part iv

. (1841), _Fasti Romani, Civil and Literary Chronology of Rome and Constantinople_, vol. i. (1850), vol. ii. (1851), _An Epitome of the Civil and Literary Chronology of Greece_ (1851), the same for Rome (1853). He also wrote a tragedy, _Solyman_, which was a failure.

CLOUGH, ARTHUR HUGH (1819-1861).--Poet, _s._ of a cotton merchant in Liverpool, he spent his childhood in America, but was sent back to England for his education, which he received at Rugby and Oxf. While at the Univ., where he was tutor and Fellow of Oriel, he fell under the influence of Newman, but afterwards became a sceptic and resigned his Fellowship in 1848. In the same year he _pub._ his poem, _The Bothie of Tober-na-Vuolich_, written in hexameters. After travelling on the Continent for a year, he was in 1849 appointed Warden of Univ. Hall, London. In 1849 appeared _Amours de Voyage_, a rhymed novelette, and the more serious work, _Dipsychus_. In 1854 he was appointed an examiner in the Education Office, and married. His last appointment was as Sec. of a Commission on Military Schools, in connection with which he visited various countries, but was seized with illness, and _d._ at Florence. C. was a man of singularly sincere character, with a passion for truth. His poems, though full of fine and subtle thought, are, with the exception of some short lyrics, deficient in form, and the hexameters which he employed in _The Bothie_ are often rough, though perhaps used as effectively as by any English verse-writer. M. Arnold's _Thyrsis_ was written in memory of C.

COBBE, FRANCES POWER (1822-1904).--Theological and social writer, was _b._ near Dublin. Coming under the influence of Theodore Parker, she became a Unitarian. Her first work, _pub._ anonymously, was on _The Intuitive Theory of Morals_ (1855). She travelled in the East, and _pub._ _Cities of the Past_ (1864). Later she became interested in social questions and philanthropic work, and wrote many books on these and kindred subjects, including _Criminals_, _Idiots_, _Women_ and _Minors_ (1869), _Darwinism in Morals_ (1872), and _Scientific Spirit of the Age_ (1888). She was a strong opponent of vivisection.

COBBETT, WILLIAM (1762-1835).--Essayist and political writer, _b._ at Farnham, Surrey, _s._ of a small farmer, his youth was spent as a farm labourer, a clerk, and in the army, in which his good conduct and intelligence led to his promotion to the rank of sergeant-major. After moving about between England and America, and alternating between journalism and agriculture, in the former of which his daring opposition to men in power got him into frequent trouble and subjected him to heavy fines in both countries, he settled down in England in 1800, and continued his career as a political writer, first as a Tory and then as a Radical. His violent changes of opinion, and the force and severity with which he expressed himself naturally raised up enemies in both camps. In 1817 he went back to America, where he remained for two years. Returning he stood, in 1821, for a seat in Parliament, but was unsuccessful. In 1832, however, he was returned for Oldham, but made no mark as a speaker. C. was one of the best known men of his day. His intellect was narrow, but intensely clear, and he was master of a nervous and idiomatic English style which enabled him to project his ideas into the minds of his readers. His chief writings are _English Grammar_, _Rural Rides_, _Advice to Young Men and Women_. His _Weekly Political Register_ was continued from 1802 until his death.

COCKBURN, HENRY (1779-1854).--Scottish judge and biographer, _b._ (probably) and _ed._ in Edin., became a distinguished member of the Scottish Bar, and ultimately a judge. He was also one of the leaders of the Whig party in Scotland in its days of darkness prior to the Reform Act of 1832. The life-long friend of Francis Jeffrey, he wrote his life, _pub._ in 1852. His chief literary work, however, is his _Memorials of his Time_ (1856), continued in his _Journal_ (1874). These constitute an autobiography of the writer interspersed with notices of manners, public events, and sketches of his contemporaries, of great interest and value.

COCKTON, HENRY (1807-1852).--Novelist, _b._ in London, is only remembered as an author for his novel of _Valentine Vox_ (1840), the adventures of a ventriloquist.

COLENSO, JOHN WILLIAM (1814-1883).--Mathematician and Biblical critic, _b._ at St. Austell, Cornwall, and _ed._ at St. John's Coll., Camb., where he was a tutor, entered the Church, and _pub._ various mathematical treatises and _Village Sermons_. In 1853 he was appointed first Bishop of Natal. He mastered the Zulu language, introduced printing, wrote a Zulu grammar and dictionary, and many useful reading-books for the natives. His _Commentary on the Romans_ (1861) excited great opposition from the High Church party, and his _Critical Examination of the Pentateuch_ (1862-1879), by its then extreme views, created great alarm and excitement. He was in 1863 deposed and excommunicated by Bishop Gray of Cape Town, but confirmed in his see by the Courts of Law. His theological writings are now largely superseded; but his mathematical text-books, for the writing of which he was much better equipped, hold their place.

COLERIDGE, HARTLEY (1796-1849).--Poet, eldest _s._ of Samuel T.C. (_q.v._), _b._ at Clevedon, spent his youth at Keswick among the "Lake poets." His early education was desultory, but he was sent by Southey to Oxf. in 1815. His talents enabled him to win a Fellowship, but the weakness of his character led to his being deprived of it. He then went to London and wrote for magazines. From 1823 to 1828 he tried keeping a school at Ambleside, which failed, and he then led the life of a recluse at Grasmere until his death. Here he wrote _Essays_, _Biographia Borealis_ (lives of worthies of the northern counties) (1832), and a _Life of Massinger_ (1839). He is remembered chiefly for his _Sonnets_. He also left unfinished a drama, _Prometheus_.

COLERIDGE, SAMUEL TAYLOR (1772-1834).--Poet, philosopher, and critic, _s._ of the Rev. John C., vicar and schoolmaster of Ottery St. Mary, Devonshire, was _b._ there in 1772, the youngest of 13 children. He was at Christ's Hospital from 1782 to 1790, and had Charles Lamb for a schoolfellow, and the famous scholar and disciplinarian, James Boyer, for his master. Thence he proceeded to Jesus Coll., Camb., in 1791, where he read much, but desultorily, and got into debt. The troubles arising thence and also, apparently, a disappointment in love, led to his going to London and enlisting in the 15th Dragoons under the name of Silas Tomkyn Comberbacke. He could not, however, be taught to ride, and through some Latin lines written by him on a stable door, his real condition was discovered, his friends communicated with, and his release accomplished, his brothers buying him off. After this escapade he returned (1794) to Camb. He had by this time imbibed extreme democratic or, as he termed them, pantisocratic principles, and on leaving Camb. in the same year he visited Oxf., where he made the acquaintance of Southey, and discussed with him a project of founding a "pantisocracy" on the banks of the Susquehanna, a scheme which speedily fell through, owing firstly to want of funds, and secondly to the circumstance of the two projectors falling in love simultaneously with two sisters, Sarah and Edith Fricker, of whom the former became, in 1795, the wife of C., and the latter of Southey. C. had spent one more term at Camb., and there in Sept. 1794 his first work, _The Fall of Robespierre_, a drama, to which Southey contributed two acts, the second and third, was _pub._ After his marriage he settled first at Clevedon, and thereafter at Nether Stowey, Somerset, where he had Wordsworth for a neighbour, with whom he formed an intimate association. About 1796 he fell into the fatal habit of taking laudanum, which had such disastrous effects upon his character and powers of will. In the same year _Poems on various Subjects_ appeared, and a little later _Ode to the Departing Year_. While at Nether Stowey he was practically supported by Thomas Poole, a tanner, with whom he had formed a friendship. Here he wrote _The Ancient Mariner_, the first part of _Christabel_ and _Kubla Khan_, and here he joined with Wordsworth in producing the _Lyrical Ballads_. Some time previously he had become a Unitarian, and was much engaged as a preacher in that body, and for a short time acted as a minister at Shrewsbury. Influenced by Josiah and Thomas Wedgwood, who each in 1798 gave him an annuity of £75 on condition of his devoting himself to literature, he resigned this position, and soon afterwards went to Germany, where he remained for over a year, an experience which profoundly influenced the future development of his intellect. On his return he made excursions with Southey and Wordsworth, and at the end of 1799 went to London, where he wrote and reported for the _Morning Post_. His great translation of Schiller's _Wallenstein_ appeared in 1800. In the same year he migrated to Greta Hall, near Keswick, where he wrote the second part of _Christabel_. Soon after this his health gave way, and he suffered much; and, whether as the cause or the consequence of this, he had become a slave to opium. In 1804 he went to Malta in search of health, and there became the friend of the governor, Sir Alexander Ball, who appointed him his sec., in which position he showed remarkable capacity for affairs. Resigning this occupation, of which he had become tired, he travelled in Italy, and in the beginning of 1806 reached Rome, where he enjoyed the friendship of Tieck, Humboldt, and Bunsen. He returned to England in the end of 1806, and in 1808 delivered his first course of lectures on Shakespeare at the Royal Institution, and thereafter (1809), leaving his family at Keswick, he went to live with Wordsworth at Grasmere. Here he started _The Friend_, a philosophical and theological periodical, which lasted for 9 months. That part of his annuity contributed by T. Wedgwood had been confirmed to him by will in 1805, and this he allowed to his wife, but in 1811 the remaining half was stopped. He delivered a second course of lectures in London, and in 1813 his drama, _Remorse_, was acted at Drury Lane with success. Leaving his family dependent upon Southey, he lived with various friends, first, from 1816 to 1819, with John Morgan at Calne. While there he _pub._ _Christabel_ and _Kubla Khan_ in 1816, and in 1817 _Biographia Literaria_, _Sybilline Leaves_, and an autobiography. In 1818 he appeared for the last time as a lecturer. He found in 1819 a final resting-place in the household of James Gillman, a surgeon, at Highgate. His life thenceforth was a splendid wreck. His nervous system was shattered, and he was a constant sufferer. Yet these last years were, in some respects, his best. He maintained a struggle against opium which lasted with his life, and though he ceased to write much, he became the revered centre of a group of disciples, including such men as Sterling, Maurice, and Hare, and thus indirectly continued and increased his influence in the philosophic and theological thought of his time. He returned to Trinitarianism, and a singular and childlike humility became one of his most marked characteristics. In 1824 he was elected an Associate of the Royal Society of Literature, which brought him a pension of 100 guineas. His latest publications were _Aids to Reflection_ (1825) and _The Constitution of Church and State_. After his death there were _pub._, among other works, _Table Talk_ (1835), _Confessions of an Enquiring Spirit_ (1840), _Letters_ and _Anima Poetæ_ (1895).

Endowed with an intellect of the first order, and an imagination at once delicate and splendid, C., from a weakness of moral constitution, and the lamentable habit already referred to, fell far short of the performance which he had planned, and which included various epic poems, and a complete system of philosophy, in which all knowledge was to be co-ordinated. He has, however, left enough poetry of such excellence as to place him in the first rank of English poets, and enough philosophic, critical, and theological matter to constitute him one of the principal intellectually formative forces of his time. His knowledge of philosophy, science, theology, and literature was alike wide and deep, and his powers of conversation, or rather monologue, were almost unique. A description of him in later life tells of "the clerical-looking dress, the thick, waving, silver hair, the youthful coloured cheek, the indefinable mouth and lips, the quick, yet steady and penetrating greenish-grey eye, the slow and continuous enunciation, and the everlasting music of his tones."

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1772, _ed._ Christ's Hospital and Camb., enlists 1794 but bought off, became intimate with Southey, and proposes to found pantisocracy, settles at Clevedon and Nether Stowey 1795, and became friend of Wordsworth, began to take opium 1796, writes _Ancient Mariner_, and joins W. in _Lyrical Ballads_, became Unitarian preacher, visits Germany 1798, _pub._ translation of _Wallenstein_ 1800, settles at Greta Hall and finishes _Christabel_, goes to Malta 1804, lectures on Shakespeare 1808, leaves his family and lives with W. 1809, and thereafter with various friends, latterly with Gillman at Highgate, returned to Trinitarianism, _pub._ various works 1808-1825, _d._ 1834.

_S.T. Coleridge, a Narrative_, J.D. Campbell (1893), also H.D. Traill (Men of Letters Series, 1884), also Pater's _Appreciations_, De Quincey's Works, Principal Shairp's _Studies in Poetry and Philosophy_ (1868).

COLERIDGE, SARA (1802-1852).--Miscellaneous writer, the only _dau._ of the above, _m._ her cousin, Henry Nelson C. She translated Dobrizhöffer's _Account of the Abipones_, and _The Joyous and Pleasant History ... of the Chevalier Bayard_. Her original works are _Pretty Lessons in Verse_, etc. (1834), which was very popular, and a fairy tale, _Phantasmion_. She also ed. her father's works, to which she added an essay on Rationalism.

COLET, JOHN (1467-1519).--Scholar and theologian, was _b._ in London, the _s._ of a wealthy citizen, who was twice Lord Mayor. The only survivor of a family of 22, he went to Oxf. and Paris, and thence to Italy, where he learned Greek. He entered the Church, and held many preferments, including the Deanery of St. Paul's. He continued to follow out his studies, devoting himself chiefly to St. Paul's epistles. He was outspoken against the corruptions of the Church, and would have been called to account but for the protection of Archbishop Warham. He devoted his great fortune to founding and endowing St. Paul's School. Among his works are a treatise on the Sacraments and various devotional writings. It is rather for his learning and his attitude to the advancement of knowledge than for his own writings that he has a place in the history of English literature.

COLLIER, JEREMY (1650-1726).--Church historian and controversialist, _b._ at Stow, Cambridgeshire, _ed._ at Ipswich and Camb., entered the Church, and became Rector of Ampton, Suffolk, lecturer of Gray's Inn, London, and ultimately a nonjuring bishop. He was a man of war from his youth, and was engaged in controversies almost until his death. His first important one was with Gilbert Burnet, and led to his being imprisoned in Newgate. He was, however, a man of real learning. His chief writings are his _Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain_ (1708-1714), and especially his _Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage_ (1699), on account of which he was attacked by Congreve and Farquhar, for whom, however, he showed himself more than a match. The work materially helped towards the subsequent purification of the stage.

COLLINS, JOHN (_d._ 1808).--Actor and writer, was a staymaker, but took to the stage, on which he was fairly successful. He also gave humorous entertainments and _pub._ _Scripscrapologia_, a book of verses. He is worthy of mention for the little piece, _To-morrow_, beginning "In the downhill of life when I find I'm declining," characterised by Palgrave as "a truly noble poem."

COLLINS, JOHN CHURTON (1848-1908).--Writer on literature and critic, _b._ in Gloucestershire, and _ed._ at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and Oxf., became in 1894 Prof. of English Literature at Birmingham. He wrote books on _Sir J. Reynolds_ (1874), _Voltaire in England_ (1886), _Illustrations of Tennyson_ (1891), and also on Swift and Shakespeare, various collections of essays, _Essays and Studies_ (1895), and _Studies in Poetry and Criticism_ (1905), etc., and he issued ed. of the works of C. Tourneur, Greene, Dryden, Herbert of Cherbury, etc.

COLLINS, MORTIMER (1827-1876).--Novelist, _s._ of a solicitor at Plymouth, was for a time a teacher of mathematics in Guernsey. Settling in Berkshire he adopted a literary life, and was a prolific author, writing largely for periodicals. He also wrote a good deal of occasional and humorous verse, and several novels, including _Sweet Anne Page_ (1868), _Two Plunges for a Pearl_ (1872), _Mr. Carrington_ (1873), under the name of "R.T. Cotton," and _A Fight with Fortune_ (1876).

COLLINS, WILLIAM (1721-1759).--Poet, _s._ of a respectable hatter at Chichester, where he was _b._ He was _ed._ at Chichester, Winchester, and Oxf. His is a melancholy career. Disappointed with the reception of his poems, especially his Odes, he sank into despondency, fell into habits of intemperance, and after fits of melancholy, deepening into insanity, _d._ a physical and mental wreck. Posterity has signally reversed the judgment of his contemporaries, and has placed him at the head of the lyrists of his age. He did not write much, but all that he wrote is precious. His first publication was a small vol. of poems, including the _Persian_ (afterwards called _Oriental_) _Eclogues_ (1742); but his principal work was his _Odes_ (1747), including those to _Evening_ and _The Passions_, which will live as long as the language. When Thomson died in 1748 C., who had been his friend, commemorated him in a beautiful ode. Another--left unfinished--that on the _Superstitions of the Scottish Highlands_, was for many years lost sight of, but was discovered by Dr. Alex. Carlyle (_q.v._). C.'s poetry is distinguished by its high imaginative quality, and by exquisitely felicitous descriptive phrases.

_Memoirs_ prefixed to Dyce's ed. of Poems (1827), Aldine ed., Moy Thomas, 1892.

COLLINS, WILLIAM WILKIE (1824-1889).--Novelist, _s._ of William C., R.A., entered Lincoln's Inn, and was called to the Bar 1851, but soon relinquished law for literature. His first novel was _Antonina_ (1850), a historical romance. He found his true field, however, in the novel of modern life, in which his power lies chiefly in the construction of a skilful plot, which holds the attention of the reader and baffles his curiosity to the last. In Count Fosco, however, he has contributed an original character to English fiction. Among his numerous novels two, _The Woman in White_ (1860), and _The Moonstone_ (1868), stand out pre-eminent. Others are _The Dead Secret_ (1857), _Armadale_ (1866), _No Name_ (1862), _After Dark, "I say No,"_ etc. He collaborated with Dickens in _No Thoroughfare_.

COLMAN, GEORGE, THE ELDER (1732-1794).--Dramatist, _b._ at Florence, where his _f._ was British Envoy, he was a friend of Garrick, and took to writing for the stage with success. He wrote more than 30 dramatic pieces, of which the best known are _The Jealous Wife_ (1761), and _The Clandestine Marriage_ (1766). C. was also manager and part proprietor of various theatres. He was a scholar and translated Terence and the _De Arte Poetica_ of Horace, wrote essays, and ed. Beaumont and Fletcher and B. Jonson.

COLMAN, GEORGE, THE YOUNGER (1762-1836).--Dramatist, _s._ of the preceding, wrote or adapted numerous plays, including _The Heir at Law_ and _John Bull_. He was Examiner of Plays (1824-1836). Many of his plays are highly amusing, and keep their place on the stage. His wit made him popular in society, and he was a favourite with George IV.

COLTON, CHARLES CALEB (1780-1832).--Miscellaneous writer, _ed._ at Eton and Camb., took orders and held various livings. He was an eccentric man of talent, with little or no principle, took to gaming, and had to leave the country. He _d._ by his own hand. His books, mainly collections of epigrammatic aphorisms and short essays on conduct, etc., though now almost forgotten, had a phenomenal popularity in their day. Among them are _Lacon, or Many Things in Few Words_, and a few poems.

COMBE, GEORGE (1788-1858).--Writer on phrenology and education, _b._ in Edin., where for some time he practised as a lawyer. Latterly, however, he devoted himself to the promotion of phrenology, and of his views on education, for which he in 1848 founded a school. His chief work was _The Constitution of Man_ (1828).

COMBE, WILLIAM (1741-1823).--Miscellaneous writer. His early life was that of an adventurer, his later was passed chiefly within the "rules" of the King's Bench prison. He is chiefly remembered as the author of _The Three Tours of Dr. Syntax_, a comic poem (?). His cleverest piece of work was a series of imaginary letters, supposed to have been written by the second, or "wicked" Lord Lyttelton. Of a similar kind were his letters between Swift and Stella. He also wrote the letterpress for various illustrated books, and was a general hack.

CONGREVE, WILLIAM (1670-1729).--Dramatist, was _b._ in Yorkshire. In boyhood he was taken to Ireland, and _ed._ at Kilkenny and at Trinity Coll., Dublin. In 1688 he returned to England and entered the Middle Temple, but does not appear to have practised, and took to writing for the stage. His first comedy, _The Old Bachelor_, was produced with great applause in 1693, and was followed by _The Double Dealer_ (1693), _Love for Love_ (1695), and _The Way of the World_ (1700), and by a tragedy, _The Mourning Bride_ (1697). His comedies are all remarkable for wit and sparkling dialogue, but their profanity and licentiousness have driven them from the stage. These latter qualities brought them under the lash of Jeremy Collier (_q.v._) in his _Short View of the English Stage_. Congreve rushed into controversy with his critic who, however, proved too strong for him. C. was a favourite at Court, and had various lucrative offices conferred upon him. In his latter years he was blind; otherwise his life was prosperous, and he achieved his chief ambition of being admired as a fine gentleman and gallant. _Life_, Gosse (1888). _Works_, ed. by Henley (1895), also Mermaid Series (1888).

CONINGTON, JOHN (1825-1869).--Translator, _s._ of a clergyman at Boston, Lincolnshire, where he was _b._, _ed._, at Rugby and Magdalen and Univ. Coll., Oxf., and began the study of law, but soon relinquished it, and devoting himself to scholarship, became Prof. of Latin at Oxf. (1854-1869). His chief work is his translation of Virgil's _Æneid_ in the octosyllabic metre of Scott (1861-68). He also translated the _Satires_ and _Epistles_ of Horace in Pope's couplets, and completed Worsley's _Iliad_ in Spenserian stanza. He also brought out valuable ed. of Virgil and Perseus. C. was one of the greatest translators whom England has produced.

CONSTABLE, HENRY (1562-1613).--Poet, _s._ of Sir Robert C., _ed._ at Camb., but becoming a Roman Catholic, went to Paris, and acted as an agent for the Catholic powers. He _d._ at Liège. In 1592 he _pub._ _Diana_, a collection of sonnets, and contributed to _England's Helicon_ four poems, including _Diaphenia_ and _Venus and Adonis_. His style is characterised by fervour and richness of colour.

COOKE, JOHN ESTEN (1830-1886).--Novelist, _b._ in Virginia, illustrated the life and history of his native state in the novels, _The Virginia Comedians_ (1854), and _The Wearing of the Gray_, a tale of the Civil War, and more formally in an excellent History of the State. His style was somewhat high-flown.

COOPER, JAMES FENIMORE (1789-1851).--Novelist, _b._ at Burlington, New Jersey, and _ed._ at Yale Coll., he in 1808 entered the U.S. Navy, in which he remained for 3 years, an experience which was of immense future value to him as an author. It was not until 1821 that his first novel, _Precaution_, appeared. Its want of success did not discourage him, and in the next year (1822), he produced _The Spy_, which at once gained him a high place as a story-teller. He wrote over 30 novels, of which may be mentioned _The Pioneers_ (1823), _The Pilot_ (1823), _The Last of the Mohicans_ (1826), _The Prairie_ (1826), _The Red Rover_ (1831), _The Bravo_ (1840), _The Pathfinder_, _The Deerslayer_ (1841), _The Two Admirals_ (1842), and _Satanstoe_ (1845). He also wrote a _Naval History of the United States_ (1839). C. was possessed of remarkable narrative and descriptive powers, and could occasionally delineate character. He had the merit of opening up an entirely new field, and giving expression to the spirit of the New World, but his true range was limited, and he sometimes showed a lack of judgment in choosing subjects with which he was not fitted to deal. He was a proud and combative but honest and estimable man.

COOPER, THOMAS (1805-1892).--Chartist poet, was _b._ at Leicester, and apprenticed to a shoemaker. In spite of hardships and difficulties, he _ed._ himself, and at 23 was a schoolmaster. He became a leader and lecturer among the Chartists, and in 1842 was imprisoned in Stafford gaol for two years, where he wrote his _Purgatory of Suicides_, a political epic. At the same time he adopted sceptical views, which he continued to hold until 1855, when he became a Christian, joined the Baptists, and was a preacher among them. In his latter years he settled down into an old-fashioned Radical. His friends in 1867 raised an annuity for him, and in the last year of his life he received a government pension. In addition to his poems he wrote several novels. Somewhat impulsive, he was an honest and sincere man.

CORBET, RICHARD (1582-1635).--Poet, _s._ of a gardener, was _ed._ at Westminster School and Oxf., and entered the Church, in which he obtained many preferments, and rose to be Bishop successively of Oxf. and Norwich. He was celebrated for his wit, which not seldom passed into buffoonery. His poems, which are often mere doggerel, were not _pub._ until after his death. They include _Journey to France_, _Iter Boreale_, the account of a tour from Oxf. to Newark, and the _Farewell to the Fairies_.

CORNWALL, BARRY, _see_ PROCTER, B.W.

CORY, WILLIAM JOHNSON (1823-1892).--Poet, _b._ at Torrington, and _ed._ at Eton, where he was afterwards a master. He was a brilliant writer of Latin verse. His chief poetical work is _Ionica_, containing poems in which he showed a true lyrical gift.

CORYATE, or CORYATT, THOMAS (1577-1617).--Poet, _b._ at Odcombe, Somerset, and _ed._ at Westminster and Oxf., entered the household of Prince Henry. In 1608 he made a walking tour in France, Italy, and Germany, walking nearly 2000 miles in one pair of shoes, which were, until 1702, hung up in Odcombe Church, and known as "the thousand mile shoes." He gave an amusing account of this in his _Coryate's Crudities hastily gobbled up_ (1611), prefixed to which were commendatory verses by many contemporary poets. A sequel, _Coryate's Crambé_, or _Colewort twice Sodden_ followed. Next year (1612) C. bade farewell to his fellow-townsmen, and set out on another journey to Greece, Egypt, and India, from which he never returned. He _d._ at Surat. Though odd and conceited, C. was a close observer, and took real pains in collecting information as to the places he visited.

COSTELLO, LOUISA STUART (1799-1877).--Poet and novelist, _b._ in Ireland, lived chiefly in Paris, where she was a miniature-painter. In 1815 she _pub._ _The Maid of the Cyprus Isle_, etc. (poems). She also wrote books of travel, which were very popular, as were her novels, chiefly founded on French history. Another work, _pub._ in 1835, is _Specimens of the Early Poetry of France_.

COTTON, CHARLES (1630-1687).--Poet and translator, succeeded to an embarrassed estate, which his happy-go-lucky methods did not improve, wrote burlesques on _Virgil_ and _Lucian_, and made an excellent translation of _Montaigne's Essays_, also a humorous _Journey to Ireland_. C. was the friend of Izaak Walton, and wrote a second part of _The Complete Angler_. He was apparently always in difficulties, always happy, and always a favourite.

COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE (1571-1631).--Antiquary, _b._ at Denton, Hunts, and _ed._ at Camb., was a great collector of charters and records throwing light upon English history, and co-operated with Camden (_q.v._). Among his works are a history of the _Raigne of Henry III._ (1627). He was the collector of the Cottonian library, now in the British Museum, and was the author of various political tracts.

COUSIN, ANNE ROSS (CUNDELL) (1824-1906).--Poetess, only _dau._ of D.R. Cundell, M.D., Leith, _m._ 1847 Rev. Wm. Cousin, minister of the Free Church of Scotland, latterly at Melrose. Some of her hymns, especially "The Sands of Time are sinking," are known and sung over the English-speaking world. A collection of her poems, _Immanuel's Land and Other Pieces_, was _pub._ in 1876 under her initials A.R.C., by which she was most widely known.

COVERDALE, MILES (1488-1568).--Translator of the Bible, _b._ in Yorkshire, and _ed._ at Camb. Originally an Augustinian monk, he became a supporter of the Reformation. In 1535 his translation of the Bible was _pub._, probably at Zurich. It bore the title, _Biblia, the Bible: that is the Holy Scripture of the Olde and New Testament faithfully and newly translated out of the Doutche and Latyn into English_. C. was made Bishop of Exeter in 1551, but, on the accession of Mary, he was imprisoned for two years, at the end of which he was released and went to Denmark and afterwards to Geneva. On the death of Mary he returned to England, but the views he had imbibed in Geneva were adverse to his preferment. He ultimately, however, received a benefice in London, which he resigned before his death. Besides the Bible he translated many treatises of the Continental Reformers.

COWLEY, ABRAHAM (1618-1667).--Poet, _s._ of a grocer or stationer in London, where he was _b._ In childhood he was greatly influenced by reading Spenser, a copy of whose poems was in the possession of his mother. This, he said, made him a poet. His first book, _Poetic Blossoms_ (1633), was _pub._ when he was only 15. After being at Westminster School he went to Camb., where he was distinguished for his graceful translations. On the outbreak of the Civil War he joined the Royalists, was turned out of his college, and in 1646 followed the Queen to Paris, where he remained for 10 or 12 years, during which he rendered unwearied service to the royal family. At the Restoration he wrote some loyal odes, but was disappointed by being refused the Mastership of the Savoy, and retired to the country. He received a lease of Crown lands, but his life in the country did not yield him the happiness he expected. He is said by Pope to have _d._ of a fever brought on by lying in the fields after a drinking-bout. The drinking-bout, however, is perhaps an ill-natured addition. C.'s fame among his contemporaries was much greater than that which posterity has accorded to him. His poems are marred by conceits and a forced and artificial brilliancy. In some of them, however, he sings pleasantly of gardens and country scenes. They comprise _Miscellanies_, _The Mistress, or Love Poems_ (1647), _Pindaric Odes_, and _The Davideis_, an epic on David (unfinished). He is at his best in such imitations of Anacreon as _The Grasshopper_. His prose, especially in his Essays, though now almost unread, is better than his verse; simple and manly, it sometimes rises to eloquence. C. is buried in Westminster Abbey near Spenser.

Ed., Grosart (1881), Waller (1903).

COWPER, WILLIAM (1731-1800).--Poet, was the _s._ of the Rev. John C., Rector of Great Berkhampstead, Herts, and Chaplain to George II. His grandfather was a judge, and he was the grand-nephew of the 1st Earl C., the eminent Lord Chancellor. A shy and timid child, the death of his mother when he was 6 years old, and the sufferings inflicted upon him by a bullying schoolfellow at his first school, wounded his tender and shrinking spirit irrecoverably. He was sent to Westminster School, where he had for schoolfellows Churchill, the poet (_q.v._), and Warren Hastings. The powerful legal influence of his family naturally suggested his being destined for the law, and at 18 he entered the chambers of a solicitor, where he had for a companion Thurlow, the future Chancellor, a truly incongruous conjunction; the pair, however, seem to have got on well together, and employed their time chiefly in "giggling and making giggle." He then entered the Middle Temple, and in 1754 was called to the Bar. This was perhaps the happiest period of his life, being enlivened by the society of two cousins, Theodora and Harriet C. With the former he fell in love; but his proposal of marriage was opposed by her _f._, who had observed symptoms of morbidity in him, and he never met her again. The latter, as Lady Hesketh, was in later days one of his most intimate friends. In 1759 he received a small sinecure appointment as Commissioner of Bankrupts, which he held for 5 years, and in 1763, through the influence of a relative, he received the offer of the desirable office of Clerk of the Journals to the House of Lords. He accepted the appointment, but the dread of having to make a formal appearance before the House so preyed upon his mind as to induce a temporary loss of reason, and he was sent to an asylum at St. Albans, where he remained for about a year. He had now no income beyond a small sum inherited from his _f._, and no aims in life; but friends supplemented his means sufficiently to enable him to lead with a quiet mind the life of retirement which he had resolved to follow. He went to Huntingdon, and there made the acquaintance of the Unwins, with whom he went to live as a boarder. The acquaintance soon ripened into a close friendship, and on the death, from an accident (1767), of Mr. U., C. accompanied his widow (the "Mary" of his poems) to Olney, where the Rev. John Newton (_q.v._) was curate. N. and C. became intimate friends, and collaborated in producing the well-known _Olney Hymns_, of which 67 were composed by C. He became engaged to Mary Unwin, but a fresh attack of his mental malady in 1773 prevented their marriage. On his recovery he took to gardening, and amused himself by keeping pets, including the hares "Tiny" and "Puss," and the spaniel "Beau," immortalised in his works. The chief means, however, which he adopted for keeping his mind occupied and free from distressing ideas was the cultivation of his poetic gift. At the suggestion of Mrs. U., he wrote _The Progress of Error_; _Truth, Table Talk, Expostulation, Hope, Charity, Conversation_, and _Retirement_ were added, and the whole were _pub._ in one vol. in 1782. Though not received with acclamation, its signal merits of freshness, simplicity, graceful humour, and the pure idiomatic English in which it was written gradually obtained recognition, and the fame of the poet-recluse began to spread. His health had now become considerably re-established, and he enjoyed an unwonted measure of cheerfulness, which was fostered by the friendship of Lady Austin, who had become his neighbour. From her he received the story of John Gilpin, which he forthwith turned into his immortal ballad. Hers also was the suggestion that he should write a poem in blank verse, which gave its origin to his most famous poem, _The Task_. Before it was _pub._, however, the intimacy had, apparently owing to some little feminine jealousies, been broken off. _The Task_ was _pub._ in 1785, and met with immediate and distinguished success. Although not formally or professedly, it was, in fact, the beginning of an uprising against the classical school of poetry, and the founding of a new school in which nature was the teacher. As Dr. Stopford Brooke points out, "Cowper is the first of the poets who loves Nature entirely for her own sake," and in him "the idea of Mankind as a whole is fully formed." About this time he resumed his friendship with his cousin, Lady Hesketh, and, encouraged by her, he began his translation of _Homer_, which appeared in 1791. Before this he had removed with Mrs. U. to the village of Weston Underwood. His health had again given way; and in 1791 Mrs. U. became paralytic, and the object of his assiduous and affectionate care. A settled gloom with occasional brighter intervals was now falling upon him. He strove to fight it by engaging in various translations, and in revising his _Homer_, and undertaking a new ed. of Milton, which last was, however, left unfinished. In 1794 a pension of £300 was conferred upon him, and in 1795 he removed with Mrs. U., now a helpless invalid, to East Dereham. Mrs. U. _d._ in the following year, and three years later his own death released him from his heavy burden of trouble and sorrow. His last poem was _The Castaway_, which, with its darkness almost of despair, shows no loss of intellectual or poetic power. In addition to his reputation as a poet C. has that of being among the very best of English letter-writers, and in this he shows, in an even easier and more unstudied manner, the same command of pure idiomatic English, the same acute observation, and the same mingling of gentle humour and melancholy. In literature C. is the connecting link between the classical school of Pope and the natural school of Burns, Crabbe, and Wordsworth, having, however, much more in common with the latter.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1731, _ed._ Westminster School, entered Middle Temple and called to the Bar, 1754, appointed Clerk of Journals of House of Lords, but mind gave way 1763, lives with the Unwins, became intimate with J. Newton and with him writes _Olney Hymns_, _pub._ _Poems_ (_Progress of Error_, etc.), 1782, _Task_ 1785, _Homer_ 1791, _d._ 1731.

The standard ed. of C.'s works is Southey's, with memoir (15 vols. 1834-37). Others are the Aldine (1865), the Globe (1870). There are _Lives_ by Hayley (2 vols., 1805), Goldwin Smith (Men of Letters Series), and T. Wright.

COXE, WILLIAM (1747-1828).--Historian, was _b._ in London, and _ed._ at Eton and Camb. As tutor to various young men of family he travelled much on the Continent, and _pub._ accounts of his journeys. His chief historical work is his _Memoirs of the House of Austria_ (1807), and he also wrote lives of Walpole, Marlborough, and others. He had access to valuable original sources, and his books, though somewhat heavy, are on the whole trustworthy, notwithstanding a decided Whig bias. He was a clergyman, and _d._ Archdeacon of Wilts.

CRABBE, GEORGE (1754-1832).--Poet, _b._ at Aldborough, Suffolk, where his _f._ was collector of salt dues, he was apprenticed to a surgeon, but, having no liking for the work, went to London to try his fortune in literature. Unsuccessful at first, he as a last resource wrote a letter to Burke enclosing some of his writings, and was immediately befriended by him, and taken into his own house, where he met Fox, Reynolds, and others. His first important work, _The Library_, was _pub._ in 1781, and received with favour. He took orders, and was appointed by the Duke of Rutland his domestic chaplain, residing with him at Belvoir Castle. Here in 1783 he _pub._ _The Village_, which established his reputation, and about the same time he was presented by Lord Thurlow to two small livings. He was now secured from want, made a happy marriage, and devoted himself to literary and scientific pursuits. The _Newspaper_ appeared in 1785, and was followed by a period of silence until 1807, when he came forward again with _The Parish Register_, followed by _The Borough_ (1810), _Tales in Verse_ (1812), and his last work, _Tales of the Hall_ (1817-18). In 1819 Murray the publisher gave him £3000 for the last named work and the unexpired copyright of his other poems. In 1822 he visited Sir Walter Scott at Edinburgh. Soon afterwards his health began to give way, and he _d._ in 1832. C. has been called "the poet of the poor." He describes in simple, but strong and vivid, verse their struggles, sorrows, weaknesses, crimes, and pleasures, sometimes with racy humour, oftener in sombre hues. His pathos, sparingly introduced, goes to the heart; his pictures of crime and despair not seldom rise to the terrific, and he has a marvellous power of painting natural scenery, and of bringing out in detail the beauty and picturesqueness of scenes at first sight uninteresting, or even uninviting. He is absolutely free from affectation or sentimentality, and may be regarded as one of the greatest masters of the realistic in our literature. With these merits he has certain faults, too great minuteness in his pictures, too frequent dwelling upon the sordid and depraved aspects of character, and some degree of harshness both in matter and manner, and not unfrequently a want of taste.

_Life_ prefixed to ed. of works by his son (1834), Ainger (Men of Letters, 1903). Works (Ward, 3 vols., 1906-7).

CRAIGIE, MRS. PEARL MARY TERESA (RICHARDS) (1867-1906).--_Dau._ of John Morgan, R. _b._ in Boston, Massachusetts. Most of her education was received in London and Paris, and from childhood she was a great reader and observer. At 19 she _m._ Mr. R.W. Craigie, but the union did not prove happy and was, on her petition, dissolved. In 1902 she became a Roman Catholic. She wrote, under the pseudonym of "John Oliver Hobbes," a number of novels and dramas, distinguished by originality of subject and treatment, brightness of humour, and finish of style, among which may be mentioned _Some Emotions and a Moral_, _The Gods, Some Mortals and Lord Wickenham_ (1895), _The Herb Moon_ and _The School for Saints_ (1897), and _Robert Orange_ (1900), _The Dream and The Business_ (1907). Her dramas include _The Ambassador_ and _The Bishop's Move_.

CRAIK, GEORGE LILLIE (1798-1866).--Writer on English literature, etc., _b._ at Kennoway, Fife, and _ed._ at St. Andrews, went to London in 1824, where he wrote largely for the "Society for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge." In 1849 he was appointed Prof. of English Literature and History at Belfast. Among his books are _The Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties_ (1831), _History of British Commerce_ (1844), and _History of English Literature and the English Language_ (1861). He was also joint author of _The Pictorial History of England_, and wrote books on Spenser and Bacon.

CRANMER, THOMAS (1489-1556).--Theologian and Churchman, _b._ at Aslacton, Notts, _ed._ at Camb., and became an eminent classical and biblical scholar. He supported Henry VIII. in his divorce proceedings against Queen Catherine, gained the King's favour, and obtained rapid preferment, ending with the Primacy. He was one of the chief promoters of the Reformation in England. On the accession of Mary, he was committed to the Tower, and after a temporary failure of courage and constancy, suffered martyrdom at the stake. It is largely to C. that we owe the stately forms of the Book of Common Prayer. He also wrote over 40 works, and composed several hymns; but the influence of the Prayer-book in fixing the language is his great, though indirect, service to our literature.

Fox's _Book of Martyrs_, Strype's _Memorials of Cranmer_, Hook's _Lives of Archbishops of Canterbury_, etc.

CRASHAW, RICHARD (1613?-1649).--Poet, _s._ of William C., a Puritan divine, was _b._ in London, and _ed._ at Charterhouse and Camb., where he became a Fellow of Peterhouse, from which, however, he was, in 1643, ejected for refusing to take the Solemn League and Covenant. Thereafter he went to France, and joined the Roman communion. He suffered great straits, being almost reduced to starvation, but was, through the influence of Queen Henrietta Maria, appointed Sec. to Cardinal Palotta. About 1649 he went to Italy, and in the following year became a canon of the Church of Loretto. He _d._ the same year. C. is said to have been an eloquent preacher, and was a scholar as well as a poet of a high order in the ecstatic and transcendental style. His chief work is _Steps to the Temple_ (1646), consisting mainly of religious poems somewhat in the style of Herbert; his _Weeping of the Magdalen_ is full of the most extravagant conceits, a fondness for which is, indeed, his besetting sin as a poet. His friend Cowley commemorated him in a beautiful ode.

CRAWFORD, FRANCIS MARION (1854-1909).--Novelist and historian, _s._ of Thomas C., an American sculptor, _b._ at Bagni di Lucca, Italy, and _ed._ in America, at Camb., and in Germany, he went to India and ed. _The Indian Herald_ (1879-80). Thereafter he settled in Italy, living chiefly at Sorrento, and becoming a Roman Catholic. His principal historical works are _Ave Roma Immortalis_ (1898), _The Rulers of the South_ (reprinted as _Sicily, Calabria, and Malta_, 1904), and _Venetian Gleanings_ (1905), but his reputation rests mainly on his novels, of which he wrote between 30 and 40, the best known of which are perhaps _Mr. Isaacs_ (1882), _Dr. Claudius_ (1883), _A Roman Singer_ (1884), _Marzio's Crucifix_ (1887), _Saracinesca_ (1887), _A Cigarette-maker's Romance_ (1890), generally considered his masterpiece, _Don Orsino_ (1892), _Pietro Ghisleri_ (1893), and _The Heart of Rome_ (1903). His one play is _Francesca, da Rimini_. His novels are all interesting, and written in a style of decided distinction. His historical works, though full of information, lack spirit.

CREASY, SIR EDWARD SHEPHERD (1812-1878).--Historian, _ed._ at Eton and Camb., and called to the Bar in 1837, he became in 1840 Prof. of History, London Univ., and in 1860 Chief Justice of Ceylon, when he was knighted. His best known contribution to literature is his _Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World_ (1852). Other works are _Historical and Critical Account of the Several Invasions of England_ (1852), _History of the Ottoman Turks_, and _Imperial and Colonial Institutions of the British Empire_ (1872).

CREECH, THOMAS (1659-1700).--Translator, _b._ near Sherborne, _ed._ at Oxf., became Head Master of Sherborne School. He translated _Lucretius_ in verse (1682), for which he received a Fellowship at Oxf., also Horace, Theocritus, and other classics. Owing to a disappointment in love and pecuniary difficulties he hanged himself.

CREIGHTON, MANDELL (1843-1901).--Churchman and historian, _b._ at Carlisle, and _ed._ at Durham Grammar School and Merton Coll., Oxf., he took orders, and was presented to the living of Embleton, Northumberland, in 1875, where, in addition to zealous discharge of pastoral duties, he pursued the historical studies on the results of which his reputation chiefly rests. In 1882 the first two vols. of his _History of the Papacy_ appeared, followed by two more in 1887, and a fifth in 1894. In 1884 he was appointed first Dixie Prof. of Ecclesiastical History at Camb. He ed. the _English Historical Review_ (1886-91). In 1891, after having held canonries at Worcester and Windsor, he became Bishop of Peterborough, from which he was in 1897 translated to London. His duties as Bishop of London made the completion of his great historical work an impossibility. He wrote in addition to it various text-books on history, a life of Queen Elizabeth, a memoir of Sir George Grey, and many articles and reviews. He was recognised as a leading authority on the department of history to which he had specially devoted himself, and he made his mark as a Churchman.

CROKER, JOHN WILSON (1780-1857).--Politician and miscellaneous writer. _Ed._ at Trinity Coll., Dublin, he entered Parliament as a Tory, and was appointed to various offices, including the Secretaryship of the Admiralty, which he held for 20 years. He was one of the founders of the _Quarterly Review_, and wrote some of its most violent political articles and reviews. He _pub._ in 1831 an ed. of _Boswell's Life of Johnson_. He also wrote some historical essays and satirical pieces.

CROKER, THOMAS CROFTON (1798-1854).--Irish Antiquary, _b._ at Cork, for some years held a position in the Admiralty. He devoted himself largely to the collection of ancient Irish poetry and folk-lore. Among his publications are _Researches in the South of Ireland_ (1824), _Fairy Legends and Traditions of the South of Ireland_ (1825-27), _Popular Songs of Ireland_ (1837), _Daniel O'Rourke_ (1829), and _Barney Mahoney_ (1832). He assisted in founding the "Camden" and "Percy" Societies.

CROLY, GEORGE (1780-1860).--Poet, novelist, historian, and divine, _b._ at Dublin, and _ed._ at Trinity Coll. there, he took orders and became Rector of St. Stephen's, Walbrook, and had a high reputation as a preacher. He wrote poems, dramas, satires, novels, history, and theological works, and attained some measure of success in all. Perhaps his best known works are his novels, _Salathiel_ (1829), founded on the legend of "the wandering Jew," and _Mareton_ (1846). His chief contribution to theological literature is an exposition of the Apocalypse.

CROWE, CATHERINE (STEVENS) (1800-1876).--Wrote dramas, children's books, and one or two novels, including _Susan Hopley_ (1841), and _Lilly Dawson_ (1847), but is chiefly remembered for her _Night-side of Nature_ (1848), a collection of stories of the supernatural. Though somewhat morbid she had considerable talent.

CROWE, EYRE EVANS (1799-1868).--Historian and novelist, _s._ of an officer in the army, _b._ near Southampton, and _ed._ at Trinity Coll., Dublin. He wrote several novels, including _Vittoria Colonna_, _To-day in Ireland_ (1825), _The English in France_ (1828), and _Charles Dalmer_ (1853). Among his historical works are a _History of France_ in _Lardner's Cabinet Encyclopædia_, afterwards enlarged and separately _pub._, and a _History of Louis XVIII. and Charles X._

CROWE, SIR JOSEPH ARCHER (1825-1896).--Writer on art, _s._ of the above, was _b._ in London. Most of his childhood was spent in France, and on his return to England in 1843 he became a journalist. He was then for some years engaged in educational work in India, and was afterwards war correspondent for the _Times_ on various occasions, and filled various important consular posts, for which he was in 1890 made K.C.M.G. In collaboration with G.B. Cavalcasselle, an Italian refugee, he was the author of several authoritative works on art, including _The Early Flemish Painters_ (1856), _A New History of Painting in Italy_ (1864-68), _A History of Painting in North Italy_ (1871), _Titian, His Life and Times_ (1877), and _Raphael, His Life and Works_ (1883-85). The actual writing of all these was the work of C.

CROWE, WILLIAM (1745-1829).--Poet, _b._ at Midgham, Berks, the _s._ of a carpenter, was _ed._ as a foundationer at Winchester, whence he proceeded to Oxf., where he became Public Orator. He wrote a smooth, but somewhat conventional poem, _Lewesdon Hill_ (1789), ed. Collins's Poems (1828), and lectured on poetry at the Royal Institution. His poems were _coll._ in 1827. C. was a clergyman and Rector of Alton Barnes, Wilts.

CROWNE, JOHN (1640?-1703).--Dramatist, returned from Nova Scotia, to which his _f._, a Nonconformist minister, had emigrated, and became gentleman usher to a lady of quality. His first play, _Juliana_, appeared in 1671. He wrote in all about 17 dramatic pieces, of which the best is _Sir Courtly Nice_ (1685), adapted from the Spanish. It is amusing, and enjoyed a long continued vogue. In general, however, C. is dull.

CUDWORTH, RALPH (1617-1688).--Divine and philosopher, _b._ at Aller, Somerset, and _ed._ at Camb., where, after being a tutor, he became Master of Clare Hall 1645, Prof. of Hebrew (1645-88), and Master of Christ's Coll., 1654. His great work is _The True Intellectual System of the Universe_ (1678). A work of vast learning and acuteness, it is directed against the infidelity of the age. C.'s candour in his statement of the opposing position was so remarkable that Dryden remarked "that he raised such strong objections against the being of a God and Providence that many thought he had not answered them." He also left in MS. a _Treatise concerning Eternal and Immutable Morality_, _pub._ in 1731.

CUMBERLAND, RICHARD (1732-1811).--Novelist and dramatist, _ed._ at Westminster and Camb., entered the diplomatic service, and filled several government appointments. His best play is _The West Indian_. His novels do not rise much above mediocrity. Along with Sir J.B. Burges he wrote an epic entitled _The Exodiad_, and he also made some translations from the Greek.

CUMMINS, MARIA SUSANNA (1827-1866).--_B._ at Salem, Mass., was well-known as the authoress of _The Lamplighter_, a somewhat sentimental tale which had very wide popularity. She wrote others, including _Mabel Vaughan_, none of which had the same success.

CUNNINGHAM, ALLAN (1784-1842).--Poet and miscellaneous writer, _b._ near Dalswinton, Dumfriesshire, in his youth knew Burns, who was a friend of his father's. He was apprenticed to a stonemason, but gave his leisure to reading and writing imitations of old Scottish ballads, which he contributed to Cromek's _Remains of Nithsdale and Galloway Song_, _pub._ in 1810, and which gained for him the friendship of Scott and Hogg. Thereafter he went to London, and became a parliamentary reporter, and subsequently assistant to Chantrey, the sculptor, but continued his literary labours, writing three novels, a life of Sir D. Wilkie, and _Lives of Eminent British Painters, Sculptors, and Architects_, besides many songs, of which the best is _A wet sheet and a flowing Sea_. He also brought out an ed. of Burns's Works. He had four sons, all of whom rose to important positions, and inherited in some degree his literary gifts.

CURTIS, GEORGE WILLIAM (1824-1892).--American essayist, editor, and journalist, contributed to _New York Tribune_, and to _Putnam's_ and _Harper's_ monthlies, in which most of his books first appeared. Among these are _Trumps_, a story of New York life, _Prue and I_, _Lotus-eating_, and the _Potiphar Papers_. C. was also one of the finest American orators of his day.

CYNEWULF (_fl._ 750).--Anglo-Saxon poet. He was probably a Northumbrian, though sometimes thought to have been a Mercian. His poems, and some others, more or less doubtfully attributed to him, are contained in the Exeter Book and the Vercelli Book. The poems which are considered to be certainly his are the _Riddles_, from hints and allusions in which is derived nearly all that is known of him, or at least of the earlier part of his life, which appears to have been that of a joyous and poetical nature, rejoicing in the beauty of the world. His next poem, _Juliana_, the legend of a virgin-martyr, indicates a transition in his spiritual life; sorrow and repentance are its predominant notes, and in these respects another poem, _St. Guthlac_, resembles it. In the _Crist_ (Christ), C. has passed through the clouds to an assured faith and peace. _The Phoenix_, and the second part of _Guthlac_, though not certainly his, are generally attributed to him. _The Fates of the Apostles_ and _Elene_ (the legend of St. Helena) are his; the _Andreas_ and _The Dream of the Roode_ are still in some respects the subject of controversy. In several of the poems the separate letters of C.'s name are introduced in a peculiar manner, and are regarded as an attesting signature. _Juliana_, _Crist_, _The Apostles_, and _Elene_ are thus said to be signed. The Exeter and Vercelli Books are collections of ancient English poems, and they are named from the places where they were found.

DALLING AND BULWER, WILLIAM HENRY LYTTON EARLE BULWER, 1ST LORD (1801-1872).--Elder brother of Lord Lytton (_q.v._), and a distinguished diplomatist. He represented England at Madrid, Washington (where he concluded the Bulwer-Clayton Treaty), Florence, Bucharest, and Constantinople, and was raised to the peerage in 1871. He was the author of a number of books of travel and biography, including _An Autumn in Greece_ (1826), a _Life of Byron_ (1835), _Historical Characters_ (1868-70), and an unfinished life of Lord Palmerston.

DAMPIER, WILLIAM (1652-1715).--Discoverer and buccaneer, _b._ near Yeovil. After various seafaring adventures, and leading a semi-piratical life, he was in 1688 marooned on Nicobar Island, but escaped to Acheen, returned to England in 1691. He _pub._ his _Voyage Round the World_ (1697), and _A Discourse of Winds_ (1699). He was then employed by government on a voyage of survey and discovery (1699-1700), in the course of which he explored the north-west coast of Australia and the coasts of New Guinea and New Britain. In 1701 he was wrecked upon Ascension Island, from which he was rescued by an East Indiaman. He was afterwards court-martialled for cruelty, and wrote an angry but unconvincing vindication. His _Voyage_ is written in a style plain and homely, but is perspicuous and interesting.

DANA, RICHARD HENRY (1787-1879).--Novelist and critic, _b._ at Camb., Mass., was called to the Bar in 1817. Among his novels are _Tom Thornton_ and _Paul Felton_, both somewhat violent and improbable tales, and his poems, which are better, include _The Buccaneer_ (1827), and _The Dying Raven_. He is, however, stronger as a critic than as a writer. He wrote largely in _The North American Review_, and for a time conducted a paper, _The Idle Man_, which contains some of his best work.

DANA, RICHARD HENRY, JR. (1815-1882).--Miscellaneous writer, _s._ of the above, _ed._ at Harvard, but on his eyesight giving way shipped as a common sailor, and gave his experiences in _Two Years before the Mast_ (1840). Called to the Bar in 1840, he became an authority on maritime law. Other books by him are _The Seaman's Friend_ (1841), and _Vacation Voyage to Cuba_ (1859).

DANIEL, SAMUEL (1562-1619).--Poet, _s._ of a music master, was _b._ near Taunton, and _ed._ at Oxf., but did not graduate. He attached himself to the Court as a kind of voluntary laureate, and in the reign of James I. was appointed "Inspector of the children of the Queen's revels," and a groom of the Queen's chamber. He is said to have enjoyed the friendship of Shakespeare and Marlowe, but was "at jealousies" with Ben Jonson. In his later years he retired to a farm which he owned in Somerset, where he _d._ D. bears the title of the "well-languaged," his style is clear and flowing, with a remarkably modern note, but is lacking in energy and fire, and is thus apt to become tedious. His works include sonnets, epistles, masques, and dramas. The most important of them is _The History of the Civil Wars between York and Lancaster_ in 8 books, _pub._ in 1604. His _Epistles_ are generally considered his best work, and his sonnets have had some modern admirers. Among his poems may be mentioned the _Complaynt of Rosamund_, _Tethys Festival_ (1610), and _Hymen's Triumph_ (1615), a masque, and _Musophilus_, a defence of learning, _Defence of Rhyme_ (1602).

DARLEY, GEORGE (1795-1846).--Poet, novelist, and critic, _b._ at Dublin, and _ed._ at Trinity Coll. there, he early decided to follow a literary career, and went to London, where he brought out his first poem, _Errors of Ecstasie_ (1822). He also wrote for the _London Magazine_, under the pseudonym of John Lacy. In it appeared his best story, _Lilian of the Vale_. Various other books followed, including _Sylvia, or The May Queen_, a poem (1827). Thereafter he joined the _Athenæum_, in which he showed himself a severe critic. He was also a dramatist and a profound student of old English plays, editing those of Beaumont and Fletcher in 1840. So deeply was he imbued with the spirit of the 17th century that his poem, "It is not beauty I desire," was included by F.T. Palgrave in the first ed. of his _Golden Treasury_ as an anonymous lyric of that age. He was also a mathematician of considerable talent, and _pub._ some treatises on the subject. D. fell into nervous depression and _d._ in 1846.

DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT (1809-1882).--Naturalist, _s._ of a physician, and grandson of Dr. Erasmus D. (_q.v._), and of Josiah Wedgwood, the famous potter, was _b._ and was at school at Shrewsbury. In 1825 he went to Edin. to study medicine, but was more taken up with marine zoology than with the regular curriculum. After two years he proceeded to Camb., where he _grad._ in 1831, continuing, however, his independent studies in natural history. In the same year came the opportunity of his life, his appointment to accompany the _Beagle_ as naturalist on a survey of South America. To this voyage, which extended over nearly five years, he attributed the first real training of his mind, and after his return _pub._ an account of it, _Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle_ (1840). After spending a few years in London arranging his collections and writing his _Journal_, he removed to Down, a retired village near the Weald of Kent, where, in a house surrounded by a large garden, his whole remaining life was passed in the patient building up, from accurate observations, of his theory of Evolution, which created a new epoch in science and in thought generally. His industry was marvellous, especially when it is remembered that he suffered from chronic bad health. After devoting some time to geology, specially to coral reefs, and exhausting the subject of barnacles, he took up the development of his favourite question, the transformation of species. In these earlier years of residence at Down he _pub._ _The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs_ (1842), and two works on the geology of volcanic islands, and of South America. After he had given much time and profound thought to the question of evolution by natural selection, and had written out his notes on the subject, he received in 1858 from Mr. A.R. Wallace (_q.v._) a manuscript showing that he also had reached independently a theory of the origin of species similar to his own. This circumstance created a situation of considerable delicacy and difficulty, which was ultimately got over by the two discoverers presenting a joint paper, _On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties_, and _On the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection_. The publication in 1859 of _The Origin of Species_ gave D. an acknowledged place among the greatest men of science, and the controversies which, along with other of his works, it raised, helped to carry his name all over the civilised world. Among his numerous subsequent writings may be mentioned _The Fertilisation of Orchids_ (1862), _Variation of Plants and Animals under Domestication_ (1868), _The Descent of Man, and Selection in relation to Sex_ (1871), _The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals_ (1872), _Insectivorous Plants_ (1875), _Climbing Plants_ (1875), _Different Forms of Flowers_ (1877), _The Power of Movement in Plants_ (1880), and _The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms_ (1881). D., with a modesty which was one of his chief characteristics, disclaimed for himself the possession of any remarkable talents except "an unusual power of noticing things which easily escape attention, and of observing them carefully." In addition, however, to this peculiar insight, he had a singular reverence for truth and fact, enormous industry, and great self-abnegation: and his kindliness, modesty, and magnanimity attracted the affection of all who knew him.

_Life and Letters_, by his son, F. Darwin, 3 vols., 1887; _C. Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection_. E.B. Poulton, 1896; various short Lives by Grant Allen and others.

DARWIN, ERASMUS (1731-1802).--Poet, physician, and scientist, was _b._ at Elston, Notts, and _ed._ at Camb. and at Edin., where he took his degree of M.D. He ultimately settled in Lichfield as a physician, and attained a high professional reputation, so much so that he was offered, but declined, the appointment of physician to George III. In 1778 he formed a botanical garden, and in 1789 _pub._ his first poem, _The Loves of the Plants_, followed in 1792 by _The Economy of Vegetation_, which combined form _The Botanic Garden_. Another poem, _The Temple of Nature_, was _pub._ posthumously. He also wrote various scientific works in prose. The poems of D., though popular in their day, are now little read. Written in polished and sonorous verse, they glitter with startling similes and ingenious, though often forced, analogies, but have little true poetry or human interest.

DASENT, SIR GEORGE WEBBE (1817-1896).--Scandinavian scholar, _b._ in the island of St. Vincent, of which his _f._ was Attorney-general, _ed._ at Westminster School, King's Coll., London, and Oxf., he entered the diplomatic service, and was for several years Sec. to the British Embassy at Stockholm, where he became interested in Scandinavian literature and mythology. Returning to England he was appointed Assistant Ed. of _The Times_ (1845-1870). In 1852 he was called to the Bar, and in the following year was appointed Prof. of English Literature and Modern History at King's Coll., London, an office which he held for 13 years. He was knighted in 1876. His principal writings have to do with Scandinavian language, mythology, and folk-lore, and include an _Icelandic Grammar_, _The Prose or Younger Edda_ (1842), _Popular Tales from the Norse_ (1859), _The Saga of Burnt Njal_ (1861), and _The Story of Gisli the Outlaw_ (1866), mostly translated from the Norwegian of Asbjörnsen. He also translated the Orkney and Hacon Sagas for the Rolls Series, and wrote four novels, _Annals of an Eventful Life_, _Three to One_, _Half a Life_, and _The Vikings of the Baltic_. His style is pointed and clear.

DAVENANT, or D'AVENANT, SIR WILLIAM (1606-1668).--Poet and dramatist, was _b._ at Oxf., where his _f._ kept an inn, which Shakespeare was in the habit of visiting. This had some influence on the future poet, who claimed to be Shakespeare's natural son. D., _ed._ at Lincoln Coll., was afterwards in the service of Lord Brooke, became involved in the troubles of the Civil War, in which he took the Royalist side, and was imprisoned in the Tower, escaped to France, and after returning was, in 1643, knighted. Later D. was employed on various missions by the King and Queen, was again in the Tower from 1650 to 1652, when he _pub._ his poem _Gondibert_. He is said to have owed his release to the interposition of Milton. In 1656 he practically founded the English Opera by his _Siege of Rhodes_ (1656). In 1659 he was again imprisoned, but after the Restoration he seems to have enjoyed prosperity and Royal favour, and established a theatre, where he was the first habitually to introduce female players and movable scenery. D. wrote 25 dramatic pieces, among which are _Albovine, King of the Lombards_ (1629), _Platonick Lovers_ (1636), _The Wits_ (1633), _Unfortunate Lovers_ (1643), _Love and Honour_ (1649). None of them are now read; and the same may be said of _Gondibert_, considered a masterpiece by contemporaries. D. succeeded Ben Jonson as Poet Laureate, and collaborated with Dryden in altering (and debasing) _The Tempest_. He _coll._ his miscellaneous verse under the title of _Madagascar_. He is said to have had the satisfaction of repaying in kind the good offices of Milton when the latter was in danger in 1660. He joined with Waller and others in founding the classical school of English poetry.

DAVIDSON, JOHN (1837-1909).--Poet and playwright, _b._ at Barrhead, Renfrewshire, _s._ of a Dissenting minister, entered the chemical department of a sugar refinery in Greenock in his 13th year, returning after one year to school as a pupil teacher. He was afterwards engaged in teaching at various places, and having taken to literature went in 1890 to London. He achieved a reputation as a writer of poems and plays of marked individuality and vivid realism. His poems include _In a Music Hall_ (1891), _Fleet Street Eclogues_ (1893), _Baptist Lake_ (1894), _New Ballads_ (1896), _The Last Ballad_ (1898), _The Triumph of Mammon_ (1907), and among his plays are _Bruce_ (1886), _Smith: a Tragic Farce_ (1888), _Godfrida_ (1898). D. disappeared on March 27, 1909, under circumstances which left little doubt that under the influence of mental depression he had committed suicide. Among his papers was found the MS. of a new work, _Fleet Street Poems_, with a letter containing the words, "This will be my last book." His body was discovered a few months later.

DAVIES, JOHN (1565?-1618).--Called "the Welsh Poet," was a writing-master, wrote very copiously and rather tediously on theological and philosophical themes. His works include _Mirum in Modum_, _Microcosmus_ (1602), and _The Picture of a Happy Man_ (1612). _Wit's Bedlam_ (1617), and many epigrams on his contemporaries which have some historical interest.

DAVIES, SIR JOHN (1569-1626).--Lawyer and poet, _s._ of a lawyer at Westbury, Wiltshire, was _ed._ at Winchester and Oxf., and became a barrister of the Middle Temple, 1595. He was a member successively of the English and Irish Houses of Commons, and held various legal offices. In literature he is known as the writer of two poems, _Orchestra: a Poem of Dancing_ (1594), and _Nosce Teipsum_ (Know Thyself), in two elegies (1) Of Humane Knowledge (2) Of the Immortality of the Soul. The poem consists of quatrains, each containing a complete and compactly expressed thought. It was _pub._ in 1599. D. was also the author of treatises on law and politics.

DAVIS, or DAVYS, JOHN (1550?-1605).--Navigator, known as D. of Sandridge to distinguish him from another of the same name. He was one of the most enterprising of the Elizabethan sailors, who devoted themselves to the discovery of the North-west Passage. Davis Strait was discovered by, and named after, him. He made many voyages, in the last of which he met his death at the hands of a Japanese pirate. He was the author of a book, now very scarce, _The World's Hydrographical Description_, and he also wrote a work on practical navigation, _The Seaman's Secrets_, which had great repute.

DAVIS, THOMAS OSBORNE (1814-1845).--Poet, _b._ at Mallow, _ed._ at Trinity Coll., Dublin, and called to the Irish Bar 1838. He was one of the founders of _The Nation_ newspaper, and of the Young Ireland party. He wrote some stirring patriotic ballads, originally contributed to _The Nation_, and afterwards republished as _Spirit of the Nation_, also a memoir of Curran the great Irish lawyer and orator, prefixed to an ed. of his speeches; and he had formed many literary plans which were brought to naught by his untimely death.

DAVY, SIR HUMPHREY (1778-1829).--Chemist and man of letters, _s._ of a wood-carver, was _b._ at Penzance. He early showed an enthusiasm for natural science, and continued to pursue his studies when apprenticed in 1795 to a surgeon. He became specially interested in chemistry, to which in 1797 he began more exclusively to devote himself. Thereafter he assisted Dr. Beddoes in his laboratory at Bristol, and entered upon his brilliant course of chemical discovery. His _Researches, Chemical, and Philosophical_ (1799), led to his appointment as Director of the Chemical Laboratory at the Royal Institution, where he also delivered courses of scientific lectures with extraordinary popularity. Thereafter his life was a succession of scientific triumphs and honours. His great discovery was that of the metallic bases of the earths and alkalis. He also discovered various metals, including sodium, calcium, and magnesium. In 1812 he was knighted, and _m._ a wealthy widow. Thereafter he investigated volcanic action and fire-damp, and invented the safety lamp. In 1818 he was _cr._ a baronet, and in 1820 became Pres. of the Royal Society, to which he communicated his discoveries in electro-magnetism. In addition to his scientific writings, which include _Elements of Agricultural Chemistry_ (1813), and _Chemical Agencies of Electricity_, he wrote _Salmonia, or Days of Fly Fishing_ (1828), somewhat modelled upon Walton, and _Consolations in Travel_ (1830), dialogues on ethical and religious questions. D. sustained an apoplectic seizure in 1826, after which his health was much impaired, and after twice wintering in Italy, he _d._ at Geneva, where he received a public funeral. Though not attached to any Church, D. was a sincerely religious man, strongly opposed to materialism and scepticism. He holds a foremost place among scientific discoverers.

DAY, JOHN (_b._ 1574).--Dramatist, _s._ of a Norfolk yeoman, was at Camb., 1592-3. It is only since 1881 that his works have been identified. He collaborated with Dekker and others in plays, and was the author of _The Isle of Gulls_ (1606), _Law Trickes_ (1608), and _Humour out of Breath_ (1608), also of an allegorical masque, _The Parliament of Bees_.

DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789).--Miscellaneous writer, was _b._ in London, _ed._ at the Charterhouse and at Oxf., and called to the Bar 1775, but having inherited in infancy an independence, he did not practise. He became a disciple of Rousseau in his social views, and endeavoured to put them in practice in combination with better morality. He was a benevolent eccentric, and used his income, which was increased by his marriage with an heiress, in schemes of social reform as he understood it. He is chiefly remembered as the author of the once universally-read _History of Sandford and Merton_.

DEFOE, DANIEL (1661?-1731).--Journalist and novelist, _s._ of a butcher in St. Giles, where he was _b._ His _f._ being a Dissenter, he was _ed._ at a Dissenting coll. at Newington with the view of becoming a Presbyterian minister. He joined the army of Monmouth, and on its defeat was fortunate enough to escape punishment. In 1688 he joined William III. Before settling down to his career as a political writer, D. had been engaged in various enterprises as a hosier, a merchant-adventurer to Spain and Portugal, and a brickmaker, all of which proved so unsuccessful that he had to fly from his creditors. Having become known to the government as an effective writer, and employed by them, he was appointed Accountant in the Glass-Duty Office, 1659-1699. Among his more important political writings are an _Essay on Projects_ (1698), and _The True-born Englishman_ (1701), which had a remarkable success. In 1702 appeared _The Shortest Way with the Dissenters_, written in a strain of grave irony which was, unfortunately for the author, misunderstood, and led to his being fined, imprisoned, and put in the pillory, which suggested his _Hymns to the Pillory_ (1704). Notwithstanding the disfavour with the government which these disasters implied, D.'s knowledge of commercial affairs and practical ability were recognised by his being sent in 1706 to Scotland to aid in the Union negotiations. In the same year _Jure Divino_, a satire, followed by a _History of the Union_ (1709), and _The Wars of Charles XII._ (1715). Further misunderstandings and disappointments in connection with political matters led to his giving up this line of activity, and, fortunately for posterity, taking to fiction. The first and greatest of his novels, _Robinson Crusoe_, appeared in 1719, and its sequel (of greatly inferior interest) in 1720. These were followed by _Captain Singleton_ (1720), _Moll Flanders_, _Colonel Jacque_, and _Journal of the Plague Year_ (1722), _Memoirs of a Cavalier_ (1724), _A New Voyage Round the World_ (1725), and _Captain Carlton_ (1728). Among his miscellaneous works are _Political History of the Devil_ (1726), _System of Magic_ (1727), _The Complete English Tradesman_ (1727), and _The Review_, a paper which he ed. In all he _pub._, including pamphlets, etc., about 250 works. All D.'s writings are distinguished by a clear, nervous style, and his works of fiction by a minute verisimilitude and naturalness of incident which has never been equalled except perhaps by Swift, whose genius his, in some other respects, resembled. The only description of his personal appearance is given in an advertisement intended to lead to his apprehension, and runs, "A middle-sized, spare man about forty years old, of a brown complexion, and dark brown-coloured hair, but wears a wig; a hooked nose, a sharp chin, grey eyes, and a large mole near his mouth." His mind was a peculiar amalgam of imagination and matter-of-fact, seeing strongly and clearly what he did see, but little conscious, apparently, of what lay outside his purview.

_Lives_ by Chalmers (1786), H. Morley (1889), T. Wright (1894), and others; shorter works by Lamb, Hazlitt, L. Stephens, and Prof. Minto, Bohn's _British Classics_, etc.

DEKKER, THOMAS (1570?-1641?).--Dramatist and miscellaneous writer, was _b._ in London. Few details of D.'s life have come down to us, though he was a well-known writer in his day, and is believed to have written or contributed to over 20 dramas. He collaborated at various times with several of his fellow-dramatists, including Ben Jonson. Ultimately Jonson quarrelled with Marston and D., satirising them in _The Poetaster_ (1601), to which D. replied in _Satiromastix_ (1602). D.'s best play is _Old Fortunatus_ (1606), others are _The Shoemaker's Holiday_ (1600), _Honest Whore_ (1604), _Roaring Girl_ (1611), _The Virgin Martyr_ (1622) (with Massinger), and _The Witch of Edmonton_ (1658) (with Ford and Rowley), _History of Sir Thomas Wyat_, _Westward Ho_, and _Northward Ho_, all with Webster. His prose writings include _The Gull's Hornbook_ (1609), _The Seven Deadly Sins of London_, and _The Belman of London_ (1608), satirical works which give interesting glimpses of the life of his time. His life appears to have been a somewhat chequered one, alternating between revelry and want. He is one of the most poetical of the older dramatists. Lamb said he "had poetry enough for anything."

DE LOLME, JOHN LOUIS (1740?-1807).--Political writer, _b._ at Geneva, has a place in English literature for his well-known work, _The Constitution of England_, written in French, and translated into English in 1775. He also wrote a comparison of the English Government with that of Sweden, a _History of the Flagellants_ (1777), and _The British Empire in Europe_ (1787). He came to England in 1769, lived in great poverty, and having inherited a small fortune, returned to his native place in 1775.

DELONEY, THOMAS (1543-1600).--Novelist and balladist, appears to have worked as a silk-weaver in Norwich, but was in London by 1586, and in the course of the next 10 years is known to have written about 50 ballads, some of which involved him in trouble, and caused him to lie _perdue_ for a time. It is only recently that his more important work as a novelist, in which he ranks with Greene and Nash, has received attention. He appears to have turned to this new field of effort when his original one was closed to him for the time. Less under the influence of Lyly and other preceding writers than Greene, he is more natural, simple, and direct, and writes of middle-class citizens and tradesmen with a light and pleasant humour. Of his novels, _Thomas of Reading_ is in honour of clothiers, _Jack of Newbury_ celebrates weaving, and _The Gentle Craft_ is dedicated to the praise of shoemakers. He "dy'd poorely," but was "honestly buried."

DE MORGAN, AUGUSTUS (1806-1871).--Mathematician, _b._ in India, and _ed._ at Camb., was one of the most brilliant of English mathematicians. He is mentioned here in virtue of his _Budget of Paradoxes_, a series of papers originally _pub._ in _The Athenæum_, in which mathematical fallacies are discussed with sparkling wit, and the keenest logic.

DENHAM, SIR JOHN (1615-1669).--Poet, _s._ of the Chief Baron of Exchequer in Ireland, was _b._ in Dublin, and _ed._ at Oxf. He began his literary career with a tragedy, _The Sophy_ (1641), which seldom rises above mediocrity. His poem, _Cooper's Hill_ (1642), is the work by which he is remembered. It is the first example in English of a poem devoted to local description. D. received extravagant praise from Johnson; but the place now assigned him is a much more humble one. His verse is smooth, clear, and agreeable, and occasionally a thought is expressed with remarkable terseness and force. In his earlier years D. suffered for his Royalism; but after the Restoration enjoyed prosperity. He, however, made an unhappy marriage, and his last years were clouded by insanity. He was an architect by profession, coming between Inigo Jones and Wren as King's Surveyor.

DENNIS, JOHN (1657-1734).--Critic, etc., _s._ of a saddler, was _b._ in London, and _ed._ at Harrow and Caius Coll., Camb., from the latter of which he was expelled for stabbing a fellow-student, and transferred himself to Trinity Hall. He attached himself to the Whigs, in whose interest he wrote several bitter and vituperative pamphlets. His attempts at play-writing were failures; and he then devoted himself chiefly to criticising the works of his contemporaries. In this line, while showing some acuteness, he aroused much enmity by his ill-temper and jealousy. Unfortunately for him, some of those whom he attacked, such as Pope and Swift, had the power of conferring upon him an unenviable immortality. Embalmed in _The Dunciad_, his name has attained a fame which no work of his own could have given it. Of Milton, however, he showed a true appreciation. Among his works are _Rinaldo and Armida_ (1699), _Appius and Virginia_ (1709), _Reflections Critical and Satirical_ (1711), and _Three Letters on Shakespeare_. He _d._ in straitened circumstances.

DE QUINCEY, THOMAS (1785-1859).--Essayist and miscellaneous writer, _s._ of a merchant in Manchester, was _b._ there. The aristocratic "De" was assumed by himself, his _f._, whom he lost while he was still a child, having been known by the name of Quincey, and he claimed descent from a Norman family. His _Autobiographic Sketches_ give a vivid picture of his early years at the family residence of Greenheys, and show him as a highly imaginative and over-sensitive child, suffering hard things at the hands of a tyrannical elder brother. He was _ed._ first at home, then at Bath Grammar School, next at a private school at Winkfield, Wilts, and in 1801 he was sent to the Manchester Grammar School, from which he ran away, and for some time rambled in Wales on a small allowance made to him by his mother. Tiring of this, he went to London in the end of 1802, where he led the strange Bohemian life related in _The Confessions_. His friends, thinking it high time to interfere, sent him in 1803 to Oxf., which did not, however, preclude occasional brief interludes in London, on one of which he made his first acquaintance with opium, which was to play so prominent and disastrous a part in his future life. In 1807 he became acquainted with Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Southey, and soon afterwards with C. Lamb. During the years 1807-9 he paid various visits to the Lakes, and in the latter year he settled at Townend, Grasmere, where Wordsworth had previously lived. Here he pursued his studies, becoming gradually more and more enslaved by opium, until in 1813 he was taking from 8000 to 12,000 drops daily. John Wilson (Christopher North), who was then living at Elleray, had become his friend, and brought him to Edinburgh occasionally, which ended in his passing the latter part of his life in that city. His marriage to Margaret Simpson, _dau._ of a farmer, took place in 1816. Up to this time he had written nothing, but had been steeping his mind in German metaphysics, and out-of-the-way learning of various kinds; but in 1819 he sketched out _Prolegomena of all future Systems of Political Economy_, which, however, was never finished. In the same year he acted as ed. of the _Westmoreland Gazette_. His true literary career began in 1821 with the publication in the _London Magazine_ of _The Confessions of an English Opium-Eater_. Thereafter he produced a long series of articles, some of them almost on the scale of books, in _Blackwood's_ and _Tait's_ magazines, the _Edinburgh Literary Gazette_, and _Hogg's Instructor_. These included _Murder considered as one of the Fine Arts_ (1827), and in his later and more important period, _Suspiria De Profundis_ (1845), _The Spanish Military Nun_ (1847), _The English Mail-Coach_, and _Vision of Sudden Death_ (1849). In 1853 he began a _coll._ ed. of his works, which was the main occupation of his later years. He had in 1830 brought his family to Edinburgh, which, except for two years, 1841-43, when he lived in Glasgow, was his home till his death in 1859, and in 1837, on his wife's death, he placed them in the neighbouring village of Lasswade, while he lived in solitude, moving about from one dingy lodging to another.

De Q. stands among the great masters of style in the language. In his greatest passages, as in the _Vision of Sudden Death_ and the _Dream Fugue_, the cadence of his elaborately piled-up sentences falls like cathedral music, or gives an abiding expression to the fleeting pictures of his most gorgeous dreams. His character unfortunately bore no correspondence to his intellectual endowments. His moral system had in fact been shattered by indulgence in opium. His appearance and manners have been thus described: "A short and fragile, but well-proportioned frame; a shapely and compact head; a face beaming with intellectual light, with rare, almost feminine beauty of feature and complexion; a fascinating courtesy of manner, and a fulness, swiftness, and elegance of silvery speech." His own works give very detailed information regarding himself. _See_ also Page's _Thomas De Quincey: his Life and Writings_ (1879), Prof. Masson's _De Quincey_ (English Men of Letters). _Collected Writings_ (14 vols. 1889-90).

DERMODY, THOMAS (1775-1802).--Poet, _b._ at Ennis, showed great capacity for learning, but fell into idle and dissipated habits, and threw away his opportunities. He _pub._ two books of poems, which after his death were _coll._ as _The Harp of Erin_.

DE VERE, AUBREY THOMAS (1814-1902).--Poet, _s._ of Sir Aubrey de V., himself a poet, was _b._ in Co. Limerick, and _ed._ at Trinity Coll., Dublin. In early life he became acquainted with Wordsworth, by whom he was greatly influenced. On the religious and ecclesiastical side he passed under the influence of Newman and Manning, and in 1851 was received into the Church of Rome. He was the author of many vols. of poetry, including _The Waldenses_ (1842), _The Search for Proserpine_ (1843), etc. In 1861 he began a series of poems on Irish subjects, _Inisfail_, _The Infant Bridal_, _Irish Odes_, etc. His interest in Ireland and its people led him to write prose works, including _English Misrule and Irish Misdeeds_ (1848); and to criticism he contributed _Essays chiefly on Poetry_ (1887). His last work was his _Recollections_ (1897). His poetry is characterised by lofty ethical tone, imaginative power, and grave stateliness of expression.

DIBDIN, CHARLES (1745-1814).--Dramatist and song writer, _b._ at Southampton, began his literary career at 16 with a drama, _The Shepherd's Artifice_. His fame, however, rests on his sea songs, which are unrivalled, and include _Tom Bowling_, _Poor Jack_, and _Blow High Blow Low_. He is said to have written over 1200 of these, besides many dramatic pieces and two novels, _Hannah Hewitt_ (1792), and _The Younger Brother_ (1793), and a _History of the Stage_ (1795).

DICKENS, CHARLES (1812-1870).--Novelist, _b._ at Landport, near Portsmouth, where his _f._ was a clerk in the Navy Pay-Office. The hardships and mortifications of his early life, his want of regular schooling, and his miserable time in the blacking factory, which form the basis of the early chapters of _David Copperfield_, are largely accounted for by the fact that his _f._ was to a considerable extent the prototype of the immortal Mr. Micawber; but partly by his being a delicate and sensitive child, unusually susceptible to suffering both in body and mind. He had, however, much time for reading, and had access to the older novelists, Fielding, Smollett, and others. A kindly relation also took him frequently to the theatre, where he acquired his life-long interest in, and love of, the stage. After a few years' residence in Chatham, the family removed to London, and soon thereafter his _f._ became an inmate of the Marshalsea, in which by-and-by the whole family joined him, a passage in his life which furnishes the material for parts of _Little Dorrit_. This period of family obscuration happily lasted but a short time: the elder D. managed to satisfy his creditors, and soon after retired from his official duties on a pension. About the same time D. had two years of continuous schooling, and shortly afterwards he entered a law office. His leisure he devoted to reading and learning shorthand, in which he became very expert. He then acted as parliamentary reporter, first for _The True Sun_, and from 1835 for the _Morning Chronicle_. Meanwhile he had been contributing to the _Monthly Magazine_ and the _Evening Chronicle_ the papers which, in 1836, appeared in a _coll._ form as _Sketches by Boz_; and he had also produced one or two comic burlettas. In the same year he _m._ Miss Ann Hogarth; and in the following year occurred the opportunity of his life. He was asked by Chapman and Hall to write the letterpress for a series of sporting plates to be done by Robert Seymour who, however, _d._ shortly after, and was succeeded by Hablot Browne (Phiz), who became the illustrator of most of D.'s novels. In the hands of D. the original plan was entirely altered, and became the _Pickwick Papers_ which, appearing in monthly parts during 1837-39, took the country by storm. Simultaneously _Oliver Twist_ was coming out in _Bentley's Miscellany_. Thenceforward D.'s literary career was a continued success, and the almost yearly publication of his works constituted the main events of his life. _Nicholas Nickleby_ appeared in serial form 1838-39. Next year he projected _Master Humphrey's Clock_, intended to be a series of miscellaneous stories and sketches. It was, however, soon abandoned, _The Old Curiosity Shop_ and _Barnaby Rudge_ taking its place. The latter, dealing with the Gordon Riots, is, with the

## partial exception of the _Tale of Two Cities_, the author's only

excursion into the historical novel. In 1841 D. went to America, and was received with great enthusiasm, which, however, the publication of _American Notes_ considerably damped, and the appearance of _Martin Chuzzlewit_ in 1843, with its caustic criticisms of certain features of American life, converted into extreme, though temporary, unpopularity. The first of the Christmas books--the _Christmas Carol_--appeared in 1843, and in the following year D. went to Italy, where at Genoa he wrote _The Chimes_, followed by _The Cricket on the Hearth_, _The Battle of Life_, and _The Haunted Man_. In January, 1846, he was appointed first ed. of _The Daily News_, but resigned in a few weeks. The same year he went to Switzerland, and while there wrote _Dombey and Son_, which was _pub._ in 1848, and was immediately followed by his masterpiece, _David Copperfield_ (1849-50). Shortly before this he had become manager of a theatrical company, which performed in the provinces, and he had in 1849 started his magazine, _Household Words_. _Bleak House_ appeared in 1852-53, _Hard Times_ in 1854, and _Little Dorrit_ 1856-57. In 1856 he bought Gadshill Place, which, in 1860, became his permanent home. In 1858 he began his public readings from his works, which, while eminently successful from a financial point of view, from the nervous strain which they entailed, gradually broke down his constitution, and hastened his death. In the same year he separated from his wife, and consequent upon the controversy which arose thereupon he brought _Household Words_ to an end, and started _All the Year Round_, in which appeared _A Tale of Two Cities_ (1859), and _Great Expectations_ (1860-61). _Our Mutual Friend_ came out in numbers (1864-65). D. was now in the full tide of his readings, and decided to give a course of them in America. Thither accordingly he went in the end of 1867, returning in the following May. He had a magnificent reception, and his profits amounted to £20,000; but the effect on his health was such that he was obliged, on medical advice, finally to abandon all appearances of the kind. In 1869 he began his last work, _The Mystery of Edwin Drood_, which was interrupted by his death from an apoplectic seizure on June 8, 1870.

One of D.'s most marked characteristics is the extraordinary wealth of his invention as exhibited in the number and variety of the characters introduced into his novels. Another, especially, of course, in his entire works, is his boundless flow of animal spirits. Others are his marvellous keenness of observation and his descriptive power. And the English race may well, with Thackeray, be "grateful for the innocent laughter, and the sweet and unsullied pages which the author of _David Copperfield_ gives to [its] children." On the other hand, his faults are obvious, a tendency to caricature, a mannerism that often tires, and almost disgusts, fun often forced, and pathos not seldom degenerating into mawkishness. But at his best how rich and genial is the humour, how tender often the pathos. And when all deductions are made, he had the laughter and tears of the English-speaking world at command for a full generation while he lived, and that his spell still works is proved by a continuous succession of new editions.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1812, parliamentary reporter _c._ 1835, _pub._ _Sketches by Boz_ 1836, _Pickwick_ 1837-39, and his other novels almost continuously until his death, visited America 1841, started _Household Words_ 1849, and _All the Year Round_ 1858, when also he began his public readings, visiting America again in 1867, _d._ 1870.

_Life_ by John Foster (1872), _Letters_ ed. by Miss Hogarth (1880-82). Numerous Lives and Monographs by Sala, F.T. Marzials (Great Writers Series), A.W. Ward (Men of Letters Series), F.G. Kitton, G.K. Chesterton, etc.

DIGBY, SIR KENELM (1603-1665).--Miscellaneous writer, _b._ near Newport Pagnell, _s._ of Sir Everard D., one of the Gunpowder Plot conspirators, was _ed._ at Oxf., travelled much, and was engaged in sea-fighting. Brought up first as a Romanist, then as a Protestant, he in 1636 joined the Church of Rome. During the Civil War he was active on the side of the King, and on the fall of his cause was for a time banished. He was the author of several books on religious and quasi-scientific subjects, including one on the _Choice of a Religion_, on the _Immortality of the Soul_, _Observations on Spenser's Faery Queen_, and a criticism on Sir T. Browne's _Religio Medici_. He also wrote a _Discourse on Vegetation_, and one _On the Cure of Wounds_ by means of a sympathetic powder which he imagined he had discovered.

DILKE, CHARLES WENTWORTH (1789-1864).--Critic and writer on literature, served for many years in the Navy Pay-Office, on retiring from which he devoted himself to literary pursuits. He had in 1814-16 made a continuation of Dodsley's _Collection of English Plays_, and in 1829 he became part proprietor and ed. of _The Athenæum_, the influence of which he greatly extended. In 1846 he resigned the editorship, and assumed that of _The Daily News_, but contributed to _The Athenæum_ his famous papers on _Pope_, _Burke_, _Junius_, etc., and shed much new light on his subjects. His grandson, the present Sir C.W. Dilke, _pub._ these writings in 1875 under the title, _Papers of a Critic_.

DISRAELI, B., (_see_ BEACONSFIELD).

D'ISRAELI, ISAAC (1766-1848).--Miscellaneous writer, was descended from a Jewish family which had been settled first in Spain, and afterwards at Venice. _Ed._ at Amsterdam and Leyden, he devoted himself to literature, producing a number of interesting works of considerable value, including _Curiosities of Literature_, in 3 series (1791-1823), _Dissertation on Anecdotes_ (1793), _Calamities of Authors_ (1812), _Amenities of Literature_ (1841); also works dealing with the lives of James I. and Charles I.D. was latterly blind. He was the _f._ of Benjamin D., Earl of Beaconsfield (_q.v._).

DIXON, RICHARD WATSON (1833-1900).--Historian and poet, _s._ of Dr. James D., a well-known Wesleyan minister and historian of Methodism, _ed._ at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and Oxf., took Anglican orders, was Second Master at Carlisle School, Vicar of Hayton and Warkworth, and Canon of Carlisle. He _pub._ 7 vols. of poetry, but is best known for his _History of the Church of England from the Abolition of Roman Jurisdiction_ (1877-1900).

DIXON, WILLIAM HEPWORTH (1821-1879).--Historian and traveller, _b._ near Manchester, went to London in 1846, and became connected with _The Daily News_, for which he wrote articles on social and prison reform. In 1850 he _pub._ _John Howard and the Prison World of Europe_, which had a wide circulation, and about the same time he wrote a _Life of Peace_ (1851), in answer to Macaulay's onslaught. Lives of _Admiral Blake_ and _Lord Bacon_ followed, which received somewhat severe criticisms at the hands of competent authorities. D. was ed. of _The Athenæum_, 1853-69, and wrote many books of travel, including _The Holy Land_ (1865), _New America_ (1867), and _Free Russia_ (1870). His later historical works include _Her Majesty's Tower_, and _The History of Two Queens_ (Catherine of Arragon and Anne Boleyn). Though a diligent student of original authorities, and sometimes successful in throwing fresh light on his subjects, D. was not always accurate, and thus laid himself open to criticism; and his book, _Spiritual Wives_, treating of Mormonism, was so adversely criticised as to lead to an action. He wrote, however, in a fresh and interesting style. He was one of the founders of the Palestine Exploration Fund, and was a member of the first School Board for London (1870). He was called to the Bar in 1854, but never practised.

DOBELL, SYDNEY THOMPSON (1824-1874).--Poet, _b._ at Cranbrook, Kent, _s._ of a wine-merchant, who removed to Cheltenham, where most of the poet's life was passed. His youth was precocious (he was engaged at 15 and _m._ at 20). In 1850 his first work, _The Roman_, appeared, and had great popularity. _Balder,