tissues peculiar to zoological orders that might indicate vulnerability of the system or the methods of response to injury or disease.

EFFECTS OF TRAUMA.

There must be considerable reserve or reconstructive power in the bones of animals since it is a common thing at autopsy to see unmistakable evidences of repair of fractures, dislocations and inflammations. Some illustrations are introduced to exemplify this healing ability, one of which was found in an animal shot by a hunter, the other an incidental autopsy discovery. Even though there be no definite relationship between the zoological order and osseous disease, it is interesting to record a very simple observation. Animals with long extremities, especially when the bones are quite near the skin, have a rather high incidence of fractures and inflammations. Thus the ungulates have of all orders the highest percentage of these traumatic and infective lesions; herons and gallinaceous birds follow the ungulates. Marsupials, primates and carnivores, in this order, are susceptible to inflammations but not to fractures. Bones are often broken, among the Cervidæ, Bovidæ and Camelidæ, when as they are chased by mates, they fall upon the slippery floor of the cages; or again the mounting of a small animal by a large buck may crush the former to the earth. Two cases of fractured pelvis have been seen in antelopes from a fall with extended hind legs.

It would seem that repair is usually satisfactory if the animal has a quiet retreat where callus may form and union occur. A heron is known to have broken both bones of the leg; at autopsy a very insignificant circumferential callus remained, the member being as straight and strong as normal. Figure 40 shows the femur of a deer shot by a hunter; the shortening was considerable, but function was doubtless good because the hunter could perceive no limping as the animal ran. The most interesting fracture among our records was an intracapsular fracture of the hip in a Huanaco (_Lama huanacos_) shown in Figure 41. This animal slipped on the ice in December and was thought to have broken something near the hip, but it limped around without any great show of pain until the following May, when it died of meningitis secondary to an _otitis media et interna_. At autopsy an unhealed, complete fracture of the neck of the right femur was found, apparently separating the head from the neck, the former being dislocated to the upper angle of the obturator foramen. Everywhere about the joint callus had been thrown out, but not in a manner to effect a junction of the broken ends nor to seal the edge of the acetabulum to the femoral neck. This was probably due in part to the irregularity of the line of fracture and to the interposition of the upper part of the dislocated head between the lower rim of the acetabulum and the surgical neck of the bone. When the specimen was fresh traces of capsule were found over the upper half of the acetabulum. While it is usually difficult to decide the manner in which these injuries effect their damage and deformity, it might be ventured to explain this case as due to extreme posterolateral extension of the leg driving the head of the femur downward and inward, rupturing the capsule and the ligament bridging the acetabular notch, to rest on the pubis at the upper edge of the obturator foramen where it could find a sort of joint cavity made by the pubic and ischial segments of the old acetabulum, but about an inch and a half below its normal location.

[Illustration:

FIG. 40.—HEALED FRACTURE OF FEMUR. FROM A DEER SHOT BY A HUNTER. ]

[Illustration:

FIG. 41.—PARTIALLY HEALED INTRACAPSULAR FRACTURE OF HEAD OF RIGHT FEMUR. HUANACO (LAMA HUANACOS). ]

Another injury to the hip joint was noted in a Livingstone’s eland (_Taurotragus oryx livingstonii_). This beast was not positively known to have fallen, although it was suspected that such an accident had occurred by reason of sudden inability to rise. At autopsy, death having succeeded on signs of shock, a complete upward and backward dislocation of the right femoral head was found; there was also an intracapsular rupture of the left round ligament, but on this side the femoral head had not left the acetabular cavity.

Many other fractures have been observed but generally without interesting features. The conclusions which may be drawn from our experience are that animals with long bones, and liable to chase have the greatest liability to fractures, and that the healthy beast, given seclusion and quietude, possesses great ability to heal its broken bones. Pathological fractures are occasionally seen. (Consult notes on cretin wolves.)

Before entering upon a discussion of the most important of osseous lesions, rickets and osteomalacia, certain inflammatory states may be appropriately described.

INFLAMMATIONS.

Hypertrophic osteoperiosteitis: A male lion (_Felis leo_) at the Garden three years died, after being out of condition for a long time, from chronic ulcerative pulmonary tuberculosis with terminal pneumonia, nephritis and enteritis. Both hind feet had been observed as enlarged and apparently painful for some weeks before death. Upon dissection the bones of both hind feet are the seat of extensive hypertrophy, and the periosseous fibrous tissues are thickened. A large mass about the size of a small orange lies attached to the outer side of each ankle. The hypertrophic periosteitis extends up the tibia a distance of about three inches and the fibula for about the same distance. These two bones are adherent to each other for about 1½ inches. The joint between them and the tarsal bones is apparently perfectly free. The calcaneum is the bone most severely involved; on this is a large rounded mass which extends on the bone for a distance of about 2½ inches. The small bones of the foot are more or less severely involved but are not bound together, the joints being practically free. The terminal and next phalanges are entirely free from disease while the metatarsals are severely involved and grown together into one large mass. On section this appears as a mass of spongy bone lying on top of the cortex. In the dried specimen this looks very like old pumice stone. Histological section shows the periosteum raised from the bone by mononuclear infiltration. The bone marrow spaces are filled by a very delicate gelatinous material. The lamellæ are thickened. A photograph of the foot with a normal example is given. (Fig. 42.) (See also Tuberculosis section—Carnivora.)

[Illustration:

FIG. 42.—HYPERTROPHIC PERIOSTEITIS. RIGHT HIND FOOT WITH A NORMAL LEFT. LION (FELIS LEO). THIS CONDITION WAS ASSOCIATED WITH CHRONIC PULMONARY TUBERCULOSIS. ]

[Illustration:

FIG. 43.—MARKED SCOLIOSIS IN A COCKATOO. ]

A cockatoo died from acute miliary tuberculosis; the upper thoracic and lower cervical vertebræ are involved in an S-shaped scoliosis which reduces the height of the thorax by perhaps a centimetre. Thorough dissection was not made, the trunk being kept as a museum specimen and for study in event another avian scoliosis occurred; but from palpation, separation of the muscles and stretching of the spinal column it does not appear that a tuberculous osteitis of the vertebra existed. It seems that this may be due to congenital deformity or old injury.

A white-nosed coati (_Nasua narica_) suffered with generalized tuberculosis which also affected the wrist joint with a caseous and ulcerative arthritis.

Gouty arthritis has been recorded but three times, although on several occasions small uratic deposits in tendon sheaths have been observed in birds; gout has not been seen in mammals. An illustrative case in a Boat-billed Heron (_Cancroma cochlearia_) will be given in the section on gout.

Arthritis as an acute infectious disease such as rheumatism of the human being, has not been observed, but copious examples of acute, subacute or chronic monoarticular inflammation are recorded. Nearly all of these have a definite explanation—traumatism or acute general disease, and there are a few cases of polyarthritis with chronic disease. Notable among the last are two instances of chronic dry ossifying arthritis and synovitis, one with tuberculosis, the other with actinomycosis, both occurring in ungulates. A third case similar in character deserves special mention. The Indian elephant “Bolivar” (_Elephas indicus_) died from pulmonary tuberculosis, myocarditis, nephritis and hepatic cirrhosis. The joints of all extremities showed atrophic arthritis with fluid, the synovial membranes being ulcerated or retracted and fibrotic. The articulating surfaces where not roughened by erosion, were flattened. It is perhaps worthy of mention that this old and familiar animal was the occupant of the same enclosure, floored with cement, for over thirty years, conditions which might be partly instrumental in the arthritic changes as well as in the flattening of articular surfaces.

The Ungulata frequently suffer with wounds, ulcers and abscesses about the lips, nose, and soft tissues of the jaws which may at times be confusingly like actinomycosis. This disease we have seen in gazelles and tapirs but have had to exclude it in several other members of this order. A number have come to autopsy with osteitis of the lower mandible, some evidently traumatic in origin, others probably due to infection _via_ the teeth. Figure 44 represents the jaw bone of an Isabelline gazelle (_Gazella isabella_) suffering with a rarefying osteitis from a root abscess, and illustrates well the possibility of focal infection from this source.

DEGENERATIVE SKELETAL DISEASES.

While the foregoing instances of disease in the osseous system are interesting examples of individual pathological lesions, they are insignificant in comparison with the forms of bony change known under the names of rickets, osteomalacia, osteogenesis imperfecta and the like—systemic conditions which are chiefly degenerative but have certain evidences of inflammation in addition. The modern knowledge of the first two named is so far from complete that it cannot be said that there is any certainty of their identity. Indeed there seem to be some reasons to think that there is more than one variety of rickets, that all cases are not dependent upon the same cause, and that in essence it is the same process as osteomalacia, the latter, however, occurring at a later age. We shall show that in the same order, Primates, both diseases may occur in animals fed upon the same diet, and that one family tends to have one disease, another family the other.

[Illustration:

FIG. 44.—DENTAL ROOT ABSCESS AND OSTEITIS OF JAW BONE. ISABELLINE GAZELLE (GAZELLA ISABELLA). ]

RICKETS.

Since the two conditions are diagnosed separately in veterinary practice and each seems to have a distinct place in medical ideas, it may be well to outline upon what criteria the two diagnoses have been made in this Garden. Rickets is essentially a disease of early life. The animal is noted as having a large head, squatty station, heavy extremities and a prominent belly. Death occurs as the result of enteritis or pneumonia. Occasionally such a young specimen seems to recover from the disease but retains the distortion of his skeleton; this is important, for we believe that osteomalacia, except the variety confined to periods of pregnancy, rarely ends in recovery when once thoroughly established. At autopsy the cranial bones are the seat of osteotabes, the face is broad, the epiphyseal junctions are swollen by irregular osteogenesis and granulation tissue, the periosteum shows an irregular fibrous tissue overgrowth—the last two processes producing bones of irregular contour and thickness. Section through the osteogenetic ends of the long bones shows actively congested marrow up to the articular cartilages with very tortuous strands of spongy bone or cartilage, and when considered transversely, there is a bone-forming layer of many times the normal thickness but bloody red instead of pink.

OSTEOMALACIA.

Osteomalacia appears in mature animals or at least those well able to care for their own nourishment. The earliest observations are not referable to the skeleton but to the change in the activity of the beast. He will be noted as less active in running, jumping or searching for his food. The customary position is a sitting or lying one. No change is noted in the head or face. As the disease progresses, the animal becomes quite inactive, seeks solitude but will eat well if the food be conveniently available and he does not have to fight for it. The movements are stiff and seem painful. About this time definite alteration in the shape of the chest is perceptible, and in some cases there is anterior curvature of the legs. Movement becomes so difficult, probably from weakness and pain, that it seems as if paraplegia actually existed. The inability of affected monkeys to climb has given rise to the term “cage paralysis,” but this term should not be restricted to weakness, the result of osteomalacia since it is used by dealers and keepers to imply the cramped station and gait of an animal long housed in quarters too small for it, an appropriate application because it suggests cause and effect. However, the appellation is widely and loosely used insuring its employment in diagnosis for entirely different conditions such as degenerative bone disease and hind-quarter laming from enteric intoxications; for these affections one might use the term in an adjectival or descriptive sense.

Our Primate collection has suffered considerably with osteomalacia, and we have devoted much time to the study of its cause and treatment. However, the Garden is not alone in this experience, for wherever certain species are kept the disease appears. The description of cases in the New York Garden by Blair and Brooks[46] is excellent, and with the exception of data concerning the nervous system, almost exactly parallels our own observations. They lay much stress upon the changes in the brain, cord and ganglia as constant in well developed cases but as probably secondary to the osseous, hemic and metabolic disturbances. We have been unable to find any pathological lesions in four thoroughly studied brains and cords from well developed cases. As will appear later, our most satisfactory findings were in the dietary and metabolic chemistry and in the osseous pathology. The cases recorded by Campbell and Cleland[47] would seem to be undoubted instances of myelitis, but the osseous changes are not sufficiently discussed. In many cases it would seem, therefore, that there is some change in the nervous system, but there may be some examples without this and with predominant osseous lesions. We are inclined to think that these two groups differ qualitatively, and we look upon the confusion as demanding for its ultimate solution the use of exact nomenclature, especially the exclusion of “cage paralysis” as a diagnostic term. The only division we can understand at the present time depends upon the gross changes in the bones, those with and those without definite irregularities in contour due to periosteal overgrowth. Certain of the former may show no unevennesses at all, the deformity being due to softness of the skeleton. The other group has shafts of irregular thickness, swellings around the joints and much beading of the middle of the ribs.

Whether or not there be true paralysis is difficult to settle, but in our cases we have decided always in the negative because of the ability of the monkeys to grasp firmly with the hind digits. The animals tend to lie in one position, determined probably by comfort, the result being that they develop sores at the points of contact with their cage floor, and deformities of the skeleton (see Fig. 45). These deformities are especially well exhibited by the chest, the vertebræ and the pelvis and are referable to the almost constant squatting of the animal; the long bones may be bowed but not as much as in rickets, nor is the epiphyseal junction so knobby as in that disease.

The foregoing description is based chiefly upon observations on monkeys but may be closely paralleled in carnivores and rodents. These latter, however, lie rather than sit during the development of the disease, so that thoracic and pelvic deformity is relatively less than in monkeys. Death is due to enteritis, anemia, shock from fractures and respiratory inflammation.

In so far as the deformities of the skeleton may serve to distinguish between rickets and osteomalacia, I can only point to the preponderance of changes in the skull and extremities in the former and of the trunk bones in the latter. Deformity of the chest, barrel-shape shortening and pigeon breast, is due more to posture than to the essentially osseous changes. “Rachitic rosary” may occur in both, but it is always better exhibited in rickets; in this disease the swellings occur at the costochondral junction, while in osteomalacia rosary-like nodules may develop anywhere along the ribs.

Examination of the anatomical lesions is, however, somewhat more helpful, and the following description for osteomalacia may be contrasted with that already given for rickets. The peculiar change is a thinning of the shaft of long bones and reduction of the subperiosteal plates of flat bones.

In mammals the long bones are more affected than in birds whose sternum, ribs and beak show the severest changes. The skull is frequently not affected to a serious degree, but may, however, show advanced lesions, the cranial plates being thinned in places so that they may be bent in, or occasionally a periosteal thickening may be found; the head as a whole is not misshapen. The ribs are softened and may be of paper thickness although there may be found a periosteal overgrowth, perhaps a kind of splinting, which makes the diameter variable. At costochondral junctions, beading may be found, but without the active congestion seen in rickets. Similar alterations may be found in the long bones, here in characteristic degree in that the shaft walls are thin, by removal of the endosteal and periosteal layers sometimes with definite retraction of the marrow. Occasionally subperiosteal thickenings, made of osteofibrous tissue are encountered. At the epiphyses there are strands of gelatinous tissue, fibrous and cartilaginous, separating pink or blood-red areas of marrow. These strands may contain calcareous matter and are probably the remains of the cancellated tissue. Despite all this activity at the ends of the long bones there is not the extreme prominence of articulations so characteristic of rickets. Gelatinous or cartilaginous islands may be seen in the deep red shaft marrow.

[Illustration:

FIG. 45.—OSTEOMALACIA. MODERATELY ADVANCED CASE WITH HOWEVER WELL ESTABLISHED DEFORMITY OF THORAX AND PELVIS. THIS POSITION WAS CONSTANT FOR THREE MONTHS BEFORE DEATH. BLACK HANDED SPIDER MONKEY (ATELES GEOFFROYI). ]

Fractures may be found and around them may form a blood clot or loose fibrous tissue entirely devoid of bone salts. If a break has existed for some time a very pronounced fibrous overgrowth from the periosteum is apt to occur, indeed an excessive fibrosis may exist, but this is ineffective for healing of the fracture or splinting of the shaft. Certain cases, notably in Carnivora, seem to have especial activity in and around joints so that when the member is dissected one gets the impression of osteoarthritis. In such cases the synovia may be fibrotic and the articular surfaces dry. The pelvic deformities are similar to those in the human being—lateral contraction with bending in of the superior rami of the pubis with the production of a beak, to which the name “duckbill” has been given. The anterior curvature of the lumbar spine makes an acute angle at the upper end of the sacrum.

Histological examination of a number of our cases of osteomalacia and rickets have failed to show any lesion different from those known for the human being and for domesticated animals. It is noteworthy that not all bones of a given case will show the changes to the same degree even though grossly they may seem comparably affected. So too there is no certain relation between the degree of deformity as shown by the body as a whole and the advancement of osteoporosis as seen under the microscope. These observations are in accord with those of Brooks and Blair. Just why this is cannot be stated, but as the cause of these two bone diseases may not always be the same, variations in gross and minute anatomy are not remarkable.

Analysis of the bones shows a loss of calcium and an excess of sulphur and magnesium. The loss of the first is chiefly _via_ the intestinal discharges but also _via_ the urine. The metabolism of one monkey showed a high calcium and phosphorus loss with moderate retention of sulphur and magnesium.

Because of the importance of osteomalacia and rickets in cebus monkeys and certain other animals, Dr. E. P. Corson-White has been investigating its etiology. I shall refer briefly to her results as they affect our present subject but shall leave for discussion in the chapter on diet, which she has written, the broader question of food and systemic disease.

It must be understood that the instances included in this general discussion of degenerative osseous disease are cases of definite character and development. There may have been, in addition to the numbers cited in the list on page 357, many more animals at autopsy with early or unrecognized constructive or destructive abnormalities, and we are thoroughly familiar with the imperfect skeletal development of specimens, inbred or reared in captivity or even those adult when caught yet under Park conditions for many years. In these latter groups the changes vary from incomplete construction (an example of atrophy was quoted on page 24) to actual degeneration as in osteomalacia. Inbreeding seems to be a potent factor in many cases, a well known fact in human and veterinary medicine. The importance of inactivity in the causation of degenerative bone disease, the unused muscles giving the bones nothing to do, is certainly admitted but it is immeasurable. It is probably not great in a cage of mixed varieties of monkeys. The effect of the absence of sunlight in osseous degeneration is no factor in our material. The exhibition house is well lighted and many animals are out of doors all year around.

The ductless glands have repeatedly been accused of responsibility for these disorders. In our seventy-nine cases of osteomalacia and thirty- four of rickets, no abnormality has been observed in ovary, testes or adrenals except for moderate congestions. Two cases were associated with pancreatic disease, once acute, once chronic. The thyroid body has been found to have been definitely abnormal only once—secondary hyperplasia with colloid in a carnivore. In the Primates this body was frequently congested and has shown small colloid cysts but was not uniformly enlarged or atrophic. As a therapeutic measure I have administered adrenalin to two monkeys, one for a few weeks, one for nearly six months; this treatment was without any perceptible effect upon the process.

Dr. Corson-White has, by the study of some cases during the life of the monkey, confirmed the decreased alkalinity of the blood in connection with the increased output of calcium in the feces and urine.

Since the explanation of the disease by blaming the ductless glands has failed, Dr. Corson-White has undertaken a study of the diet given our monkeys to see if any fault in it were a part of the etiology. Analysis of this diet (see list page 426) computed from Atwater’s table, and by actual analysis of the amounts of food consumed by the animal in four four-day periods, gave:

1. Protein—low in quantity and poor in quality; especially low in phosphorus content.

2. Fat—very low.

3. Carbohydrate—very high, almost eleven times the value of all other ingredients.

4. Ash—decidedly low and predominatingly acid. Further analysis of this ash showed a trace only of calcium and phosphorus and iron and only a small amount of sodium; potassium, sulphur and magnesium were slightly higher.

5. Vitamines A, B, C, were present in extremely small amounts—A was exceptionally deficient, and in the rations of some days was entirely lacking.

There are in this monkey diet several factors of importance. 1. Low vitamine contents—especially Vitamine A—factors which are essential for life and growth. 2. A high carbohydrate diet—which in oxidation yields an acid ash and which favors the growth of intestinal bacteria producing acid and gas. The acid from these two sources must be neutralized either by the alkali derived from food, or from the body storage. This diet, however, is abnormally low in ash and especially in the alkaline salts of the ash, therefore making it an ideal diet for the production of osteomalacia.

The following table shows the additions necessary for corrections of the separate ingredients of the diet:

Monkey diet Corrected by Rice Casein, Salt mixture, Carrots, or Lettuce. Bread Casein, Butter fat, Salt mixture, especially Phosphorus. Potato Salt mixture, especially NaCl and CaCO_{3}. Raw peanuts Salt mixture. Bananas Casein, Yeast, or Carrots. Corn Casein, Tryptophan, Lacto-albumin. Apple Casein, Gelatin, Butter fat. Onion Casein, Gelatin, Butter fat.

The complete diet may therefore be rendered adequate by the addition of fresh, whole milk and leafy vegetables, or by butter fat, salt mixtures and leafy vegetables.

It would seem from these data that in this inefficient diet we have, if not the cause of osteomalacia, at least a very potent factor in its production. The disturbance of the calcium and phosphorus metabolism may be due primarily to the deprivation of the alkaline salts from the diet (famine osteomalacia) or to a drain from the alkaline storage of the body, associated with a deficient diet (as in the cases of osteomalacia of pregnancy and lactation) or in the combined action of a diet faulty in more than its salt content, which by the production of acid in its oxidation and by favoring the development of acid-forming bacteria, causes the drain of the body alkali for the neutralization of this acid, or it is due to the combination of all these factors acting through their influence on the ductless glands.

It is important also that while this disease is very common among the Cebidæ it has never been found among the macaques. This may be due to the fact that, owing to the storage sacs in the mouth of the macaques, more food proportional to body weight is consumed, or there may be an essential difference in the basal metabolism of the families and individuals. All the factors enumerated do tax the metabolic resources of the body and depress the functions of the endocrine glands. Only detailed and accurate quantitative studies of normal metabolism and the effect of alterations of it on the ductless glands will give a more definite answer to the problem.

This work indicates clearly the alterations to be made in the diets to meet the requirements of the Cebidæ and is to be followed by investigations along similar lines for other families.

TABLE 17. _A List of the Orders Exhibiting Definite Lesions of Osteomalacia and Rachitis._ ═══════════════════════╤═══════════════════════╤═══════════════════════ │ Osteomalacia │ Rachitis ───────────────────────┼───────────────────────┼─────────────────────── Primates │ 29 │ 10 Lemures │ 4 │ 2 Carnivora │ 3 │ 8 Hyracoidea │ 2 │ 1 Rodentia │ 5 │ 3 Marsupialia │ 1 │ 10 │ 44 │ 34 Passeres │ 3 │ Psittaci │ 9 │ Accipitres │ 2 │ Columbæ │ 12 │ Galli │ 9 │ │ 35 │ ───────────────────────┼───────────────────────┼─────────────────────── │ 79 │ 34 = 113 ───────────────────────┴───────────────────────┴───────────────────────

Having discussed the nature of these diseases and some of the factors in their causation, analysis of their distribution may be appropriately added. The accompanying list (Table 17) illustrates the orders in which the two diseases have been found. Veterinarians are familiar with systemic osseous diseases in all the domesticated herbivores, but Hutyra and Marek note them as uncommon in dogs and birds. Among the Primates, osteomalacia occurs almost exclusively in New World monkeys, Cebidæ and Hapalidæ, whereas rickets is much more common among macaques (Cercopithecidæ). Eight of the ten cases of rickets in monkeys seem to have arrived at the Garden with evidences of this disease. Half of the cases were arrested, or at least not florid, when the beast came to autopsy. All of the osteomalacic lemurs belonged to the ring tailed species, born in the Garden and dying at ages from three to seven years. The cases of rickets among the Carnivora were four Felidæ, three Canidæ and one Procyonidæ while all the osteomalacia cases were in the last family. Six of the eight cases among the rodents affected squirrels. The large number of cases of rickets among the marsupials is due to a litter of small opossums thrown by an apparently healthy mother and dying in from six weeks to three months.

The avian varieties which show the most definite osteomalacic changes are the pigeons and pheasants, with the parrakeets presenting nearly as characteristic lesions. Birds when affected with this disease, may come to autopsy in fairly good plumage and without any very marked emaciation. This is remarkable, for when the _cresta sterni_ is palpated this ridge may sometimes be bent enough laterally to touch the _alæ sterni_. How the bird can sit upon a perch when it is possible to bend the femora almost double, is difficult to understand. Deformity is by no means so frank as in mammals although periosteal overgrowth may be quite marked at times. Anemia is undoubted in nearly every instance, the pallor of the muscles seeming to be as great as if the specimen were intentionally bled to death.

OSTEITIS DEFORMANS.

Dr. Corson-White was fortunate enough, during the course of her work upon osteomalacia of monkeys, to detect a specimen which did not show the usual excessive excretion of calcium but on the other hand retained this element and evinced alkali hunger. The general appearance of the specimen was similar to that of monkeys having osteomalacia but at autopsy a definite picture of Paget’s disease or osteitis deformans was discovered. This led to a search for cases in the literature and to the following study, which I paraphrase and condense from Doctor Corson- White’s notes.

Osteitis deformans is a chronic constitutional affection characterized by the absorption of compact bone, chiefly in the cranium and long bones, and the laying down of fibro-osteoid tissue in such an excess as to enlarge the affected bones. This material, which is soft and cuts with reasonable ease, has calcareous matter in it as shown by Röntgen- ray examination. Paget described it in a classical article in 1876[48] since which time the reported cases have mounted to three hundred and fifty. Because it has only been recognized in its best developed stages, it may be that early mild or arrested cases have been overlooked. Judging by the instances claimed to have been found in museum collections of bones, it is probably an affection dating to antiquity. So far these remarks apply only to man but in lower animals the reports are very few and those are not available in the original. The abstracts and references show considerable confusion. The names osteitis deformans, osteoporosis, osteitis fibrocystica, osteodystrophia deformans and osteosarcoma, leontiasis ossei, etc., are used almost interchangeably. In 1901 Barthelemy[49] described a condition (_Maladie du Son_) in horses in which there was a marked enlargement of the head and of the epiphyses of the long bones. His cases were more allied to osteitis fibrosa cystica. Paget’s disease always attacks the diaphyses of the bones and not the epiphyses. Goldman[50] described typical examples of this condition in fowls. Jöst[51], in one communication, described a case in a horse which he says was identical with that condition described by Paget as osteitis deformans and by Virchow as leontiasis ossei; he also refers to similar cases in goats and monkeys. Rossweg[52] found it in goats. In wild animals the only suggestive article found was by Jöst but the description was probably of an osteoporosis and a craniosclerosis which occurred in a young lion and a monkey. All the communications deal with either domesticated animals or those in captivity.

The etiology of this condition is as obscure to-day as it was at the time of Paget’s first description. Prince thought it might be due to a defect in some peripheral nerve or nerve centre or to a tract degeneration. Cases have been reported in conjunction with a myelitis. There has been however little on which to base these suppositions. Paget felt that the process was at least upon an inflammatory basis and deduced this from the enlargement and the excessive production of an imperfectly developed structure with increased blood supply. Many felt that rickets, osteomalacia and osteitis deformans were all manifestations of the same disease. A bacterial cause was proposed by Arcangelli who claimed the discovery of diplococci and improvement from a vaccine. Lancereaux[53] and Richards felt that focal infection played a profound rôle in the etiology. However all other observers fail to isolate an organism from the bones or to get improvement from removal of infectious foci. Heredity has been held responsible in seven per cent. of the cases in human beings.

That some inflammatory factor is partly responsible seems plausible when one considers the active growth of fibrocellular tissue in the endo- and periosteum. The more interesting theories go back to perversions of internal secretions, pituitary, parathyroid etc., (Macallum & Vogtlein). Higbee and Ellis[54] say in relation to the neurotrophic theory that if the neurotrophic mechanism governs metabolism and is influenced by the activity of the ductless glands, there is considerable likelihood that its disturbance may possibly be found to be the cause.

Da Costa[55] believed the disease to be a disorder of bone metabolism probably dependent on the absence or perversion of some internal secretion. There is much evidence on hand to indicate that disorders of the ductless glands do influence bone metabolism, and changes in these glands have been reported in cases of Paget’s disease, although the findings and lesions have been far from uniform or distinctive or even confined to one gland. Eight cases were reported as possibly due to a hypothyroid condition; pituitary changes were found in three; adrenal changes in one; parathyroid reported missing in two; three had sclerotic thyroids. Many case reports make no mention whatever of the glands of internal secretion.

Da Costa interprets the retention of calcium, phosphorus and magnesium, with the sulphur loss found in these cases, as indicating a stimulated osseous or osseoid formation accompanying the resorption of a highly sulphurized organic matrix. In the course of this calcification procedure we suppose a certain quota of the sulphur of the matrix is replaced by other elements, a process which must entail retention of calcium, phosphorus and magnesium and increased elimination of sulphur. He shows the close parallelism between the mineral metabolism of a growing boy, a case after parathyroidectomy and a case of osteitis deformans, and suggests that this depends in some way either on the absence or perversion of some internal secretion, possibly of the parathyroids, which controls calcium exchange in the body. Substances from some cause arise which have the power to abstract calcium from the body tissues, the abstraction of these salts being the first step in the production of the disease.

The example which is reported in full was the first to be encountered in our 5,365 autopsies but shortly after this series was concluded two more came to autopsy and Dr. Corson-White’s studies were made to embrace these.

A reddish woolly monkey (_Lagothrix infumatus_) received November 25, 1919, was a particularly active specimen and as far as we could determine a perfectly healthy adult animal. He passed the tuberculin test and was placed on exhibition. In April, 1920, he was first reported as crippled and was removed to the laboratory in June, 1920. At that time the long bones of the legs and arms were bowed anteriorly and laterally, the degree of curvature making the hands and feet seem disconnected. The monkey could stand but made no voluntary effort to do so. There was evidently some pain although it could not have been at all severe. He resented handling, especially of his arms and legs. The head was rounded, resembling that of a baby, and the eyes were protuberant suggesting an exophthalmos. The maxillary bones were so excessively thick that the mouth could not close and the monkey drooled saliva. His blood on admission to the infirmary in May was—Hg eighty-nine per cent., R. B. C. 4,370,000, W. B. C. 5,800; one week before death it was Hg fifty-four per cent., R. B. C. 2,860,000, W. B. C. 6,000. Routine urine examination showed a constant trace of albumin, hyaline and granular casts. There was at no time a Bence-Jones protein reaction, excess of indican, indol, or diacetic acid. He had a constant slight diarrhœa with some flatulence, the semifluid, constantly acid feces presenting a preponderance of Gram-positive coccoid organisms. His appetite was fair and he showed marked craving for lime, eating plaster from the walls when he could get it. Because of this desire for lime he was given a salt mixture to see if it would have any effect on the bone condition. The mixture used was the following:

[Illustration:

FIG. 46.—OSTEITIS DEFORMANS. SKELETON SHOWING GENERAL THICKENING OF ALL BONES, BUT ESPECIALLY OF THE SKULL, JAWS AND LONG BONES. NOTE THICKNESS OF CALVARIUM, 10 mm.; NORMAL IS ABOUT 3–4 mm. THE HUMERUS IS TWICE NORMAL SIZE. THE WIDTH OF THE ULNAR CORTEX IS SHOWN BY A TRANSVERSE SECTION NEAR THE ELBOW JOINT. REDDISH WOOLLY MONKEY (LAGOTHRIX INFUMATUS). ]

NaCl 0.874 grams KCl 0.548 grams CaH(PO) H_{2}O 3.608 grams Ca lactate 0.386 grams Mg citrate 0.848 grams K citrate 1.953 grams

This mixture the animal ate with avidity and seemed more comfortable; other than that no change was noted.

An inorganic metabolism examination was attempted on the ordinary diet and the diet plus the salt mixture. Under the circumstances at our disposal this was not entirely accurate but showed such marked variation from the control animals examined—normal and osteomalacic—and such marked correspondence on the four separate four-day periods of each intake that it seemed acceptable. The result of this investigation on the first series of four four-day periods was:

═══════════╤═════════╤═══════════════════╤═════════════════════════════ │ Intake │ Output │ Total ───────────┼─────────┼─────────┬─────────┼───────────────────────────── „ │ „ │ Feces │ Urine │ „ ───────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼───────────────────────────── Calcium │0.0280 │0.014 │0.0022 │0.0162 = 0.0118 retention Magnesium │0.0640 │0.034 │0.0123 │0.0463 = 0.0177 retention Phosphorus │0.1540 │0.027 │0.0430 │0.07 = 0.084 retention Sulphur │0.1440 │0.002 │0.1680 │0.17 = 0.026 loss ───────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────┴─────────────────────────────

The result on the higher salt content was practically the same, the retention being in proportion slightly less. The diet for these small monkeys is two apples, two bananas, six small sweet potatoes, with a lump of boiled rice about the size of an egg. The content of this diet has been found very low in calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chlorine and iron, while potassium, magnesium and sulphur were high. To this diet lime water was added to increase its inorganic content.

This Reddish Woolly Monkey died August 20, 1920, and was immediately posted. There was marked thickening of the frontal, occipital and parietal bones, upper and lower jaws. The increase in the size of the alveolar margins prevented the closing of the mouth; only the last four teeth could be brought into apposition. The enlargement of the mandibles reduced the capacity of the mouth cavity. The skull while decidedly thickened did not enlarge at the expense of the cranial cavity. There was a cervical and dorsal kyphosis. The chest was increased anteroposteriorly and contracted laterally. The long bones were thick, bulky and deformed. (Fig. 46.)

A Black Spider Monkey (_Ateles ater_) showed a general hyperplasia of the whole shaft of the long bones. She was much deformed by curvatures and swellings of the skeleton—head enlarged, face deformed by the swelling of the upper and lower alveolar processes, jaws do not close and the palatal bones were flattened, skull irregularly thickened, elastic but not soft, slight subperiosteal growth. Thickening of the long bones was largely due to subperiosteal growth; section of the ulna showed a subperiosteal osseoid layer surrounding the old shaft. This tissue seemed to be very poor in lime salts, cutting without any grit. Marrow cavity was filled with a fairly firm, deep red marrow which did not bleed on section. The third monkey, a Brown cebus (_Cebus fatuellus_) showed exactly the same general picture but was less severely affected than the other two.

“The more minute study of the bones of these monkeys shows a variety of pictures while preserving one general form. The skull was smooth, mottled by irregularly placed areas of congestion; it was asymmetrically thickened; differentiation between cortex and diploe, internal and external tables was lost; calcareous matter was absorbed and the resultant bone was soft, elastic and porous; lacunæ enlarged and lined with bone corpuscles and giant cells. Other areas show more dense bone, the reparative processes being more active in that the lamellæ are wide and the vascular spaces narrower. As a rule the compact bone is absorbed, the Haversian canals are more or less confluent and there is generally a marked increase of newly formed osseoid tissue. The ossifying periosteitis obliterates the depressions for the cranial arteries and the sutures. The skull cap becomes finely porous, cancellous and even cavernous. The spaces are filled with a soft, red marrow-like material. The bones at the base of the skull are much less involved; the pericranium, dura and brain are normal.

“The long bones show interlacing narrow strands which are in some regions wide, in others narrow or thin as in spongy bone. Large irregular cavities are present and there is a disappearance of the compact bone and an encroachment on the medullary canal of a relatively dense new bone with small irregular trabeculæ surrounded by osteoblasts and a fibrous connective tissue which fills the outer trabecular spaces. The new bone is often both subperiosteal and subendosteal, the latter often gaining on the former. It is always soft and irregularly calcified. The general arrangement of the strands in the deep layers is longitudinal but in the subperiosteal bone they are very irregular and almost at right angles with the central strands. In this new osseoid tissue cysts are frequent, varying in size from very small to rather large cavities filled with a cloudy gelatinous material. The picture here is very like osteitis fibrosa cystica. Endosteal cells proliferate and may fill up the marrow spaces so that solid masses of fibrous tissue result. Frequently the osteoid material shows fibrillæ. The compact bone may be irregular with well marked Haversian systems. Toward the periosteum the cells may become scanty, the bone dense in structure while toward the interior the cells are more numerous and in the more cancellous portions, the trabeculæ become slender and far apart; here they may be covered by a single row of osteoblastic cells. The intertrabecular spaces are large, irregular and filled with a delicate alveolar tissue containing only a minimal number of normal bone marrow cells, large capillaries and no giant cells. Periosteum may be of usual thickness; the bone immediately beneath is spongy. The sclerosis of the bone in its densest areas is entirely due to the ossification of spindle cells which have remained in the place of the original marrow of the bone. As a whole the bone is nowhere normal in amount or proportion but the small Haversian systems are properly made, the abnormality being chiefly due to cellular and fibrous growth around the large lamellæ which at times is normal in amount but usually much in excess. In places this consists wholly of fibroblasts, at others of giant and round cells very suggestive of sarcoma. All histologists apparently agree that Paget’s disease starts as a resorption of already calcified bone.”

These data seem to supply ample evidence that the autopsy diagnosis of Paget’s osteitis deformans was correct. While the anatomy and course and chemical changes presented by these monkeys do not settle the causation of the disease, they offer very definite suggestions which Dr. Corson- White summarizes in the following cautious conclusions.

“Many of the cases of Paget’s disease first came under the observation for fractures, accidents common in osteomalacia but very rare in developed cases of osteitis deformans. Early cases all presented diarrhœa, which was present in all the early human cases seen, and in all the cases reported in monkeys. This symptom was mentioned in fourteen of the cases from the literature. It was also a constant symptom in primate osteomalacia. The diet of these monkeys was exceedingly low in those substances essential to bone development, and Sherman has shown that the calcium balance is regulated to a certain extent by the calcium ingested, and that when the diet was poor in this element, the output materially exceeds the intake, a fact which is immediately changed where the animal is put on a diet high in calcium. So far as we could find there are no studies on the mineral metabolism of beginning cases of Paget’s disease. It seems possible from the osteomalacic animals previously studied, that the low mineral and otherwise faulty content of the diet might so disturb the chemical equilibrium directly, through the neurotrophic mechanism or through the perversion of the ductless glands, that the mere addition of lime water might entirely change the pathological picture. This is in accord with the histology. The initial histological picture is always resorption of bone, a general decalcification which later presents an irregular proliferation. The disease then progresses along different lines ending as osteitis fibrosa cystica, Paget’s or Von Recklinghausen’s diseases, etc., dependent upon the strength of the reparative stimulus and the organism upon which it acts.

“These cases are of interest (1) because they are typical examples of Paget’s disease as it has been described in man both clinically and pathologically, (2) because the disease shows the same general type of inorganic metabolism that was exhibited in man, (3) because of the alkali hunger shown by one monkey, and by two human cases, a hunger which was severe, which preceded the deformity and disappeared after the deformity was established, (4) because the disease developed in animals fed on a diet insufficient in its inorganic and vitamine content to which an excess of calcium was added.

“From this study it seems possible that Paget’s disease may be just one stage in a deficiency disease, a reparative response through a neurotrophic mechanism or through the perversion of the glands governing calcium metabolism which has been perverted by an improperly balanced diet.”

TUMORS.

Neoplastic diseases of the bones have yet to be classified to everyone’s satisfaction. All gradations of hyperplasia of osteogenetic cells and fibres and of the marrow elements, from simple inflammation to true sarcoma, are recognized. As one reviews a large series of lesions, clearly defined types may be found, but there are transition stages to which an exact name is difficult or impossible to apply. Nor does the pathological diagnosis always fit with the clinical course. Thus, for example, the giant cell tumor of bones looks malignant, and is not, and its structure may be simulated in such diseases as fibrous osteitis and Paget’s disease. As we have seen in the discussion of the latter of these two, abnormalities of fibre and cell growth simulate neoplasms very closely. In addition it might be mentioned here that actinomycosis may produce bony growths resembling sarcoma. When osteitis deformans affects the facial bones especially, it has been called leontiasis ossium, and it is then a more nodular, tumor-forming process, the enlargement consisting of fleshy masses occupying the whole bone, but especially the marrow cavity. Histologically the lesion is fibrocellular, frequently with numerous giant cells; accumulations of small sarcoma-like alveoli may be found. We have encountered four cases among common opossums (_Didelphys virginiana_) and one in an Isabelline Gazelle (_Gazella isabella_) and, because of the localization and fleshy consistency of the tumor, we have called them osteosarcomata for descriptive purpose, but not for classification among neoplasms (where they will not be found). Two of the opossums had osteoporosis and gelatinous marrow in the ribs. All these animals had been in the exhibition under a year, and as far as known are not related. Figure 47 shows the gross character, while the following is the description from one protocol.

[Illustration:

FIG. 47.—EXAMPLES OF LOCAL OSTEOMATA RESEMBLING OSTEOSARCOMA AND FIBROUS OSTEITIS; THEY PROBABLY BELONG TO THE DISEASE KNOWN AS LEONTIASIS OSSIUM. ]

[Illustration:

FIG. 47B. A AND B, OPOSSUMS (DIDELPHYS VIRGINIANA). ]

[Illustration:

FIG. 47C. C, ISABELLINE GAZELLE (GAZELLA ISABELLA). ]

[Illustration:

FIG. 48.—FIBRO-OSTEOMA, A LOCAL SINGLE TUMOR OF THE UPPER JAW. THIS DID NOT RESEMBLE THE CHANGES IN ACTINOMYCOSIS, BUT THE INFECTION WAS NEVERTHELESS EXCLUDED BY BACTERIOLOGICAL SEARCH. ISABELLINE GAZELLE (GAZELLA ISABELLA). ]

Common Opossum (_Didelphys virginiana_) ♀ . Osteosarcoma of alveolus, rarefying osteitis deformans of skull, hypertrophy of thyroid, acute catarrhal enteritis, acute hyperplasia of spleen. About the middle of both lower rami and involving the posterior half of each upper maxilla is a uniform elliptical growth apparently emanating from alveolus. Teeth not loose, but can be moved in tumor to be described. On section a white glistening homogeneous growth is seen apparently originating in the body of the alveolus and around the teeth. The shaft of bone is soft and easily broken. What remains of marrow is irregularly injected. In upper jaw there is a distinct porosis of facial bones; they and the enclosed sinuses are deeply injected. Lower four ribs on both sides show distinct nodulations of pale color along a bluish bone. All ribs are very soft and section shows osteoporosis of shaft with injected marrow and distinct cartilaginous periosteal bone formation. The skull is everywhere soft and the bone is apparently increased in thickness, rich in blood, but porotic. Rest of skeleton seems well calcified. Microscopic section of tumor shows practically the same picture. Bone is nowhere normal in amount and proportion but the Haversian systems seem properly made, the abnormality consisting chiefly of cellular and fibrous growth around larger lamellæ, which at times is normal in amount but usually much in excess. In places this consists wholly of fibroblasts, at others of giant and round cells very suggestive of sarcoma; indeed all areas must be called giant cell sarcoma. There is an attempt to lay down osteoid tissue at places particularly beneath periosteum. The giant cells are in great numbers and some seem osteoclastic. As the lamellæ disappear young connective tissue seems to take their place but giant cells do not remain numerous at such places. Despite its atypical nature it must probably be looked upon as an osteosarcoma. The tooth socket is not much involved save for hyalinization of root matrix immediately about dentinal zone.

In another Isabelline Gazelle (_Gazella isabella_) there was a fibro- osteoma localized to one side of the superior maxilla (Fig. 48); this has been included among the tumors, while the above mentioned cases have not been so grouped.

True osteosarcoma seems not to have occurred. One tumor was seen upon the wing of a Cuvier’s Toucan (_Rhamphastos cuvieri_) which was formerly diagnosed as sarcoma, but later examination reveals some giant cells in arrangement suggestive of tuberculous osteitis; since this is the only case and not unequivocally a tumor its record is hardly warranted. Osteomata of the hard variety have been seen on the ribs of a pigeon and a pheasant as small rounded compact well outlined tumors. It is thought that they represent products of healing after osteomalacia or rickets. An osteochondroma growing from the nasal cartilage was found in a caracal (_Felis caracal_), a fibro-osteoma was found on the vertebra and clavicle of a Beechy’s spermophile (_Citellus grammurus beecheyi_) and a fibroma occurred on the clavicle of a lesser snow goose (_Chen hyperboreus hyperboreus_). The only other tumor from a bone was an endothelioma from the periosteum of the clavicle in a moorhen (_Gallinula chloropus_). It corresponds to the usual idea of this tumor. It probably caused death by cachexia, and by its size, interference with respiration. The only secondary tumor was a metastasis in the tibia from a spindle cell sarcoma of the kidney in a scaly ground dove (_Scardapella squamosa_).

THE MUSCLES.

The skeletal muscles of the wild animals of our collection have been quite free of pathological lesions such as atrophies and dystrophies and indeed seem relatively seldom affected by disease. Occasionally hyalinization will accompany infectious disease or local suppurations will spread into the muscles. Much more often filaria, sarcocystis, flukes and larval insects will be found resident within or between muscle bundles; this will be discussed at a later time. Six tumors have been found, three of which certainly developed in a muscle, while for a fourth case no primary growth was discovered. This last one, to dispose of it at once because of its peculiarity, was an adenocarcinoma found as a firm, conglomerate, encapsulated mass in the sheath of the gluteal muscles of a waltzing mouse (_Mus wagneri rotans_). No other growth was discovered although it must be admitted the body was not exhaustively searched for some tiny nodule to which primary focus this muscle mass could have been secondary. That metastases may be larger than original growths is well known. The gross diagnosis was sarcoma. If this be an original tumor it might be explained as arising from ectopic mammary tissue.

The five other tumors were sarcomata, one of large cells almost syncytial in size, shape and number of nuclei, two definite spindle cell growths and two of fibrosarcoma type. The first occurred in an all green parrakeet (_Brotogerys tirica_), the second in an undulated grass parrakeet (_Melopsittacus undulatus_), the third in a larger Egyptian gerbille (_Gerbillus pyramidum_), the fourth in a white-footed mouse (_Peromyscus leucopus_), and the last in a bean goose (_Anser fabalis_).

SECTION XIII THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM AND THE SPECIAL SENSES

Diseases of this system and its specialized end organs of sense in the eye, ear and nose are recognized by veterinarians as occurring among domesticated animals, in which however they are by no means so common as in human beings. Because of the natural reserve of wild beasts and because their habits and manners are not so familiar to the observer, it would seem that clinical evidences of disease of the nervous system are rarest among them. The brain, cord and nerves of our specimens have not been studied with the minuteness accorded to the examination of other viscera since we have not had the personnel to devote the time to this really colossal undertaking, our work with these tissues being directed toward the accumulation and preservation of apparently normal brains from every species; there are now some nine hundred brains on the shelves. However, whenever the history of the animal before death has suggested that disturbance in the nerve organs might exist, they have been dissected grossly and examined microscopically. Had we subjected all our material to microscopic study it is quite possible that we might have discovered more lesions. This is still possible by reason of our gross material and autopsy protocols.

We have been fortunate in having Dr. W. B. Cadwalader, Secretary of the Society, and Dr. J. H. W. Rhein with their broad experience in neurology, take interest in this phase of the subject and study our material. The number of cases in which definite lesions have been found is surprisingly small, so that no generalizations can be attempted except perhaps in a negative sense. After the study of thirty-nine brains and cords from animals in whose history some suggestion of nervous system disease existed, Doctor Cadwalader could find abnormalities in only twenty-two cases, mostly however of a very indefinite character. This observer further points out that in his experience with our material, his observations of our animals and a review of the literature, he is unable to find satisfactory instances of the so-called system or tract diseases such as tabes and lateral sclerosis. This he suggests is due to the absence of arterial sclerosis in the lower types of brain, intimating further that perhaps the relation of syphilis to human arteriosclerosis and degenerative nervous system disease is thereby strengthened. These facts being true it is not astonishing that massive cerebral apoplexy and cerebral softening do not occur[56]. The lesions that have been found were either definitely infectious, as encephalitis or acute septicemia, tuberculosis, poliomyelitis, meningitis, or the minute hemorrhages and vague granularities or vacuolizations of nerve cells in toxemic conditions. The material being limited and broad statements being impossible, the important cases will be cited individually or in small groups.

CONVULSIONS.

Before entering upon the special subjects, a word might be added concerning the clinical evidences of neurologic conditions as seen in the Garden. Perhaps the most common and certainly the most definite clinical sign of nervous disturbance is the convulsion. General spasms or fits are fairly common among the carnivores and monkeys, in the former most often associated with intestinal parasitism, in the latter with no especial relationship unless it be renal disease. The convulsions have been general, with and without the preservation of consciousness. No cases of focal or Jacksonian spasms are recorded although we shall cite two instances of tuberculoma reasonably near the motor area in the cerebrum. The exact cause of many cases cannot be set down since intracranial disease does not often exist.

Intoxication from chemical products of disturbed digestion or from worms themselves is the usual explanation of spasms associated with intestinal parasitism; if this be true, intoxication in the absence of demonstrable parasites may also be the cause in certain cases of enteritis. However we have seen fits when enteritis, parasites and renal disease were not found. If these were true epilepsy, they are instances of perhaps the rarest disease of animals, which I do not presume to diagnose.

Convulsive seizures in herbivorous animals are exceedingly rare although I have seen clonic movements of a spasmodic character in antelopes and deer shortly before death from gastroenteritis. Ataxia and incoördination are much more common. Birds, notably parrots and soft- billed insectivorous varieties, are not uncommonly afflicted with fits but as they are rarely observed except by the keeper the exact nature is difficult to describe. Those seen by the writer have been of two kinds.

The first and more common consists of falling from the perch in a dazed and stiff condition, with dilated fixed eyes, stiffened and spread-out legs and wings. Recovery follows shortly and the bird resumes its perch either in excitement, or slowly and uncertainly, perhaps to have another attack in a few minutes. These cases, in the few instances in which they could be followed, were due to faulty feeding and enteritis and showed either nothing or a mild congestion of the brain. The other variety of fit is epileptiform, a rapidly developing clonic spasm of all parts of the body with a tendency to opisthotonos. In one case of this character, a parrot, no lesions were found in the brain, an enteritis existing however. Another case concerned a pet Indian Shama I had at my home. He had been doing well and singing loudly, until one evening he was allowed to remain in a tobacco-smoke-filled room whereupon next morning he stopped eating and singing. Later that day the clonic form of convulsions appeared, growing worse for thirty-six hours or until death. At autopsy no food was found in the alimentary tract. The brain and cord were congested grossly, while minutely, perivascular hemorrhages and marked vacuolization and diffuseness of staining were found in ganglion cells of the bulb, pons, anterior spinal horns and in the pyramidal cells of the cerebellum. Happening so promptly after exposure to tobacco smoke, when the bird was doing well, I venture to associate the two.

ATAXIA.

Incoördination and ataxia are so often observed and under so many conditions that it is well nigh impossible in any individual case to give an adequate explanation before death. They are in all probability the expression of sickness and nothing more in the vast majority of instances. When they are observed in such cases as the tyromata of the cerebrum or in certain of the ungulates, they may mean something definite. In this latter order and to a less extent in carnivores, one frequently sees weakness and uncertainty of gait in the hind quarters, the legs being usually coördinate but tending to give way under the weight of the body.

From a study of veterinary literature and our own material it would seem that this may have many explanations. In the first place, it may simply indicate weakness expressing itself in the heaviest part of the body, the animal inclining its femora forward to assist in supporting the heavy abdomen. It may be an expression of abdominal pain, the recti becoming rigid and the quadriceps of the thigh participating in the protection of the belly. Almost any of the intra-abdominal conditions, gastroenteritis, mesenteric thrombosis, peritonitis, or diseases of the psoas muscle and lumbar vertebra, might occasion this attempt at support. Disease of gluteal muscles, as hemoglobinuric fever, may produce a palsy of the whole pelvic girdle with weakness of the hind legs. There may be associated with the weakness of the hind legs a humped-up condition of the lumbar spine and retraction of the abdomen, sometimes called “tucked in;” in two definite cases of this last sort we have found renal pelvic stones and once intestinal sand. Some instances are undoubtedly due to meningomyelitis or to poliomyelitis and at the place for this subject a few cases will be discussed. Meningitis has not been found in the ungulates showing this weakness. There have been however cases of ataxia in the hind legs of deer and antelopes, which did not have a ready explanation fitting in with the foregoing. Two of these we thought might be due to certain grasses in the enclosures and have changed the exhibition spaces. No conclusion can be drawn from this as yet. No enterocolic disease could be found nor any lesion of the sciatic nerve and lumbar enlargement of the cord. We have however discovered sciatic neuritis in a case like hemoglobinuric fever in a Burchell’s zebra. The history of the animal is similar to that of this disease in domestic animals in so far as symptomatology is concerned; in so far as confinement in a stall is concerned no data is at hand but death occurred on December 26th in the zebra house whereas he had been accustomed to go out into the yard all summer and autumn.

MENINGITIS.

The coverings of the brain and cord have not been the seat of the well known acute inflammations seen in domestic horses and cattle. Eleven instances of disease in the meninges are recorded but, with very few exceptions, have been accompanied by other lesions offering a ready etiological explanation. These cases are however not very instructive except perhaps three in monkeys where the meningitis seemed to be secondary to gastroenterocolitis. In one case a colon bacillus was apparently responsible, in a second no bacteriology was undertaken and a third was too rotten for the results to be dependable. A focus of infection aside from the intestinal area could not be found. The only noteworthy finding was the scantiness of the cerebrospinal fluid and the almost exclusive subpial exudate; these facts would seem to strengthen the thought that the virus came through the blood stream. Another case was due to extension, through the temporal bone to the lateral sinus, of a necrotizing process beginning in the buccal muscles or parotid gland; the necrosis bacillus and a host of Gram-positive cocci were found. A Canadian porcupine suffered with a mucopurulent nasopharyngitis which involved the deep sinuses, the middle ear and the temporal bone; smears from the pus over the corresponding cerebral hemisphere and from the nasal pus showed pneumococcus forms; the lungs were not affected. The llama which showed the intracapsular fracture of the femur (page 344) had also hemorrhage into a fibrinous exudate in the mastoid cells with deep opaque congestion and edema of the pia above the petrous portion of the temporal bone. Decomposition precluded satisfactory bacteriology but it is suggested that probably injury in falling started a hemorrhage in the ear upon which a secondary infection was implanted. What seems a true meningitis secondary to otitis media and mastoid suppuration was seen in a marmoset.

A case of the well known but obscure condition known as chronic productive pachymeningitis was observed in a badger. Although it cannot be explained it is cited as a matter of record and interest.

American Badger (_Taxidea taxus_). Pachymeningitis externa. The dura is fast to the skull and cannot be removed. Scattered irregularly over the entire inner surface of the skull are pale pinhead sized hard nodules. It is impossible to tell if they are in the dura or the bone. The brain shows engorged vessels but is otherwise negative.

Two instances of hemorrhagic pachymeningitis associated with cretinism were seen in wolf cubs. The following notes illustrate both cases.

American Gray Wolf (_Canis mexicanus_). Cretinism. Hemorrhagic external pachymeningitis with craniotabes. Upon removing the calvarium a marked craniotabes of the under surface is found and with it a deep red and purple staining of outside of dura and inner table of skull. These changes are most marked along the longitudinal sinus at internal occipital protuberance and along left parietal region. Dura on left side is distinctly congested. This is also true of pia. The brain and its base seem normal.

Cyst of the brain. A sooty mangabey (_Cercocebus fuliginosus_) had been in the Garden for about four months and was apparently an adult normal animal. It died rather suddenly after a distinct convulsion with semiconsciousness. At autopsy in addition to a nephritis, a large cyst was found to occupy the posterior third of the left hemisphere. Its walls were composed of a thin (one-sixteenth inch) rim of cerebral substance and the meninges; its contents were clear. The notes do not record any examination for parasites. This monkey showed no localizing signs.

TUBERCULOSIS.

Gross tuberculous lesions have been found in the brain in several specimens with generalized disease but only two cases are of special interest. A Rhesus macaque (_Macacus rhesus_) suffering with generalized but chiefly lymphatic tuberculosis, showed a large plaque on the external surface of the dura over the vertex where it was adherent to a yellow, fairly firm nodule about ten mm. across. This nodule was deeply imbedded in the brain substance, barely projecting above the surface, generally spherical and not encapsulated. There was no peripheral reactive zone. The meninges were not altered anywhere except as above. The blood vessels were not especially congested. The pia arachnoid contained no excess of fluid but the summits of the convolutions were flattened. The mass was located in the posterior frontal convolution, near the longitudinal fissure, occupying nearly its whole breadth and penetrating about one centimetre. It did not enter the fornicate gyrus. There was a completely degenerated core about two mm. across. The adjacent bone was beginning to erode. No localizing signs were reported.

The other case, that of a young Drill baboon (_Papio leucophæus_), was studied with Dr. J. H. W. Rhein and can be reported in the following condensed notes.

The baboon appeared to be perfectly well until October 18, 1906, when some lameness in the anterior and posterior extremities on the right side was observed. This gradually increased, and was associated with general convulsions. On November 30th, I made an examination and found the following condition: The right upper and lower extremities were weaker than on the left side. On the left side the power seemed to be fair. He was able to hold on to an iron bar with the fingers of the upper and lower extremities on the right side but in withdrawing the bar it was not difficult to overcome his grasp and the power on this side was distinctly less than on the left. The movements of the right arm were somewhat ataxic, as observed when he made efforts to grasp the bar. The knee jerks were increased on both sides and appeared to be equally so. There was no evidence of facial palsy. He moved both sides of the face equally well at times when he expressed anger or fear in the facial expression. The tongue seemed to be retracted equally well on both sides. Tests for hemianopsia were, of course, unsatisfactory, but he seemed to recognize readily the approach of the iron bar from both sides. There was no disturbance of the rectal or bladder functions, although at autopsy the bladder was full. Death occurred on December 2, 1906. At the autopsy the brain and spinal cord, with the other organs were examined. The dura was adherent to the left side of the brain, in the prefrontal region, in the upper third and when the brain was removed it was observed that an area of softening lay beneath this point. A small caseous mass was also observed at the base of the right lung, and beneath the diaphragm on the right side was a large abscess, partly involving the liver. The tubercle bacillus was found in the pus removed from the area of softening beneath the left cortex. A study of the brain revealed the presence of three foci of softening. The largest one was situated in the left hemisphere in the prefrontal region, and extended from just beneath the cortex in the upper third of the region, downward almost to the base of the brain. This area was cylindrical in shape and measured 2.5 cm. in its greatest diameter. The area of softening consisted of caseated material and pus, in which the tubercle bacillus was found present. The second area of softening was found on the right side of the brain, much smaller in extent and measuring 1.5 cm. diameter. There was no pus present in this area, but it consisted of a circumscribed mass of caseous material. The apex of this area of softening was just beneath the cortex in the prefrontal region on the right side, and in the removal of the brain the cortex was torn just above this area of caseation. This point was .5 cm. in front of the central fissure and about 1 cm. below the superior surface of the brain. A third area of softening was observed posteriorly, in the white substance, in the parieto-occipital region, and measured about 6 mm. in diameter. A study of the sections of the brain shows beautifully the extent of the destruction of the brain tissue. The optic thalamus and the lenticular nucleus, and the posterior limb of the internal capsule, on the left side, are destroyed in part. The anterior limb of the internal capsule in one section, is preserved, notwithstanding the fact that the optic thalamus on the same side has been in large part destroyed. In spite of the fact that the posterior limb of the internal capsule has been destroyed at some levels, it is interesting to note that the degeneration of the pyramidal tracts of the pons and medulla on the opposite side and the lateral columns of the spinal cord are not intensely—although distinctly—degenerated. It is very interesting to note that in view of the severe damage to the posterior limb of the internal capsule on the left side, there was not more paralysis, for it will be remembered that there was considerable power of prehension in the right upper and lower extremities.

ENCEPHALOMYELITIS, POLIOMYELITIS.

While, as has been stated, no well defined cases of the recognized meningocephalic infectious diseases have been observed in the Garden, there have been several animals in whose cord and brain changes were found comparable to the infections disease known in man as poliomyelitis. On several occasions since this disease was recognized as occurring in epidemic form it has been observed that domestic mammals and fowls suffered from a similar condition. The general vicinity of Philadelphia had a low grade epidemic among children during the years from 1907 to 1912 and it is during this time that most of the cases of a comparable character were observed among our animals. It is to be emphasized that attacks were entirely sporadic and the cases did not appear to bear a relation to one another. This character is quite in accord with certain of the outbreaks in man. However we cannot state that the disease is exactly the same as seen in the human being for, as will be noted in the cited examples, all the pathological features were not fulfilled.

It is not always possible to differentiate between myelitic disease and polyneuritis of man or animals. Studied symptomatically the cases in our records which proved to have degenerative and infiltrative lesions comparable to poliomyelitis showed gradual but progressive paralysis expressed by inability to move rather than disinclination—in other words loss of power rather than restriction because of pain. None of the animals in which poliomyelitis was demonstrated have exhibited the ataxia of the hind legs discussed on a previous page nor have we found myelitic lesions in the few cords from animals suffering with this weakness. The nearest approach to a cerebrospinal explanation for weakness and palsy was in a zebra which died with constipation, acute nephritis, and hepatic perilobular fibrosis. In this animal a pronounced subpial mononuclear infiltrate was observed, in places involving the superficial parts of the cerebral gray matter, especially about the congested vessels of this area. This condition was present to a slight degree in the cord. There was then a low grade meningoencephalitis but no nerve cell changes. So far as is known to me no animal showing a definite local paresis or paraplegia recovered from the attack; had this occurred we might have observed residual palsies.

In so far as lesions are concerned they are perhaps best illustrated by the appended cases, but since even in them there is a lack of uniformity, it may be well to discuss the basic changes of all. The outstanding abnormality in the microscopic anatomy is the richness of small mononuclear cells beneath the pia, both spinal and cerebral, around the smaller blood vessels and to a lesser extent around the multipolar cells of the gray matter. These do not present the dense colonization often seen in the acute cases of infantile paralysis in man but are prominent in comparison to normal nervous tissue. Hemorrhages or at least small groups of erythrocytes outside of blood vessels are seen here and there. Vacuolization of ganglion cells is variable, being prominent in some, trifling or absent in others. Glial proliferation is often quite marked, and in one case to be cited seems the prominent lesion.

The animals in which meningopoliomyelitis has been found were three monkeys, two Canadian lynx, a bear and a raccoon; about a score of cords from other animals with some kind of palsy have been studied microscopically without discovering it. The following cases illustrate our material. The only instance of two cases in close relation concerns the lynx (_Felis canadensis_). They occupied the same cage and died twelve days apart. No symptoms were recorded until a few days before death when a general paralysis appeared, deepening to completeness on the day of death. No case occurred in neighboring cages. Doctor Rhein studied all these cases, and his notes are used for these records. Portions of the lumbar and cervical enlargements and of the thoracic regions of the cord were stained with hemalum and acid fuchsin and with thionin. The pia was slightly infiltrated. There was some cellular infiltration of the anterior septum, and the vessels here showed an increase in the nuclei of the walls and a slight perivascular infiltration. The pial infiltration seemed to be equally distributed in the entire circumference of the cord, although perhaps a little more marked over the anterior and posterior septa. The vessels of the gray matter were congested and the walls of the vessels in most part showed a proliferation of the nuclei. There were a few small hemorrhages into the gray matter, probably agonal. As compared with the human cord and the cords of monkeys, antelopes and dogs, there was an unusually large number of glia nuclei, which, if found in the human cord, would be looked upon as a proliferation process. In some cases these nuclei were heaped together in masses, and were evidently pathological. There was also, about the ganglion cells, some pericellular round cell infiltration, and this was more marked around a few cells which were almost entirely destroyed. The ganglion cells themselves were swollen. Some showed eccentric nuclei, and many of them stained poorly, while one or two showed distinct vacuolization. In one field a ganglion cell was partly destroyed by a recent hemorrhage. There were, however, a number of cells which appeared normal. This process seemed to be fairly distinct in the lumbar and cervical enlargements, but was not clearly demonstrated in the sections from the dorsal region. The cellular infiltration of the horns was evidently not leucocytic, but presented the appearance of a connective tissue proliferation. Although these are not the exact lesions found in poliomyelitis in the human animal, they are at least suggestive of the same process since the infiltrating cells are of the lymphatic or connective tissue types. There is no acute inflammatory leucocytic infiltrate.

A weeper cebus (_Cebus capucinus_) ever since he was received acted in such a peculiar manner, seeming to have only partial control of his movements, that he was known as the “Crazy Monkey.” There was no history of illness before death. Pathological diagnosis: Chronic enterocolitis, chronic adhesive pericarditis, early interstitial change in kidney, edema of lungs, meningitis and poliomyelitis. The pia of the paracentral cortex was thickened and was the seat of a round cell infiltration of moderate degree, the cells being of the mononuclear type. The blood vessels of the cortex were congested and the nuclei of the walls were increased. The round cell infiltration of the pia had in some places extended into the cortical layers. The pia surrounding the medulla oblongata was also the seat of a slight round cell infiltration. The pia of the spinal cord, however, did not show any cellular infiltration. The cells of the anterior horns of the spinal gray matter were extensively diseased, being swollen in places, some surrounded by a glia proliferation and many with marked vacuolization.

A common raccoon (_Procyon lotor_) was observed in the laboratory to have complete paralysis of the anterior and partial paralysis of the posterior extremities. This latter was almost complete in muscles controlling the feet, while the thigh and hip muscles showed some irregular incoördinate movements. Respiration shallow but regular. History shows that the power of the extremities began to fail about a month before death and was absolutely lost in the fore extremities three days before the animal was killed. Diagnosis: Poliomyelitis. Examination of the central nervous system showed the presence of marked round cell infiltration of pia of cortex and of spinal cord, more particularly in the lower thoracic and lumbar regions. Ganglion cells in the lumbar region were markedly diseased. There were numerous old and fresh hemorrhages and a moderate degree of round cell infiltration in the anterior horns. Two young of this animal, born three months before its death, showed weakness and gradual increasing paralysis of their extremities beginning when three months old (that is at the time of the death of their mother), and lasting until their death, one in the seventh and one in the eighth month of life. These were found not to have changes in the central nervous system, but there was sufficient rachitis to account for this paralysis.

The only tumor of the central nervous system found among these animals occurred in an Undulated Grass Parrakeet (_Melopsittacus undulatus_). The gross notes are very vague but the microscopy is suggestive of a glioma. The growth in the brain consists of large irregular masses of large cells with vesicular nuclei and pale homogeneous protoplasm. “Scattered between these accumulations are irregular strands of spindle cells, with spindle-shaped nuclei, taking the hematoxylin very deeply. The supporting tissue is almost without cells, taking the eosin faintly, and is quite loosely arranged. No fibrils are seen among the cells. The blood vessels are congested, and at one place there is a small hemorrhage. The vessel walls are the same as the rest of the connective tissue. There is a slightly atypical metastasis in the liver.”

A case, the identity of which is still undecided, was observed in a Green Monkey (_Cercopithecus callitrichus_); it may belong among the gliomata or glioses. There was in the middle of this monkey’s cerebrum a gray area about 3 × 2 × 1 cm. with a softened centre, the more solid parts being found under the microscope to consist of glia tissue, blood vessels and degenerated cells. No true gliomatous formations could be discovered. Because of the indefiniteness of the lesion, it is not included in the tumors or inflammations. Clinically the effect of the change was to cause blindness and ataxia but motor power was not greatly impaired.

A very small number of tumors of the brain in wild animals is on record in the English and German literature, perhaps the most interesting being what resembles in description a subdural neurocytoma reported by Wilson in the _Proceedings of the London Zoological Society_, 1908. The mass was separate from the cerebellum, but had hollowed out a place for itself in this part of the hind-brain.

BRAIN WEIGHTS.

The policy of preserving the brain of all species enables us to record in the accompanying list the weights of a large number of specimens. In order that the figures may have a representative and comparative value only those are given where the total body weight of the animal is also known. The specimens were removed by the laboratory staff, most of them by one person, and by the same technique. All brains were weighed immediately upon removal from the body, no preservative being near the organ. The brains were themselves externally normal. Our technician is skillful in removing the organ, practically always getting the pituitary body, and cutting off the brain stem at the foramen magnum, the pia remaining but the dura removed. Because the specimens were taken, in practically all cases, from animals that died in the Park, and because of the shortness of the list (196), it seems wise not to attempt conclusions referable to comparative weights of the different orders and families. However, the data seem worthy of record because it is doubtful if anywhere one can find so many weights taken under comparable conditions by the same personnel. One can find a considerable list of brain weights and values in many publications throughout the literature, notably in an article by Ziehen in Bardeleben’s _Handbuch der Anatomie_ (Vol. IV, Abt. III 363), but from no single source are there so many varieties or so long a list. Ziehen’s tables are compiled from the literature and therefore represent data collected under different conditions, many of which were probably pathological. The appended figures are to be considered as raw material collected under uniform conditions.

Examination of the figures bears out in a measure some of the remarks made by Ziehen, notably those which indicate that between large and small varieties of the same general group, the smaller has the greater brain weight value and that the youthful animal has more brain than the adult.

The brains at the museum are fixed in saline-formaldehyde—sufficient strength of the former to suspend the organ in the container and four percentage of the latter. When fixation is complete, as indicated by density, preservation is done in one per cent. formaldehyde, the organ, usually bound in gauze, being laid in cotton. A list of important references is added to the weight tables—some antedating Ziehen’s articles, but principally those that have appeared since the publication of his monograph.

PRINCIPAL REFERENCES TO THE RELATIVE WEIGHT OF THE BRAIN

ZIEHEN: In _Bardeleben’s Handbuch der Anatomie des Menschen_, Vol. 4, pt. 3. ZIEHEN: _Handbuch der Anatomie des Nervensystems_, Jena, 1903. GIRARD: _Bulletin de l’Institut Gen. Psychologie_, Vol. 7, p. 53. VON BUSCHAU: _Real Encyclopedie der Gesamten Heilkunde 3. Aufl._ VON BUSCHAU: _Neurologisches Zentralbl._, 1897, March. BRANDT: _Bull. de la Soc. Imperial des Naturalistes de Moscow_, 1867, 40, pt. 2, 525. MIES: _Verhandl. der Gesellsch. deutscher Naturforsch und Arzte_, 1898, 353. DHERE ET LAPICQUE: _Archives de la Physiologie_, October, 1898. LAPICQUE ET GIRARD: _C. R. des Sceances de l’Academie de Science_, Paris, 1905, 140, 1057. LAPICQUE: _Bulletin de Museum d’Histoire Naturelle_, 1909, No. 7, 408. LAPICQUE: _Revue du Mois_, Paris, April, 1908, 445. LAPICQUE: _Bulletin et Memoires de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris_, 1907, 5, Vol. 8, No. 3, 261. LAPICQUE: _Biologica_, Vol. 2, 1912, p. 257. FUNK: _Inaug. Dissert. Wurzburg_, 1911. POYNTER: _Cerebral Anthropology_, Lincoln, 1913. MOLLISON: _Arch. für Anthropologie_, 1914, XIII, 388. HULTGREN: _Das Hirngewicht des Menschen_, Upsala, 1912. WEBER: _Festschrift für Karl Gegenbauer_, 1898. DUBOIS: _Bulletin de la Soc. Anthropologie_, Paris, 1897, 337. DUBOIS: _Archiv. für Anthropologie_, Vol. 25, 1898. DUBOIS: _Proc. Sci. K. Acad. Wet., Amsterdam_, 1914, 16, 647. DUBOIS: _Zeitschrift für Morph. und Anthropologie_, 1914, Vol. 18, 323. MARCHAND: _Hirngewicht des Menschen_, Leipsig, 1902. RUDOLPH: _Beiträge zur Path. Anatomie_, Jena, 58, 1914, 48. KRAEMER: _Mitt. der Deutsch. Landwehrgesell_, 29, 1914, 55.

TABLE 18.—_Giving the Actual Weight of the Brain and the Relation of this to that of the Body in 196 Animals._ ════════════════════╤═══╤══════╤═══════════╤══════╤═════════╤════════╤══════╤══════ Order Family │Sex│Known │Development│ Time │Condition│ Body │Brain │Grams │ │Age at│ │ in │ │ Weight │Weight│Brain │ │Death │ │Garden│ │in Grams│ in │ Per │ │ │ │ │ │ │Grams │ Kilo │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Body │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Weight Genus Species │ „ │ „ │ „ │ „ │ „ │ „ │ „ │ „ Common Name │ „ │ „ │ „ │ „ │ „ │ „ │ „ │ „ ────────────────────┼───┼──────┼───────────┼──────┼─────────┼────────┼──────┼────── PRIMATESA: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ SIMIADÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Simia satyrus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Orang utan │ ♂ │ │Immature │4 yrs.│Good │ 15,500.│ 405.│ 26.1 │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │ Orang utan │ ♀ │ │Immature │4 yrs.│Thin │ 22,178.│ 300.│ 13.4 │ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │ Hylobates │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ hainanus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Hainan Gibbon │ ♂ │ │Mature │4 yrs.│Good │ 5,900.│ 115.│ 19.4 │ │ │ │3 mo. │ │ │ │ Hylobates │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ leuciscus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Silver Gibbon │ ♀ │ │Mature │14 │Very thin│ 3,030.│ 75.│ 24.7 │ │ │ │days │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ CERCOPITHECIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Presbytis │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ cephalopterus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Ceylon Entellus │ ♂ │ │Mature │1 mo. │Good │ 4,080.│ 58.│ 14.2 Cercopithecus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ sabæus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Grivet Monkey │ ♀ │ │Mature │14 │Good │ 3,530.│ 65.│ 18.4 │ │ │ │yrs. │ │ │ │ Cercopithecus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ patas, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Red Monkey │ ♂ │ │Mature │2 yrs.│Good │ 5,060.│ 105.│ 20.7 │ │ │ │9 mo. │ │ │ │ Cercocebus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ fuliginosus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Sooty Mangabey │ ♀ │ │ │3 mo. │Good │ 3,342.│ 105.│ 31.4 Macacus arctoides,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Brown Macaque │ ♂ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 3,161.│ 100.│ 31.7 │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │ Macacus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ nemestrinus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Pigtailed │ ♀ │ │ │4 yrs │Very Thin│ 4,560.│ 100.│ 21.9 Macaque │ │ │ │3 mo. │ │ │ │ Pigtailed │ ♀ │10 mo.│Baby │10 mo.│Good │ 1,390.│ 67.│ 48.2 Macaque │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Macacus rhesus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Rhesus Macaque │ ♂ │6 mo. │Baby │6 mo. │Good │ 462.│ 67.│ 145. Papio porcarius, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Chacma Baboon │ ♂ │ │Mature │1 wk. │Thin │ 12,300.│ 180.│ 14.6 Papio │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ cynocephalus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Yellow Baboon │ ♂ │ │Mature │4 yrs.│ │ 8,942.│ 140.│ 15.6 │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ CEBIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Ateles ater, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Black Spider │ ♀ │ │ │1 mo. │Good │ 1,790.│ 125.│ 70. Monkey │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Black Spider │ ♀ │ │ │2 mo. │Good │ 2,475.│ 105.│ 42.5 Monkey │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Black Spider │ ♂ │ │ │2 mo. │Good │ 3,630.│ 125.│ 34.4 Monkey │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Lagothrix │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ lagotricha, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Woolly Monkey │ ♀ │ │ │9 mo. │Thin │ 1,634.│ 82.│ 50.3 Cebus fatuellus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Brown Cebus │ ♀ │ │ │2 yrs.│Thin │ 1,500.│ 60.│ 40. Cebus albifrons, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ White fronted │ ♂ │ │ │ │ │ 1,750.│ 61.│ 34.8 Cebus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Aotes vociferans, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Noisy │ ♂ │ │ │2 wks.│Good │ 480.│ 20.│ 41.7 Douroucouli │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ CALLITRICHIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Callithrix │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ pencillata, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Black eared │ ♂ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 135.│ 10.│ 73. Marmoset │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Black eared │ ♂ │ │ │6 mo. │Good │ 250.│ 15.│ 60. Marmoset │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Leontocebus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ œdipus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Pinche Marmoset │ ♂ │ │ │1 wk. │Good │ 167.│ 14.│ 84. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ LEMURES: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ LEMURIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Lemur catta, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Ring tailed │ ♀ │Mature│ │7 yrs.│Good │ 1,470.│ 30.│ 20.4 Lemur │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Ring tailed │ ♀ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 1,240.│ 20.│ 16. Lemur │ │ │ │3 mo. │ │ │ │ Lemur mongoz, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Mongoose Lemur │ ♀ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 1,457.│ 20.│ 13.8 Galago maholi, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Maholi Galago │ ♂ │5 yrs.│Mature │5 yrs.│Good │ 100.│ 4.│ 40. │ │3 mo. │ │3 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ CARNIVORA: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ FELIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Felis viverrina, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Fishing Cat │ ♂ │ │ │10 mo.│Good │ 7,000.│ 60.│ 8.5 Felis chaus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Jungle Cat │ ♀ │ │Mature │5 yrs.│Good │ 3,640.│ 45.│ 12.2 │ │ │ │3 mo. │ │ │ │ Felis ruffus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ American Wild │ ♀ │ │ │4 yrs.│Thin │ 4,402.│ 50.│ 11.1 Cat │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Felis onca, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Jaguar │ ♀ │20 │Mature │15 │Very thin│ 29,500.│ 170.│ 5.7 │ │yrs. │ │yrs. │ │ │ │ Felis eyra, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Eyra │ ♂ │ │ │3 mo. │Good │ 5,000.│ 44.│ 8.8 Felis canadensis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Canada Lynx │ ♀ │ │Mature │4 yrs.│Very thin│ 7,270.│ 80.│ 11. │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │ Felis │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ chibigonazon, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Brazilian Ocelot│ ♀ │ │Young │1 mo. │Thin │ 1,350.│ 35.│ 26. Felis pardalis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Common Ocelot │ ♀ │ │ │10 mo.│Good │ 5,800.│ 50.│ 8.6 Common Ocelot │ ♂ │ │Young │2 mo. │Thin │ 2,700.│ 45.│ 16.6 Felis concolor, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Puma │ ♂ │ │ │ │Good │ 52,700.│ 150.│ 2.8 Puma │ ♀ │ │Mature │8 yrs.│Very thin│ 29,500.│ 50.│ 1.69 │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │ Puma │ ♂ │ │Baby │ │Good │ 1,067.│ 55.│ 51.5 Puma │ ♀ │ │Baby │ │Good │ 998.│ 55.│ 55. Felis tigris, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Bengal Tiger │ ♀ │ │Mature │12 │Fair │ 66,000.│ 250.│ 3.8 │ │ │ │yrs. │ │ │ │ Bengal Tiger │ ♂ │ │Mature │12 │Very thin│ 91,000.│ 240.│ 2.6 │ │ │ │yrs. │ │ │ │ Felis uncia, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Snow Leopard │ ♀ │ │Mature │8 yrs.│Good │ 22,700.│ 120.│ 5.3 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ HYÆNIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Hyæna hyæna, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Striped Hyæna │ ♂ │ │Mature │4 yrs.│Poor │ 27,200.│ 92.│ 3.3 │ │ │ │ 3 mo.│ │ │ │ Striped Hyæna │ ♂ │ │Mature │8 yrs.│Good │ 36,300.│ 90.│ 2.4 │ │ │ │10 mo.│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ CANIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Canis │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ procyonoides, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Raccoon-like Dog│ ♀ │ │Mature │3 yrs.│Good │ 4,770.│ 25.│ 5.2 Raccoon-like Dog│ ♀ │ │ │ │Good │ 4,900.│ 35.│ 7.1 Canis familiaris, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Eskimo Dog │ ♂ │ │Mature │ │Very thin│ 36,300.│ 100.│ 2.7 Canis cinereo │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ argenteus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Gray Fox │ ♀ │ │Mature │3 yrs.│Good │ 2,652.│ 40.│ 15. Canis cinereus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ argenteus scotti, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Scott’s Gray Fox│ ♀ │ │Mature │2 yrs.│Good │ 2,200.│ 53.│ 25. │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │ Canis chama, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Silver Fox │ ♂ │ │ │7 mo. │Good │ 3,325.│ 40.│ 12. Canis mesomelas, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Blackbacked │ ♂ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 6,000.│ 60.│ 10. Jackal. │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │ Blackbacked │ ♀ │ │ │ │ │ 3,500.│ 70.│ 20. Jackal │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ MUSTELIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Mustela foina, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Beech Marten │ ♀ │ │Mature │3 yrs.│Good │ 810.│ 15.│ 18.3 Mustela americana,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Pine Marten │ ♂ │ │Mature │4 yrs.│Good │ 680.│ 13.│ 19. Gulo gulo, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Wolverine │ ♀ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 5,700.│ 75.│ 13.1 │ │ │ │3 mo. │ │ │ │ Galictis barbara, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Tayra. │ ♂ │ │ │7 mo. │Good │ 1,480.│ 55.│ 37. Mephitis │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ mephitica, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Common Skunk │ ♀ │ │ │6 mo. │Good │ 1,755.│ 6.│ 3.4 Common Skunk │ ♀ │ │ │2 wks.│Good │ 1,700.│ 7.│ 4.1 Meles meles, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ European Badger │ ♂ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 7,473.│ 46.│ 6. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ PROCYONIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Procyon lotor, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Common Raccoon │ ♂ │ │Mature │7 yrs.│Good │ 9,000.│ 42.│ 4.6 │ │ │ │3 mo. │ │ │ │ Common Raccoon │ ♀ │ │Mature │9 yrs.│Good │ 5,450.│ 37.│ 6.9 │ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │ Procyon lotor │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ hernandezi, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Mexican Raccoon │ ♀ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 6,130.│ 40.│ 6.5 Nasua nasua, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Ring tailed │ ♂ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 1,600.│ 40.│ 25. Coati │ │ │ │4 mo. │ │ │ │ Ring tailed │ ♂ │ │ │10 mo.│Good │ 1,600.│ 35.│ 24.3 Coati │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Nasua narica, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ White nosed │ ♂ │Mature│ │8 yrs.│Very thin│ 5,000.│ 44.│ 8.8 Coati │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Potos │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ caudivolvulus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Kinkajou │ │Mature│ │3 yrs.│Good │ 1,440.│ 35.│ 24.2 │ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ URSIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Ursus malayanus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Sun Bear │ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 41,000.│ 125.│ 3.5 │ │ │ │9 mo. │ │ │ │ Ursus beringiana, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Kamchatkan Bear │ ♀ │ │ │ │Very thin│ 31,800.│ 315.│ 9.9 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ PINNIPEDIA: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ OTARIIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Eumetopias │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ stelleri, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Steller’s Sea │ ♂ │ │ │4 yrs.│Very thin│120,400.│ 515.│ 4.27 Lion │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Zalophus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ californianus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ California Hair │ ♂ │ │Mature │6 yrs.│Very good│ 94,000.│ 420.│ 4.46 Seal │ │ │ │9 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ RODENTIA: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ MURIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Peromyscus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ leucopus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ White footed Mouse│ ♀ │5 yrs.│Mature │5 yrs.│Good │ 39.│ 1.│ 25.6 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ CASTORIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Castor canadensis,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ American Beaver │ ♀ │ │ │8 yrs.│Good │ 10,000.│ 40.│ 4. │ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ OCTODONTIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Myocastor coypus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Coypu │ ♀ │ │ │ │Good │ 2,000.│ 20.│ 10. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ HYSTRICIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Hystrix │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ longicauda, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Malaccan │ ♀ │ │Mature │18 │Thin │ 6,000.│ 26.│ 4.3 Porcupine │ │ │ │yrs. │ │ │ │ Erethizon dorsatus│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ dorsatus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Canada Porcupine│ ♀ │ │ │2 mo. │Good │ 4,065.│ 20.│ 4.9 Coendon │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ prehensilis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Brazilian Tree │ ♀ │ │ │1 wk. │Good │ 480.│ 14.│ 29.1 Porcupine │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ CAVIIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Cavia porcella, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Wild Guinea-Pig │ ♂ │ │Mature │6 yrs.│Good │ 320.│ 4.│ 12.5 │ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │ Hydrochœrus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ hydrochœrus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Capybara │ ♂ │ │ │1 mo. │Good │ 19,000.│ 50.│ 2.63 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ PROBOSCIDEA: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Elephas maximus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Asiatic Elephant│ ♂ │3 yrs.│Young │1 mo. │Good │241,000.│3,432.│ 14.1 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ HYRACOIDEA: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ HYRACIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Procaria capensis,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Cape Hyrax │ ♂ │ │ │8 mo. │Good │ 1,800.│ 15.│ 8.3 Cape Hyrax │ ♀ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 2,170.│ 20.│ 9.2 │ │ │ │9 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ UNGULATA: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ TAPIRIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Tapirus indicus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Malayan Tapir │ ♀ │ │Mature │7 yrs.│Thin │250,000.│ 300.│ 1.2 │ │ │ │4 mo. │ │ │ │ Malayan Tapir │ ♂ │ │Young │3 mo. │Good │ 80,000.│ 225.│ 2.8 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ EQUIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Equus prjivalskii,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Wild Horse │ ♀ │1 wk. │Baby │1 wk. │Good │ 22,700.│ 330.│ 14. Equus burchelli, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Burchell’s Zebra│ ♂ │ │Mature │6 yrs.│Good │341,000.│ 645.│ 1.9 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ BOVIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Strepsiceros │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ capensis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Greater Kudu │ ♂ │ │ │4 mo. │Thin │285,000.│ 290.│ 2.2 Cobus leche, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Leche Antelope │ ♀ │ │Mature │10 │Good │ 52,700.│ 200.│ 3.8 │ │ │ │yrs. 6│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │mo. │ │ │ │ Damaliscus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ albifrons, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Blessbok │ ♂ │ │Mature │11 │Good │ 58,100.│ 245.│ 4.2 │ │ │ │yrs. │ │ │ │ Boselaphus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ tragocamelus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Nylghaie │ ♀ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │136,300.│ 310.│ 2.3 │ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │ Poephagus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ grunniens, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Yak │ ♂ │3 yrs.│Young runt │3 yrs.│Runt │114,000.│ 290.│ 2.5 │ │6 mo. │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │ Yak │ ♀ │ │Mature │5 yrs.│Thin │177,000.│ 385.│ 2.2 Taurotragus oryx │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ livingstonii, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Livingstone’s │ ♀ │ │Old │13 │Good │327,000.│ 415.│ 1.3 Eland │ │ │ │yrs. │ │ │ │ Hemitragus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ jemlaicus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Himalayan Thar │ ♂ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 31,800.│ 165.│ 5.2 │ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │ Himalayan Thar │ ♂ │9 mo. │Young │9 mo. │Good │ 9,100.│ 130.│ 16. Ovis tragelaphus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Aoudad │ ♂ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 77,200.│ 233.│ 3. │ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │ Aoudad │ ♀ │ │Old │3 yrs.│Good │ 41,000.│ 195.│ 4.8 │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ GIRAFFIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Giraffa │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ camelopardalis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Giraffe │ ♀ │ │ │5 yrs.│Good │500,000.│ 630.│ 1.2 │ │ │ │8 mo. │ │ │ │ Giraffa capensis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Giraffe │ ♂ │ │Old │7 mo. │ │383,000.│ 670.│ 1.7 (Southern) │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ CERVIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Cervus duvanceli, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Barasingha Deer │ ♀ │1 mo. │Baby │1 mo. │Good │ 9,500.│ 121.│ 13. Cervus eldi, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Eld’s Deer │ ♂ │ │ │ │Good │ 59,000.│ 225.│ 3.8 Cervus elaphus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Red Deer │ ♀ │ │ │ │Good │ 72,700.│ 310.│ 4.4 Cervus porcinus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Hog Deer │ ♂ │11 mo.│Young │11 mo.│Good │ 25,000.│ 130.│ 5.2 Hog Deer │ ♂ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 41,000.│ 125.│ 3. │ │ │ │4 mo. │ │ │ │ Cervus sika │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ manchuricus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Manchurian Sika │ ♂ │ │Mature │6 yrs.│Good │ 56,800.│ 265.│ 4.6 Deer │ │ │ │3 mo. │ │ │ │ Cervus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ cashmirianus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Kashmir Deer │ ♂ │ │ │3 yrs.│Fair │ 56,800.│ 275.│ 4.6 │ │ │ │4 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ CAMELIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Camelus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ bactrianus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Bactrian Camel │ ♂ │ │Mature │11 │Fair │430,000.│ 610.│ 1.4 │ │ │ │yrs. │ │ │ │ Camelus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ dromidarius, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Common Camel │ ♀ │ │Mature │5 yrs.│Fair │472,700.│ 465.│ .98 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ HIPPOPOTAMIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Hippopotamus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ amphibius, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Hippopotamus │ ♂ │1 mo. │Baby │1 mo. │Good │ 40,000.│ 195.│ 4.87 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ SUIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Macrocephalus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ africanus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Wart Hog │ ♀ │ │Mature │7 yrs.│Good │ 59,000.│ 151.│ 2.5 │ │ │ │9 mo. │ │ │ │ Wart Hog │ ♂ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 82,700.│ 150.│ 1.8 │ │ │ │9 mo. │ │ │ │ Wart Hog. │ ♂ │ │ │ │Good │ 90,000.│ 158.│ 1.7 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ TAYASSUIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Tayassu tajacu, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Peccary │ ♀ │ │Mature │6 yrs.│Good │ 19,650.│ 95.│ 4.8 │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │ Peccary │ ♂ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 22,700.│ 75.│ 3.3 │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ENDENTATA: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ DASYPODIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Tatu novemcinctus,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Nine banded │ ♀ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 1,840.│ 10.│ 5.4 Armadillo │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ MYRMECOPHAGIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Myrmecophaga │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ tetradactyla, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Tamandua Anteater │ ♀ │ │ │1 wk. │Good │ 3,300.│ 24.│ 7.3 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ MARSUPIALIA: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ DIDELPHYIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Didelphys │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ virginiana, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Common Opossum │ ♂ │ │ │2 wks.│Good │ 2,500.│ 6.5│ 2.6 Common Opossum │ │ │Young │3 mo. │Good │ 351.│ 6.│ 17. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ DASYURIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Sarcophilus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ursinus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Tasmanian Devil │ ♂ │ │Mature │4 yrs.│Thin │ 2,950.│ 8.│ 2.7 │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │ Dasyurus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ viverrinus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Common Dasyure │ ♀ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 680.│ 4.5│ 6.6 │ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │ Common Dasyure │ ♂ │ │ │8 mo. │Good │ 1,130.│ 5.5│ 4.8 Common Dasyure │ ♂ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 1,430.│ 7.│ 4.9 │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ PHASCOLOMYIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Phascolomys │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ mitchelli, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Wombat. │ ♂ │ │Mature │9 yrs.│Excellent│ 25,900.│ 70.│ 2.7 │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ MACROPODIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Macropus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ giganteus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Great Gray │ ♂ │ │Mature │3 yrs.│Good │ 34,000.│ 65.│ 1.9 Kangaroo │ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │ Macropus rufus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Red Kangaroo │ ♂ │ │Mature │5 yrs.│Good │ 63,600.│ 70.│ 1.1 │ │ │ │8 mo. │ │ │ │ Macropus unguifer,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Nailtailed │ ♂ │ │ │2 wks.│Good │ 4,600.│ 12.│ 2.6 Wallaby │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Macropus thetidis,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Thigh striped │ ♂ │ │ │2 wks.│Good │ 5,150.│ 25.│ 4.8 Wallaby │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Macropus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ualabatus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Black Wallaby │ ♀ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 8,170.│ 35.│ 4.2 │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │ Aepyprymnus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ rufescens, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Rufous Rat │ ♀ │3 yrs.│Mature │3 yrs.│Good │ 1,130.│ 15.│ 13.3 Kangaroo │ │1 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ Rufous Rat │ ♀ │6 yrs.│Mature │6 yrs.│Good │ 1,485.│ 15.│ 10.+ Kangaroo │ │9 mo. │ │9 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ PASSERES: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ICTERIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Quisculus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ quiscula, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Purple Grackle │ ♂ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 115.│ 2.7│ 23.4 │ │ │ │7 mo. │ │ │ │ Icterus icterus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Common Troupial │ ♂ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 53.│ 2.│ 27.7 │ │ │ │7 mo. │ │ │ │ Common Troupial │ ♂ │ │ │4 yrs.│Thin │ 68.│ 2.│ 29.4 │ │ │ │7 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ PLOCEIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Amadina │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ erythrocephala, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Red headed Finch│ ♀ │ │ │4 yrs.│Good │ 25.│ 1.2│ 48. Munia malacca, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Black headed │ ♂ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 13.│ .7│ 52.6 Finch │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ TANAGRIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Euphonia violacea,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Violet Tanager │ ♀ │ │ │2 days│Good │ 15.│ 1.│ 66.6 Violet Tanager │ ♂ │ │ │2 days│Good │ 16.│ 1.│ 62.5 Tanagra cana, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Silver blue │ ♂ │ │ │6 mo. │Good │ 29.│ 1.│ 34.5 Tanager │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Silver blue │ ♀ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 30.│ 1.│ 33.3 Tanager │ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ FRINGILLIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Zonotrichia │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ albicollis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ White throated │ ♂ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 35.│ 1.5│ 42.8 Sparrow │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │ White throated │ ♂ │ │ │6 mo. │Good │ 32.│ 1.5│ 46.9 Sparrow │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ White throated │ ♂ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 23.│ 1.3│ 56.5 Sparrow │ │ │ │8 mo. │ │ │ │ Eophona melanura, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Black tailed │ ♂ │ │ │2 mo. │Good │ 31.│ 2.│ 64.5 Hawfinch │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Black tailed │ ♂ │ │ │1 mo. │Good │ 30.│ 1.7│ 56.6 Hawfinch │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Java Sparrow │ ♂ │ │ │ │Good │ 28.│ 1.2│ 42.8 Passerina ciris, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Nonpareil │ ♂ │ │ │9 mo. │Good │ 15.│ .5│ 33.3 Bunting │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Pipilo │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ erythropthalmus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Towhee │ ♀ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 16.│ 1.2│ 75. │ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ TURDIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Turdus iliacus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Red winged │ ♀ │ │ │5 yrs.│Good │ 55.│ 1.5│ 27.2 Thrush │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ PITTIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Pitta strepitans, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Noisy Pitta. │ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 92.│ 2.5│ 27. │ │ │ │8 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ CRATEROPODIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Garrulax │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ leucolophus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ White crested │ ♀ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 105.│ 2.7│ 25.7 Jay Thrush │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ PICARIÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ RHAMPHASTIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Rhamphastos │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ cuvieri, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Cuvier’s Toucan │ ♀ │ │ │11 │Thin │ 356.│ 8.│ 22.4 │ │ │ │yrs. 9│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ BUCEROTIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Lephoceros │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ flavirostris, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Yellow billed │ ♀ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 177.│ 6.│ 33.8 Hornbill │ │ │ │9 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ STRIGES: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ALUCONIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Aluco pratincola, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Am. Barn Owl │ ♂ │ │ │1 mo. │Good │ 470.│ 11.│ 23.4 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ BUBONIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Bubo virginianus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Great Horned Owl│ ♀ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 1,415.│ 12.│ 8.4 Otus asio asio, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Screech Owl │ ♂ │ │ │1 day │Good │ 122.│ 6.│ 49. Strix varia varia,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Barred Owl │ ♀ │ │ │11 │Good │ 1,022.│ 12.│ 11.6 │ │ │ │yrs. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ PSITTACI: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ PSITTACIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Conurus cactorum, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Cactus conure │ ♀ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 64.│ 4.│ 62.5 │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │ Chrysotis │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ leucocephala, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ White fronted │ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 251.│ 8.5│ 33.8 Amazon │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Chrysotis │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ levaillanti, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Levaillant’s │ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 300.│ 12.│ 40. Amazon │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ACCIPITRES: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ SERPENTARIIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Serpentarius │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ serpentarius, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Secretary │ ♂ │ │ │2 wks.│Good │ 3,768.│ 15.│ 4. Vulture │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ FALCONIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Haliæetus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ leucocephalus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Bald Eagle │ ♀ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 2,860.│ 15.│ 5.2 │ │ │ │3 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ COLUMBÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ COLUMBIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Ocyphaps lophotes,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Crested Pigeon │ │ │ │3 mo. │Thin │ 142.│ 2.│ 14. Lophophaps │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ leucogaster, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Plumed Pigeon │ ♂ │ │ │ │Good │ 52.│ 1.2│ 23. Phaps chalcoptera,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Bronze winged │ ♀ │ │ │4 yrs.│Good │ 219.│ 1.5│ 6.8 Pigeon │ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │ Columba phæonata, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Dark backed │ ♂ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 360.│ 2.│ 5.05 Pigeon │ │ │ │9 mo. │ │ │ │ Scardapella │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ squamosa, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Ground Dove │ ♀ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 23.│ 1.7│ 64. │ │ │ │9 mo. │ │ │ │ Zenaidura macroura│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ carolinensis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Carolina Dove │ ♂ │ │ │2 yrs.│Thin │ 92.│ 1.│ 10.8 │ │ │ │9 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ GALLI: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ PHASIANIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Coturnix │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ pectoralis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Stubble Quail │ ♀ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 70.│ .7│ 10. Lophortyx │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ californica │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ californica, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ California Quail│ ♀ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 180.│ 1.5│ 8.33 │ │ │ │4 mo. │ │ │ │ Arboricola │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ atrogularis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Black throated │ ♀ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 151.│ 2.5│ 16. Hill Partridge │ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │ Meleagris │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ gallopavo │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ silvestris, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Eastern Wild │ ♂ │ │ │ │Good │ 6,340.│ 12.│ 1.9 Turkey │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ CRACIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Ortalis vetula, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Mexican Guan │ ♀ │ │ │2 yrs.│Thin │ 442.│ 5.│ 11.3 │ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ MEGAPODIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Catheturus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ lathami, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Brush Turkey │ ♂ │ │ │3 mo. │Good │ 1,487.│ 5.│ 3.37 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ALECTORIDES: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ GRUIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Grus lilfordi, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Lilford’s Crane │ ♂ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 3,790.│ 18.│ 4.7 │ │ │ │4 mo. │ │ │ │ Tetrapteryx │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ paradisea, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Stanley Crane │ ♂ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 4,450.│ 13.│ 2.9 │ │ │ │3 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ STEGANOPODES: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ANHINGIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Anhinga anhinga, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Darter │ ♂ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 251.│ 8.5│ 33.8 Darter │ ♀ │ │ │7 yrs.│Good │ 998.│ 6.│ 6. │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ HERODIONES: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ARDEIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Nycticorax │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ nyctanassa, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Yellow crowned │ ♂ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 620.│ 7.│ 11.3 Night Heron │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ CICONIIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Leptoptilus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ dubius, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Adjutant Stork │ │ │ │ │ │ 7,873.│ 36.│ 4.5 Leptoptilus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ crumeniferus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Marabou Stork │ │ │ │ │ │ 4,580.│ 24.│ 5.2 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ PLATALEIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Carphibis │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ spinicollis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Straw necked │ │ │ │ │ │ 1,665.│ 89.│ 4.8 Ibis │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ PALAMEDES: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Palmadea derbiana,│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Derbian Screamer│ ♂ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 2,730.│ 10.│ 3.6 Derbian Screamer│ ♂ │ │ │1 wk. │Thin │ 1,700.│ 8.│ 4.7 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ANSERES: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ANATIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Cygnopsis │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ cygnoides, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Chinese Goose. │ ♂ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 2,740.│ 15.│ 5.5 │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │ Plectropterus │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ niger, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Black Spurwinged│ ♂ │ │ │9 yrs.│Good │ 2,735.│ 13.│ 4.7 Goose │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Cereopsis novæ- │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ hollandiæ, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Cereopsis Goose │ ♀ │ │ │2 yrs.│Good │ 2,370.│ 9.│ 3.6 │ │ │ │3 mo. │ │ │ │ Cereopsis Goose │ ♂ │ │ │1 yr. │Good │ 2,748.│ 11.│ 4. Anser domesticus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Sebastopol Goose│ ♂ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 3,106.│ 19.│ 6.1 │ │ │ │2 mo. │ │ │ │ Anser fabalis, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Bean Goose │ ♂ │ │ │12 │Good │ 2,640.│ 13.│ 4.9 │ │ │ │yrs. 6│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │mo. │ │ │ │ Chloephaga │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ magellanica, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Upland Goose │ ♂ │ │ │2 wks.│Thin │ 1,822.│ 8.│ 4.4 Coscoroba │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ coscoroba, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Coscoroba Swan │ ♂ │ │ │1 mo. │Good │ 1,915.│ 9.│ 4.7 Anas │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ platyrhynchos, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Mallard Duck │ ♀ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 1,471.│ 8.│ 5.4 Mallard Duck. │ ♀ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 525.│ 6.│ 11.4 Dafila acuta, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Pintailed Duck. │ │ │ │3 yrs.│Good │ 489.│ 6.│ 12.2 Fuligula ferina, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Pochard │ ♂ │ │ │4 yrs.│Good │ 600.│ 6.│ 10. │ │ │ │6 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ STRUTHIONES: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ STRUTHIONIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Struthio │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ molybdophanes, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Samoli Ostrich │ ♀ │ │ │9 yrs.│Thin │ 60,000.│ 37.│ .65 │ │ │ │3 mo. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ CASUARIIDÆ: │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Casuarius │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ papuanus, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Papuan Cassowary│ ♂ │ │ │8 yrs.│Good │ 24,000.│ 30.│ 1.3 ────────────────────┴───┴──────┴───────────┴──────┴─────────┴────────┴──────┴──────

SECTION XIII-