CHAPTER III.

TRADITIONARY AND POETICAL AGES OF THE WORLD.

1. Tradition concerning the Seventh Age—Prophecy of the Universal Saviour—Traditions of the Jews—Opinion of Irenæus and the Christian Church in his time—Dr. Russell’s opinion confuted—Testimony of the Heathen to the Tradition of the _Seven Ages_—Digression on the Corruptions of the Septuagint and the Hebrew text—Arguments against the numerical accuracy of the latter—Remarkable prophecy contained in the names of the _Antediluvian_ Patriarchs—Opinions of Augustine and Abulfarajius—Notion of Dr. Isaac Barrow—Important admission of Eusebius—Opinion of Ephrem Syrus.

The idea that the improvement and the happiness of the human race is progressive, and that the succeeding age is always to be superior to the present, appears to have prevailed in every clime and in every age of the world. Such a sentiment seems indeed to be interwoven with our very nature and constitution; and the words of the Poet are true, not only of each individual of the species, but also of every successive generation:—

“Hope springs eternal in the human breast, Man _never is_, but _always to be_ blest.”

When we take an extensive review of the past, we also find that there have been ages of the world previous to our own, in which mankind enjoyed a length of days, and a degree of innocence and happiness, now altogether unknown. All have, in fact, heard of the blessedness of the Paradisaical state, and all sigh for its return. The restoration of man to this state, has been the subject of promise, and the theme of prophecy and song; the sentiment has been found in all countries, and under every Dispensation; and many of the Divine appointments, both of nature and of Providence, seem to have had an express reference to the accomplishment of this glorious and benignant purpose. The Septenary division of time was impressed on the human mind from the era of creation; it was perpetuated in the Mosaic institutions; and a constant succession of Septennial changes in the frame of man himself from his birth to his death, has tended to keep alive the idea that the Great period of the Restoration of all things is measured by the number _Seven_. Hence, arose the universal opinion, corroborated by tradition, that the World was to continue for _Six_ successive ages, appointed ages of trial and probation, and that the _Seventh_ age would be a state of never-ending felicity and joy. Poets and philosophers, always the most sanguine of our race, have in every nation seized upon this idea, and by the splendid efforts of their genius, engrafted it upon the early history of their respective countries. Thus, compositions which were at first admired only as the production of superior intellect, became early incorporated with the popular creed, and were at last admitted by all as the true records of antiquity.[53]

The Jews, with whose forefathers no doubt the true ideas concerning the various ages of the world originated, had, as we have seen, divided the Grand Interval from Creation to the time assigned by prophecy for the coming of the Messiah, into _six_ subordinate periods, the true extent of which we have already determined. More than a _thousand_ years, however, before the latter event took place, the great Hebrew Warrior and King prophesied in Sacred Song, concerning the only begotten Son of God, who was to receive the Heathen for his inheritance, and the uttermost parts of the Earth for his possession; concerning Him who was to be fairer than the children of men, and whose throne, like that of the Eternal, was to be for ever and ever; whose dominion should be from sea to sea, and from the river to the ends of the earth; and before whom all kings should fall down and worship, and whom all nations should serve and call the _Blessed and only Potentate_; Psalms ii., xlv., lxxii. About _three centuries_ later than the time of David, Isaiah received his Divine Commission to deliver the prophecy concerning Him of whom Moses and the Prophets did write, in which He was described as “the Wonderful Counsellor, the Mighty God, the Prince of Peace, and the _Father of the Future or Everlasting Age_.”[54] During the _Fifth_ or Monarchal Age, therefore, the idea had spread abroad, not only among the Jews, but among all nations, that the Renovation of the World would be accomplished in the _Sixth_ or succeeding age, and that the Great King, called in Scripture, Σωτηρ or Saviour, would then set up his kingdom in eternal justice, and establish his dominion with everlasting peace; and nation should no longer lift up the sword against nation, neither should they learn the Art of War any more.

According to the Jews, however, who lived in the time of our Saviour, the grand object of the mission of the promised Messiah was not to be consummated till the _Seventh_ age, when should commence, to use the words of the Apostle, who applied them very differently, the keeping of the eternal “Sabbatism which remaineth for the people of God.” This notion of a _Seventh_ age was not entirely unknown to the Heathen, for we find some traces of it in their writings; but it seems to have originated in the mysticism or glosses of those who at that period, had made “the word of God of none effect through their traditions.” It is of great importance to our argument, to give some instances of this mysticism, as it incidentally proves that the Jews originally held the longer computation. One of the reasons assigned by their Rabbins for the tradition of the _Seven ages_, from time immemorial, is that because the Hebrew letter ‏א‎ _Aleph_, which (pointed) stands with them for a _thousand_, is found to occur _six times_ in the 1st verse of the 1st chapter of Genesis; therefore, the world is to last in its corrupt or fallen state for _six thousand_ years; and that then it is to be restored and purified as at the beginning! Another reason, to which indeed, we have already adverted in our First Part, is that because God employed _six days_ in the work of Creation, and rested on the _Seventh day_; therefore, there are to be _Seven ages_ of the World, each containing a _thousand years_! Such notions as these appear to have been current among both Jews and Christians in the days of the Apostles; and we find them transmitted with even a higher degree of mysticism, to the first age of _Apostolical Succession_! Irenæus, who flourished A. D. 170, in commenting on the number of the Beast, endeavours to connect the _Six_ ages of the world, with the number _Six_, which occurs in the units, tens, and hundreds of that number, and adds, “For in as many days as the world was made, in so many thousand years is it being brought to an end”. And on this account, the Scripture says—and the heavens and the earth were finished and all their garniture; and on the _Sixth day_, God finished the works which he made; and on the _Seventh day_, God ceased from all his works—but this is a narration of the prototypes of things, and a prophecy of things that shall come to pass; for the day of the Lord is as a _thousand years_: but in _Six days_ the creation was finished; it is manifest, therefore, that its consummation is the _six thousandth year_.[55] In this curious passage, it is evident that the disciple of John, the beloved Apostle, has followed the ideas of the Jews rather than those of his inspired Master, and has mingled up the mystical notions of the Rabbins with the sacred truths of Revelation.

While we admit, however, that the followers of Christ and his Apostles had erroneous views respecting the Jewish tradition, which we have thus traced to its real source, we cannot adopt the opinion of Dr. Russell, p. 103, vol. i. of his “Connection,” that the apostles themselves _wrote_ under the influence of such views, or that it formed any part of _their theological system_, although it entered deeply into those “of the age which witnessed the introduction of our holy faith.” They wrote under the influence of that Spirit which Christ promised to send, in order to lead and to guide them into _all the truth_; it is impossible, therefore, to imagine, that the Apostles Paul and John in their writings, “partook of those impressions relative to the speedy arrival of the first resurrection, and the beginning of the Messiah’s reign, which prevailed among their countrymen;” nor, can we agree, as he does, “with Grotius, who hesitates not to state that St. Paul thought it possible that he might be alive at the time of the general judgment,” as we see no evidence for such a statement in any part of the New Testament. The reply of our Saviour, while yet on earth, to the inquiry put by his disciples,—“When shall these things be, and what the sign of thy coming, and of the end of the world?”—sufficiently points out their mistake in supposing, as the unbelieving Jews did, that the first advent of the Messiah and the consummation of all things, were contemporaneous or approximate events: and clearly shows that instead of the “general judgment” after or upon his advent, there would only be a particular one, namely, the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans, and that it would be fulfilled in the experience of that generation, for their rejection of the true Messiah, as the filling up of the measure of the iniquities of their fathers. So much hold, however, had the tradition in question taken on the minds of the Jews as a nation, that we find the words of Paul, in 1 Thess. iv. 15–17, respecting the resurrection of the dead, and the Second Advent of Christ, were either misunderstood or misinterpreted by some of those to whom they were addressed. Hence, he was obliged to address them a second time, in the following words; 2 Thess. ii. 1: “Now we beseech you, brethren, by the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ, and by our gathering together unto him, that ye be not _soon_ shaken in mind, or troubled, neither by spirit, nor by word, nor by _letter_ as from us, as that the _day of Christ_ is at hand.” The rest of the Apostle’s warning advice in this chapter, plainly indicates that many ages were to elapse before the epoch of the Second advent, and the arrival of the end of the world. The time, indeed, necessary for the fulfilment of the prophecies, of both the Old and New Testament, especially those contained in the books of Daniel and the Revelation of John, must have clearly evinced to the minds of well-informed Christians, as well as those of the Apostles themselves, that many predicted events had yet to receive their accomplishment; and, that God’s controversy with the nations, and particularly with his ancient people Israel, required a longer interval than that which the Judaizing teachers among them had dared to assign, and which, to give it greater currency, it appears that they were desirous to father upon the great Apostle of the Gentiles.

Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that a very considerable degree of plausibility might attach to such sentiments among the early Christians, from the occurrence of such expressions as the following in the writings of the Apostles: 2 Peter iii. 8, “One day is with the Lord as a thousand years, and a thousand years as one day.” This expression, however, merely exhibits in words suited to our ordinary conceptions, the great truth which should ever be present to our minds, that all time appears but as a single moment to the eternal Jehovah, who sees the end from the beginning, and to whom the ideas both of space and time, as they exist in our finite understandings, are altogether unknown. The same sublime sentiment, similarly expressed, is also to be found in one of the Psalms, the authorship of which is ascribed to Moses, the man of God: thus, “a thousand years in thy sight, are but as yesterday, when it is past, and as a watch in the night.” It is evident, therefore, from the extreme generality of the expressions employed, that no specific conclusion can be drawn from these and similar passages of Scripture, respecting the true period of the world’s duration. Their simple intent is to convey to our minds an idea of the eternity of the Almighty, and they are of the same import as the following, which proves the eternal Divinity of our Lord; namely, “Jesus Christ, the same yesterday, to-day, and for ever.” Hence, it is plain that the idea, entertained by many divines, of the duration of the world for a period of only _Seven thousand_ years, (a period, which, in fact, as we have shown in our _First Part_, it has already passed) is a figment of the human imagination, which has no foundation in real tradition or prophecy, and which is contrary to the express revelations of Scripture. In a note to this paragraph, consisting chiefly of references to the authors who have treated of or touched upon the opinion of Irenæus and the whole Christian church after the Apostolic times, the learned reader will find sufficient ground for the belief that the longer or Septuagint chronology was universally held by ancient writers both before and after the Christian era.[56] We proceed to notice the evidence on this point, which may be gathered from the testimony of the Heathen.

“The belief of this singular notion, concerning the _Seven ages_,” says Dr. Russell, p. 76, vol. i. of his _Connection_, “has been detected in the writings of Heathens, Jews, and Christians. It is traced in the Sybilline oracles, in Hesiod, in the work ascribed to Darius Hystaspes the King of the Medes, and in Hermes Trismegistus, the celebrated founder of Egyptian learning and science. Plato quotes from Orpheus the same mystical doctrine; handing down to more recent times the persuasion of the first generations of the human race, that the earth, which was given to them for a habitation during _Six ages_, was doomed in the _Seventh_ to be consumed by fire.”[57] Dr. Russell discovers in the prevalence of these opinions and expectations, however ill-founded and absurd they may seem, the principal motive which actuated the Jews about the beginning of the Second century, in their attempt to vitiate the most ancient of their chronicles. “Their rejection of Christ,” says he, “rendered necessary an extensive change in their dates and calculations; and if we may trust to the assertions of Justin Martyr and other primitive apologists for our holy faith, we cannot doubt that their fraudulent purpose was realized to a considerable extent. ‘I entreat you to remember,’ says the Father now named, when addressing Trypho the Jew, ‘that your Rabbis have taken away entirely many texts of Scripture from that version which was made by the Elders who were at the court of Ptolemy, in which it was declared, that Jesus who suffered death upon the cross was both God and man: and wherein it was also predicted that he was to be crucified and submit to the power of the grave. These texts, because I know that your nation now rejects them, I will not insist upon in the course of our inquiries, but shall content myself with appealing to those prophecies and descriptions respecting the divine power, which are still allowed to remain in your sacred books.’ After quoting a passage from Jeremiah, which the Christian author applies to the point in discussion, as an argument in favour of the views adopted by the Church, he reminds his antagonist, that the text now in question was still found in certain copies of the Old Testament which continue to be read in the Synagogues; for, says he, this portion of Holy Writ has been but lately expunged by your doctors; and that on account of the unanswerable demonstration founded upon it, in regard to the conduct of the Jews towards Christ, against whom it was predicted that they would take counsel, and afterwards put him to death.” Archbishop Usher, in reference to this passage of Justin Martyr, says, in his “Syntagma,” pp. 44, 45, that this Father produces _four_ testimonies concerning Christ the Saviour which he affirms were abstracted from the version of the Seventy Elders: the _second_ of which is still found entire in all our books, namely, Jeremiah xi. 19. But the _first_, abstracted from the book of Ezra, chap vi., which is testified by Lactantius, lib. 4. Institut. cap. 18, is as follows: _And Ezra said unto the people, This passover is our Saviour and our Refuge; and if ye did consider, and it came up into your heart, that we shall humiliate him in a sign, and if afterwards ye shall believe upon him, this place shall never be left desolate, saith the Lord of Hosts; but if ye will not believe on him, nor hearken to his preaching, ye shall be a laughing-stock to the Heathen_. The _third_ testimony, which is found in Irenæus, lib. 5, cap. 26, is said to have been cut out of Jeremiah: _But the Lord God of Israel remembered his dead who slept in the land of heaps, and descended to them to declare unto them the good news of his salvation_. The _fourth_ and last is taken from Psalm xcv. (or xcvi. according to the Hebrew) v. 10, where the reading should be, _Declare among the Heathen, The Lord reigned from the tree_; the words “_from the tree_” are said to have been erased by the Jews, although they are to be found in the ancient editions of the Latin Psalter, and are cited by several ancient authors whose names and works the Archbishop enumerates.

The best proof, however, that the Jews have tampered with some passages of Scripture, is to be found in the discrepancy which exists between most of the passages which are cited in the New Testament out of the Old, and which agree more nearly with the Septuagint, mutilated as it has been, than with the present Hebrew Text. The most striking case of this kind is to be found in the passage cited by Paul, Hebrews x. 5, from Psalm xl. 6; where instead of the words “mine ears hast thou opened” as in the Hebrew, we have “A body hast thou prepared me,” as in the Septuagint. The straining of commentators to make these totally different readings signify _exactly_ the same thing is perfectly astonishing, when we consider that the simple admission of the corruption of the Hebrew text in this passage at once solves the difficulty! Another remarkable case is the passage cited by the same Apostle, Romans iii. 10–18, from Psalm xiv. 3, where the greater part of the quotation, from v. 13 to v. 18 inclusive, is entirely omitted in the present Hebrew text, but is to be found verbatim in the Septuagint, Vatican edition. The reason assigned by Dr. Wall for its insertion in this edition, and its omission in the Alexandrine MS., is not at all satisfactory; because it does not in the least account for the full quotation of the passage by the Apostle; it does not at all answer the question, where did St. Paul get the verses? A third case is that of the celebrated passage in Psalm xxii. 17, where, instead of the words “they pierced my hands and my feet,” as in the Septuagint, the Hebrew has to this day, the reading “as a lion my hands and my feet;” but as this passage had no sense or meaning, the English translators were fain to avail themselves of the reading of the Septuagint and the Latin Vulgate. But it is unnecessary to multiply discrepancies of this kind; enough has been adduced to show that implicit reliance is not to be placed on the present Hebrew text. As to the discrepancy in Gen. ii. 2, between the Hebrew and Septuagint, regarding the day on which “God ended his work,” it can only be accounted for on one or other of the following principles: either a mistake has been committed in transcribing the Hebrew text; or, a change has been wilfully introduced into that text. For it is quite inconsistent with the fact, and with the preceding context, to say that God _ended_ his work on the _Seventh_ day! In that context, Gen. i. 31, we are told that “God saw ALL that He had made, and behold it was very good; and the evening and the morning were the _Sixth day_.” It is manifest that to _end work_ on the _Seventh day_, would be to perform a _part_ of it on _that day_; and, consequently, the _whole_ of the Sabbath could not be said to have been _devoted to rest_, nor _wholly_ blessed and sanctified _on this account_. It is easy to see that a loop-hole is thus given, by an error in that text and in our translation, we fear more wilful than accidental on the part of the Jews, to the _partial_ observance of the Sabbath, and to the _notion_ acted on by many in former ages, and by multitudes in the present, that it is only _that part_ of the Sabbath devoted to religious services in public, which is to be accounted _sacred_; the remainder of the day being devotable either to work, to literary pursuits, or to sensual enjoyment. Mankind, both Jews and Christians, has in all ages been too anxious to throw off the strict and unalterable obligation of keeping the Sabbath holy to the Lord; but the true Christian, he who is a “Jew inwardly,” though “not outwardly,” feels his highest enjoyment in the Scriptural employment of that Holy Day, considering it as a foretaste and an earnest of the glorious and eternal Sabbath in Heaven.

A strong argument against the accuracy of the present Hebrew text, is derived, as we have seen, from the different accounts of the census of the Hebrew Patriarchs and their families, at the epoch of their migration into Egypt, to be found in the Old and New Testaments. In Acts vii. 14, we find that the martyr Stephen, in his defence before the High Priest of the Jews, gives this census, including the grandsons and great grandsons of Joseph, who, as well as his sons, had previously migrated in their father’s loins, as amounting in all to “threescore and fifteen,” or “75 souls.” On referring to the Mosaic narrative, Gen. xlvi. 27, we find, according to the _Hebrew text_, that this census amounts only to “threescore and ten,” or “70 souls;” but, according to the _Septuagint_, that it amounts to “75 souls.” Here, assuredly, the authority of the Septuagint must be reckoned superior to that of the Hebrew text, inasmuch as that version not only perfectly agrees as to the census with the reckoning of St. Stephen in the place now cited, but in the same chapter, it enumerates the names of the _three_ grandsons and the _two_ great grandsons of Joseph, making up the _five_ persons whose names are totally omitted in the Hebrew. The census of the Septuagint also agrees with that of the New Testament, in other places where Moses has occasion to remind the Israelites of the smallness of their number when their fathers went down into Egypt; see Exodus i. 5; and Deuteronomy x. 22. It is proper to remark, however, that the number in the latter citation agrees with the Hebrew, in the _Vatican edition_ of the Septuagint; but, not in the _Alexandrine codex_, or the Grabian edition, where it is correctly given as in the other places which have been cited. Dr. Hales, in his “Analysis,” vol. ii. p. 159, has grievously mistaken the composition of the census in question; for, he includes in it, the wives of Jacob’s sons, amounting to nine persons in all, according to his account. The Sacred text, however, includes Jacob, and Joseph with his two sons, in the number 70; now if the nine _wives_ were also included, the census would amount to the number 79; because the names of the 70 _men_ are all distinctly enumerated even in the Hebrew text itself. In order, therefore, to get rid of this difficulty, and reduce the number from 79 to 75, the Dr. excludes the _four men_ just mentioned, and includes the _nine women_, whether they are _kindred or not kindred_! His solution, however, does not agree with the express words of Scripture, which, in fact, _excludes the women_, the words being according to the Septuagint, χωρὶς τῶν γυναικῶν, “without the wives;” and _includes the men_, in the number 75, the words of Stephen being “his father Jacob, and all his kindred,” descended, ἐκ τῶν μηρῶν ἀυτοῦ, “out of his loins.”

In reference to the numerical statements of the Hebrew text, the disingenuity of modern commentators renders the following remarks necessary, for the sake of truth and common sense. It is well known that the numbers which occur in the Old Testament are always expressed in words at length, and not in abridged characters or arithmetical symbols; hence, the possibility of transcribers mistaking one character or symbol for another, in consequence of the similarity of the letters, is completely removed. It is an unfair inference, therefore, to say, because the Jews employed the letters of their alphabet to denote numbers in their later writings, or to indicate chapters and verses in the sacred writings, and because some of these letters are extremely similar, though they denote very different numbers; that numerical errors might arise from this cause in those parts of the Scriptures where no such arithmetical characters or symbols were ever used. Among unfair reasoners of this class, may also be placed those who maintain that all knowledge of the ancient Hebrew is lost, because forsooth it has been preserved in Chaldaic characters, and mystified by the Masoretic points! It does not follow, however, that the language itself is lost, because the characters are changed in their form, even supposing this to be the fact. If so, then we might as well assert that the English language is lost, because we have changed the Old English character for the Roman; that it has become utterly unintelligible to us by the change; or that the accented, punctuated and misspelt words of Orthoëpists must render every genuine English word of doubtful meaning! Moreover, it has likewise been gravely said that because some Hebraists choose to assert that the same word in Hebrew signifies both _to bless_ and _to curse_; therefore, all or most of the words of that language may be translated so as to mean any thing you please; this is at least the conclusion which would be drawn from such random assertions on the part of Lexicon writers and compilers of Hebrew dictionaries. We ask such persons, if they know any thing at all of Hebrew, to arrange the names of the Antediluvian Patriarchs in one line, so as to form a Hebrew sentence, and to try whether, among the “thousand and one” varieties of rendering of which it is affirmed the words are capable, it will not bear the following translation, demonstrative of the fact that the Antediluvians were, during the days of God’s grace, and in addition to the tradition of Enoch’s prophecy, taught the knowledge of a Divine Saviour, even by the symbolical names which the Patriarchs were directed by the Spirit of God, to impose upon their children:—

‏‘.אדם‎—“Man _was_ appointed miserable _and_ wretched, _but_ the blessed God shall descend, teaching _that_ his death shall send to the afflicted, Rest.” The consolation which a sentence like this was calculated to give to the Patriarch Noah, and to his family, in the near prospect of the “end of the world that then was,” may be more easily conceived than described; nor let it be forgotten that in continuation of this Divine nomenclature, the Patriarch was instructed to call his son, who was to be the progenitor of the wonderful Being whose coming is predicted in this sentence, by the name of _Shem_, in prophetic anticipation of the future development of that glorious _Name_, in which both Jews and Gentiles were afterwards to trust, and on which the salvation of both worlds was suspended.

To return from this lengthened digression; it is manifest that there is great reason to suspect that the numbers contained in the Hebrew text which have reference to dates and to the age of the world, have been systematically and extensively altered. Dr. Russell cites a passage from the celebrated Abulfarajius, in which he asserts that the Jews, believing it to have been foretold that the Messiah was to have been sent in the _last times_, altered the chronology in order to be able to produce a reason or apology for their rejection of Jesus Christ. Thus they made it appear by their new computation, that Christ was manifested in the very beginning of the _fifth_ millennium, near to the middle of the period to which the duration of the earth was to be limited, that is, according to their glosses upon Scripture, not more than 7000 years in all. But the computation of the Septuagint, he observes, showed that Christ did actually come in the _sixth_ millenary age of the world; the very time at which the prediction of the Old Testament led mankind to expect his advent. The learned Dr. refers also to the candid Augustine, who states that the Jews were suspected of having corrupted their copies of the ancient Scriptures, and particularly of having altered the generations and lives of the Antediluvian patriarchs, out of dislike to the Christians, and in order to weaken the authority of the Septuagint, which was used not only in their churches during divine service, but also in their writings and controversies with the Jews. Though Augustine saw that the temptation to vitiate the sacred text lay with the Rabbins, and that the Greek translators had no inducement to alter the original, he was unwilling to believe that either party could have intentionally altered the Scriptures; thinking it more probable that the differences between the Hebrew and the Septuagint, had originated in the wish entertained by an early transcriber, to render the _generations_ of the patriarchs more natural, and less disproportioned to the total length of their lives.[58] This disproportion, as we have remarked in our First Part, was only partial in the Hebrew, and the discrepancy in this respect is a strong argument in favour of the more natural proportion of the Septuagint. But men in all ages have endeavoured to reduce the Antediluvian standard of human life and generation, without regard to the actual record of Holy Scripture. Some curious specimens of reasoning on this point will be found in Usher’s “Syntagma,” cap. ii. p. 13 et seq. What, for instance, can be more ridiculous than the following remark on this subject by the learned Dr. Isaac Barrow? “No one,” says he, “can pretend to assert, as a certainty, that the age of Methusalem [Methuselah!] himself, who lived _a thousand years wanting one_, [999 instead of 969!] was really longer than that of a man, who now dies at _a hundred_! _Why might not the Sun, being then younger and more vigorous, have performed his periods ten times sooner than at this time?_” See his “Geometrical Lectures,” translated by Stone, 1735. _Credat Judæus!_

Dr. Russell states that Augustine was not aware that 400 years had elapsed from the time when the Septuagint version was made, before any discrepancy between the Greek and the Hebrew Scriptures was ever imagined to exist; and that there flourished in that interval, the chronographers Demetrius, Philo, Euphorus, Eupolemus, and Polyhistor, in whose writings, compiled from the books of Moses, we find the events, numbers, dates and proper names, agreeing with the Septuagint, but differing from the modern Hebrew. The ignorance of this early Father in reference to these writers, though it were admitted, for which however we see no good reason, and his want of reference to the works of Josephus, form no ground of objection whatever to the facts of the case; nor can we conclude from his silence regarding their testimony that he was not biassed in favour of the Jewish system of chronology in consequence of the high authority of Jerome in the Christian Church. Dr. Russell gives a very full and clear account of the manner in which this system originated. He states that the publication of the _Seder Olam Rabba_ in A.D. 130, may with certainty be regarded as the epoch at which the Jews altered their genealogies and changed the dates of the great events which are recorded in their Sacred Books; and that Theophilus, bishop of Antioch, was the first Christian chronologer who attempted to compute the age of the world from the facts and dates only which are contained in the Bible. He judiciously remarks that the bishop must have possessed a copy of the Hebrew Scriptures or at least of the Pentateuch, which had escaped the innovations of the Jews; for his dates of the deluge and the birth of Abraham differ from both the Hebrew and the Septuagint.[59] Moreover, we find that Eusebius, in the middle of the fourth century, who was well aware of the discrepancies between the Hebrew and the Septuagint in the matter of chronology, still writes as follows: “On all sides therefore the version of the _Seventy_, being demonstrated to have been translated from an ancient, as it appears, and a correct copy of the Hebrew, we have with reason made use of it in the present chronography, and the more especially since the church of Christ spread through the whole world adheres to it alone, the Apostles and disciples of our Saviour having from the beginning delivered that it is to be used.”[60] Dr. Kennicott, in his “Dissertatio Generalis,” Sect. 83, p. 37, also cites the words of Ephrem Syrus, who flourished near the end of the same century, in which he charges the Jews with having abstracted 600 years from the generations of the Antediluvian patriarchs in order that their own books might not convict them concerning the coming of Christ, who had been predicted to appear for the deliverance of mankind after 5500 years.

2. Description of the Ages of the World from Hesiod—Error of Newton—The Golden Age corresponds to the Antediluvian—The Silver to the Postdiluvian—The Brazen, Heroic and Iron ages, to the Patriarchal, Critarchal and Monarchal—These ages relate chiefly to Greece—References to Scripture history in all—The Sixth or Cumæan age corresponds to the Hierarchal—Wisdom of the Heathens—Their expectation of a Divine Instructor—Socrates, Plato, Eupolis, Virgil, and others, anticipate his glorious Advent—The close of the _Sixth age_ indicates the arrival of the _Seventh_, or the return of the _Golden age_.

The Greek and Roman Poets borrowed their sublime ideas concerning the Ages of the World, from the Sacred writings and traditions of the Jews; and alas! they transmuted the fine gold of Mount Sion into the base metal of Helicon and Parnassus. Hence arose the Poetical appellations of the first _Six ages_ which are to be found in the most ancient and celebrated writings of the Heathen. The distinct recognition of the _Seventh age_ appears not to have been very general, at least among the poets; or rather, it seems to have been frequently confounded or identified with the _Sixth age_. The following, however, is an enumeration of the _Poetical_ ages which is clearly to be traced in the writings of the oldest authors; to each, we have added the names of the corresponding _Scriptural_ Ages, for the sake of comparison and connection. _First_, the _Golden_ Age which corresponds to the _Antediluvian_; _Second_, the _Silver_ Age, to the _Postdiluvian_; _Third_, the _Brazen_ Age, to the _Patriarchal_; _Fourth_, the _Heroic_ Age, to the _Critarchal_; _Fifth_, the _Iron_ Age, to the _Monarchal_; and _Sixth_, the _Last_ or _Cumæan_ Age, to the _Hierarchal_. In this enumeration, we do not mean, of course, to convey the idea that each of the _Poetical_ Ages is precisely limited by the epochs which serve to fix and determine the _Scriptural_ Ages of the Jews; but merely to indicate that there is such a connection between them as serves to prove their common origin, and to establish the chronology of both on a secure and authentic foundation. There seems, however, to our mind, such a striking analogy between the _real_ and the _feigned_ events ascribed in history to the different periods above mentioned, as to justify us in drawing the parallelism close, and in allotting to the various ages of the world, the appellations which have been ingeniously assigned to them by the poets and historians of Greece and Rome. One of the oldest Heathen writers, whose authentic works have reached our times, is the poet Hesiod, who, according to some authorities, was the contemporary of Homer, and who, according to Mr. Clinton, flourished from 859 to 824 B. C. His description of the _Six Ages_ contained in the poem entitled Ἐργα καὶ Ἡμέραι, or _Works and Days_, is in many parts unquestionably borrowed from Scripture History. Dr. Hales has advanced and defended this opinion in his “Analysis,” vol. i. pp. 38–46; after having shewn, in pp. 35–38, that Sir Isaac Newton has mistaken, and consequently misrepresented Hesiod’s ages, in his “Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms,” by confounding the word γένος, _a race_, employed by the poet to denote _an age_, with γενεὰ, the usual word for _a generation_; and that this error has not only deranged all his dates of Grecian history, but has vitiated his entire system of ancient chronology. With the opinions of Dr. Hales on the subject of _Hesiod’s Ages of the World_, we in general coincide; but we think that he has neither carried out the above mentioned analogy sufficiently far, nor applied it in so clear and distinct a manner as he might have done, to the illustration of the connection between Sacred and Profane Chronology. It may be of some importance, therefore, to enlarge a little upon this interesting point.

The description of the _First_ or _Golden Age_ given in the _Works and Days_, extends from v. 108 to v. 126,[61] and as Dr. Hales justly remarks, bears no relation at all to Grecian history. It refers to the time when “The immortal gods and mortal men were as members of the same family, and (μερόπων) partook of the same likeness; when Saturn (Κρόνος, quasi χρονος, Time) reigned in Heaven, and men lived as gods, with minds free from care, without labour and sorrow, or the feebleness of old age; and always the same (πόδας καὶ χεῖρας) in strength and activity, they enjoyed continual feasting, free from all evils, rolling in wealth, and beloved by the blessed gods; they died as overcome by sleep; to them, all things were good; and the fertile field spontaneously brought forth varied and abundant fruit; seeking only their own ease, they mingled their operations with innumerable pleasures; and when (γαῖα) the green sod covered their bodies, they became good angels, by the will of mighty Jove, and were confined to the earth, as the guardians of mortal men; they became observers of good and bad actions, and inhabiting the aerial regions, they everywhere roamed through the earth, the dispensers of riches; such indeed was the royal honour which they obtained.” This description is a curious admixture of the traditions concerning the _Antediluvian age_ to be found in the early history of all ancient nations, and of the lofty but extravagant imaginings of the Poet derived from the absurd mythology of ancient Greece. It evidently alludes to the creation of man in the likeness of God, and to the Sacred communion which Adam held with his Creator in the garden of Eden; to the wonderful length of human life, amounting in the case of the Patriarchs, in general, to _nearly a thousand years_, when indeed _Time_ might be said to reign, and _Death_ for ages to be disappointed of his prey; to the generation of sons and daughters to a late period of the lives of mankind; and to the piety of the righteous generations of the line of Seth, who were called the “Sons of God,” some of whom had communion with God, and received peculiar marks of his favour. The description of the “royal honour” of the happy dead, seems to have had its origin also in the Scripture record of the frequent appearance of angels in the likeness of men in the _Postdiluvian_ and _Patriarchal ages_, and of the promises which God gave to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, regarding the number, the wealth and the glory of their seed; and of the appearance of Samuel to Saul, when he predicted his speedy fall and admittance to Hades: of the divine appearance to Solomon, when he was promised riches and honour, so that no king was like to him: and of the divine vision of the young man in Samaria, who saw the mountain full of horses and chariots of fire round about Elisha: with many others of the very singular and preternatural phenomena which were divinely vouchsafed to the chosen people of God in all ages, before that in which the Poet himself flourished. Hesiod is also cited by Josephus among the ancient writers who before his time recorded that the men of the _first age_ of the world lived a _thousand years_; but Dr. Hales observes that this statement is “no where to be found in his present [extant] works.”

The description of the _Second_ or _Silver age_, extends from v. 127 to v. 142, and refers to the time after the flood, when as the Poet says, “the men were much inferior to those of the _Golden age_, being unlike them both in body and mind; then, indeed, the boy of a _hundred years_ was brought up by his careful mother, as a child, passing much of his time at home; but when he grew up and reached the age of puberty, his life was speedily shortened, being embittered by ignorance; for they manifested injurious pride towards each other, and refused to serve the immortal gods, or to sacrifice at their sacred altars, which was the customary rite among civilized people; these, therefore, Jupiter the son of Saturn buried, being incensed because they honoured not the blessed gods who inhabit Olympus; and when the green turf had covered their bodies, then the blessed dead confined to the earth, were called _Secondary angels_; thus, they also had their share of honour.” This description contains internal proof that it refers to the _Postdiluvian age_, in opposition to the sentiments of some modern writers, who have supposed that the _Golden age_ referred solely to the _Paradisaical state_, and the _Silver age_ to that which immediately succeeded it. The _Golden_ age must have evidently included the _Post-Paradisaical state_, because the Poet contemplates men as _mortal_, which they had become in consequence of their loss of perfect innocence, and speaks of them as having increased in numbers, or in other words, become “multiplied on the face of the earth,” which took place only after the expulsion of the great progenitors of the race from Paradise. The _Silver age_ must have been after the flood, because the usual period of human life had not been diminished till after that event, but had in fact been rather increased just immediately before it, as in the case of Methuselah; and Noah himself the connecting link of both worlds, was longer lived than Adam. Moreover, the Poet’s account of the _Antepaidogonian age_ of mankind, corresponds in a very remarkable degree to the statements of the Septuagint, the Samaritan Text, and Josephus, on this point, and proves almost to a demonstration that the Hebrew Text originally contained the longer computation; for the traditions concerning the _Postdiluvian age_ were, of course, known to Hesiod, about _Six centuries_ before the Septuagint was in existence. The causes assigned by the poet, for the shortening of human life, seem clearly to refer to the breaking up of the ecclesiastical polity of Nimrod at Babel; and the destruction of the impious, to the later event, the overthrow of the “cities of the plain,” and the formation of the Lake Asphaltites. The distinction drawn between the fate of the good, and the fate of the bad in this age, evidently refers to the selection of a few among mankind, as the depositories of Sacred Revelation, and to the appointment of others as the friends of God, and the Fathers of the faithful to all generations. Such statements as these plainly indicate a belief in the immortality of the soul, or, at least, its existence after death in a separate state, and forcibly remind us of the argument which our Saviour held with the Sadducees, in proof of the resurrection of the dead: “Have ye not read in the book of Moses, how in the bush God spake to him, saying, I am the God of Abraham, and the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob? He is not the God of the dead, but the God of the living: ye, therefore, do greatly err;” Mark xii. 26. The conclusion was indeed manifest; Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob are still alive, as to their souls; therefore, their souls are immortal. Because God lives, they live also; for he is still _their_ God. But life and immortality were brought to light by the Gospel; and because Christ rose from the dead, they shall also rise from the dead; for he has become the first-fruits of them that slept. From the preceding remarks, it is evident that Dr. Hales is in error, both when he limits the “termination of the _Silver age_ to the days of Peleg;” and when he refers the latter clause of the Poet’s description to the “first and purest Patriarchs of this age;” for the upright and blessed Job lived in the latter part of it; and the divinely honoured Abraham left Ur of the Chaldees at its close.

That Hesiod’s description of the three subsequent ages appears to relate entirely to the history of Greece, is the opinion of Dr. Hales. Without disputing the general accuracy of this opinion, we still think that we can perceive traces of the history of other countries. The allusions to Scripture are, it is true, more obscure in this part of the poem; but they are not wholly imperceptible. Indeed, the ingenuity of the “cunningly devised fables” which it contains, would not be deemed complete without the admixture of some sacred truth, without the addition of some egregious perversion of the Inspired records. The description of the _Third_ or _Brazen age_, extends from v. 143 to v. 155, and refers to the time when the men, “wholly unlike those of the _Silver age_, were strong and mighty in the use of the spear, rejoicing in war and deeds of rapacity; they ate not (σιτον) the food of culture, but, unyielding in their disposition, they had minds as hard as adamant; possessing immense force and unpolished hands, nature furnished them with powerful limbs, from the shoulders downwards; they had _brazen_ armour, _brazen_ houses, and they worked in _brass_; for _iron_ was not yet in use; these, indeed, slain by their own hands, went to the dark domains of gloomy Pluto, unrecorded in song; for sable death seized them, though mighty in strength, and they left the shining light of the Sun.” This passage seems very clearly to describe the state of the world in the days of Abraham. The battle of the four kings against five in the Vale of Siddim (Destruction), the slaughter of the kings and the sacking of their cities, the capture of Lot and all his family and property, as recorded in Genesis xiv., is a sufficient proof of the warlike and rapacious character of this age; and then, no doubt, originated the migration of those marauding parties which, proceeding from Assyria, Phenicia, and Egypt, spread themselves over Greece and her islands for colonization and settlement, and founded the early kingdoms of Sicyon and Argos. The testimony of the Greek historians Herodotus and Thucydides, respecting the state of society during this period, confirms the description of the Poet; and, according to Dr. Hales, the rape of Io, the daughter of Inachus, which was followed more than a century afterwards by that of Europa, the daughter of Agenor, king of Tyre, are instances of the wicked conduct of those whom Jove is reported to have sent a flood to destroy, at the close of the _Brazen age_. Dr. Hales, however, is in error when he refers this flood to the age of Deucalion; it appears more clearly to belong to that of Ogyges, who was earlier than Deucalion by more than _two centuries_, and in whose reign, according to Dr. Russell,[62] the inhabitants of Bœotia were compelled to leave the plains of their native country, which was that of our poet, and to seek an asylum in the mountains of Attica.

The description of the hardihood of the men of the _Brazen age_ corresponds also to that of the King of Egypt, when he expressed his fears concerning the increase of the children of Israel. The very weak argument of Sir Isaac Newton against the longer computation, which he draws from the speech of Pharaoh, Exodus i. 9, respecting Egypt being “thinly peopled” before the birth of Moses, is very satisfactorily answered by Dr. Hales in his explanation of the succeeding verse; “Analysis,” p. 88. The correct translation, however, of the former verse, according to the Septuagint, which appears to have retained the true meaning of the passage, renders even Dr. Hales’ explanation unnecessary. Thus, “And he said to his nation, Behold the race of the sons of Israel is a great multitude, and their (bodily) strength is greater than ours!” This observation will appear both natural and just, when we consider that the Egyptians, as a nation, must have by this time reached a degree of luxury and refinement, the consequences of extensive empire and early civilization, which rendered them more effeminate or less robust than the hardy sons of Israel. The dread, therefore, of the increase of such a nation, which they held in cruel bondage, and which, though vastly fewer in numbers, was greatly superior to their own in individual and personal strength, was a sufficient reason for the precautionary policy announced from the throne, by which the rigour of the bondage of the Israelites was to be increased, in the expectation of thus diminishing their numbers. This policy, however, having failed, the king resorted to one still more cruel and sanguinary; but the very cause which he had assigned as a reason for the adoption of cruel measures towards an unoffending race, was wisely ordained, so as to render those measures completely abortive; and, we thus perceive, from its acknowledged truth, an additional force and beauty, in the simple defence made before the king, by those heroic females who bid defiance to his wrath, by refusing to become the detestable instruments of his cruelty; Exod. i. 19.

That the Greeks from a very early period were distinguished from other nations by the use of _Brazen Armour_ is well known; and it is remarkable that in Scripture prophecy this characteristic is selected by the Spirit of God to point out the nation to which it belongs, and to predict the rise of that Universal empire which it once maintained over all the kingdoms of the known world. In the description of the different parts of the great Image which King Nebuchadnezzar saw in his dream, Daniel ii. 31–45, and which prefigured the four Great Monarchies or Empires of antiquity, we find the _Assyrian_ or _Babylonian_ Empire denoted by the head of _gold_, the _Medo-Persian_ by the breast and arms of _silver_, the GREEK or _Macedonian_ by the belly and thighs of BRASS, and the _Roman_ by the legs and feet of _iron_. Moreover, the Greeks are commonly denominated by Homer in his Iliad, the χαλκοχίτωνες Αχαιοὶ, or _Brazen-coated Achaians_, that is, wearing brazen coats of mail; and they are described in Herodotus, according to the words of the oracle, as χαλκέων ἀνδρῶν ἐπιφανέντων, or _men glittering in Brazen armour_. Hence, it may be truly said with the poet, that they lived in _brazen_ houses, and performed their works in _brass_; for, they spent all their time in deeds of arms, perpetually seeking to increase their wealth, and to form new settlements, at the cost of the native inhabitants of the soil, the natural consequence of such predatory incursions was premature death in battle; and until they had gained a complete footing in Greece, by a series of splendid victories, it could not be supposed that their names would be transmitted to posterity with renown. Thus the hosts of original adventurers belonging to this age, according to the poet, descended to the grave, Νώνυμοι (pro Ἀνώνυμοι,), without name and without fame, receiving no share of honour like the men of the former ages, but sinking into irretrievable oblivion, both in this world, and in the world of souls.

The description of the _Fourth_ or _Heroic age_, which Dr. Hales remarks is included by Ovid in the Brazen age, extends from v. 157 to v. 174, and refers to the time when the men “spread over the boundless earth, were more upright and more just than those of the former age, and received the name of _Demigods_; these also, calamitous war and tremendous battle destroyed; some before the seven-gated Thebes, in the territories of Cadmus, fighting for the wealth of Œdipus: but others before the walls of Troy, having been transported across the broad sea in ships, on account of the fair-haired Helen: to the former, death brought final destruction; to the latter, father Jupiter, the son of Saturn, having granted life and a settlement apart from mankind, he planted them at the ends of the earth, far from the immortal gods, where Saturn reigns their king; and these happy heroes, having minds free from cares, dwell in the Islands of the Blessed, near the deep deep Ocean; to them, the fertile soil produces ripe fruit, as sweet as honey, three seasons of the year.” In this description there seems to be a very considerable want of incident, when we compare it with the history of Greece during the _Heroic age_. For, it was in this age, that the Kingdom of Athens was founded; that the flood of Deucalion took place; and that the chief founders of the Greek nation made their descent into the country itself, namely, Danaus, Pelasgus, Cadmus and Pelops. It was in this age also, that the events most celebrated in history and poetry took place; such as, the birth and the labours of Hercules; the expedition of the Argonauts; the wars at Thebes and the fall of Troy, which the poet has particularly noticed; the Return of the Heraclidæ; and the Æolic and Ionic Migrations. The meagreness of detail in this portion of the poem, therefore, would lead us to adopt the opinion of many critics, that it has not reached us in a perfect but in a fragmentary state; enough of it, however, remains to enable us to determine the limits of the poetical ages. We have seen that the flood of Ogyges was the event which, according to the testimony of the ancients, terminated the _Brazen age_, and of course, formed the commencement of the _Heroic age_; now, according to the testimony of Julius Africanus and others, this event was _coeval_ with the Exodus from Egypt; and, according to the testimony of Eratosthenes and others, as expiscated by Mr. Clinton, the Ionic migration was a few years earlier than the foundation of Solomon’s temple, and may, therefore, be considered as the event which terminated the _Heroic age_, and not the fall of Troy, as stated by Dr. Hales, which, according to the best authorities, occurred about a _century and a-half_ before the Scriptural era in question. No shorter period than this at least would be sufficient to settle all the mighty events which resulted from the ἰλιὰς κακῶν, or multitude of evils springing from the Trojan war, and the final catastrophe of the ancient city of Priam; and in no less a time, would the heroes who survived this great event, and who went in quest of new settlements and peace, far from the scenes of strife, be able, in the name and power of their posterity, to build cities and plant vineyards, and to form new states and create dynasties in foreign lands.

“Tantæ molis erat Romanam condere gentem.”

The description of the men of this age as “divine,” and the idea of giving to heroes the name of _Demigods_, thus commingling earth and heaven, seems to have originated in the Sacred history of the wars of the Israelites in Canaan, at the beginning and during the progress of the _Critarchal age_. The remarkable interpositions of Providence which accompanied this people, under the guidance of Moses in the wilderness, under the command of Joshua in the promised land, and under the government of the Judges when settled there, would lead all the Heathen nations around them to ascribe to their leaders _more than mortal power_; hence would naturally arise the title of _demigod_. Moreover, the history of the transactions recorded in “the book of the wars of Jehovah” (Numbers xxi. 14), of which no doubt our poet had “heard by the hearing of the ear,” would inspire him with feelings and language similar to that which the Philistines uttered when they heard that the Israelites had brought the ark of God into their camp: “Woe unto us! who shall deliver us out of the hands of these mighty Gods? these are the Gods that smote the Egyptians with all the plagues of the wilderness;” (1 Sam. iv. 8). The extraordinary exertions of the Judges to deliver their countrymen from a foreign yoke, roused and assisted as they always were by the hand of God, might well strike terror into the hearts of their enemies, and give rise to the name and the notion of their being of supernatural origin. For instance, the remarkable atmospheric and celestial phenomena which occurred under the leadership of Joshua, when “the Lord cast great stones from heaven” upon the enemy, and when, at the voice of a man, the _Sun and Moon_ “stood still” in the heavens for “a whole day,” would not be soon forgotten among the Heathen; because “there was no day _like that_ before it or after it, for the Lord fought for Israel;” (Josh. x. 13, 14). Again, we are told in the song of Deborah and Barak, that “the stars fought from heaven; the stars in their courses, fought against Sisera;” and when we consider that the Heathen worshipped the heavenly bodies, including the stars, as divinities, we see how the idea of gods and demigods fighting the battles of men, would naturally arise in their minds from the recital of such a song as this; and we can thus trace the origin of the mythological machinery which is so finely wrought and so eloquently described in the pages of Heathen poesy.

In like manner, we find that the description of the settlement of the “Happy Heroes in the Islands of the Blest,” at the close of this age, savours strongly of the lofty ideas and the poetic language to be found in the prophecies concerning the future happiness of God’s chosen people. The establishment of the Israelites in the promised land, so long the subject of prophecy, was no doubt the great prototype, which the Poet had in his “mind’s eye” in this description; and the fame of God’s gracious dealings with them having spread abroad throughout the whole world, was no doubt the inciting cause which led mankind in general to think of improving their condition, and to make those frequent descents and migrations into other countries, which were so common in this and the preceding age. Our Poet had no doubt heard of the blessing of Jacob, which predicted the coming of Shiloh and the happiness of the tribe of Judah, who, as its representative, should “wash his robe in wine, and his cloak in the blood of grapes;” and whose “eyes should sparkle with wine, and whose teeth should be whiter than milk;” also, the felicity of the tribe of Joseph, who, in like manner, should be blessed “with blessings of heaven above, and blessings of the earth beneath, blessings of the breasts and of the matrix, and blessings of his progenitors, which should prevail beyond the everlasting hills.”[63] But the Song and the Blessing of Moses, which belonged to a later age, and which heightened the expectations of the twelve tribes by a clearer revelation, were still more likely to have reached the poet’s ears through the traditions of those early times. From the former, he would learn that the “Lord’s portion is his people;” and “Jacob the lot of his inheritance;” that “the Lord alone did lead them,” and “there was no strange god with them;” that “he made Israel ride on the high places of the earth, that he might eat the increase of the fields; and he made him to suck honey out of the rock, and oil out of the flinty rock; butter of kine, and milk of sheep, with fat of lambs, and rams of the breed of Bashan, and goats, with the fat of kidneys of wheat; and he drank the pure blood of the grape;” Deut. xxxii. 12–14. By the latter, he would be informed that Jehovah “was King in Jeshurun, when the heads of the people, the tribes of Israel were gathered together;” that “the land” of Joseph was Blessed of the Lord, “for the precious things of heaven, for the dew, and for the deep that coucheth beneath; and for the precious fruits of the changes of the _Sun_, and for the precious things produced by the _month_, and for the chief things of the ancient mountains, and for the precious things of the lasting hills, and for the precious things of the earth and fulness thereof, and for the good will of him that dwelt in the Bush;” that “there is none like unto the God of Jeshurun, he who rideth upon the heaven thy helper, even the most glorious of the sky;” and that “_Israel should dwell alone_: the fountain of Jacob should be in a land of corn and wine; and his heaven should drop down dew.” In the contemplation of such a glorious prospect, he might be led to say with the great lawgiver himself: “Happy art thou, O Israel: who is like unto thee, O people, saved by the Jehovah, who is the shield of thy help, and the sword of thy excellency!” Deut. xxxiii. 5, 13, 26. Truly as the poet said “the Eternal (Κρονος, _Time without end_) now reigns their King.”

The sudden transition of the Poet from the description of the _Fourth age_, to that of the _Fifth_, with his rapid glance at the _Sixth_, which extends from v. 174 to v. 201, shows that his mind must have been wrought up to a great pitch of feeling and sublimity, in reflecting on the glorious deeds of the past age, and the splendid anticipations of the future. With the description of the _Fifth_ or _Iron age_ in which he himself lived, we cannot but deeply sympathise, feeling as we do that it has returned in our own days, and that its features are precisely the same as those which now characterize this _age of Bronze_.[64] “Oh! how I wish,” says he, “that I had not lived in the _Fifth age_ (πέμπτοισι ἀνδράσιν), but had either died before it, or lived after it; for, now indeed is the _Iron age_; and they will rest neither day nor night from labour and misery, corrupting each other; but the gods shall give them unutterable sorrows; still even to these shall good and evil be intermingled; but Jupiter shall destroy the men of this age, for they shall become grey-headed soon after their birth; because the father will not live in unity with his children, nor the children with the father; the guest with his host, nor the friend with his companion; and the brother will be no longer affectionate, as in former ages; and soon shall they dishonour their parents growing old; then also shall the wicked attack them, speaking cruel words, and not fearing the wrath of the gods; nor shall the lawless then yield to their aged parents the rewards of their education; but one shall destroy the city of another; and no favour shall be shown to the pious, or the just, or the good; but they will rather honour the evildoer, and encourage injustice; nor shall there be any justice or modesty in their hands; and the wicked man shall injure the good, addressing him with hard speeches, and even be guilty of perjury; and croaking envy of hateful countenance, rejoicing in evil, shall pursue the whole race of miserable mortals; and then shall blushing Modesty and indignant Virtue, clothed in their white robes, having forsaken mankind, pass from the spacious earth to Olympus, to mingle with the immortal gods; then shall they leave direful woes to mortal men; and there shall be no help for the evil.” In this description, the Poet, who, according to the best authorities, lived about the end of the first century of the _Iron age_, seems to have partly borrowed his description from the sacred poetry of the Jews, and having himself experienced the evils of injustice at the hands of his own kindred, to have partly anticipated the wickedness of the age, in a fine prophetic vein. Solomon, with whose glorious reign the _Monarchal or Iron age_ began, uttered sentiments concerning the wicked, to which the ideas of our poet have a striking similarity: “For they,” said he, “sleep not, except they have done mischief; and their sleep is taken away, unless they cause some to fall. For they eat the bread of wickedness, and drink the wine of violence;” Prov. iv. 16, 17. The following passages in the book of Proverbs, to which we shall only refer, with others which might be cited, would almost lead us to imagine that Hesiod had been familiar with the writings of Solomon: Prov. i. 11–19; v. 3–14; vi. 16–19; ix. 13–18; xxiii. 27–35; xxiv. 1, 2, 15–22; and xxx. 11–23; but in the psalms of David, we find a more vivid and sustained description of the wickedness of the wicked, and one to which that of the Poet bears a more marked similarity than any of the passages yet cited: thus, “The fool hath said in his heart, there is no God. They have corrupted themselves, they have done abominable works, there is none that doeth good, there is not even one. The Lord looked down from heaven upon the children of men, to see if there were any that did understand, or seek after God. They are all gone out of the way, they are together become useless, there is none that doeth good, no not one. Their throat is an open sepulchre; with their tongues they have used deceit; the poison of asps is under their lips: whose mouth is full of cursing and bitterness: their feet are swift to shed blood: destruction and misery are in their ways: and the way of peace they have not known: there is no fear of God before their eyes.” Psalm xiv., according to the Septuagint. When we consider that even on the lowest computation, the poet Hesiod must have preceded the prophet Micah, by at least 100 years, we cannot but be struck also with the similarity of their descriptions of this age in which they both lived, and we cannot but admit that the description of the former written as it is in the future tense, partakes strongly of the character of inspiration. “The good man,” says the latter, “is perished out of the earth: and there is none upright among men: they all lie in wait for blood; they hunt every man his brother with a net. That they may do evil with both hands earnestly, the prince asketh, and the judge asketh for a reward; and the great man, he uttereth his mischievous desire: so they wrap it up. The best of them is a brier, the most upright is sharper than a thorn hedge: the day of thy watchmen and thy visitation cometh; now shall be their perplexity. Trust ye not in a friend, put ye not confidence in a guide: keep the doors of thy mouth from her that lieth in thy bosom. For the son dishonoureth the father, the daughter riseth up against her mother, the daughter-in-law against her mother-in-law; a man’s enemies are the men of his own house;” Micah. vii. 2–6.[65] This passage, which was frequently appropriated by our Saviour when on earth, as describing the effects of his Mission upon the wicked, to whom the Gospel is the savour of death unto death, (Matt. x. 21, 35, 36; Luke xii. 53 and xxi. 16,) was eminently descriptive of the _Iron or Monarchal age_, from its beginning to its end, Hesiod, Micah and Ezekiel, as well as all the prophets, being Judges; (Ezek. xxii. 6–13; and 29–31). The Poet’s description of envy is strikingly just, and is manifested in a powerful degree in every unregenerate human heart; and to their shame be it said, it is not completely rooted out of the hearts even of Christians, till death has done its part: see the confession and exclamation of Paul, and the pointed description of James, to which the heart of every one must fully respond: Rom. 18–25; James iv. 1–5. The idea of the flight of Modesty and Virtue to heaven, leaving nothing but sorrows behind them, is also conceived in the finest vein of true poetry, which is always correct in its descriptions; nor is there any remedy for the evil until (as the Poet perhaps said, had we his works entire,) the return of the _Golden age_, when earth shall be as heaven.

With regard to the _Sixth age_, it is true, as Dr. Hales remarks, that Hesiod does not expressly announce that it shall succeed the _Iron age_, nor that it should be a state of _regeneration_ or a revival of the _Golden age_; but his language strongly implies that it would be superior to the _Fifth age_, inasmuch as he earnestly expresses his wish that it had been his lot to have lived after the latter, in the words ἤ ἔπειτα γενέσθαι. Moreover, in his address to his brother Persa, we find a description of the happy effects which would result from doing justice, extending from v. 225 to v. 237; and this description corresponds exactly to the language used by the poets of the succeeding age, in describing the return of the _Golden age_ at the close of the _Sixth_: thus, “But they who grant strict justice to strangers and citizens, and depart not in the least from equity, shall have a flourishing city, and flourishing people within its walls; and peace, the nurse of the young, shall dwell in the land; and Jupiter who sees afar, shall never bring upon them the horrors of war; neither shall famine or destruction annoy men strictly just; to them also the earth shall bring forth plenteous subsistence; and on the mountains, the pines shall produce apples at the top, and honey at the middle; and the fleece-bearing sheep shall be laden with wool; and wives shall give birth to children like their parents; and they shall flourish among the good with perpetual bloom; and there shall be no need of navigation; for the fertile ground shall produce all manner of fruit.”

It is to the poets and other writers of the _Sixth age_ itself, however, that we are to look for the prophetic anticipations of the glorious event which was to illuminate its close. At the beginning of this age, flourished the _Seven Wise Men_ of Greece, whose laconic, but excellent aphorisms, indicated the approach of better times. To them we owe, according to Plato, the celebrated maxim Γνῶθι σεαυτόν,—_Know thyself_; but even to know himself was more than man could attain, without a revelation from heaven;—how much more necessary was it, therefore, that the knowledge of the everlasting God should emanate from the same source! Accordingly, we find in the Scriptures, the following maxim perpetually inculcated, which is as much above that of the Seven Sages, as the Heavens are above the earth. “The fear of the Lord is the _highest_ wisdom;”[66] to which we may add, with Solomon, David, and Job, who all uttered the same aphorism—“And to depart from evil is understanding;” (Prov. i. 7; Psalm cxi. 10; and Job xxviii. 28.) and it is easy to give it the laconic form, if this be any recommendation to the admirers of the wisdom of the Heathen, who prefer to drink at their muddy streams, and neglect the fountain of truth; for we have only to say Γνῶθι θεὸν,—_Know God_; and we concentrate in these two words, all that is necessary for man’s happiness, both in this world, and that which is to come: “And this is life eternal, that they might know thee, the only true God, and Jesus Christ whom thou hast sent;” John xviii. 3. He indeed, who knows God, knows himself also; for he knows that in the sight of God, he is “wretched, and miserable, and poor, and blind, and naked;” and that he must buy of God, through Jesus Christ, “gold tried in the fire,” that he may be rich; and “white raiment,” that he may be clothed, and that the shame of his nakedness may not appear; and “eye-salve” to anoint his eyes, that he may see; Rev. iii. 17, 18.

When a century and a-half of the _Sixth age_ had passed away, arose Socrates, the wisest of all the Greeks, who, as Cicero remarks, brought philosophy down from heaven to earth, and taught all that man could know about Divine things, which, according to his own confession, was positively nothing, with the exception of some obscure ideas which he had learned from primitive tradition. He indeed appears to have had just views of man’s ignorance, and according to Plato, his illustrious disciple, who survived his master half a century, he considered that there was no real way of finding out the truth concerning God, but by a revelation from Heaven, by the hand of a Divine Messenger. This appears evident, both from some passages in Plato’s Dialogue, entitled the “Phædo,” and from the following remarkable passage in that entitled the “_Second Alcibiades; or, of Prayer_,” which we copy from the 2nd vol. of Dr. Hales’s “Analysis,” p. 1231.

“SOCRATES.—We must needs wait then, _Alcibiades_, until we can learn how we ought to behave toward God and men. ALCIBIADES.—When shall this time come, _Socrates_? and who shall be the _instructor_? for I long to see _this man_ (τουτον τον ἀνθρωπον) whosoever he is. SOCRATES.—He it is who _careth for thee_ (ᾡ μελει περι σου); and I think, that as _Minerva_ in Homer (Iliad 5, 127) removed the _mist_ from the _eyes_ of _Diomedes_, that he might _well know_ both _gods_ and _men_; so it is necessary in the first place, that He should remove _the mist_ from _your soul_ that is now attached thereto; and next that He should apply _the means_ by which you shall know both _good_ and _evil_ in future; for now indeed you seem not to be able. ALCIBIADES.—Let him remove the mist, or whatever else it is, since I am prepared to decline none of his directions, _whosoever this man is_, (ὁστις ποτ’ έστιν ὁ ἀνθρωπος), provided I may be able to _become better_. SOCRATES.—Truly _that same person_ (κακεινος) _hath a wonderful regard for thee_. ALCIBIADES.—I think then, the best way will be to _postpone sacrificing_ until that time. SOCRATES.—You think right, for it is safer than to run so great a risk [of sacrificing improperly.] ALCIBIADES.—Then indeed, shall we give to THE GODS _crowns_ and other _legitimate offerings_, when I see that day coming, and _it will come in no long time_, THE GODS _willing_.” From the same work, to which we have been so much indebted, we cannot avoid extracting the following lines to the same purport, taken from the Hymn of Eupolis, another disciple of Socrates, as translated by _Wesley_, not the founder of Methodism, but his father, Dr. Hales remarks:—

“And yet, a greater _Hero_ far (Unless great _Socrates_ could err) Shall _rise_ to _bless_, some _future day_, And _teach_ to _live_, and teach to _pray_.”

Dr. Hales has also given, at p. 1378, the following striking description from Plato, of the sufferings of the JUST ONE, and of the reception he should meet with from a heedless and ungrateful world. “He shall be stripped of every possession, except his _virtue_; stigmatized as _wicked_, at a time when he exhibits the strongest proofs of _goodness_; endowed with _patience_ to resist every _temptation_, and _reverse of fortune_, but inflexibly maintaining _his integrity_; not _ostentatious_ of his good qualities, but desiring to be _good_ rather than to _seem so_. In fine the recompense which the JUST ONE so disposed (οὑτω διακειμενος ὁ δικαιος), as I said, shall receive from the world is this; he shall be _scourged, tortured, bound, deprived of his eyes_, (μαστιγωσεται, στρεβλωσεται, δεδησεται, εκκαυθησεται τω οφθαλμω), and at length, having suffered all sorts of evils, _he shall be crucified_ (ανασχιν δυλευθησεται); [Works] vol. ii. p. 361, 362, Edit. _Serrani_.” He adds, “Plato who travelled into _Egypt_, unquestionably collected this singular _character_ and _sufferings_, of the JUST ONE, from the Hebrew Scriptures, of the _Psalms_, _Isaiah_, _Daniel_, and _Zechariah_, with the last of whom, he was nearly contemporary.”

As the time, the long-expected, and eagerly-wished for time, drew nigh, when the Messiah was to appear, and as (the συντελεία τῶν αἰώνων) the _consummation of the ages_ hastened on, we find that the expectations of the Heathen for this Divine Instructor, this mighty King and Saviour, increased in magnitude and intensity,—a certain proof that the arrival of the _Seventh_, or the return of the _Golden age_, was the subject of their calculation, as well as the theme of their song. On this subject we need only refer to the works of Virgil, who flourished B.C. 40, in the reign of Augustus Cæsar, and particularly to the celebrated _Eclogue_ entitled “_Pollio_,” in which he gives a condensed summary of the prophetic anticipations of all preceding poets and philosophers from the days of Hesiod to his own. To those who may not have viewed the _fourth_ Eclogue in this light, the following extract of a poem so well known, may not be unacceptable:—

“Now the last age of Cumic song has come: A cycle vast of ages new appears; Virtue returns, and Saturn’s former reign: Now a new race descends from lofty heaven. O chaste Lucina, hail the coming prince, Who shall the death of _Iron rule_[67] behold, And resurrection of the _Golden age_: For in this age, the Great Apollo reigns. This glorious year, O Pollio, is thine; And now the vast lunations are begun. This year, if any trace of crime remain, With its destruction, fear for ever flies. That prince, on earth, the life of gods shall lead, Heroes with gods in council he shall see, And they with wonder shall behold his deeds: While with paternal sway, the world he rules. O, prince! to thee spontaneous earth shall bring Her early fruits, and sweetest smelling shrubs, On velvet flowers thy infant feet shall tread; Before thy face, the serpent shall succumb, And poisoned herbs their baneful power shall lose: The Rose of Sharon everywhere shall spring. In early youth thou shalt delight to read The praise of heroes, and thy father’s deeds, And all that tends to form the virtuous mind; Soon shall the fields be to the harvest white, And prickly thorns be changed to blushing vines, While honey sweet the knotty oak shall yield. Yet traces of man’s early sin shall rise, And lead him to renew his toils at sea, To wall his towns, and cultivate the ground. Again, the Argonauts shall skim the main; Again, the Theban war shall be begun; Again, to Troy, shall Peleus’ son descend.”

This description has a manifest reference to Hesiod’s account of the different ages of the world, and forms a complete supplement to that interesting relic of antiquity. Here we trace the _last_, or _Sybilline age_, in which Hesiod wished he had lived, the commencement of a great succession of ages, the return of the virgin _Nemesis_ or _Astræa_, the Goddess of Justice, whom we have denominated _Virtue_, and who fled at the close of the _Iron age_; the return of _Saturn’s_ reign, which was to begin with the _Seventh_, or _Golden age revived_; and the reign of _Apollo_, who was the representative of the _Solar deity_, and the reviver of all things. The humanity and the divinity of the expected prince, is strangely shadowed forth by the poet, in his allusion to his intercourse with _gods_, _demigods_ and _heroes_, according to the Greek mythology. The misapplication, however, of the Cumæan or Sybilline prophecies, which were evidently borrowed or stolen from the Hebrew Scriptures, to the expected son, of _Pollio_ according to some, or of _Augustus_ according to others, is a proof that the time of our Saviour’s advent at the close of the _Sixth age_ was known to be near; and that while there were some who, like aged Simeon, waited for the consolation of Israel; or, like Anna, the prophetess, departed not from the temple at Jerusalem, in earnest expectation of Him who suddenly came to it, and gladdened their eyes; so there were some even among the Heathen who, like Virgil, had heard of the expected Saviour, and who gladly hailed his approach, although they were mistaken as to the signs of his coming, and were ignorant of the distinguishing characteristics by which he was to be known. It can scarcely be doubted indeed, that in this Eclogue, Virgil had the prophecy of Isaiah in his mind, in which the Messiah is described as a “rod out of the stem of Jesse, and a Branch out of his roots,” and which he might have even read in the Greek version of the _Seventy_. The following are some of its more striking points of similarity: “With righteousness he shall judge the poor, and convince the meek of the earth: and he shall smite the earth with the word of his mouth, and with the breath of his lips he shall slay the wicked. The wolf also shall feed with the lamb, and the leopard shall lie down with the kid; and the young calf, and the bull, and the lion shall feed together; and a little child shall lead them. And the ox and the bear shall feed together; and their young ones shall be together: and the lion shall eat straw like the ox. And an infant shall put his hand on the holes of asps, and on the nest of young asps. They shall not hurt nor destroy in all my holy mountain: for the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the Lord, as the waters cover the sea;” Isaiah xi. 1–9; taken partly from the Septuagint. In a similar passage of the same prophet, which is perhaps still more to be admired on account of the richness of its promises to the people of God, and its striking resemblance to some passages in the book of Revelation, we find a very singular remark which seems, to our dark and finite understandings, to mar the beauty of the description; we refer to Isaiah lxv. 17–25. At v. 20, the prophet says, “but the sinner, being a hundred years old shall be accursed;” but for this sentence, we should have taken the whole passage for a figurative description of the happiness of the heavenly state allotted for the righteous after death. In imitation, perhaps of this singular passage, our poet introduces into his description of the renewal of the _Golden age_, the acute remarks with which the preceding extract terminates, and in which it seems as if he had anticipated the wars which have since desolated Christendom.[68]