part 1

) 1681, _Medal_ 1682, _MacFlecknoe_ 1682, _Religio Laici_ 1683, joined Church of Rome 1686, _pub._ _Hind and Panther_ 1687, deprived of offices and pensions at Revolution 1688, _pub._ translations including "Virgil" 1697, _St. Cecilia's Day_ and _Alexander's Feast_ _c._ 1697, and _Fables_ 1700, when he _d._

Sir W. Scott's ed. with _Life_ 1808, re-edited in 18 vols. by Prof. Saintsbury (1883-93); Aldine ed. (5 vols., 1892), Johnson's _Lives of the Poets_, etc.

DUFF, SIR MOUNTSTUART E. GRANT (1829-1906).--Miscellaneous writer, was M.P. for the Elgin Burghs, and Lieut.-Governor of Madras. He _pub._ _Studies of European Politics_, books on Sir H. Maine, Lord de Tabley, and Renan, and a series of _Notes from a Diary_, perhaps his most interesting work.

DUFFERIN, HELEN SELENA (SHERIDAN), COUNTESS OF (1807-1867).--Eldest _dau._ of Tom S., grand-daughter of Richard Brinsley S. (_q.v._), and sister of Mrs. Norton (_q.v._). She and her two sisters were known as "the three Graces," the third being the Duchess of Somerset. She shared in the family talent, and wrote a good deal of verse, her best known piece being perhaps _The Lament of the Irish Emigrant_, beginning "I'm sittin' on the stile, Mary." She also wrote _Lispings from Low Latitudes, or Extracts from the Journal of the Hon. Impulsia Gushington_, _Finesse, or a Busy Day at Messina_, etc.

DUFFY, SIR CHARLES GAVAN (1816-1903).--Poet, _b._ in Monaghan, early took to journalism, and became one of the founders of the _Nature_ newspaper, and one of the leaders of the Young Ireland movement. Thereafter he went to Australia, where he became a leading politician, and rose to be Premier of Victoria. His later years were spent chiefly on the Continent. He did much to stimulate in Ireland a taste for the national history and literature, started _The Library of Ireland_, and made a collection, _The Ballad Poetry of Ireland_, which was a great success. He also _pub._ an autobiography, _My Life in Two Hemispheres_.

DUGDALE, SIR WILLIAM (1605-1686).--Herald and antiquary, was _b._ at Coleshill, Warwickshire, and _ed._ at Coventry School. From early youth he showed a strong bent towards heraldic and antiquarian studies, which led to his appointment, in 1638, as a Pursuivant-extraordinary, from which he rose to be Garter-King-at-Arms. In 1655, jointly with Roger Dodsworth, he brought out the first vol. of _Monasticon Anglicanum_ (the second following in 1661, and the third in 1673), containing the charters of the ancient monasteries. In 1656 he _pub._ the _Antiquities of Warwickshire_, which maintains a high place among county histories, and in 1666 _Origines Judiciales_. His great work, _The Baronage of England_, appeared in 1675-6. Other works were a _History of Imbanking and Drayning_, and a _History of St. Paul's Cathedral_. All D.'s writings are monuments of learning and patient investigation.

DU MAURIER, GEORGE LOUIS PALMELLA BUSSON (1834-1896).--Artist and novelist, _b._ and _ed._ in Paris, in 1864 succeeded John Leech on the staff of _Punch_. His three novels, _Peter Ibbetson_ (1891), _Trilby_ (1894), and _The Martian_ (1896), originally appeared in _Harper's Magazine_.

DUNBAR, WILLIAM (1465?-1530?).--Poet, is believed to have been _b._ in Lothian, and _ed._ at St. Andrews, and in his earlier days he was a Franciscan friar. Thereafter he appears to have been employed by James IV. in some Court and political matters. His chief poems are _The Thrissil and the Rois (The Thistle and the Rose_) (1503), _The Dance of the Seven Deadly Sins_, a powerful satire, _The Golden Targe_, an allegory, and _The Lament for the Makaris_ (poets) (_c._ 1507). In all these there is a vein of true poetry. In his allegorical poems he follows Chaucer in his setting, and is thus more or less imitative and conventional: in his satirical pieces, and in the _Lament_, he takes a bolder flight and shows his native power. His comic poems are somewhat gross. The date and circumstances of his death are uncertain, some holding that he fell at Flodden, others that he was alive so late as 1530. Other works are _The Merle_ and _The Nightingale_, and the _Flyting_ (scolding) of Dunbar and Kennedy. Mr. Gosse calls D. "the largest figure in English literature between Chaucer and Spenser." He has bright strength, swiftness, humour, and pathos, and his descriptive touch is vivid and full of colour.

DUNLOP, JOHN COLIN (_c._ 1785-1842).--Historian, _s._ of a Lord Provost of Glasgow, where and at Edin. he was _ed._, was called to the Bar in 1807, and became Sheriff of Renfrewshire. He wrote a _History of Fiction_ (1814), a _History of Roman Literature to the Augustan Age_ (1823-28), and _Memoirs of Spain during the Reigns of Philip IV. and Charles II._ (1834). He also made translations from the Latin Anthology.

DUNS, SCOTUS JOHANNES (1265?-1308?).--Schoolman. The dates of his birth and death and the place of his birth are alike doubtful. He may have been at Oxf., is said to have been a regent or prof. at Paris, and was a Franciscan. He was a man of extraordinary learning, and received the sobriquet of Doctor Subtilis. Among his many works on logic and theology are a philosophic grammar, and a work on metaphysics, _De Rerum Principio_ (of the beginning of things). His great opponent was Thomas Aquinas, and schoolmen of the day were divided into Scotists and Thomists, or realists and nominalists.

D'URFEY, THOMAS (1653-1723).--Dramatist and song-writer, was a well-known man-about-town, a companion of Charles II., and lived on to the reign of George I. His plays are now forgotten, and he is best known in connection with a collection of songs entitled, _Pills to Purge Melancholy_. Addison describes him as a "diverting companion," and "a cheerful, honest, good-natured man." His writings are nevertheless extremely gross. His plays include _Siege of Memphis_ (1676), _Madame Fickle_ (1677), _Virtuous Wife_ (1680), and _The Campaigners_ (1698).

DWIGHT, TIMOTHY (1752-1817).--Theologian and poet, _b._ at Northampton, Mass., was a grandson of Jonathan Edwards, became a Congregationalist minister, Prof. of Divinity, and latterly Pres. of Yale. His works include, besides theological treatises and sermons, the following poems, _America_ (1772), _The Conquest of Canaan_ (1785), and _The Triumph of Infidelity_, a satire, admired in their day, but now unreadable.

DYCE, ALEXANDER (1798-1869).--Scholar and critic, _s._ of Lieut.-General Alexander D., was _b._ in Edin., and _ed._ there and at Oxf. He took orders, and for a short time served in two country curacies. Then, leaving the Church and settling in London, he betook himself to his life-work of ed. the English dramatists. His first work, _Specimens of British Poetesses_, appeared in 1825; and thereafter at various intervals ed. of Collins's _Poems_, and the dramatic works of _Peele, Middleton, Beaumont and Fletcher, Marlowe, Greene, Webster_, and others. His great ed. of _Shakespeare_ in 9 vols. appeared in 1857. He also ed. various works for the Camden Society, and _pub._ _Table Talk of Samuel Rogers_. All D.'s work is marked by varied and accurate learning, minute research, and solid judgment.

DYER, SIR EDWARD (1545?-1607).--Poet, _b._ at Sharpham Park, Somerset, and _ed._ at Oxf., was introduced to the Court by the Earl of Leicester, and sent on a mission to Denmark, 1589. He was in 1596 made Chancellor of the Order of the Garter, and knighted. In his own day he had a reputation for his elegies among such judges as Sidney and Puttenham. For a long time there was doubt as to what poems were to be attributed to him, but about a dozen pieces have now been apparently identified as his. The best known is that on contentment beginning, "My mind to me a kingdom is."

DYER, JOHN (1700-1758).--Poet, was _b._ in Caermarthenshire. In his early years he studied painting, but finding that he was not likely to attain a satisfactory measure of success, entered the Church. He has a definite, if a modest, place in literature as the author of three poems, _Grongar Hill_ (1727), _The Ruins of Rome_ (1740), and _The Fleece_ (1757). The first of these is the best, and the best known, and contains much true natural description; but all have passages of considerable poetical merit, delicacy and precision of phrase being their most noticeable characteristic. Wordsworth had a high opinion of D. as a poet, and addressed a sonnet to him.

EARLE, JOHN (1601-1665).--Divine and miscellaneous writer, _b._ at York, and _ed._ at Oxf., where he was a Fellow of Merton. He took orders, was tutor to Charles II., a member of the Assembly of Divines at Westminster, 1643, Chaplain and Clerk of the Closet to Charles when in exile. On the Restoration he was made Dean of Westminster, in 1662 Bishop of Worcester, and the next year Bishop of Salisbury. He was learned and eloquent, witty and agreeable in society, and was opposed to the "Conventicle" and "Five Mile" Acts, and to all forms of persecution. He wrote _Hortus Mertonensis_ (the Garden of Merton) in Latin, but his chief work was _Microcosmographie, or a Piece of the World discovered in Essays and Characters_ (1628), the best and most interesting of all the "character" books.

EASTLAKE, ELIZABETH, LADY (RIGBY) (1809-1893).--_dau._ of Dr. Edward Rigby of Norwich, a writer on medical and agricultural subjects, spent her earlier life on the Continent and in Edin. In 1849 she _m._ Sir Charles L. Eastlake, the famous painter, and Pres. of the Royal Academy. Her first work was _Letters from the Shores of the Baltic_ (1841). From 1842 she was a frequent contributor to the _Quarterly Review_, in which she wrote a very bitter criticism of _Jane Eyre_. She also wrote various books on art, and Lives of her husband, of Mrs. Grote, and of Gibson the sculptor, and was a leader in society.

ECHARD, LAURENCE (_c._ 1670-1730).--Historian, _b._ at Barsham, Suffolk, and _ed._ at Camb., took orders and became Archdeacon of Stow. He translated Terence, part of Plautus, D'Orleans' _History of the Revolutions in England_, and made numerous compilations on history, geography, and the classics. His chief work, however, is his _History of England_ (1707-1720). It covers the period from the Roman occupation to his own times, and continued to be the standard work on the subject until it was superseded by translations of Rapin's French _History of England_.

EDGEWORTH, MARIA (1767-1849).--Novelist, only child of Richard E., of Edgeworthstown, Co. Longford, was _b._ near Reading. Her _f._, who was himself a writer on education and mechanics, bestowed much attention on her education. She showed early promise of distinction, and assisted her _f._ in his literary labours, especially in _Practical Education_ and _Essay on Irish Bulls_ (1802). She soon discovered that her strength lay in fiction, and from 1800, when her first novel, _Castle Rackrent_, appeared, until 1834, when her last, _Helen_, was _pub._, she continued to produce a series of novels and tales characterised by ingenuity of invention, humour, and acute delineation of character. Notwithstanding a tendency to be didactic, and the presence of a "purpose" in most of her writings, their genuine talent and interest secured for them a wide popularity. It was the success of Miss E. in delineating Irish character that suggested to Sir W. Scott the idea of rendering a similar service to Scotland. Miss E., who had great practical ability, was able to render much aid during the Irish famine. In addition to the works above mentioned, she wrote _Moral Tales_ and _Belinda_ (1801), _Leonora_ (1806), _Tales of Fashionable Life_ (1809 and 1812), and a Memoir of her _f._

EDWARDS, JONATHAN (1702?-1758).--Theologian, _s._ of a minister, was _b._ at East Windsor, Connecticut, _ed._ at Yale Coll., and licensed as a preacher in 1722. The following year he was appointed as tutor at Yale, a position in which he showed exceptional capacity. In 1726 he went to Northampton, Conn., as minister of a church there, and remained for 24 years, exercising his ministry with unusual earnestness and diligence. At the end of that time, however, he was in 1750 dismissed by his congregation, a disagreement having arisen on certain questions of discipline. Thereafter he acted as a missionary to the Indians of Massachusetts. While thus engaged he composed his famous treatises, _On the Freedom of the Will_ (1754), and _On Original Sin_ (1758). Previously, in 1746, he had produced his treatise, _On the Religious Affections_. In 1757 he was appointed Pres. of Princeton Coll., New Jersey, but was almost immediately thereafter stricken with small-pox, of which he _d._ on March 22, 1757. E. possessed an intellect of extraordinary strength and clearness, and was capable of sustaining very lengthened chains of profound argument. He is one of the ablest defenders of the Calvinistic system of theology, which he developed to its most extreme positions. He was a man of fervent piety, and of the loftiest and most disinterested character.

EDWARDS, RICHARD (1523?-1566).--Poet, was at Oxf., and went to Court, where he was made a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal, and master of the singing boys. He had a high reputation for his comedies and interludes. His _Palaman and Arcite_ was acted before Elizabeth at Oxf. in 1566, when the stage fell and three persons were killed and five hurt, the play nevertheless proceeding. _Damon and Pythias_ (1577), a comedy, is his only extant play.

EGAN, PIERCE (1772-1849).--Humorist, _b._ in London, he satirised the Prince Regent in _The Lives of Florizel and Perdita_ (1814), but is best remembered by _Life in London: or the Day and Night Scenes of Jerry Hawthorn and his elegant friend, Corinthian Tom_, a collection of sketches which had great success at the time, and which gives a picture of the sports and amusements of London in the days of the Regency. It was illustrated by George Cruikshank.

EGGLESTON, EDWARD (1837-1902).--Novelist, _b._ at Vevay, Indiana, was a Methodist minister. He wrote a number of tales, some of which, specially the "Hoosier" series, attracted much attention, among which are _The Hoosier Schoolmaster_, _The Hoosier Schoolboy_, _The End of the World_, _The Faith Doctor_, _Queer Stories for Boys and Girls_, etc.

"ELIOT, GEORGE," _see_ EVANS.

ELIZABETH, QUEEN (1533-1603).--Was one of the scholar-women of her time, being versed in Latin, Greek, French, and Italian. Her translation of Boethius shows her exceptional art and skill. In the classics Roger Ascham was her tutor. She wrote various short poems, some of which were called by her contemporaries "sonnets," though not in the true sonnet form. Her original letters and despatches show an idiomatic force of expression beyond that of any other English monarch.

ELLIOT, MISS JEAN (1727-1805).--Poetess, _dau._ of Sir Gilbert Elliot of Minto, has a small niche in literature as the authoress of the beautiful ballad, _The Flowers of the Forest_, beginning, "I've heard the lilting at our yowe-milking." Another ballad with the same title beginning, "I've seen the smiling of fortune beguiling" was written by Alicia Rutherford, afterwards Mrs. Cockburn.

ELLIOT, EBENEZER (1781-1849).--Poet, _b._ at Masborough, Yorkshire, in his youth worked in an iron-foundry, and in 1821 took up the same business on his own account with success. He is best known by his poems on behalf of the poor and oppressed, and especially for his denunciations of the Corn Laws, which gained for him the title of the Corn Law Rhymer. Though now little read, he had considerable poetic gift. His principal poems are _Corn Law Rhymes_ (1831), _The Ranter_, and _The Village Patriarch_ (1829).

ELLIS, GEORGE (1753-1815).--Miscellaneous writer, _s._ of a West Indian planter, gained some fame by _Poetical Tales by Sir Gregory Gander_ (1778). He also had a hand in the _Rolliad_, a series of Whig satires which appeared about 1785. Changing sides he afterwards contributed to the _Anti-Jacobin_. He accompanied Sir J. Harris on his mission to the Netherlands, and there _coll._ materials for his _History of the Dutch Revolution_ (1789). He ed. _Specimens of the Early English Poets_ (1790), and _Specimens of the Early English Romances_, both works of scholarship. He was a friend of Scott, who dedicated the fifth canto of _Marmion_ to him.

ELLWOOD, THOMAS (1639-1713).--A young Quaker who was introduced to Milton in 1662, and devoted much of his time to reading to him. It is to a question asked by him that we owe the writing of _Paradise Regained_. He was a simple, good man, ready to suffer for his religious opinions, and has left an autobiography of singular interest alike for the details of Milton's later life, which it gives, and for the light it casts on the times of the writer. He also wrote _Davideis_ (1712), a sacred poem, and some controversial works.

ELPHINSTONE, MOUNTSTUART (1779-1859).--Fourth _s._ of the 11th Lord E., was _ed._ at Edin., and entered the Bengal Civil Service in 1795. He had a very distinguished career as an Indian statesman, and did much to establish the present system of government and to extend education. He was Governor of Bombay (1819-1827), and prepared a code of laws for that Presidency. In 1829 he was offered, but declined, the position of Governor-General of India. He wrote a _History of India_ (1841), and _The Rise of the British Power in the East_, _pub._ in 1887.

ELWIN, WHITWELL (1816-1900).--Critic and editor, _s._ of a country gentleman of Norfolk, studied at Camb., and took orders. He was an important contributor to the _Quarterly Review_, of which he became editor in 1853. He undertook to complete Croker's ed. of Pope, and brought out 5 vols., when he dropped it, leaving it to be finished by Mr. Courthope. As an ed. he was extremely autocratic, and on all subjects had pronounced opinions, and often singular likes and dislikes.

ELYOT, SIR THOMAS (1490-1546).--Diplomatist, physician, and writer, held many diplomatic appointments. He wrote _The Governor_ (1531), a treatise on education, in which he advocated gentler treatment of schoolboys, _The Castle of Health_ (1534), a medical work, and _A Defence of Good Women_ (1545). He also in 1538 _pub._ the first _Latin and English Dictionary_, and made various translations.

EMERSON, RALPH WALDO (1803-1882).--Philosopher, was _b._ at Boston, Massachusetts. His _f._ was a minister there, who had become a Unitarian, and who _d._ in 1811, leaving a widow with six children, of whom Ralph, then aged 8, was the second. Mrs. E. was, however, a woman of energy, and by means of taking boarders managed to give all her sons a good education. E. entered Harvard in 1817 and, after passing through the usual course there, studied for the ministry, to which he was ordained in 1827, and settled over a congregation in his native city. There he remained until 1832, when he resigned, ostensibly on a difference of opinion with his brethren on the permanent nature of the Lord's Supper as a rite, but really on a radical change of view in regard to religion in general, expressed in the maxim that "the day of formal religion is past." About the same time he lost his young wife, and his health, which had never been robust, showed signs of failing. In search of recovery he visited Europe, where he met many eminent men and formed a life-long friendship with Carlyle. On his return in 1834 he settled at Concord, and took up lecturing. In 1836 he _pub._ _Nature_, a somewhat transcendental little book which, though containing much fine thought, did not appeal to a wide circle. _The American Scholar_ followed in 1837. Two years previously he had entered into a second marriage. His influence as a thinker rapidly extended, he was regarded as the leader of the transcendentalists, and was one of the chief contributors to their organ, _The Dial_. The remainder of his life, though happy, busy, and influential, was singularly uneventful. In 1847 he paid a second visit to England, when he spent a week with Carlyle, and delivered a course of lectures in England and Scotland on "Representative Men," which he subsequently _pub._ _English Traits_ appeared in 1856. In 1857 _The Atlantic Monthly_ was started, and to it he became a frequent contributor. In 1874 he was nominated for the Lord Rectorship of the Univ. of Glasgow, but was defeated by Disraeli. He, however, regarded his nomination as the greatest honour of his life. After 1867 he wrote little. He _d._ on April 27, 1882. His works were _coll._ in 11 vols., and in addition to those above mentioned include _Essays_ (two series), _Conduct of Life_, _Society and Solitude_, _Natural History of Intellect_, and _Poems_. The intellect of E. was subtle rather than robust, and suggestive rather than systematic. He wrote down the intuitions and suggestions of the moment, and was entirely careless as to whether these harmonised with previous statements. He was an original and stimulating thinker and writer, and wielded a style of much beauty and fascination. His religious views approached more nearly to Pantheism than to any other known system of belief. He was a man of singular elevation and purity of character.

ERCILDOUN, THOMAS of, or "THOMAS THE RHYMER" (_fl._ 1220-1297).--A minstrel to whom is ascribed _Sir Tristrem_, a rhyme or story for recitation. He had a reputation for prophecy, and is reported to have foretold the death of Alexander III., and various other events.

ERIGENA, or SCOTUS, JOHN (_fl._ 850).--Philosopher, _b._ in Scotland or Ireland, was employed at the Court of Charles the Bald, King of France. He was a pantheistic mystic, and made translations from the Alexandrian philosophers. He was bold in the exposition of his principles, and had both strength and subtlety of intellect. His chief work is _De Divisione Naturæ_, a dialogue in which he places reason above authority.

ERSKINE, RALPH (1685-1752).--Scottish Divine and poet, was _b._ near Cornhill, Northumberland, where his _f._, a man of ancient Scottish family, was, for the time, a nonconforming minister. He became minister of Dunfermline, and, with his brother Ebenezer, was involved in the controversies in the Church of Scotland, which led to the founding of the Secession Church in 1736. He has a place in literature as the writer of devotional works, especially for his _Gospel Sonnets_ (of which 25 ed. had appeared by 1797), and _Scripture Songs_ (1754).

ERSKINE, THOMAS (1788-1870).--Theologian, _s._ of David E., of Linlathen, to which property he succeeded, his elder brother having _d._ He was called to the Bar in 1810, but never practised. Having come under unusually deep religious impressions he devoted himself largely to the study of theology, and _pub._ various works, including _The Internal Evidence for the Truth of Revealed Religion_ (1820), _Unconditional Freeness of the Gospel_, and _The Spiritual Order_. He was a man of singular charm of character, and wielded a great influence on the religious thought of his day. He enjoyed the friendship of men of such different types as Carlyle, Chalmers, Dean Stanley, and Prévost Paradol. His _Letters_ were ed. by Dr. W. Hanna (1877-78).

ETHEREGE, SIR GEORGE (1635?-1691).--Dramatist, was at Camb., travelled, read a little law, became a man-about-town, the companion of Sedley, Rochester, and their set. He achieved some note as the writer of three lively comedies, _Love in a Tub_ (1664), _She would if she Could_ (1668), and _The Man of Mode_ (1676), all characterised by the grossness of the period. He was sent on a mission to Ratisbon, where he broke his neck when lighting his guests downstairs after a drinking bout.

EVANS, MARY ANN or MARIAN ("GEORGE ELIOT") (1819-1880).--Novelist, was _b._ near Nuneaton, Warwickshire, _dau._ of Robert E., land agent, a man of strong individuality. Her education was completed at a school in Coventry, and after the death of her mother in 1836, and the marriage of her elder sister, she kept house for her _f._ until his death in 1849. In 1841 they gave up their house in the country, and went to live in Coventry. Here she made the acquaintance of Charles Bray, a writer on phrenology, and his brother-in-law Charles Hennell, a rationalistic writer on the origin of Christianity, whose influence led her to renounce the evangelical views in which she had been brought up. In 1846 she engaged in her first literary work, the completion of a translation begun by Mrs. Hennell of Strauss's _Life of Jesus_. On her _f.'s_ death she went abroad with the Brays, and, on her return in 1850, began to write for the _Westminster Review_, of which from 1851-53 she was assistant-editor. In this capacity she was much thrown into the society of Herbert Spencer and George Henry Lewes (_q.v._), with the latter of whom she in 1854 entered into an irregular connection which lasted until his death. In the same year she translated Feuerbach's _Essence of Christianity_, the only one of her writings to which she attached her real name. It was not until she was nearly 40 that she appears to have discovered the true nature of her genius; for it was not until 1857 that _The Sad Fortunes of the Rev. Amos Barton_ appeared in _Blackwood's Magazine_, and announced that a new writer of singular power had arisen. It was followed by _Mr. Gilfil's Love Story_ and _Janet's Repentance_, all three being reprinted as _Scenes from Clerical Life_ (1857); _Adam Bede_ was _pub._ in 1859, _The Mill on the Floss_, in its earlier chapters largely autobiographical, in 1860, _Silas Marner_, perhaps the most artistically constructed of her books, in 1861. In 1860 and 1861 she visited Florence with the view of preparing herself for her next work, _Romola_, a tale of the times of Savonarola, which appeared in 1863 in the _Cornhill Magazine_. _Felix Holt the Radical_ followed in 1866. Miss E. now for a time abandoned novel-writing and took to poetry, and between 1868 and 1871 produced _The Spanish Gipsy_, _Agatha_, _The Legend of Jubal_, and _Armgart_. These poems, though containing much fine work, did not add to her reputation, and in fact in writing them she had departed from her true vocation. Accordingly, she returned to fiction, and in _Middlemarch_, which appeared in parts in 1871-72, she was by many considered to have produced her greatest work. _Daniel Deronda_, which came out in 1874-76, was greatly inferior, and it was her last novel. In 1878 she _pub._ _The Impressions of Theophrastus Such_, a collection of miscellaneous essays. In the same year Mr. Lewes _d._, an event which plunged her into melancholy, which was, however, alleviated by the kindness of Mr. John Cross, who had been the intimate friend of both L. and herself, and whom she _m._ in March, 1880. The union was a short one, being terminated by her death on December 22 in the same year.

George Eliot will probably always retain a high place among writers of fiction. Her great power lies in the minute painting of character, chiefly among the lower middle classes, shopkeepers, tradesmen, and country folk of the Midlands, into whose thoughts and feelings she had an insight almost like divination, and of whose modes of expression she was complete mistress. Her general view of life is pessimistic, relieved by a power of seizing the humorous elements in human stupidity and ill-doing. There is also, however, much seriousness in her treatment of the phases of life upon which she touches, and few writers have brought out with greater power the hardening and degrading effects of continuance in evil courses, or the inevitable and irretrievable consequences of a wrong act. Her descriptions of rural scenes have a singular charm.

_Life_, ed. by J.W. Cross (1885-6). Books on her by Oscar Browning, 1890, and Sir Leslie Stephen (Men of Letters), 1902.

EVELYN, JOHN (1620-1706).--Diarist, and miscellaneous writer, was of an old Surrey family, and was _ed._ at a school at Lewes and at Oxf. He travelled much on the Continent, seeing all that was best worth seeing in the way of galleries and collections, both public and private, of which he has given an interesting account in his _Diary_. He was all his life a staunch Royalist, and joined the King as a volunteer in 1642, but soon after repaired again to the Continent. After 1652 he was at home, settled at Sayes Court, near Deptford, where his gardens were famous. After the Restoration he was employed in various matters by the Government, but his lofty and pure character was constantly offended by the manners of the Court. In addition to his _Diary_, kept up from 1624-1706, and which is full of interesting details of public and private events, he wrote upon such subjects as plantations, _Sylva_ (1664), gardening, _Elysium Britannicum_ (_unpub._), architecture, prevention of smoke in London, engraving, _Sculptura_ (1662), and he was one of the founders of the Royal Society, of which he was for a time sec. The dignity and purity of E'.s character stand forth in strong relief against the laxity of his times.

EWING, MRS. JULIANA HORATIA (GATTY) (1842-1885).--Writer of children's stories, _dau._ of Mrs. Alfred Gatty (_q.v._), also a writer for children. Among her tales, which have hardly been excelled in sympathetic insight into child-life, and still enjoy undiminished popularity, are: _A Flat Iron for a Farthing_, _Jackanapes_, _Jan of the Windmill_, _Mrs. Overtheway's Remembrances_, and _The Story of a Short Life_.

FABER, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1814-1863).--Theologian and hymn-writer, was _b._ at Calverley, Yorkshire, and _ed._ at Harrow and Oxf., where he came under the influence of Newman, whom he followed into the Church of Rome. He wrote various theological treatises, but has a place in literature for his hymns, which include _The Pilgrims of the Night_, _My God how wonderful thou art_, and _Sweet Saviour, bless us ere we go_.

FABYAN, ROBERT (_d._ 1513).--Chronicler, was _b._ in London, of which he became an Alderman and Sheriff. He kept a diary of notable events, which he expanded into a chronicle, which he entitled, _The Concordance of Histories_. It covers the period from the arrival of Brutus in England to the death of Henry VII., and deals mainly with the affairs of London. It was not printed until 1515, when it appeared under the title of _The New Chronicles of England and France_.

FAIRFAX, EDWARD (1580?-1635).--Translator, natural _s._ of Sir Thomas F., lived at Fuystone, near Knaresborough, in peace and prosperity. His translation of Tasso's _Jerusalem Delivered_, on which his fame is founded, is a masterpiece, one of the comparatively few translations which in themselves are literature. It was highly praised by Dryden and Waller. The first ed. appeared in 1600, and was dedicated to Queen Elizabeth. F. also wrote a treatise on _Demonology_, in which he was a devout believer.

FALCONER, WILLIAM (1732-1769).--Poet, _s._ of a barber in Edin., where he was _b._, became a sailor, and was thus thoroughly competent to describe the management of the storm-tossed vessel, the career and fate of which are described in his poem, _The Shipwreck_ (1762), a work of genuine, though unequal, talent. The efforts which F. made to improve the poem in the successive ed. which followed the first were not entirely successful. The work gained for him the patronage of the Duke of York, through whose influence he obtained the position of purser on various warships. Strangely enough, his own death occurred by shipwreck. F. wrote other poems, now forgotten, besides a useful _Nautical Dictionary_.

FANSHAWE, CATHERINE MARIA (1765-1834).--Poetess, _dau._ of a Surrey squire, wrote clever occasional verse. Her best known production is the famous _Riddle on the Letter H_, beginning "'Twas whispered in heaven, 'twas muttered in hell" often attributed to Lord Byron.

FANSHAWE, SIR RICHARD (1608-1666).--Diplomatist, translator, and poet, _b._ at Ware Park, Herts, and _ed._ at Camb., travelled on the Continent, and when the Civil War broke out sided with the King and was sent to Spain to obtain money for the cause. He acted as Latin Sec. to Charles II. when in Holland. After the Restoration he held various appointments, and was Ambassador to Portugal and Spain successively. He translated Guarini's _Pastor Fido_, _Selected Parts of Horace_, and _The Lusiad_ of Camoens. His wife, _née_ Anne Harrison, wrote memoirs of her own life.

FARADAY, MICHAEL (1791-1867).--Natural philosopher, _s._ of a blacksmith, was _b._ in London, and apprenticed to a book-binder. He early showed a taste for chemistry, and attended the lectures of Sir H. Davy (_q.v._), by whom he was, in 1813, appointed his chemical assistant in the Royal Institution. He became one of the greatest of British discoverers and popularisers of science, his discoveries being chiefly in the department of electro-magnetism. He had an unusual power of making difficult subjects clearly understood. Among his writings are _History of the Progress of Electro-Magnetism_ (1821), _The Non-metallic Elements_, _The Chemical History of a Candle_, and _The Various Forces in Nature_. F. was a man of remarkable simplicity and benevolence of character, and deeply religious.

FARMER, RICHARD (1735-1797).--Shakespearian scholar, _b._ at Leicester, and _ed._ at Camb., where he ultimately became Master of Emanuel Coll. He wrote an _Essay on the Learning of Shakespeare_ (1767), in which he maintained that Shakespeare's knowledge of the classics was through translations, the errors of which he reproduced. It is a production of great ability. F. was a clergyman, and held a prebend in St. Paul's.

FARQUHAR, GEORGE (1678-1707).--Dramatist, _b._ at Londonderry, _s._ of a clergyman, and _ed._ at Trinity Coll., Dublin, on leaving which he took to the stage, but had no great success as an actor. This, together with an accident in which he wounded a fellow-actor with a sword, led to his relinquishing it, and giving himself to writing plays instead of acting them. Thereafter he joined the army. _Love and a Bottle_ (1698) was his first venture, and others were _The Constant Couple_ (1700), _Sir Harry Wildair_ (1701), _The Inconstant_ (1703), _The Recruiting Officer_ (1706), and _The Beau's Stratagem_ (1707). F.'s plays are full of wit and sparkle and, though often coarse, have not the malignant pruriency of some of his predecessors. He made an unfortunate marriage, and _d._ in poverty.

FARRAR, FREDERIC WILLIAM (1831-1903).--Theological writer, _b._ in Bombay, and _ed._ at London Univ. and Camb., was for some years a master at Harrow, and from 1871-76 Head Master of Marlborough School. He became successively Canon of Westminster and Rector of St. Margaret's, Archdeacon of Westminster and Dean of Canterbury. He was an eloquent preacher and a voluminous author, his writings including stories of school life, such as _Eric_ and _St. Winifred's_, a _Life of Christ_, which had great popularity, a _Life of St. Paul_, and two historical romances.

FAWCETT, HENRY (1833-1884).--Statesman and economist, _b._ at Salisbury, and _ed._ at Camb., where he became Fellow of Trinity Hall. In 1858 he was blinded by a shooting accident, in spite of which he continued to prosecute his studies, especially in economics, and in 1863 _pub._ his _Manual of Political Economy_, becoming in the same year Prof. of Political Economy in Camb. Having strong political views he desired to enter upon a political career, and after repeated defeats was elected M.P. for Brighton. He soon attained a recognised position, devoting himself specially to parliamentary reform and Indian questions, and was in 1880 appointed Postmaster-General, in which office he approved himself a capable administrator. His career was, however, cut short by his premature death, but not before he had made himself a recognised authority on economics, his works on which include _The Economic Position of the British Labourer_ (1871), _Labour and Wages_, etc. In 1867 he _m._ Miss Millicent Garrett, a lady highly qualified to share in all his intellectual interests, and who collaborated with him in some of his publications. There is a life of him by Sir L. Stephen.

FAWKES, FRANCIS (1721-1777).--Poet and translator, _b._ near Doncaster, and _ed._ at Camb., after which he took orders. He translated Anacreon, Sappho, and other classics, modernised parts of the poems of Gavin Douglas, and was the author of the well-known song, _The Brown Jug_, and of two poems, _Bramham Park_ and _Partridge Shooting_.

FELTHAM, OWEN (1602?-1668).--Religious writer, author of a book entitled _Resolves, Divine, Moral, and Political_ (_c._ 1620), containing 146 short essays. It had great popularity in its day. Though sometimes stiff and affected in style, it contains many sound, if not original or brilliant, reflections, and occasional felicities of expression. F. was for a time in the household of the Earl of Thomond as chaplain or sec., and _pub._ (1652), _Brief Character of the Low Countries_.

FENTON, ELIJAH (1683-1730).--Poet and translator, _ed._ at Camb., for a time acted as sec. to the Earl of Orrery in Flanders, and was then Master of Sevenoaks Grammar School. In 1707 he _pub._ a book of poems. He is best known, however, as the assistant of Pope in his translation of the _Odyssey_, of which he Englished the first, fourth, nineteenth, and twentieth books, catching the manner of his master so completely that it is hardly possible to distinguish between their work; while thus engaged he _pub._ (1723) a successful tragedy, _Marianne_. His latest contributions to literature were a _Life of Milton_, and an ed. of _Waller's Poems_ (1729).

FERGUSON, ADAM (1723-1816).--Philosopher and historian, _s._ of the parish minister of Logierait, Perthshire, studied at St. Andrews and Edin. Univ., in the latter of which he was successively Professor of Mathematics, and Moral Philosophy (1764-1785). As a young man he was chaplain to the 42nd Regiment, and was present at the Battle of Fontenoy. In 1757 he was made Keeper of the Advocates' Library. As a Prof. of Philosophy he was highly successful, his class being attended by many distinguished men no longer students at the Univ. In 1778-9 he acted as sec. to a commission sent out by Lord North to endeavour to reach an accommodation with the American colonists. F.'s principal works are _Essay on the History of Civil Society_ (1765), _Institutes of Moral Philosophy_ (1769), _History of the Progress and Termination of the Roman Republic_ (1782), and _Principles of Moral and Political Science_ (1792), all of which have been translated into French and German. F. spent his later years at St. Andrews, where he _d._ in 1816 at the age of 92. He was an intimate friend of Sir Walter Scott. The French philosopher Cousin gave F. a place above all his predecessors in the Scottish school of philosophy.

FERGUSON, SIR SAMUEL (1810-1886).--Poet and antiquary, _b._ at Belfast, the _s._ of parents of Scottish extraction, he was _ed._ at Trinity Coll., Dublin, from which he received in 1865 the honorary degree of LL.D. He practised with success as a barrister, became Q.C. in 1859, and Deputy Keeper of the Irish Records 1867, an appointment in which he rendered valuable service, and was knighted in 1878. He was a contributor to _Blackwood's Magazine_, in which appeared his best known poem, _The Forging of the Anchor_, and was one of the chief promoters of the Gaelic revival in Irish literature. His _coll._ poems appeared under the title of _Lays of the Western Gael_ (1865), _Congal, an epic poem_ (1872), and his prose tales posthumously (1887), as _Hibernian Nights' Entertainments_. His principal antiquarian work was _Ogham Inscriptions in Ireland, Wales, and Scotland_.

FERGUSSON, JAMES (1808-1886).--Writer on architecture, _b._ at Ayr, was engaged in commercial pursuits in India, where he became interested in the architecture of the country, and _pub._ his first work, _Picturesque Illustrations of Ancient Architecture in Hindustan_ (1840), which was followed by _An Historical Inquiry into the True Principles of Beauty in Art_ (1849), and _A History of Architecture in all Countries from the Earliest Times to the Present Day_ (1865-67). He also wrote _Fire and Serpent Worship_, etc., and a book on the use of earthworks in fortification.

FERGUSSON, ROBERT (1750-1774).--Scottish poet, _s._ of a bank clerk, was _ed._ at the Univ. of St. Andrews. His _f._ dying, he became a copying clerk in an Edin. lawyer's office. Early displaying a talent for humorous descriptive verse, he contributed to _Ruddiman's Weekly Magazine_, then the principal Scottish receptacle for fugitive poetry. His verses, however, attracted attention by their merit, and he _pub._ some of them in a _coll._ form. Unfortunately he fell into dissipated habits, under which his delicate constitution gave way, and he _d._ insane in his 24th year. His poems influenced Burns, who greatly admired them.

FERRIER, JAMES FREDERICK (1808-1864).--Metaphysician, _b._ in Edin., and _ed._ there and at Oxf., he was called to the Scottish Bar in 1832, but devoted himself to literature and philosophy. In 1842 he was appointed Prof. of History in Edin., and in 1845 translated to the Chair of Moral Philosophy and Political Economy at St. Andrews. He _pub._ in 1854 _Institutes of Metaphysics_, and ed. the _coll._ works of his father-in-law, Prof. Wilson ("Christopher North.")

FERRIER, SUSAN EDMONSTOUNE (1782-1854).--Novelist, _dau._ of James F., one of the principal clerks of the Court of Session, in which office he was the colleague of Sir Walter Scott. Miss F. wrote three excellent novels, _Marriage_ (1818), _The Inheritance_ (1824), and _Destiny_ (1831), all characterised by racy humour and acute character-painting. Her cheerful and tactful friendship helped to soothe the last days of Sir W. Scott.

FIELD, NATHANIEL (1587-1633).--Dramatist and actor, was one of "the children of the Queen's Revels," who performed in Ben Jonson's _Cynthia's Revels_ in 1600. He wrote _A Woman's a Weathercock_ (1612), _Amends for Ladies_ (1618), and (with Massinger) _The Fatal Dowry_ (1632).

FIELDING, HENRY (1707-1754).--Novelist, was _b._ at Sharpham Park, near Glastonbury. His father was General Edmund F., descended from the Earls of Denbigh and Desmond, and his mother was the _dau._ of Sir Henry Gould of Sharpham Park. His childhood was spent at East Stour, Dorset, and his education was received at first from a tutor, after which he was sent to Eton. Following a love affair with a young heiress at Lyme Regis he was sent to Leyden to study law, where he remained until his _f._, who had entered into a second marriage, and who was an extravagant man, ceased to send his allowance. Thrown upon his own resources, he came to London and began to write light comedies and farces, of which during the next few years he threw off nearly a score. The drama, however, was not his true vein, and none of his pieces in this kind have survived, unless _Tom Thumb_, a burlesque upon his contemporary playwrights, be excepted. About 1735 he _m._ Miss Charlotte Cradock, a beautiful and amiable girl to whom, though he gave her sufficient cause for forbearance, he was devotedly attached. She is the prototype of his "Amelia" and "Sophia." She brought him £1500, and the young couple retired to East Stour, where he had a small house inherited from his mother. The little fortune was, however, soon dissipated; and in a year he was back in London, where he formed a company of comedians, and managed a small theatre in the Haymarket. Here he produced successfully _Pasquin, a Dramatic Satire on the Times_, and _The Historical Register for 1736_, in which Walpole was satirised. This enterprise was brought to an end by the passing of the Licensing Act, 1737, making the _imprimatur_ of the Lord Chamberlain necessary to the production of any play. F. thereupon read law at the Middle Temple, was called to the Bar in 1740, and went the Western Circuit. The same year saw the publication of Richardson's _Pamela_, which inspired F. with the idea of a parody, thus giving rise to his first novel, _Joseph Andrews_. As, however, the characters, especially Parson Adams, developed in his hands, the original idea was laid aside, and the work assumed the form of a regular novel. It was _pub._ in 1742, and though sharing largely in the same qualities as its great successor, _Tom Jones_, its reception, though encouraging, was not phenomenally cordial. Immediately after this a heavy blow fell on F. in the death of his wife. The next few years were occupied with writing his _Miscellanies_, which contained, along with some essays and poems, two important works, _A Journey from this World to the Next_, and _The History of Jonathan Wild the Great_, a grave satire; and he also conducted two papers in support of the Government, _The True Patriot_ and _The Jacobite Journal_, in consideration of which he was appointed Justice of the Peace for Middlesex and Westminster, and had a pension conferred upon him. In 1746 he set convention at defiance by marrying Mary MacDaniel, who had been his first wife's maid, and the nurse of his children, and who proved a faithful and affectionate companion. F. showed himself an upright, diligent, and efficient magistrate, and his _Inquiry into the Increase of Robbers_ (1751), with suggested remedies, led to beneficial results. By this time, however, the publication of his great masterpiece, _The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling_ (1749), had given him a place among the immortals. All critics are agreed that this book contains passages offensive to delicacy, and some say to morality. This is often excused on the plea of the coarser manners of the age; but a much stronger defence is advanced on the ground that, while other novelists of the time made immorality an incentive to merriment, F.'s treatment of such subjects, as Lowell has said, "shocks rather than corrupts," and that in his pages evil is evil. On the other hand, there is universal agreement as to the permanent interest of the types of character presented, the profound knowledge of life and insight into human nature, the genial humour, the wide humanity, the wisdom, and the noble and masculine English of the book. His only other novel, _Amelia_, which some, but these a small minority, have regarded as his best, was _pub._ in 1751. His health was now thoroughly broken, and in 1753, as a forlorn hope, he went in search of restoration to Lisbon, where he _d._ on October 8, and was buried in the English cemetery. His last work was a _Journal_ of his voyage. Though with many weaknesses and serious faults, F. was fundamentally a man of honest and masculine character, and though improvident and reckless in his habits, especially in earlier life, he was affectionate in his domestic relations, and faithful and efficient in the performance of such public duties as he was called to discharge. Thackeray thus describes his appearance, "His figure was tall and stalwart, his face handsome, manly, and noble-looking; to the last days of his life he retained a grandeur of air and, though worn down by disease, his aspect and presence imposed respect upon people round about him."

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1707, _ed._ Eton, studied law at Leyden, came to London and wrote dramas, called to Bar 1740, _pub._ _Joseph Andrews_ 1742, became journalist, appointed a magistrate for Middlesex, etc., and _pub._ _Inquiry into Increase of Robbers_ 1751, _pub._ _Tom Jones_ 1749, _Amelia_ 1751, _d._ at Lisbon 1754.

His works are included in Ballantyne's Novelists' Library with a biography by Scott (1821). An ed. in 10 vols. with a study by L. Stephen was _pub._ by Smith, Elder and Co. (1882); another in 12 vols. by Prof. Saintsbury, Dent and Co. (1893), and various others. There are various Lives by Watson (1807). Lawrence (1855), and A. Dobson (Men of Letters, 1883).

FIELDING, SARAH (1710-1768).--Novelist, was the sister of the above, who had a high opinion of her talents. She wrote several novels, including _David Simple_ (1744), _The Governess_, and _The Countess_ of _Dellwyn_. She also translated Xenophon's _Memorabilia_ and _Apologia_ (1762).

FILMER, SIR ROBERT (_d._ 1653?).--Political writer, _s._ of Sir Edward F., of East Sutton, Kent, was _ed._ at Camb. He was an enthusiastic Royalist, was knighted by Charles I. and, in 1671, was imprisoned in Leeds Castle, Kent. He is notable as the defender, in its most extreme form, of the doctrine of the divine right of kings, which he expounded in a succession of works, of which the latest and best known, _Patriarcha_, appeared in 1679. His theory is founded on the idea that the government of a family by the father is the original and method of all government. His doctrines were afterwards attacked by Locke in his _Treatise on Government_. He was opposed to the persecution of old women for supposed witchcraft.

FINLAY, GEORGE (1799-1875).--Historian, of Scottish descent, was _b._ at Faversham, Kent, where his _f._, an officer in the army, was inspector of government powder mills. Intended for the law, he was _ed._ at Glasgow, Göttingen, and Edin., but becoming an enthusiast in the cause of Greece, he joined Byron in the war of independence, and thereafter bought a property near Athens, where he settled and busied himself with schemes for the improvement of the country, which had little success. His _History of Greece_, produced in sections between 1843 and 1861, did not at first receive the recognition which its merits deserved, but it has since been given by students in all countries, and specially in Germany, a place among works of permanent value, alike for its literary style and the depth and insight of its historical views. It was re-issued in 1877 as _A History of Greece from the Roman Conquest to the Present Time_ (146 B.C. _to_ 1864).

FISHER, JOHN (_c._ 1469-1535).--Controversialist and scholar, _b._ at Beverley, and _ed._ at Camb., entered the Church, and became in 1504 Bishop of Rochester. He wrote in Latin against the doctrines of the Reformation, but was a supporter of the New Learning, and endeavoured to get Erasmus to teach Greek at Camb. Through his influence the Lady Margaret Professorship of Divinity were founded at both the Univ. by Margaret Countess of Richmond, and in 1502 he became first prof. at Camb., where he was also (1505-8) Head of Queen's Coll. He was also instrumental in founding Christ's and St. John's Coll. For opposing the divorce proceedings of Henry VIII. he was burned. Made a cardinal in 1535, he was beatified in 1886.

FISKE, JOHN (1842-1901).--Miscellaneous writer, was _b._ at Hartford, Connecticut. The family name was Green; but this he dropped, and adopted that of his mother's family. After being at Harvard he studied for, and was admitted to, the Bar, but did not practise. He wrote on a variety of subjects, including mythology, history, and evolution. Among his books on these subjects are, _Myths and Mythmakers_ (1872), _Cosmic Philosophy_, _Darwinism_, _The Idea of God_, _Origin of Evil_. He was also the author of many works on America. These include _Old Virginia_, _New France and New England_, _The American Revolution_, and _Discovery of America_ (1892).

FITZGERALD, EDWARD (1809-1883).--Translator and letter-writer, was _b._ near Woodbridge, Suffolk, _s._ of John Purcell, who took his wife's surname on the death of her _f._. in 1818. He was _ed._ at Bury St. Edmunds and Camb. Thereafter he lived in retirement and study with his parents until 1838, when he took a neighbouring cottage. In 1856 he _m._ a _dau._ of Bernard Barton, the poet, from whom, however, he soon separated. Afterwards he lived at various places in the East of England, continuing his studies, with yachting for his chief recreation. By this time, however, he had become an author, having written a life of his father-in-law prefixed to his _coll._ poems (1849), _Euphranor_, a dialogue on youth (1851), and _Polonius, a Collection of Wise Saws and Modern Instances_ (1852). Becoming interested in Spanish literature, he _pub._ translations of _Six Dramas of Calderon_. Thereafter turning his attention to Persian, he produced (1859), anonymously, his famous translation of the _Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyám_. He also _pub._ translations of the _Agamemnon_ of Æschylus, and the _Oedipus Tyrannus_ and _Oedipus Coloneus_ of Sophocles. In his translations F. aimed not so much at a mere literal reproduction of the sense of the original, as at reproducing its effect on the reader, and in this he was extraordinarily successful. In the department of letter-writing also he attained an excellence perhaps unequalled in his day.

FITZSTEPHEN, WILLIAM (_d._ 1190).--Was a servant of Thomas à Becket, witnessed his murder, and wrote his biography, which contains an interesting account of London in the 12th century.

FLAVEL, JOHN (1627-1691).--Divine, _b._ at Bromsgrove, studied at Oxf., was a Presbyterian, and was settled at Dartmouth, but ejected from his living in 1662, continuing, however, to preach there secretly. He was a voluminous and popular author. Among his works are _Husbandry Spiritualised_ and _Navigation Spiritualised_, titles which suggest some of his characteristics as an expositor.

FLECKNOE, RICHARD (_d._ 1678).--Poet, said to have been an Irish priest. He wrote several plays, now forgotten, also miscellaneous poems, some of them sacred, and a book of travels. His name has been preserved in Dryden's satire, _MacFlecknoe_, as "throughout the realms of nonsense absolute;" but according to some authorities his slighter pieces were not wanting in grace and fancy.

FLETCHER, ANDREW (1655-1716).--Scottish statesman and political writer, _s._ of Sir Robert F. of Saltoun, East Lothian, to which estate he succeeded at an early age. He was _ed._ under the care of Bishop Burnet, who was then minister of Saltoun. Being firmly opposed to the arbitrary measures of the Duke of York, afterwards James II., he went to Holland, where he joined Monmouth, whom he accompanied on his ill-starred expedition. Happening to kill, in a quarrel, one Dare, another of the Duke's followers, he fled to the Continent, travelled in Spain and Hungary, and fought against the Turks. After the Revolution he returned to Scotland, and took an active part in political affairs. He opposed the Union, fearing the loss of Scottish independence, and advocated federation rather than incorporation. He introduced various improvements in agriculture. His principal writings are _Discourse of Government_ (1698), _Two Discourses concerning the Affairs of Scotland_ (1698), _Conversation concerning a right Regulation of Government for the Common Good of Mankind_ (1703), in which occurs his well-known saying, "Give me the making of the songs of a nation, and I care not who makes its laws."

FLETCHER, GILES, AND PHINEAS (1588?-1623) (1582-1650).--Poets, were the sons of Giles F., himself a minor poet, and Envoy to Russia. Phineas, the elder, was _ed._ at Eton and Camb., and entered the Church, becoming Rector of Hilgay, Norfolk. He wrote _The Purple Island_ (1633), a poem in 10 books, giving an elaborate allegorical description of the body and mind of man, which, though tedious and fanciful, contains some fine passages, recalling the harmonious sweetness of Spenser, whose disciple the poet was. He was also the author of _Piscatory Dialogues_. GILES, the younger, was also _ed._ at Camb., and, like his brother, became a country parson, being Rector of Alderton. His poem, _Christ's Victory and Triumph_ (1610), which, though it contains passages rising to sublimity, is now almost unknown except to students of English literature, is said to have influenced Milton.

Both brothers, but especially Giles, had a genuine poetic gift, but alike in the allegorical treatment of their subjects and the metre they adopted, they followed a style which was passing away, and thus missed popularity. They were cousins of John F., the dramatist.

FLORENCE of WORCESTER (_d._ 1118).--Chronicler, was a monk of Worcester. His work is founded upon that of Marianus, an Irish chronicler, supplemented by additions taken from the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, Bede's _Lives of the Saints_, and Asser's _Life of Alfred_. After his death it was brought down to 1295.

FLORIO, JOHN (1553?-1625).--Translator, _s._ of an Italian preacher, exiled for his Protestantism, but who appears to have lost credit owing to misconduct, _b._ in London, was, about 1576, a private tutor of languages at Oxf. In 1581 he was admitted a member of Magdalen Coll., and teacher of French and Italian. Patronised by various noblemen, he became in 1603 reader in Italian to Anne of Denmark, Queen of James I. He _pub._ _First Fruites_ (1578). _Second Fruites_ (1591), consisting of Italian and English Dialogues, and his great Italian dictionary entitled _A World of Wonder_, in 1598. His chief contribution to pure literature is his famous translation of _The Essays of Montaigne_, in stately if somewhat stiff Elizabethan English.

FONBLANQUE, ALBANY WILLIAM (1793-1872).--Journalist and political writer, was of Huguenot descent, the _s._ of a Commissioner in Bankruptcy. He was bred to the law, but deserted it for journalism, in which he took a high place. He wrote much for _The Times_, and _Westminster Review_, and subsequently became ed. and proprietor of the _Examiner_. His best articles were republished as _England under Seven Administrations_ (1837). He also wrote _How we are Governed_. In 1847 he was appointed Statistical Sec. to the Board of Trade.

FOOTE, SAMUEL (1720-1777).--Actor and dramatist, _b._ at Truro of a good family, and _ed._ at Oxf., succeeded by his extravagance and folly in running through two fortunes. To repair his finances he turned to the stage, and began with tragedy, in which he failed. He then took to comedy, and the mimetic representation of living characters, for which his extraordinary comic powers highly qualified him. He also became a prolific author of dramatic pieces. He wrote 20 plays, and claimed to have added 16 original characters to the stage. Several of his pieces, owing to the offence they gave to persons of importance, were suppressed, but were usually revived in a slightly modified form. His conversation was agreeable and entertaining in the highest degree. Among his best works are _An Auction of Pictures_, _The Liar_, and _The Mayor of Garratt_ (1763), _The Lame Lover_ (1770), _The Knights_ (1749), _Author_ (suppressed) 1757, _Devil upon Two Sticks_ (1768), _The Nabob_ (1779), _The Capuchin_ (1776).

FORBES, JAMES DAVID (1809-1868).--Natural Philosopher, _s._ of Sir William F., of Pitsligo, was _b._ and _ed._ at Edin. He studied law, and was called to the Bar, but devoted himself to science, in which he gained a great reputation both as a discoverer and teacher. He was Prof. of Natural Philosophy at Edin., 1833-1859, when he succeeded Sir D. Brewster, as Principal of the United Coll. at St. Andrews. He was one of the founders of the British Association in 1831. His scientific investigations and discoveries embraced the subjects of heat, light, polarisation, and specially glaciers. In connection with the last of these he wrote _Travels through the Alps_ (1843), _Norway and its Glaciers_ (1853), _Tour of Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa_ (1855), and _Papers on the Theory of Glaciers_.

FORD, JOHN (_c._ 1586?).--Dramatist, _b._ probably at Ilsington, Devonshire, was admitted to the Middle Temple in 1602, and appears to have practised as a lawyer. His chief plays are _The Lover's Melancholy_ (1629), _'Tis Pity_, _The Broken Heart_, and _Love's Sacrifice_ (1633), _Perkin Warbeck_ (1634), _The Lady's Trial_ (1639), and _Fancies Chaste and Noble_ (1638). He also collaborated with Dekker and Rowley in _The Witch of Edmonton_ (1624). F. has a high position as a dramatist, though rather for general intellectual power and austere beauty of thought than for strictly dramatic qualities. C. Lamb says, "F. was of the first order of poets." He had little humour; his plays, though the subjects are painful, and sometimes horrible, are full of pensive tenderness expressed in gently flowing verse. The date of his death is uncertain.

FORD, PAUL LEICESTER (1865-1902).--Novelist and biographer, was _b._ in Brooklyn. He wrote Lives of Washington, Franklin, and others, ed. the works of Jefferson, and wrote a number of novels, which had considerable success, including _Peter Sterling_ (1894), _Story of an Untold Love_, _Janice Meredith_, _Wanted a Matchmaker_, and _Wanted a Chaperone_. He _d._ by his own hand.

FORD, RICHARD (1796-1858).--Writer on art and travel, _ed._ at Winchester and Camb., and travelled for several years in Spain, becoming intimately acquainted with the country and people. He wrote a _Handbook for Travellers in Spain_ (1845), which is much more than a mere guide-book, and _Gatherings from Spain_ (1846). An accomplished artist and art critic, he was the first to make the great Spanish painter, Velasquez, generally known in England.

FORDUN, JOHN (_d._ 1384?).--Chronicler, said to have been a chantry priest and Canon of Aberdeen. He began the _Scotichronicon_, for which he prepared himself, it is said, by travelling on foot through Britain and Ireland in search of materials. He also compiled _Gesta Annalia_, a continuation. He brought the history down to 1153, leaving, however, material to the time of his own death, which was subsequently worked up by Walter Bower (_q.v._).

FORSTER, JOHN (1812-1876).--Historian and biographer, _b._ at Newcastle, _ed._ at the Grammar School there, and at Univ. Coll., London, became a barrister of the Inner Temple, but soon relinquished law for literature. In 1834 he accepted the post of assistant ed. of the _Examiner_, and was ed. 1847-55. In this position F. exercised a marked influence on public opinion. He also ed. the _Foreign Quarterly Review_ 1842-3, the _Daily News_ in 1846, and was Sec. to the Lunacy Commission and a Commissioner 1861-72. His historical writings were chiefly biographies, among which are _Statesmen of the Commonwealth of England_ (1836-9), _Life of Goldsmith_ (1854), _Biographical and Historical Essays_ (1859), _Sir John Eliot_ (1864), _Lives of Walter S. Landor_ (1868), and _Charles Dickens_ (1871-4). He also left the first vol. of a Life of Swift. F., who was a man of great decision and force of character, concealed an unusually tender heart under a somewhat overbearing manner.

FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (1394?-1476?).--Political writer, was descended from a Devonshire family. He was an eminent lawyer, and held the office of Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench (1442). During the Wars of the Roses he was a staunch Lancastrian. On the triumph of Edward IV. at Towton he was attainted, and followed the fortunes of the fallen Lancastrians, accompanying Queen Margaret to Scotland and Flanders. He fought at Tewkesbury, was captured, but pardoned on condition of writing in support of the Yorkish claims, which he did, considering that his own party appeared to be hopelessly ruined. He is said to have been at one time Lord Chancellor; but it is probable that this was only a titular appointment given him by the exiled family. His works are various defences of the Lancastrian title to the crown, and two treatises, _De Laudibus Legum Angliæ_ (1537) (in praise of the laws of England), and _On the Governance of the Kingdom of England_, not printed till 1714, the former for the instruction of Edward, Prince of Wales.

FORSTER, JOHN (1770-1843).--Essayist, was _b._ at Halifax, and _ed._ at Bristol for the Baptist ministry. Though a man of powerful and original mind he did not prove popular as a preacher, and devoted himself mainly to literature, his chief contribution to which is his four Essays (1) _On a Man's Writing Memoirs of Himself_, (2) _On Decision of Character_, (3) _On the Epithet "Romantic_," (4) _On Evangelical Religion, etc._, all of which attracted much attention among the more thoughtful part of the community, and still hold their place. These Essays were _pub._ in 1805, and in 1819. F. added another on the _Evils of Popular Ignorance_, in which he advocated a national system of education.

FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS (1826-1864).--Song-writer, was _b._ in Pittsburgh. He wrote over 100 songs, many of which had extraordinary popularity, among which may be mentioned _The Old Folks at Home_, _Nelly Bly_, _Old Dog Tray_, _Camp Town Races_, _Massa's in de cold, cold Ground_, and _Come where my Love lies Dreaming_. He composed the music to his songs.

FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806).--Statesman and historian, _s._ of Henry F., 1st Lord Holland, was one of the greatest orators who have ever sat in the House of Commons. His only serious literary work was a fragment of a proposed _History of the Reign of James the Second_. An introductory chapter sketching the development of the constitution from the time of Henry VII., and a few chapters conducting the history up to the execution of Monmouth are all which he completed.

FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691).--Religious enthusiast, and founder of the Society of Friends, _b._ at Drayton, Leicestershire, was in youth the subject of peculiar religious impressions and trances, and adopted a wandering life. The protests which he conceived himself bound to make against the prevailing beliefs and manners, and which sometimes took the form of interrupting Divine service, and the use of uncomplimentary forms of address to the clergy, involved him in frequent trouble. The clergy, the magistrates, and the mob alike treated him with harshness amounting to persecution. None of these things, however, moved him, and friends, many of them influential, among them Oliver Cromwell, extended favour towards him. From 1659 onwards he made various missionary journeys in Scotland, Ireland, America, and Holland. Later he was repeatedly imprisoned, again visited the Continent, and _d._ in 1691. F.'s literary works are his _Journal_, _Epistles_, and _Doctrinal Pieces_. He was not a man of strong intellect, and the defence of his doctrines was undertaken by the far more competent hand of his follower, Barclay (_q.v._). The _Journal_, however, is full of interest as a sincere transcript of the singular experiences, religious and others, of a spiritual enthusiast and mystic.

The best Life is that by Hodgkin, 1896. _Journal_ (reprint, 1885).

FOXE, JOHN (1516-1587).--Martyrologist, was _b._ at Boston, Lincolnshire, and _ed._ at Oxf., where he became a Fellow of Magdalen Coll. While there he gave himself to the study of the theological questions then in debate, and ended by becoming a Protestant, in consequence of which he in 1545 left his coll. He then became tutor in the family of Sir T. Lucy of Charlecote, and afterwards to the children of the recently executed Earl of Surrey. During the reign of Mary he retired to the Continent, and _pub._, at Strasburg, his _Commentarii_ (the first draft of the _Acts and Monuments_). Removing to Basel he was employed as a reader for the press by the famous printer Oporinus, who _pub._ some of his writings. On the accession of Elizabeth, F. returned to England, was received with kindness by the Duke of Norfolk, one of his former pupils, and soon afterwards (1563) _pub._ the work on which his fame rests, the English version of the _Acts and Monuments_, better known as _The Book Martyrs_. Received with great favour by the Protestants, it was, and has always been, charged by the Roman Catholics with gross and wilful perversion of facts. The truth of the matter appears to be that while Foxe was not, as in the circumstances he could hardly have been, free from party spirit or from some degree of error as to facts, he did not intentionally try to mislead; and comparison of his citations from authorities with the originals has shown him to have been careful and accurate in that matter. F., who had been ordained a priest in 1560, became Canon of Salisbury in 1563. He wrote sundry other theological works, and _d._ in 1587. There is a memoir of him attributed to his _s._, but of doubtful authenticity. Some of his papers, used by Strype (_q.v._), are now in the British Museum.

FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (1740-1818).--Reputed author of _The Letters of Junius_, _s._ of the Rev. Philip F., a scholar of some note, was _b._ in Dublin. On the recommendation of Lord Holland he received an appointment in the office of the Sec. of State, and was thereafter private sec. to Lord Kinnoull in Portugal, and to Pitt in 1761-2. He was then transferred to the War Office, where he remained from 1762-72, during which period he contributed to the press under various pseudonyms. His next appointment was that of a member of Council of Bengal, which he held from 1773-80. While in India he was in continual conflict with the Governor-General, Warren Hastings, by whom he was wounded in a duel in 1779. He returned to England in 1780 with a large fortune, and entered Parliament as a Whig. In 1787 he was associated with Burke in the impeachment of Hastings, against whom he showed extraordinary vindictiveness. Later he was a sympathiser with the French Revolution, and a member of the association of the Friends of the People. He retired from public life in 1807, and _d._ in 1818. He was the author of about 20 political pamphlets, but the great interest attaching to him is his reputed authorship of the _Letters of Junius_. These letters which, partly on account of the boldness and implacability of their attacks and the brilliance of their literary style, and partly because of the mystery in which their author wrapped himself, created an extraordinary impression, and have ever since retained their place as masterpieces of condensed sarcasm. They appeared in _The Public Advertiser_, a paper _pub._ by Woodfall, the first on January 21, 1769, and the last on the corresponding day of 1772, and were chiefly directed against the Dukes of Grafton and Bedford, and Lord Mansfield; but even the king himself did not escape. Not only were the public actions of those attacked held up to execration, but every circumstance in their private lives which could excite odium was dragged into the light. Their authorship was attributed to many distinguished men, _e.g._ Burke, Lord Shelburne, J. Wilkes, Horne Tooke, and Barré, and recently to Gibbon; but the evidence appears to point strongly to F., and, in the opinion of Macaulay, would "support a verdict in a civil, nay, in a criminal trial." It rests upon such circumstances as the similarity of the MS. to what is known to be the disguised writing of F., the acquaintance of the writer with the working of the Sec. of State's Office and the War Office, his denunciation of the promotion of a Mr. Chamier in the War Office, which was a well-known grievance of F., his acquaintance with Pitt, and the existence of a strong tie to Lord Holland, the silence of Junius when F. was absent, and resemblances in the style and the moral character of the writer to those of F.

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN (1706-1790).--American statesman, philosopher, and writer, was one of a numerous family. His _f._ was a soap-boiler at Boston, where F. was _b._ He was apprenticed at the age of 13 to his brother, a printer, who treated him harshly. After various changes, during which he lived in New York, London, and Philadelphia, he at last succeeded in founding a successful business as a printer. He also started a newspaper, _The Gazette_, which was highly popular, _Poor Richard's Almanac_, and the _Busybody Papers_, in imitation of the _Spectator_. After holding various minor appointments, he was made deputy Postmaster-General for the American Colonies. In 1757 he went to London on some public business in which he was so successful that various colonies appointed him their English agent. In the midst of his varied avocations he found time for scientific investigation, especially with regard to electricity. For these he became known over the civilised world, and was loaded with honours. In 1762 he returned to America, and took a prominent part in the controversies which led to the Revolutionary War and the independence of the Colonies. In 1776 he was U.S. Minister to France, and in 1782 was a signatory of the treaty which confirmed the independence of the States. He returned home in 1785, and, after holding various political offices, retired in 1788, and _d._ in 1790. His autobiography is his chief contribution to literature, and is of the highest interest.

Works (10 vols., Bigelow, 1887-9), Autobiography (1868), Lives by M'Master (1887), and Morse (1889).

FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1823-1892).--Historian, _s._ of John F., was _b._ at Harborne, Staffordshire. He lost both his parents in childhood, and was brought up by his paternal grandmother. He was _ed._ at private schools, and as a private pupil of the Rev. R. Gutch, whose _dau._ he afterwards _m._ In 1841 he was elected to a scholarship at Oxf. He had inherited an income sufficient to make him independent of a profession, and a prepossession in favour of the celibacy of the clergy disinclined him to enter the Church, of which he had at one time thought. He settled ultimately at Somerleaze, near Wells, where he occupied himself in study, writing for periodicals, and with the duties of a magistrate. He was a strong Liberal, and on one occasion stood unsuccessfully as a candidate for Parliament. He was also twice unsuccessful as an applicant for professional chairs, but ultimately, in 1884, succeeded Stubbs as Prof. of Modern History at Oxf. He had always been an enthusiastic traveller, and it was when on a tour in Spain that he took ill and _d._ on May 16, 1892. F. was a voluminous author, and a keen controversialist. His first book was a _History of Architecture_ (1849), and among the very numerous publications which he issued the most important were _History of Federal Government_ (1863), _The History of the Norman Conquest_ (6 vols., 1867-79), _The Historical Geography of Europe_ (1881-2), _The Reign of William Rufus_ (1882), and an unfinished _History of Sicily_. Besides these he wrote innumerable articles in periodicals, many of which were separately _pub._ and contain much of his best work. He was laborious and honest, but the controversial cast of his mind sometimes coloured his work. His short books, such as his _William I._, and his _General Sketch of European History_, are marvels of condensation, and show him at his best. His knowledge of history was singularly wide, and he sometimes showed a great power of vivid presentation.

FRENEAU, PHILIP (1752-1832).--Poet, _b._ in New York, produced two vols. of verse (1786-8), the most considerable contribution to poetry made up to that date in America. He fought in the Revolutionary War, was taken prisoner, and confined in a British prison-ship, the arrangements of which he bitterly satirised in _The British Prison Ship_ (1781). He also wrote vigorous prose, of which _Advice to Authors_ is an example. Amid much commonplace and doggerel, F. produced a small amount of genuine poetry in his short pieces, such as _The Indian Burying Ground_, and _The Wild Honeysuckle_.

FRERE, JOHN HOOKHAM (1769-1846).--Diplomatist, translator, and author, eldest _s._ of John F., a distinguished antiquary, was _b._ in London, and _ed._ at Eton and Camb. He became a clerk in the Foreign Office, and subsequently entering Parliament was appointed Under Foreign Sec. In 1800 he was Envoy to Portugal, and was Ambassador to Spain 1802-4, and again 1808-9. In 1818 he retired to Malta, where he _d._ He was a contributor to the _Anti-Jacobin_, to Ellis's _Specimens of the Early English Poets_ (1801), and to Southey's _Chronicle of the Cid_. He also made some masterly translations from _Aristophanes_; but his chief original contribution to literature was a burlesque poem on _Arthur and the Round Table_, purporting to be by William and Robert Whistlecraft. All F.'s writings are characterised no less by scholarship than by wit.

FROUDE, JAMES ANTHONY (1818-1894).--Historian and essayist, 3rd _s._ of the Archdeacon of Totnes, Devonshire, near which he was _b._, and brother of Richard Hurrell. F., one of the leaders of the Tractarian party, was _ed._ at Westminster School and Oxf., where for a short time he came under the influence of Newman, and contributed to his _Lives of the English Saints_, and in 1844 he took Deacon's orders. The connection with Newman was, however, short-lived; and the publication in 1848 of _The Nemesis of Faith_ showed that in the severe mental and spiritual conflict through which he had passed, the writer had not only escaped from all Tractarian influences, but was in revolt against many of the fundamental doctrines of Christianity. One result of the book was his resignation of his Fellowship at Oxf.: another was his loss of an appointment as Head Master of the Grammar School of Hobart Town, Tasmania. In the same year began his friendship with Carlyle, and about the same time he became a contributor to the _Westminster Review_ and to _Fraser's Magazine_, of which he was ed. from 1860-74. These papers were afterwards _coll._ and _pub._ in the 4 vols. of _Short Studies on Great Subjects_. In 1856 he _pub._ the first 2 vols. of the great work of his life, _The History of England from the Fall of Cardinal Wolsey to the Spanish Armada_, which extended to 12 vols., the last of which appeared in 1870. As literature this work has a place among the greatest productions of the century; but in its treatment it is much more dramatic, ethical, and polemical than historical in the strict sense; and indeed the inaccuracy in matters of fact to which F. was liable, combined with his tendency to idealise and to colour with his own prejudices the characters who figure in his narrative, are serious deductions from the value of his work considered as history. _The English in Ireland in the Eighteenth Century_ appeared in 1872-4. On the death of Carlyle in 1881, F. found himself in the position of his sole literary executor, and in that capacity _pub._ successively the _Reminiscences_ (1881), _History of the First Forty Years of Carlyle's Life_ (1882), _Letters and Memorials of Jane Welsh Carlyle_ (1883), _History of Carlyle's Life in London_ (1884). The opinion is held by many that in the discharge of the duties entrusted to him by his old friend and master he showed neither discretion nor loyalty; and his indiscreet revelations and gross inaccuracies evoked a storm of controversy and protest. F. did not confine his labours to purely literary effort. In 1874-5 he travelled as a Government Commissioner in South Africa with the view of fostering a movement in favour of federating the various colonies there; in 1876 he served on the Scottish Univ. Commission; in 1884-5 he visited Australia, and gave the fruit of his observations to the world in _Oceana_ (1886), and in 1886-7 he was in the West Indies, and _pub._ _The English in the West Indies_ (1888). The year 1892 saw his appointment as Prof. of Modern History at Oxf., and his lectures there were _pub._ in his last books, _Life and Letters of Erasmus_ (1894), _English Seamen in the Sixteenth Century_ (1895), and _The Council of Trent_ (1896). F. was elected in 1869 Lord Rector of the Univ. of St. Andrews, and received the degree of LL.D. from Edinburgh in 1884. By his instructions no Biography was to be written.

FULLER, SARAH MARGARET (1810-1850).--Was _b._ in Massachusetts, _dau._ of a lawyer, who encouraged her in over-working herself in the acquisition of knowledge with life-long evil results to her health. On his death she supported a large family of brothers and sisters by teaching. Her early studies had made her familiar with the literature not only of England but of France, Spain, and Italy; she had become imbued with German philosophy and mysticism, and she co-operated with Theodore Parker in his revolt against the Puritan theology till then prevalent in New England, and became the conductor of the Transcendentalist organ, _The Dial_, from 1840-2. She made various translations from the German, and _pub._ _Summer on the Lakes_ (1844), and _Papers on Literature and Art_ (1846). In the same year she went to Europe, and at Rome met the Marquis Ossoli, an Italian patriot, whom she _m._ in 1847. She and her husband were in the thick of the Revolution of 1848-9, and in the latter year she was in charge of a hospital at Rome. After the suppression of the Revolution she escaped with her husband from Italy, and took ship for America. The voyage proved most disastrous: small-pox broke out on the vessel, and their infant child _d._, the ship was wrecked on Fire Island, near New York, and she and her husband were lost. Destitute of personal attractions, she was possessed of a singular power of conciliating sympathy. She was the intimate friend of Emerson, Hawthorn, Channing, and other eminent men.

FULLER, THOMAS (1608-1661).--Divine and antiquary, _s._ of a clergyman of the same name, was _b._ at Aldwinkle, Northamptonshire. Possessed of exceptional intelligence and a wonderful memory, he became a good scholar, and distinguished himself at Camb., where he was sent. Entering the Church, he obtained rapid preferment, including the lectureship at the Savoy, and a chaplaincy to Charles II. He was a voluminous author, his works dealing with theology, morals, history, and antiquities. Among the chief are _History of the Holy War_, _i.e._ the Crusades (1643), _The Holy State and the Profane State_ (1642), _A Pisgah Sight of Palestine_ (1650), _Church History of Britain_, _History of Cambridge University_ (1655), _Worthies of England_ (1662), and _Good Thoughts in Bad Times_. The outstanding characteristic of F.'s writings is shrewd observation conveyed in a style of quaint humour. Lamb says, "His conceits are oftentimes deeply steeped in human feeling and passion." But in addition there is much wisdom and a remarkable power of casting his observations into a compact, aphoristic form. The _Worthies_, though far from being a systematic work, is full of interesting biographical and antiquarian matter which, but for the pains of the author, would have been lost. Coleridge says of him, "He was incomparably the most sensible, the least prejudiced great man in an age that boasted a galaxy of great men." F., who was of a singularly amiable character, was a strong Royalist, and suffered the loss of his preferments during the Commonwealth. They were, however, given back to him at the Restoration.

Lives by Russell (1844), J.E. Bailey (1874), and M. Fuller (1886).

FULLERTON, LADY GEORGIANA (LEVESON-GOWER) (1812-1885).--Novelist, _dau._ of the 1st Earl Granville, and sister of the eminent statesman. She wrote a number of novels, some of which had considerable success. They include _Ellen Middleton_ (1844), _Grantley Manor_ (1847), and _Too Strange not to be True_ (1864). She also _pub._ two vols. of verse. She joined the Church of Rome in 1846.

GAIMAR, GEOFFREY (_fl._ 1140?).--Chronicler, translated the chronicle of Geoffrey of Monmouth into French verse for the wife of his patron, Ralph Fitz-Gilbert, and added a continuation dealing with the Saxon Kings. His work is entitled _L'Estoire des Engles_.

GALT, JOHN (1779-1839).--Novelist and miscellaneous writer, _s._ of the captain of a West Indiaman, was _b._ at Irvine, Ayrshire, but while still a young man he went to London and formed a commercial partnership, which proved unfortunate, and he then entered Lincoln's Inn to study law. A little before this he had produced his first book, a poem on the Battle of Largs, which, however, he soon suppressed. He then went to various parts of the Continent in connection with certain commercial schemes, and met Lord Byron, with whom he travelled for some time. Returning home he _pub._ _Letters from the Levant_, which had a favourable reception, and some dramas, which were less successful. He soon, however, found his true vocation in the novel of Scottish country life, and his fame rests upon the _Ayrshire Legatees_ (1820), _The Annals of the Parish_ (1821), _Sir Andrew Wylie_ (1822), _The Entail_ (1824), and _The Provost_. He was not so successful in the domain of historical romance, which he tried in _Ringan Gilbaize_, _The Spae-wife_, _The Omen_, etc., although these contain many striking passages. In addition to his novels G. produced many historical and biographical works, including a _Life of Wolsey_ (1812), _Life and Studies of Benjamin West_ (1816), _Tour of Asia_, _Life of Byron_ (1830), _Lives of the Players_, and an Autobiography (1834). In addition to this copious literary output, G. was constantly forming and carrying out commercial schemes, the most important of which was the Canada Company, which, like most of his other enterprises, though conducted with great energy and ability on his part, ended in disappointment and trouble for himself. In 1834 he returned from Canada to Greenock, broken in health and spirits, and _d._ there in 1839 of paralysis. G. was a man of immense talent and energy, but would have held a higher place in literature had he concentrated these qualities upon fewer objects. Most of his 60 books are forgotten, but some of his novels, especially perhaps _The Annals of the Parish_, have deservedly a secure place. The town of Galt in Canada is named after him.

GARDINER, SAMUEL RAWSON (1829-1902).--Historian, _b._ at Alresford, Hants, was _ed._ at Winchester and Oxf. In 1855 he _m._ Isabella, _dau._ of Edward Irving (_q.v._), the founder of the Catholic Apostolic Church, which he joined, and in which he ultimately held high office. About the time of his leaving Oxf. he had planned his great work, _The History of England from the Accession of James I. to the Restoration_, and the accomplishment of this task he made the great object of his life for more than 40 years. The first two vols. appeared in 1863 as _The History of England from the Accession of James I. to the Disgrace of Chief Justice Cooke_, and subsequent instalments appeared under the following titles: _Prince Charles and The Spanish Marriage_ (1867), _England under Buckingham and Charles I._ (1875), _Personal Government of Charles I._ (1877), _The Fall of the Government of Charles I._ (1881); these were in 1883-4 re-issued in a consolidated form entitled _History of England from the Accession of James I. to the Outbreak of the Civil War_. The second section of the work, _History of the Great Civil War_, followed in three vols. _pub._ in 1886, 1889, and 1891 respectively, and three more vols., _History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate_ in 1894, 1897, and 1901, brought the story down to 1656, when the health of the indefatigable writer gave way, and he _d._ in 1902. In addition to this monumental work G. wrote many school and college historical text-books, and contributed to the Epochs of Modern History Series, _The Thirty Years' War_ (1874), and _The First Two Stuarts_ (1876); he also wrote _Outlines of English History_, three parts (1881-3), and _Students' History of England_, three parts (1891). From 1871-85 he was Prof. of History at King's Coll., London, and lecturer on history for the London Society for the Extension of Univ. Teaching. He also ed. many of the historical documents which he unearthed in his investigations, and many of those issued by the "Camden," "Clarendon," and other societies. He was ed. of _The English Historical Review_, and contributed largely to the _Dictionary of National Biography_. The sober and unadorned style of G.'s works did little to commend them to the general reader, but their eminent learning, accuracy, impartiality, and the laborious pursuit of truth which they exhibited earned for him, from the first, the respect and admiration of scholars and serious students of history; and as his great work advanced it was recognised as a permanent contribution to historical literature. In 1882 he received a civil list pension, and was elected to Research Fellowships, first by All Souls' Coll., and subsequently by Merton. He held honorary degrees from the Univ. of Oxford, Gottingen, and Edinburgh.

GARNETT, RICHARD (1835-1906).--Biographer and writer on literature, _s._ of Richard G., an assistant keeper of Printed Books in the British Museum. _B._ at Lichfield, and _ed._ at a school in, Bloomsbury, he entered the British Museum in 1851 as an assistant librarian. There he remained for nearly 50 years, and rose to be Keeper of Printed Books. He acquired a marvellous knowledge of books, and of everything connected with pure literature. He made numerous translations from the Greek, German, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese, and wrote books of graceful verse, _The Twilight of the Gods and other Tales_ (1888), various biographical works on Carlyle, Milton, Blake, and others, _The Age of Dryden_, a _History of Italian Literature_, and contributed many articles to encyclopædias, and to the _Dictionary of National Biography_.

GARRICK, DAVID (1717-1779).--Actor and dramatist, _b._ at Hereford, but got most of his education at Lichfield, to which his _f._ belonged. He was also one of the three pupils who attended Johnson's School at Edial. With his great preceptor, whom he accompanied to London, he always remained on friendly terms. He took to the stage, and became the greatest of English actors. He also wrote various plays, and adaptations, and did not scruple to undertake "improved" versions of some of Shakespeare's greatest plays including _Cymbeline_, _The Taming of the Shrew_, and _The Winter s Tale_, performing the same service for Jonson and Wycherley, in the last case with much more excuse. Of his original plays _The Lying Valet_ and _Miss in her Teens_ are perhaps the best.

GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879).--Orator, was _b._ at Newburyport, Mass. Though chiefly known for his eloquent advocacy of negro emancipation, he is also remembered for his _Sonnets and other Poems_ (1847).

GARTH, SIR SAMUEL (1661-1719).--Physician and poet, _b._ at Bolam in the county of Durham, and _ed._ at Camb., he settled as a physician in London, where he soon acquired a large practice. He was a zealous Whig, the friend of Addison and, though of different political views, of Pope, and he ended his career as physician to George I., by whom he was knighted in 1714. He is remembered as the author of _The Dispensary_, a satire, which had great popularity in its day, and of _Claremont_, a descriptive poem. He also ed. a translation of Ovid's _Metamorphoses_, to which Addison, Pope, and others contributed. Perhaps, however, the circumstance most honourable to him is his intervention to procure an honourable burial for Dryden, over whose remains he pronounced a eulogy.

GASCOIGNE, GEORGE (1525 or 1535-1577).--Poet and dramatist, _s._ of Sir John G., and descended from Sir William G., the famous Chief Justice to Henry IV., he was _ed._ at Camb., and entered Gray's Inn 1555. While there he produced two plays, both translations, _The Supposes_ (1566) from Ariosto, and _Jocasta_ (1566) from Euripides. Disinherited on account of his prodigality, he _m._ in order to rehabilitate his finances, a widow, the mother of Nicholas Breton (_q.v._). He had, nevertheless, to go to Holland to escape from the importunities of his creditors. While there he saw service under the Prince of Orange, and was taken prisoner by the Spaniards. Released after a few months, he returned to England, and found that some of his poems had been surreptitiously _pub._ He thereupon issued an authoritative ed. under the title of _An Hundred Sundrie Floures bound up in one Poesie_ (1572). Other works are _Notes of Instruction_, for making English verse, _The Glasse of Government_ (1575), and _The Steele Glasse_ (1576), a satire. He also contributed to the entertainments in honour of Queen Elizabeth at Kenilworth and appears to have had a share of Court favour. G. was a man of originality, and did much to popularise the use of blank verse in England.

GASKELL, ELIZABETH CLEGHORN (STEVENSON) (1810-1865).--Novelist, _dau._ of William Stevenson, a Unitarian minister, and for some time Keeper of the Treasury Records. She _m._ William G., a Unitarian minister, at Manchester, and in 1848 _pub._ anonymously her first book, _Mary Barton_, in which the life and feelings of the manufacturing working classes are depicted with much power and sympathy. Other novels followed, _Lizzie Leigh_ (1855), _Mr. Harrison's Confessions_ (1865), _Ruth_ (1853), _Cranford_ (1851-3), _North and South_ (1855), _Sylvia's Lovers_ (1863), etc. Her last work was _Wives and Daughters_ (1865), which appeared in the _Cornhill Magazine_, and was left unfinished. Mrs. G. had some of the characteristics of Miss Austen, and if her style and delineation of character are less minutely perfect, they are, on the other hand, imbued with a deeper vein of feeling. She was the friend of Charlotte Bronté (_q.v._), to whom her sympathy brought much comfort, and whose _Life_ she wrote. Of _Cranford_ Lord Houghton wrote, "It is the finest piece of humoristic description that has been added to British literature since Charles Lamb."

GATTY, MRS. ALFRED (MARGARET SCOTT) (1809-1873).--_Dau._ of Rev. A.J. Scott, D.D., a navy chaplain, who served under, and was the trusted friend of, Nelson. She _m._ the Rev. Alfred Gatty, D.D., Ecclesfield, Yorkshire, and became a highly useful and popular writer of tales for young people. Among her books may be mentioned _Parables from Nature_, _Worlds not Realised_, _Proverbs Illustrated_, and _Aunt Judy's Tales_. She also conducted _Aunt Judy's Magazine_, and wrote a book on British sea-weeds. Juliana Ewing (_q.v._) was her daughter.

GAUDEN, JOHN (1605-1662).--Theologian, _b._ at Mayfield in Essex, and _ed._ at Camb. His claim to remembrance rests on his being the reputed author of _Eikon Basiliké_ (the Royal Image), a book purporting to be written by Charles I. during his imprisonment, and containing religious meditations and defences of his political acts. _Pub._ immediately after the King's execution, it produced an extraordinary effect, so much so that Charles II. is reported to have said that, had it been _pub._ a week earlier, it would have saved his father's life. There seems now to be little doubt that Gauden was the author. At all events he claimed to be recompensed for his services, and was made Bishop successively of Exeter and Worcester, apparently on the strength of these claims. The work passed through 50 ed. within a year, and was answered by Milton in his _Iconoclastes_ (the Image-breaker).

GAY, JOHN (1685-1732).--Poet and dramatist, _b._ near Barnstaple of a good but decayed family. His parents dying while he was a child he was apprenticed to a silk-mercer in London, but not liking the trade, was released by his master. In 1708 he _pub._ a poem, _Wine_, and in 1713 _Rural Sports_, which he dedicated to Pope, whose friendship he obtained. A little before this he had received an appointment as sec. in the household of the Duchess of Monmouth. His next attempts were in the drama, in which he was not at first successful; but about 1714 he made his first decided hit in _The Shepherd's Week_, a set of six pastorals designed to satirise Ambrose Philips, which, however, secured public approval on their own merits. These were followed by _Trivia_ (1716), in which he was aided by Swift, an account in mock heroic verse of the dangers of the London streets, and by _The Fan_. G. had always been ambitious of public employment, and his aspirations were gratified by his receiving the appointment of sec. to an embassy to Hanover, which, however, he appears to have resigned in a few months. He then returned to the drama in _What d'ye call It_, and _Three Hours after Marriage_, neither of which, however, took the public fancy. In 1720 he _pub._ a collection of his poems, which brought him £1000, but soon after lost all his means in the collapse of the South Sea Company. After producing another drama, _The Captive_, he _pub._ his _Fables_ (1727), which added to his reputation, and soon after, in 1728, achieved the great success of his life in _The Beggar's Opera_, a Newgate pastoral, suggested by Swift, in which the graces and fantasticalities of the Italian Opera were satirised. A sequel, _Polly_, was suppressed by the Lord Chamberlain as reflecting upon the Court, but was _pub._ and had an enormous sale. The last few years of his life were passed in the household of the Duke of Queensberry, who had always been his friend and patron. He _d._ after three days' illness, aged 47. G. was an amiable, easy-going man, who appears to have had the power of attracting the strong attachments of his friends, among whom were Pope and Swift. He seems to have been one of the very few for whom the latter had a sincere affection. He is buried in Westminster Abbey. Of all he has written he is best remembered by one or two songs, of which the finest is _Black-eyed Susan_.

GEDDES, ALEXANDER (1737-1802).--Theologian and scholar, of Roman Catholic parentage, was _b._ at Ruthven, Banffshire, and _ed._ for the priesthood at the local seminary of Scalan, and at Paris, and became a priest in his native county. His translation of the _Satires_ of Horace made him known as a scholar, but his liberality of view led to his suspension. He then went to London, where he became known to Lord Petre, who enabled him to proceed with a new translation of the Bible for English Roman Catholics, which he carried on as far as Ruth, with some of the Psalms, and which was _pub._ in 3 vols. (1792-6). This was followed by _Critical Remarks on the Hebrew Scriptures_, in which he largely anticipated the German school of criticism. The result of this publication was his suspension from all ecclesiastical functions. G. was also a poet, and wrote _Linton: a Tweedside Pastoral_, _Carmen Seculare pro Gallica Gente_ (1790), in praise of the French Revolution. He _d._ without recanting, but received absolution at the hands of a French priest, though public mass for his soul was forbidden by the ecclesiastical powers.

GEOFFREY of MONMOUTH (1100?-1154).--Chronicler, was probably a Benedictine monk, and became Bishop of St. Asaph. He wrote a Latin _History of British Kings_. _Merlin's Prophecies_, long attributed to him, is now held to be not genuine. The history is rather a historical romance than a sober history, and gave scandal to some of the more prosaic chroniclers who followed him. It was subsequently translated into Anglo-Norman by Gaimar and Wace, and into English by Layamon.

GERARD, ALEXANDER (1728-1795).--Philosophical writer, _s._ of Rev. Gilbert G., was _ed._ at Aberdeen, where he became Prof., first of Natural Philosophy, and afterwards of Divinity, and one of the ministers of the city. As a prof. he introduced various reforms. In 1756 he gained the prize for an _Essay on Taste_ which, together with an _Essay on Genius_, he subsequently _pub._ These treatises, though now superseded, gained for him considerable reputation.

GIBBON, EDWARD (1737-1794).--Historian, was _b._ at Putney of an ancient Kentish family. His _f._ was Edward G., and his mother Judith Porten. He was the only one of a family of seven who survived infancy, and was himself a delicate child with a precocious love of study. After receiving his early education at home he was sent to Westminster School, and when 15 was entered at Magdalen Coll., Oxf., where, according to his own account, he spent 14 months idly and unprofitably. Oxf. was then at its lowest ebb, and earnest study or effort of any kind had little encouragement. G., however, appears to have maintained his wide reading in some degree, and his study of Bossuet and other controversialists led to his becoming in 1753 a Romanist. To counteract this his _f._ placed him under the charge of David Mallet (_q.v._), the poet, deist, and ed. of Bolingbroke's works, whose influence, not unnaturally, failed of the desired effect, and G. was next sent to Lausanne, and placed under the care of a Protestant pastor, M. Pavilliard. Various circumstances appear to have made G. not unwilling to be re-converted to Protestantism; at all events he soon returned to the reformed doctrines. At Lausanne he remained for over four years, and devoted himself assiduously to study, especially of French literature and the Latin classics. At this time also he became engaged to Mademoiselle Suzanne Curchod; but on the match being peremptorily opposed by his _f._ it was broken off. With the lady, who eventually became the wife of Necker, and the mother of Madame de Staël, he remained on terms of friendship. In 1758 G. returned to England, and in 1761 _pub._ _Essai sur l'Etude de la Littérature_, translated into English in 1764. About this time he made a tour on the Continent, visiting Paris, where he stayed for three months, and thence proceeding to Switzerland and Italy. There it was that, musing amid the ruins of the Capitol at Rome on October 15, 1764, he formed the plan of writing the history of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. He returned to England in 1765, and in 1770 his _f._ _d._, leaving him the embarrassed estate of Buriton, which had been his usual home when in England. With a view to recovering his affairs, he left his estate and lived in London where, in 1772, he seriously set himself to realise the great plan which, since its conception, had never been out of his thoughts. The first chapter was written three times, and the second twice before he could satisfy himself that he had found the style suited to his subject. The progress of the work was delayed by the fact that G. had meanwhile (1774) entered the House of Commons, where, as member for Liskeard, he was a steady, though silent, supporter of Lord North in his American policy. He subsequently sat for Lymington, and held office as a Commissioner of Trade and Plantations 1779-82. The first vol. of the _Decline and Fall_ appeared in 1776, and was received with acclamation, and it was not until some time had elapsed that the author's treatment of the rise of Christianity excited the attention and alarm of the religious and ecclesiastical world. When, however, the far-reaching nature of his views was at length realised, a fierce and prolonged controversy arose, into which G. himself did not enter except in one case where his fidelity as an historian was impugned. The second and third vols. appeared in 1781, and thereafter (1783) G. returned to Lausanne, where he lived tranquilly with an early friend, M. Deyverdun, devoting his mornings to the completion of his history, and his evenings to society. At length, on the night of June 27, 1787, in the summer-house of his garden, the last words were penned, and the great work of his life completed. Of the circumstances, and of his feelings at the moment, he has himself given an impressive account. The last three vols. were issued in 1788, G. having gone to London to see them through the press. This being done he returned to Lausanne where, within a year, his beloved friend Deyverdun _d._ His last years were clouded by ill-health, and by anxieties with regard to the French Revolution. In 1793, though travelling was a serious matter for him, he came to England to comfort his friend Lord Sheffield on the death of his wife, took ill, and _d._ suddenly in London on January 16, 1794.

The place of G. among historians is in the first rank, and if the vast scale of his work and the enormous mass of detail involved in it are considered along with the learning and research employed in accumulating the material, and the breadth of view, lucidity of arrangement, and sense of proportion which have fused them into a distinct and splendid picture, his claims to the first place cannot be lightly dismissed. His style, though not pure, being tinged with Gallicisms, is one of the most noble in our literature, rich, harmonious, and stately; and though sources of information not accessible to him have added to our knowledge, and have shown some of his conclusions to be mistaken, his historical accuracy has been comparatively little shaken, and his work is sure of permanence. As a man G. seems to have been somewhat calm and cool in his feelings, though capable of steady and affectionate friendships, such as those with Deyverdun and the Sheffields, which were warmly reciprocated, and he appears to have been liked in society, where his brilliant conversational powers made him shine. He was vain, and affected the manners of the fine gentleman, which his unattractive countenance and awkward figure, and latterly his extreme corpulence, rendered somewhat ridiculous. He left an interesting _Autobiography_.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1737, _ed._ Westminster and Oxf., became Romanist and sent to Lausanne 1753, where he returned to Protestantism, _pub._ _Essay on Study of Literature_ 1761, visited Rome 1764 and resolved to write his _Decline and Fall of Roman Empire_, began to write it 1772, _pub._ 1776-87, _d._ 1794.

_Decline and Fall_ (Sir W. Smith, 8 vols., 1854-55), another (J.B. Bury, 7 vols., 1896-1900). _Autobiography_ (Lord Sheffield, 1796), often reprinted.

GIFFORD, RICHARD (1725-1807).--Poet, was _ed._ at Oxford and took orders. He was the author of a poem, _Contemplation_. He also wrote theological and controversial works.

GIFFORD, WILLIAM (1756-1826).--Critic and poet, was _b._ of humble parentage at Ashburton, Devonshire, and after being for a short time at sea, was apprenticed to a cobbler. Having, however, shown signs of superior ability, and a desire for learning, he was befriended and _ed._, ultimately at Oxf., where he _grad._ Becoming known to Lord Grosvenor, he was patronised by him, and in course of time produced his first poem, _The Baviad_ (1794), a satire directed against the Delia Cruscans, a clique of very small and sentimental poets, which at once quenched their little tapers. This was followed by another satire, _The Mæviad_, against some minor dramatists. His last effort in this line was his _Epistle to Peter Pindar_ (Dr. Walcot), inspired by personal enmity, which evoked a reply, _A Cut at a Cobbler_. These writings had established the reputation of G. as a keen, and even ferocious critic, and he was appointed in 1797 ed. of the _Anti-Jacobin_, which Canning and his friends had just started, and of the _Quarterly Review_ (1809-24). He also brought out ed. of Massinger, Ben Jonson, and Ford. As a critic he had acuteness; but he was one-sided, prejudiced, and savagely bitter, and much more influenced in his judgments by the political opinions than by the literary merits of his victims. In his whole career, however, he displayed independence and spirit in overcoming the disadvantages of his early life, as well as gratitude to those who had served him. He held various appointments which placed him above financial anxiety.

GILDAS (516?-570?).--British historian, was a monk who is believed to have gone to Brittany about 550, and founded a monastery. He wrote a history, _De Excidio Britanniæ_ (concerning the overthrow of Britain). It consists of two parts, the first from the Roman invasion until the end of the 4th century, and the second a continuation to the writer's own time. It is obscure and wordy, and not of much value.

GILDER, RICHARD WATSON (1844-1909).--Poet, _b._ at Borderstown, New Jersey, was successively a lawyer, a soldier, and a journalist, in which last capacity he ed. _Scribner's_ (afterwards the _Century_) _Magazine_. He holds a high place among American poets as the author of _The New Day_ (1875), _The Celestial Passion_, _The Great Remembrance_, _Five Books of Song_ (1894), _In Palestine_ (1898), _In the Heights_ (1905), _A Book of Music_ (collection) (1906), etc.

GILDON, CHARLES (1665-1724).--Critic and dramatist, belonged to a Roman Catholic family, and was an unsuccessful playwright, a literary hack, and a critic of little acumen or discrimination. He attacked Pope as "Sawny Dapper," and was in return embalmed in _The Dunciad_. He also wrote a Life of Defoe.

GILFILLAN, GEORGE (1813-1878).--Poet and critic, _s._ of a dissenting minister at Comrie, Perthshire, studied at Glasgow Univ., and was ordained minister of a church in Dundee. He was a voluminous author. Among his writings are _Gallery of Literary Portraits_, and a Series of British Poets with introductions and notes in 48 vols. He also wrote Lives of Burns, Scott, and others, and _Night_ (1867), a poem in nine books. His style was somewhat turgid, and his criticism rather sympathetic than profound.

GILFILLAN, ROBERT (1798-1850).--Poet, _b._ at Dunfermline, was latterly Collector of Police Rates in Leith. He wrote a number of Scottish songs, and was favourably mentioned in _Noctes Ambrosianæ_ (see Wilson, J.). He was the author of the beautiful song, _Oh, why left I my Hame?_

GILLESPIE, GEORGE (1613-1648).--Scottish Theologian, was _b._ at Kirkcaldy, and studied at St. Andrews. He became one of the ministers of Edin., and was a member of the Westminster Assembly, in which he took a prominent part. A man of notable intellectual power, he exercised an influence remarkable in view of the fact that he _d._ in his 36th year. He was one of the most formidable controversialists of a highly controversial age. His best known work is _Aaron's Rod Blossoming_, a defence of the ecclesiastical claims of the high Presbyterian party.

GILLIES, JOHN (1747-1836).--Historian, _b._ at Brechin and _ed._ there and at Glasgow, wrote a _History of Greece_ (1786) from a strongly anti-democratic standpoint, a _History of the World from Alexander to Augustus_ (1807), and a _View of the Reign of Frederick II. of Prussia_. He also made various translations from the Greek. He succeeded Principal Robertson as Historiographer Royal for Scotland.

GIRALDUS CAMBRENSIS (literary name of GERALD DE BARRI) (1146?-1220?).--Geographer and historian, was _b._ of a Norman family settled in Wales, which intermarried with the Royal family of that country. He was an eminent scholar and Churchman, whose object of ambition was the Bishopric of St. David's, to which he was twice elected by the chapter, but from which he was kept out by the opposition of the King. When travelling in Ireland with Prince John (1185) he wrote _Topographia Hibernica_, a valuable descriptive account of the country, and in 1188 he wrote _Itinerarium Cambriæ_, a similar work on Wales. He left several other works, including an autobiography, _De Rebus a se Gestis_ (concerning his own doings).

GISSING, GEORGE (1857-1903).--Novelist, _b._ at Wakefield. In his novels he depicted the environment and struggles of the lower and lower middle classes with a somewhat pessimistic and depressing realism, although his last work, _The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft_, seemed to usher in the dawn of a somewhat brighter outlook. His other novels include _Demos_ (1886), _Thyrza_ (1887), _The Nether World_ (1889), _New Grub Street_ (1891), _Born in Exile_ (1892), _In the Year of Jubilee_ (1894), and _The Town Traveller_ (1898). He _d._ at St. Jean de Luz in the Pyrenees.

GLADSTONE, WILLIAM EWART (1809-1898).--Statesman, scholar, and man of letters, fourth _s._ of Sir John G., a merchant in Liverpool, was of Scottish ancestry. He was _ed._ at Eton and Christ Church, Oxf. From his youth he was deeply interested in religious and ecclesiastical questions, and at one time thought of entering the Church. In 1832 he entered Parliament as a Tory, and from the first gave evidence of the splendid talents for debate and statesmanship, especially in the department of finance, which raised him to the position of power and influence which he afterwards attained. After holding the offices of Pres. of the Board of Trade, Colonial Sec., and Chancellor of the Exchequer, he attained the position of Prime Minister, which he held four times 1868-74, 1880-85, 1885-86, and 1892-93. His political career was one of intense energy and

## activity in every department of government, especially after he became

Prime Minister, and while it gained him the enthusiastic applause and devotion of a large portion of the nation, it exposed him to a correspondingly intense opposition on the part of another. The questions which involved him in the greatest conflicts of his life and evoked his chief efforts of intellect were the disestablishment of the Irish Church, the foreign policy of his great rival Disraeli, and Home Rule for Ireland, on the last of which the old Liberal party was finally broken up. In the midst of political labours which might have been sufficient to absorb even his tireless energy, he found time to follow out and write upon various subjects which possessed a life-long interest for him. His first book was _The State in its Relations with the Church_ (1839), which formed the subject of one of Macaulay's essays. _Studies on Homer and the Homeric Age_ (1858), _Juventus Mundi_ (1869), and _Homeric Synchronism_ (1876), _The Impregnable Rock of Holy Scripture_ (1890), _The Vatican Decrees and Vaticanism_ (1874-75), and _Gleanings of Past Years_ (1897), 8 vols., were his other principal contributions to literature. G.'s scholarship, though sound and even brilliant, was of an old-fashioned kind, and his conclusions on Homeric questions have not received much support from contemporary scholars. In his controversies with Huxley and others his want of scientific knowledge and of sympathy with modern scientific tendencies placed him at a disadvantage. His character was a singularly complex one, and his intellect possessed a plasticity which made it possible to say of him that he never _was_ anything, but was always _becoming_ something. His life was a singularly noble and stainless one, and he must probably ever remain one of the great figures in the history of his country.

_Life_ by J. Morley (3 vols.), others by J. M'Carthy, Sir Wemyss Reid, and many others.

GLANVILL, JOSEPH (1636-1680).--Controversialist and moral writer, _b._ at Plymouth, and _ed._ at Oxf., took orders, and held various benefices, including the Rectory of Bath Abbey and a prebend at Worcester. He came under the influence of the Camb. Platonists, especially of Henry More (_q.v._). His contendings were chiefly with the English Nonconformists, against whom (with the exception of Baxter whom he held in great esteem) he exhibited great bitterness. His chief work is the _Vanity of Dogmatizing_ (1661) which contains the story of "The Scholar Gipsy," in later days turned to such fine account by Matthew Arnold. G. wrote a fine literary style, at its best recalling that of Sir Thomas Browne.

GLAPTHORNE, HENRY (_fl._ 1640).--Dramatist, had a high reputation among his contemporaries, though now almost forgotten. He wrote two comedies, three tragedies, and a book of poems, which were all reprinted in two vols. in 1874. His best work, is _Argalus and Parthenia_ (1639), based upon Sidney's _Arcadia_. Others were _The Hollander_, _Wit is a Constable_, and _The Ladies' Privilege_ (all 1640).

GLASCOCK, WILLIAM NUGENT (1787-1847).--Novelist. He saw a good deal of service in the navy with credit, and from this drew the inspiration of his vigorous and breezy sea-stories, which include _Sailors and Saints_ (1829), _Tales of a Tar_ (1836), and _Land Sharks and Sea Gulls_ (1838).

GLEIG, GEORGE ROBERT (1796-1888).--_S._ of George G., Bishop of Brechin, entered the army, and served in the Peninsula and America. In 1820 he took orders, and after serving various cures _bec._, in 1834, Chaplain of Chelsea Hospital, and in 1844 Chaplain-General of the Forces, which office he held until 1875. He was a frequent contributor to reviews and magazines, especially _Blackwood's_, in which his best known novel, _The Subaltern_, appeared, and he was also the author of Lives of Warren Hastings, Clive, and Wellington, _Military Commanders_, _Chelsea Pensioners_, and other works.

GLEN, WILLIAM (1789-1826).--Poet, _b._ in Glasgow, was for some years in the West Indies. He _d._ in poverty. He wrote several poems, but the only one which has survived is his Jacobite ballad, _Wae's me for Prince Charlie_.

GLOVER, RICHARD (1712-1785).--Poet and dramatist, was a London merchant, and M.P. for Weymouth. A scholarly man with a taste for literature, he wrote two poems in blank verse, _Leonidas_ (1737), and _The Athenaid_ (1787). Though not without a degree of dignity, they want energy and interest, and are now forgotten. He also produced a few dramas, which had little success. He is best remembered by his beautiful ballad, _Hosier's Ghost_, beginning "As near Portobello lying." G. had the reputation of a useful and public-spirited citizen.

GODWIN, MRS. MARY (WOLLSTONECRAFT) (1759-1797).--Miscellaneous writer, was of Irish extraction. Her _f._ was a spend-thrift of bad habits, and at 19 Mary left home to make her way in the world. Her next ten years were spent as companion to a lady, in teaching a school at Newington Green, and as governess in the family of Lord Kingsborough. In 1784 she assisted her sister to escape from a husband who ill-treated her. In 1788 she took to translating, and became literary adviser to Johnson the publisher, through whom she became known to many of the literary people of the day, as well as to certain Radicals, including Godwin, Paine, Priestly, and Fuseli, the painter. She then, 1792, went to Paris, where she met Captain Imlay, with whom she formed a connection, the fruit of which was her daughter Fanny. Captain Imlay having deserted her, she tried to commit suicide at Putney Bridge, but was rescued. Thereafter she resumed her literary labours, and lived with W. Godwin, who married her in 1797. Their _dau._, Mary, whose birth she did not survive, became the second wife of Shelley. Her chief original writings are a _Reply_ to Burke's _Reflections on the French Revolution_ (1791), _Vindication of the Rights of Women_ (1792), and _Original Stories for Children_, illustrated by W. Blake. Her _Vindication_ received much adverse criticism on account of its extreme positions and over-plainness of speech.

GODWIN, WILLIAM (1756-1836).--Philosopher and novelist, _b._ at Wisbeach, and _ed._ at a school in Norwich, to which city his _f._, a Presbyterian minister, had removed, and subsequently at a Presbyterian coll. at Hoxton, with a view to the ministry. From 1778 to 1783 he acted as minister of various congregations near London; but his theological views having undergone important changes, he resigned his pastorate, and devoted himself to a literary career. His first work, a series of historical sketches in the form of sermons, failed. He then found employment as one of the principal writers in the _New Annual Register_, and became otherwise prominent as an advocate of political and social reform. Many of his views were peculiar and extreme, and even tended, if fully carried out in practice, to subvert morality; but they were propounded and supported by their author with a whole-hearted belief in their efficacy for the regeneration of society: and the singular circumstances of his connection with and ultimate marriage to Mary Wollstonecraft showed at least that he had the courage of his opinions. His _Enquiry concerning Political Justice_ (1793) made him famous. A year later he _pub._ his masterpiece, _Caleb Williams_, a novel exhibiting a sombre strength rarely equalled. The next few years were occupied in political controversy, for which G. was, by his sincerity and his masculine style, well fitted; and it was in the midst of these--in 1797--that his first marriage, already alluded to, and the death of his wife, of whom he _pub._ a singular but interesting Life, occurred. In 1799 his second great novel, _St. Leon_, based upon the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life, appeared. His other novels, _Fleetwood_ (1804), _Mandeville_ (1817), and _Cloudesley_ (1830), are much inferior. In addition to these works G. brought out an elaborate _Life of Chaucer_ in 2 vols. (1803), _An Essay on Sepulchres_ (1808), containing much fine thought finely expressed, _A History of the Commonwealth_, an Essay against the theories of Malthus (_q.v._), and his last work, _Lives of the Necromancers_. For some time he engaged in the publishing business, in which, however, he ultimately proved unsuccessful. In his later years he had the office of Yeoman Usher of the Exchequer conferred upon him. G. entered in 1801 into a second marriage with a widow, Mrs. Clairmont, by whom he had a _dau._ This lady had already a _s._ and _dau._, the latter of whom had an irregular connection with Byron. His _dau._ by his first marriage--Mary Wollstonecraft G.,--became in 1816 the wife of Shelley. G. was a man of simple manners and imperturbable temper.

GOLDING, ARTHUR (1535?-1605?).--Translator, _s._ of a gentleman of Essex, was perhaps at Camb., and was diligent in the translation of theological works by Calvin, Beza, and others, but is chiefly remembered for his versions of Cæsar's _Commentaries_ (1565), and specially of Ovid's _Metamorphoses_ (1565-67), the latter in ballad metre. He also translated Justin's _History_, and part of Seneca.

GOLDSMITH, OLIVER (1728-1774).--Poet, dramatist, and essayist, _s._ of an Irish clergyman, was _b._ at Pallasmore in Co. Longford. His early education was received at various schools at Elphin, Athlone, and Edgeworthstown. At the age of 8 he had a severe attack of smallpox which disfigured him for life. In 1744 he went to Trinity Coll., Dublin, whence, having come into collision with one of the coll. tutors, he ran away in 1746. He was, however, induced to return, and _grad._ in 1749. The Church was chosen for him as a profession--against his will be it said in justice to him. He presented himself before the Bishop of Elphin for examination--perhaps as a type of deeper and more inward incongruencies--in scarlet breeches, and was rejected. He next figured as a tutor; but had no sooner accumulated £30 than he quitted his employment and forthwith dissipated his little savings. A long-suffering uncle named Contarine, who had already more than once interposed on his behalf, now provided means to send him to London to study law. He, however, got no farther than Dublin, where he was fleeced to his last guinea, and returned to the house of his mother, now a widow with a large family. After an interval spent in idleness, a medical career was perceived to be the likeliest opening, and in 1752 he steered for Edin., where he remained on the usual happy-go-lucky terms until 1754, when he proceeded to Leyden. After a year there he started on a walking tour, which led him through France, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. How he lived it is hard to say, for he left Leyden penniless. It is said that he disputed at Univ., and played the flute, and thus kept himself in existence. All this time, however, he was gaining the experiences and knowledge of foreign countries which he was afterwards to turn to such excellent account. At one of the Univ. visited at this time, he is believed to have secured the medical degree, of which he subsequently made use. Louvain and Padua have both been named as the source of it. He reached London almost literally penniless in 1756, and appears to have been occupied successively as an apothecary's journeyman, a doctor of the poor, and an usher in a school at Peckham. In 1757 he was writing for the _Monthly Review_. The next year he applied unsuccessfully for a medical appointment in India; and the year following, 1759, saw his first important literary venture, _An Enquiry into the State of Polite Learning in Europe_. It was _pub._ anonymously, but attracted some attention, and brought him other work. At the same time he became known to Bishop Percy, the collector of the _Reliques of Ancient Poetry_, and he had written _The Bee_, a collection of essays, and was employed upon various periodicals. In 1761 began his friendship with Johnson, which led to that of the other great men of that circle. His _Chinese Letters_, afterwards republished as _The Citizen of the World_, appeared in _The Public Ledger_ in 1762. _The Traveller_, the first of his longer poems, came out in 1764, and was followed in 1766 by _The Vicar of Wakefield_. In 1768 he essayed the drama, with _The Good-natured Man_, which had considerable success. The next few years saw him busily occupied with work for the publishers, including _The History of Rome_ (1769), Lives of Parnell the poet, and Lord Bolingbroke (1770), and in the same year _The Deserted Village_ appeared; _The History of England_ was _pub._ in 1771. In 1773 he produced with great success his other drama, _She Stoops to Conquer_. His last works were _The Retaliation_, _The History of Greece_, and _Animated Nature_, all _pub._ in 1774. In that year, worn out with overwork and anxiety, he caught a fever, of which he _d._ April 4. With all his serious and very obvious faults--his reckless improvidence, his vanity, and, in his earlier years at any rate, his dissipated habits--G. is one of the most lovable characters in English literature, and one whose writings show most of himself--his humanity, his bright and spontaneous humour, and "the kindest heart in the world." His friends included some of the best and greatest men in England, among them Johnson, Burke, and Reynolds. They all, doubtless, laughed at and made a butt of him, but they all admired and loved him. At the news of his death Burke burst into tears, Reynolds laid down his brush and painted no more that day, and Johnson wrote an imperishable epitaph on him. The poor, the old, and the outcast crowded the stair leading to his lodgings, and wept for the benefactor who had never refused to share what he had (often little enough) with them. Much of his work--written at high pressure for the means of existence, or to satisfy the urgency of duns--his histories, his _Animated Nature_, and such like, have, apart from a certain charm of style which no work of his could be without, little permanent value; but _The Traveller_ and _The Deserted Village_, _She Stoops to Conquer_, and, above all, _The Vicar of Wakefield_, will keep his memory dear to all future readers of English.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1728, _ed._ Trinity Coll., Dublin, went to Edin. 1752, and to Leyden 1754, travelled on foot over large part of Continent, reached London 1756, and wrote for magazines, etc., and after publishing various other works produced _The Citizen of the World_ in 1762, _pub._ _Vicar of Wakefield_ 1766, _Deserted Village_ 1770, and _She Stoops to Conquer_ 1773, _d._ 1774.

There are many ed. of G.'s works by Prior, 1837, Cunningham, 1854, Prof. Masson (Globe), 1869, Gibb (Bohn's Standard Library), 1885. Biographies by Prior, 1837, Foster, 1848-71, Washington Irving, and others. _See_ also Boswell's _Johnson_, and Thackeray's _English Humorists_.

GOODALL, WALTER (1706?-1766).--Historical writer, _b._ in Banffshire, and _ed._ King's Coll., Aberdeen, became assistant librarian to the Advocates' Library in Edin. In 1754 he _pub._ an _Examination of the Letters said to have been written by Mary Queen of Scots_, in which he combats the genuineness of the "Casket Letters." He also ed., among other works, Fordun's _Scotichronicon_ (1759).

GOODWIN, THOMAS (1600-1680).--Divine, was _b._ in Norfolk, and _ed._ at Camb., where he was Vicar of Trinity Church. Becoming an Independent, he ministered to a church in London, and thereafter at Arnheim in Holland. Returning to England he was made Chaplain to Cromwell's Council of State, and Pres. of Magdalen Coll., Oxf. At the Restoration he was deprived, but continued to preach in London. He was the author of various commentaries and controversial pamphlets, was a member of the Westminster Assembly, and assisted in drawing up the amended Confession, 1658. He attended Oliver Cromwell on his deathbed.

GOOGE, BARNABE (1540-1594).--Poet and translator, _b._ at Lincoln, studied at both Camb. and Oxf. He was a kinsman of Cecil, who gave him employment in Ireland. He translated from the Latin of Manzolli _The Zodiac of Life_, a satire against the Papacy, and _The Popish Kingdome_ by T. Kirchmayer, a similar work; also _The Foure Bookes of Husbandrie_ of Conrad Heresbach. In 1563 he _pub._ a vol. of original poems, _Eglogs, Epytaphes_, and _Sonnettes_.

GORDON, ADAM LINDSAY (1833-1870).--Poet, was _b._ in the Azores, the _s._ of an officer in the army. He went to Australia, where he had a varied career in connection with horses and riding, for which he had a passion. He betook himself to the Bush, got into financial trouble, and _d._ by his own hand. In the main he derives his inspiration (as in the _Rhyme of Joyous Garde_, and _Britomarte_) from mediæval and English sources, not from his Australian surroundings. Among his books are _Sea-spray and Smoke-drift_ (1867), _Bush Ballads_ (containing _The Sick Stock-rider_) (1870), _Ashtaroth_ (1867). In many of his poems, _e.g._ _An Exile's Farewell_, and _Whispering in the Wattle Boughs_, there is a strong vein of sadness and pathos.

GORE, MRS. CATHERINE GRACE FRANCES (MOODY) (1799-1861).--Novelist, _dau._ of a wine merchant at Retford, where she was _b._ She _m._ a Captain Gore, with whom she resided mainly on the Continent, supporting her family by her voluminous writings. Between 1824 and 1862 she produced about 70 works, the most successful of which were novels of fashionable English life. Among these may be mentioned _Manners of the Day_ (1830), _Cecil, or the Adventures of a Coxcomb_ (1841), and _The Banker's Wife_ (1843). She also wrote for the stage, and composed music for songs.

GOSSON, STEPHEN (1554-1624).--Poet, actor, and satirist, _b._ in Kent, and _ed._ at Oxf., he went to London, and wrote plays, which are now lost, and pastorals; but, moved by a sermon preached at Paul's Cross in 1577 during a plague, he deserted the theatre, and became one of its severest critics in his prose satire, _The School of Abrose_ (1579), directed against "poets, pipers, players, jesters, and such-like Caterpillars of a Commonwealth." Dedicated to Sir P. Sidney, it was not well received by him, and is believed to have evoked his _Apologie for Poetrie_ (1595). G. entered the Church, and _d._ Rector of St. Botolph's, London.

GOUGH, RICHARD (1735-1809).--Antiquary, was _b._ in London, and studied at Camb. For many years he made journeys over England in pursuit of his antiquarian studies. He _pub._ about 20 works, among which are _British Topography_ (1768), _Sepulchral Monuments of Great Britain_ (1786-99), an ed. of Camden's _Britannia_, a translation of _The Arabian Nights_ (1798), and various other treatises on archæology, topography, and numismatics.

GOWER, JOHN (1325?-1408).--Poet. Although few details of his life have come down to us, he appears to have been a man of wealth and importance, connected with Kent, well known at Court, and in possession of more than one estate. He was the friend of Chaucer, who gives him the title of "the moral Gower," which has clung to him ever since. His first principal work was _Speculum Meditantis_ (the Mirror of one meditating) written in French on the subject of married life. It was long believed to have been lost. It was followed by _Vox Clamantis_ (the Voice of one crying) written in Latin, giving an account of the peasants' revolt of 1381, and attacking the misgovernment and social evils which had led to it. His third, and only English poem, was _Confessio Amantis_ (Lover's Confession), a work of 30,000 lines, consisting of tales and meditations on love, written at the request of Richard II. It is the earliest large collection of tales in the English tongue. In his old age G. became blind. He had, when about 70, retired to the Priory of St. Mary Overies, the chapel of which is now the Church of St. Saviour, Southwark, where he spent his last years, and to which he was a liberal benefactor. G. represented the serious and cultivated man of his time, in which he was reckoned the equal of Chaucer, but as a poet he is heavy and prolix.

GRAFTON, RICHARD (_d._ 1572).--Printer and chronicler, printed various ed. of the Bible and Prayer-book; also the Proclamation of the Accession of Lady Jane Grey, for which he was cast into prison, where he compiled an _Abridgement of the Chronicles of England_ (1563). To this he added in 1568 _A Chronicle at Large_. Neither holds a high place as authorities.

GRAHAME, JAMES (1765-1811).--Poet, _s._ of a lawyer, was _b._ and _ed._ in Glasgow. After spending some time in a law office in Edin., he was called to the Scottish Bar. His health being delicate, and his circumstances easy, he early retired from practice, and taking orders in the Church of England in 1809, was appointed curate successively of Shipton, Gloucestershire, and Sedgefield, Durham. He wrote several pleasing poems, of which the best is _The Sabbath_ (1804). He _d._ on a visit to Glasgow in his 47th year. His poems are full of quiet observation of country sights expressed in graceful verse.

GRAHAME, SIMON or SIMION (1570-1614).--_B._ in Edin., led a dissolute life as a traveller, soldier, and courtier on the Continent. He appears to have been a good scholar, and wrote the _Passionate Sparke of a Relenting Minde_, and _Anatomy of Humours_, the latter of which is believed to have suggested to Burton his _Anatomy of Melancholie_. He became an austere Franciscan.

GRAINGER, JAMES (1721-1766).--Poet, of a Cumberland family, studied medicine at Edin., was an army surgeon, and on the peace settled in practice in London, where he became the friend of Dr. Johnson, Shenstone, and other men of letters. His first poem, _Solitude_, appeared in 1755. He subsequently went to the West Indies (St. Kit's), where he made a rich marriage, and _pub._ his chief poem, _The Sugar-Cane_ (1764).

GRANGER, JAMES (1723-1776).--Biographer, was at Oxf. and, entering the Church, became Vicar of Shiplake, Oxon. He _pub._ a _Biographical History of England from Egbert the Great to the Revolution_ (1769). He insisted on the importance of collecting engravings of portraits and himself gathered 14,000, and gave a great impulse to the practice of making such collections.

GRANT, MRS. ANNE (M'VICAR) (1755-1838).--Was _b._ in Glasgow, and in 1779 _m._ the Rev. James Grant, minister of Laggan, Inverness-shire. She _pub._ in 1802 a vol. of poems. She also wrote _Letters from the Mountains_, and _Essays on the Superstitions of the Highlands_. After 1810 she lived in Edin., where she was the friend of Sir W. Scott and other eminent men, through whose influence a pension of £100 was bestowed upon her.

GRANT, JAMES (1822-1887).--Novelist, was the _s._ of an officer in the army, in which he himself served for a short time. He wrote upwards of 50 novels in a brisk, breezy style, of which the best known are perhaps _The Romance of War_ (1845), _Adventures of an Aide-de-Camp_, _Frank Hilton_, _Bothwell_, _Harry Ogilvie_, and _The Yellow Frigate_. He also wrote biographies of _Kirkcaldy of Grange_, _Montrose_, and others which, however, are not always trustworthy from an historical point of view.

GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827-1892).--Traveller, was an officer in the army, and was sent by the Royal Geographical Society along with Captain JOHN HANNING SPEKE (1827-1864), to search for the equatorial lakes of Africa. Grant wrote _A Walk across Africa_, _The Botany of the Speke and Grant Expedition_, and _Khartoum as I saw it in_ 1863. Speke wrote _Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile_ (1863), and _What led to the Discovery of the Source of the Nile_ (1864).

GRATTAN, THOMAS COLLEY (1792-1864).--Miscellaneous writer, _b._ in Dublin, and _ed._ for the law, but did not practise. He wrote a few novels, including _The Heiress of Bruges_ (4 vols., 1830); but his best work was _Highways and Byways_, a description of his Continental wanderings, of which he _pub._ three series. He also wrote a history of the Netherlands and books on America. He was for some time British Consul at Boston, U.S.

GRAY, DAVID (1838-1861).--Poet, _s._ of a hand-loom weaver at Kirkintilloch, Dumbartonshire. He gave early promise at school, was destined for the service of the Church, and was for 4 years at Glasgow Univ. while he maintained himself by teaching. His first poems appeared in the _Glasgow Citizen_. In 1860, however, he went with his friend Robert Buchanan to London, where he soon fell into consumption. He was befriended by Mr. Monckton Milnes, afterwards Lord Houghton, but after a sojourn in the South of England, returned home to die. His chief poem, _The Luggie_ (the river of his birthplace) contains much beautiful description; but his genius reached its highest expression in a series of 30 sonnets written in full view of an early death and blighted hopes, and bearing the title, _In the Shadow_. They breathe a spirit of the deepest melancholy unrelieved by hope.

GRAY, THOMAS (1716-1771).--Poet, was _b._ in London, the _s._ of a scrivener, who, though described as "a respectable citizen," was of so cruel and violent a temper that his wife had to separate from him. To his mother and her sister, who carried on a business, G. was indebted for his liberal education at Eton (where he became a friend of Horace Walpole), and Camb. After completing his Univ. course he accompanied Walpole to France and Italy, where he spent over two years, when a difference arising G. returned to England, and went back to Camb. to take his degree in law without, however, any intention of practising. He remained at Camb. for the rest of his life, passing his time in the study of the classics, natural science, and antiquities, and in visits to his friends, of whom Walpole was again one. It was in 1747 that his first poem, the _Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton College_, appeared, and it was followed between 1750 and 1757 by his _Pindaric Odes_, including _The Progress of Poesy_, and _The Bard_, which were, however, somewhat coldly received. Nevertheless he had, on the death of Colley Cibber, the offer of the laureateship, which he declined; but in 1768 he accepted the Professorship of Modern History in his Univ., worth £400 a year. Having been drawn to the study of Icelandic and Celtic poetry he produced _The Fatal Sisters_, and _The Descent of Odin_, in which are apparent the first streaks of the dawn of the Romantic Revival. G.'s poems occupy little space, but what he wrote he brought to the highest perfection of which he was capable, and although there is a tendency on the part of some modern critics to depreciate him, it is probable that his place will always remain high among all but the first order of poets. Probably no poem has had a wider acceptance among all classes of readers than his _Elegy in a Country Churchyard_. In addition to his fame as a poet, he enjoys that of one of the greatest of English letter-writers, and of a really great scholar. He _d._ at Camb. after a short illness following upon a gradually declining state of health.

_Life_ by Gosse (Men of Letters Series, 1882).

GREELEY, HORACE (1811-1872).--Journalist and miscellaneous writer, was the _s._ of a small farmer in New Hampshire. His early life was passed first as a printer, and thereafter in editorial work. He started in 1841, and conducted until his death, the _New York Tribune_. He was long a leader in American politics, and in 1872 was an unsuccessful candidate for the Presidency. His writings, which are chiefly political and economical, include _Essays on Political Economy_ (1870), and _Recollections of a Busy Life_ (1868).

GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837-1883).--Historian, was the _s._ of a tradesman in Oxf., where he was _ed._, first at Magdalen Coll. School, and then at Jesus Coll. He entered the Church, and served various cures in London, under a constant strain caused by delicate health. Always an enthusiastic student of history, his scanty leisure was devoted to research. In 1869 he finally gave up clerical work, and received the appointment of librarian at Lambeth. He had been laying plans for various historical works, including a History of the English Church as exhibited in a series of Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury, and, what he proposed as his _magnum opus_, A History of England under the Angevin Kings. The discovery, however, that his lungs were affected, necessitated the abridgment of all his schemes, and he concentrated his energies on the preparation of his _Short History of the English People_, which appeared in 1874, and at once gave him an assured place in the first rank of historical writers. In 1877 he _m._ Miss Alice Stopford, by whose talents and devotion he was greatly assisted in carrying out and completing such work as his broken health enabled him to undertake during his few remaining years. Abandoning his proposed history of the Angevins, he confined himself to expanding his _Short History_ into _A History of the English People_ in 4 vols. (1878-80), and writing _The Making of England_, of which one vol. only, coming down to 828, had appeared when he _d._ at Mentone in March 1883. After his death appeared _The Conquest of England_. The _Short History_ may be said to have begun a new epoch in the writing of history, making the social, industrial, and moral progress of the people its main theme. To infinite care in the gathering and sifting of his material G. added a style of wonderful charm, and an historical imagination which has hardly been equalled.

GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737).--Poet, is known as the author of _The Spleen_, a lively and original poem in octosyllabic verse on the subject of low spirits and the best means of prevention and cure. It has life-like descriptions, sprightliness, and lightness of touch, and was admired by Pope and Gray. The poem owes its name to the use of the term in the author's day to denote depression. G., who held an appointment in the Customs, appears to have been a quiet, inoffensive person, an entertaining companion, and a Quaker.

GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882).--Philosopher, was _b._ at Birken Rectory, Yorkshire, and _ed._ at Rugby and Balliol Coll., Oxf., where he became Whyte Prof. of Moral Philosophy and, by his character, ability, and enthusiasm on social questions, exercised a powerful influence. His chief works are an _Introduction to Hume's Treatise on Human Nature_ (Clarendon Press ed.), in which he criticised H.'s philosophy severely from the idealist standpoint, and _Prolegomena to Ethics_, _pub._ posthumously.

GREENE, ROBERT (1560?-1592).--Poet, dramatist, and pamphleteer, was _b._ at Norwich, and studied at Camb., where he _grad._ A.B. He was also incorporated at Oxf. in 1588. After travelling in Spain and Italy, he returned to Camb. and took A.M. Settling in London he was one of the wild and brilliant crew who passed their lives in fitful alternations of literary production and dissipation, and were the creators of the English drama. He has left an account of his career in which he calls himself "the mirror of mischief." During his short life about town, in the course of which he ran through his wife's fortune, and deserted her soon after the birth of her first child, he poured forth tales, plays, and poems, which had great popularity. In the tales, or pamphlets as they were then called, he turns to account his wide knowledge of city vices. His plays, including _The Scottish History of James IV._, and _Orlando Furioso_, which are now little read, contain some fine poetry among a good deal of bombast; but his fame rests, perhaps, chiefly on the poems scattered through his writings, which are full of grace and tenderness. G. _d._ from the effects of a surfeit of pickled herrings and Rheinish wine. His extant writings are much less gross than those of many of his contemporaries, and he seems to have given signs of repentance on his deathbed, as is evidenced by his last work, _A Groat's worth of Wit bought with a Million of Repentance_. In this curious work occurs his famous reference to Shakespeare as "an upstart crow beautified with our feathers." Among his other works may be mentioned _Euphues' censure to Philautus_, _Pandosto, the Triumph of Time_ (1588), from which Shakespeare borrowed the plot of _The Winter's Tale_, _A Notable Discovery of Coosnage_, _Arbasto, King of Denmark_, _Penelope's Web_, _Menaphon_ (1589), and _Coney Catching_. His plays, all _pub._ posthumously, include _Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay_, _Alphonsus, King of Aragon_, and _George-a-Greene, the Pinner of Wakefield_. His tales are written under the influence of Lyly, whence he received from Gabriel Harvey the nickname of "Euphues' Ape."

Plays ed. by Dyce (2 vols., 1831, new ed., 1861). His works are included in Grosart's "Huth Library."

GREG, WILLIAM RATHBONE (1809-1881).--Essayist, _b._ in Manchester, and _ed._ at Bristol and Edin., was for some years engaged in his father's business as a millowner at Bury. Becoming deeply interested in political and social questions he contributed to reviews and magazines many papers and essays on these subjects, which were _repub._ in three collections, viz., _Essays on Political and Social Science_ (1854), _Literary and Social Judgments_ (1869), and _Miscellaneous Essays_ (1884). Other works of his are _Enigmas of Life_ (1872), _Rocks Ahead_ (1874), and _Mistaken Aims, etc._ (1876). In his writings he frequently manifested a distrust of democracy and a pessimistic view of the future of his country. He held successively the appointments of Commissioner of Customs and Controller of H.M. Stationery Office.

GREVILLE, CHARLES CAVENDISH FULKE (1794-1865).--Political annalist, _ed._ at Eton and Oxf., was a page to George III., sec. to Earl Bathurst, and afterwards held the sinecure office of Sec. of Jamaica. In 1821 he became Clerk to the Privy Council, an office which brought him into close contact with the leaders of both political parties, and gave him unusual opportunities of becoming acquainted with all that was passing behind the scenes. The information as to men and events thus acquired he fully utilised in his _Journal of the Reigns of George IV., William IV., and Queen Victoria_, which, ed. by Henry Reeve, of the _Edinburgh Review_, was _pub._ in three series between 1874 and 1887. The _Journal_ covers the period, from 1820-60, and constitutes an invaluable contribution to the history of the time.

GRIFFIN, BARTHOLOMEW? (_fl._ 1596).--Poet, of whom almost nothing is known, _pub._ in 1596 a collection of 62 sonnets under the title of _Fidessa_, of which some are excellent.

GRIFFIN, GERALD (1803-1840).--Dramatist, novelist, and poet, _s._ of a tradesman, _b._ and _ed._ in Limerick, he went in 1823 to London, where most of his literary work was produced. In 1838 he returned to Ireland and, dividing his property among his brothers, devoted himself to a religious life by joining the Teaching Order of the Christian Brothers. Two years thereafter he _d._, worn out by self-inflicted austerities. His chief novel, _The Collegians_, was adapted by Boucicault as _The Colleen Bawn_, and among his dramas is _Gisippus_. His novels depict southern Irish life.

GRIMOALD, NICHOLAS (1519-1562).--Poet, was at Camb. and Oxf., and was chaplain to Bishop Ridley. He contributed to Tottel's _Songs and Sonnettes_ (1557), wrote two dramas in Latin, _Archi-propheta_ and _Christus Redivivus_, and made translations.

GROOME, FRANCIS HINDES (1851-1902).--Miscellaneous writer, _s._ of a clergyman, wrote for various encyclopædias, etc. He was a student of the gipsies and their language, and _pub._ _In Gypsy Tents_ (1880), _Gypsy Folk Tales_ (1899), and an ed. of Borrow's _Lavengro_ (1900). Other works were _A Short Border History_ (1887), _Kriegspiel_ (1896), a novel, and _Two Suffolk Friends_ (his _f._ and Edward Fitzgerald, _q.v._).

GROSART, ALEXANDER BALLOCH (1827-1899).--Was a minister of the English Presbyterian Church. He wrote Lives of various Puritan divines, ed. their works, and also issued ed., with Lives, of the poems of Michael Bruce (_q.v._) and Robert Fergusson (_q.v._). But his chief service to literature was his reprints, with notes, of rare Elizabethan and Jacobean literature, including _Fuller's Worthies Library_, 39 vols. (1868-76), _Occasional Issues of Unique and Very Rare Books_, 38 vols. 1875-81, _Huth Library_, 33 vols. (1886), Spenser's _Works_, 10 vols., _Daniel's Works_, etc.

GROSE, FRANCIS (1731-1791).--Antiquary and lexicographer, of Swiss extraction, was Richmond Herald 1755-63. He _pub._ _Antiquities of England and Wales_ (1773-87), which was well received, and thereafter, 1789, set out on an antiquarian tour through Scotland, the fruit of which was _Antiquity of Scotland_ (1789-91). He afterwards undertook a similar expedition to Ireland, but _d._ suddenly at Dublin. In addition to the works above mentioned he wrote _A Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue_ (1785), _A Provincial Glossary_ (1787), a _Treatise on Ancient Armour and Weapons_, etc. He was an accomplished draughtsman, and illustrated his works.

GROSSETESTE, ROBERT (_d._ 1253).--Theologian and scholar, was _b._ of poor parents at Stradbrook, Suffolk, and studied at Oxf. and possibly Paris. His abilities and learning procured him many preferments; but after an illness he refused to be longer a pluralist, and resigned all but a prebend at Lincoln. Later he was a strenuous and courageous reformer, as is shown by his refusing in 1253 to induct a nephew of the Pope to a canonry at Lincoln, of which he had been Bishop since 1235. He was equally bold in resisting the demand of Henry III. for a tenth of the Church revenues. Amid his absorbing labours as a Churchman, he found time to be a copious writer on a great variety of subjects, including husbandry, physical and moral philosophy, as also sermons, commentaries, and an allegory, the _Chateau d'Amour_. Roger Bacon was a pupil of his, and testifies to his amazing variety of knowledge.

GROTE, GEORGE (1794-1871).--Historian, _s._ of a wealthy banker in London, was _b._ at Beckenham, and _ed._ at Charterhouse School. In 1810 he entered the bank, of which he became head in 1830. In 1832 he was elected one of the members of Parliament for the City of London. In 1841 he retired from Parliament, and in 1843 from the bank, thenceforth devoting his whole time to literature, which, along with politics, had been his chief interest from his youth. He early came under the influence of Bentham and the two Mills, and was one of the leaders of the group of theorists known as "philosophical Radicals." In 1820 he _m._ Miss Harriet Lewin who, from her intellectual powers, was fitted to be his helper in his literary and political interests. In 1826 he contributed to the _Westminster Review_ a severe criticism of Mitford's _History of Greece_, and in 1845 _pub._ the first 2 vols. of his own, the remaining 6 vols. appearing at intervals up to 1856. G. belongs to the school of philosophical historians, and his _History_, which begins with the legends, ends with the fall of the country under the successors of Alexander the Great. It is one of the standard works on the subject, which his learning enabled him to treat in a full and thorough manner; the style is clear and strong. It has been repeatedly re-issued, and has been translated into French and German. G. also _pub._, in 1865, _Plato and other Companions of Socrates_, and left unfinished a work on _Aristotle_. In political life G. was, as might be expected, a consistent and somewhat rigid Radical, and he was a strong advocate of the ballot. He was one of the founders of the first London Univ., a Trustee of the British Museum, D.C.L. of Oxf., LL.D. of Camb., and a Foreign Associate of the Académie des Sciences. He was offered, but declined, a peerage in 1869, and is buried in Westminster Abbey.

GRUB, GEORGE (1812-1892).--Historian, was _b._ in Old Aberdeen, and _ed._ at King's Coll. there. He studied law, and was admitted in 1836 to the Society of Advocates, Aberdeen, of which he was librarian from 1841 until his death. He was appointed Lecturer on Scots Law in Marischal Coll., and was Prof. of Law in the Univ. (1881-91). He has a place in literature as the author of an _Ecclesiastical History of Scotland_ (1861), written from the standpoint of a Scottish Episcopalian, which, though dry, is concise, clear, fair-minded, and trustworthy. G. also ed. (along with Joseph Robertson) Gordon's _Scots Affairs_ for the Spalding Club, of which he was one of the founders.

GUEST, LADY CHARLOTTE (BERTIE) (1812-1895).--_Dau._ of the 9th Earl of Lindsey, _m._ in 1833 Sir Josiah J. Guest, a wealthy ironmaster, after whose death in 1852 she managed the works. She was an enthusiastic student of Welsh literature, and aided by native scholars translated with consummate skill the _Mabinogion_, the manuscript of which in Jesus Coll., Oxf., is known as the _Red Book of Hergest_, and which is now a recognised classic of mediæval romance. She also prepared a 'Boys' _Mabinogion_ containing the earliest Welsh tales of Arthur. She was also noted as a collector of china, fans, and playing cards, on which subjects she wrote several volumes. She entered into a second marriage in 1855 with Dr. C. Schreiber, but in literature she is always referred to under her first married name.

GUTHRIE, THOMAS (1803-1873).--Divine and philanthropist, _b._ at Brechin, studied for the Church, and became a minister in Edin. Possessed of a commanding presence and voice, and a remarkably effective and picturesque style of oratory, he became perhaps the most popular preacher of his day in Scotland, and was associated with many forms of philanthropy, especially temperance and ragged schools, of the latter of which he was the founder. He was one of the leaders of the Free Church, and raised over £100,000 for manses for its ministers. Among his writings are _The Gospel in Ezekiel_, _Plea for Ragged Schools_, and _The City, its Sins and Sorrows_.

HABINGTON, WILLIAM (1605-1654).--Poet, _s._ of a Worcestershire Roman Catholic gentleman, was _ed._ at St. Omer's, but refused to become a Jesuit. He _m._ Lucia, _dau._ of Lord Powis, whom he celebrated in his poem _Castara_ (1634), in which he sang the praises of chaste love. He also wrote a tragi-comedy, _The Queen of Arragon_ (1640), and a _Historie of Edward IV._ His verse is graceful and tender.

HAILES, DALRYMPLE DAVID, LORD (1726-1792).--Scottish judge and historical writer, was _b._ at Edin. Belonging to a family famous as lawyers, he was called to the Bar in 1748, and raised to the Bench in 1766. An excellent judge, he was also untiring in the pursuit of his favourite studies, and produced several works of permanent value on Scottish history and antiquities, including _Annals of Scotland_ (1776), and _Canons of the Church of Scotland_ (1769). He was a friend and correspondent of Dr. Johnson.

HAKE, THOMAS GORDON (1809-1895).--Poet, _b._ at Leeds, _ed._ at Christ's Hospital, was a physician, and practised at various places. His books include _Madeline_ (1871), _Parables and Tales_ (1873), _The Serpent Play_ (1883), _New Day Sonnets_ (1890), and _Memoirs of Eighty Years_ (1893).

HAKLUYT, RICHARD (1553?-1616).--Collector of voyages, belonged to a good Herefordshire family of Dutch descent, was _b._ either at Eyton in that county or in London, and _ed._ at Westminster School and Oxf. The sight of a map of the world fired his imagination and implanted in his mind the interest in geography and the lives and adventures of our great navigators and discoverers, which became the ruling passion of his life; and in order to increase his knowledge of these matters he studied various foreign languages and the art of navigation. He took orders, and was chaplain of the English Embassy in Paris, Rector of Witheringsett, Suffolk, 1590, Archdeacon of Westminster, 1602, and Rector of Gedney, Lincolnshire, 1612. After a first collection of voyages to America and the West Indies he compiled, while at Paris, his great work, _The Principal Navigations, Voyages ... and Discoveries of the English Nation made by Sea or over Land to the Remote and Farthest Distant Quarters of the Earth ... within the Compass of these 1500 Years_. It appeared in its final form (three folio vols.) in 1599. Besides it he _pub._ _A Discourse of Western Planting_, and he left a vast mass of MS. afterwards used (in far inferior style) by S. Purchas (_q.v._). In all his work H. was actuated not only by the love of knowledge, but by a noble patriotism: he wished to see England the great sea-power of the world, and he lived to see it so. His work, as has been said, is "our English epic." In addition to his original writings he translated various works, among them being _The Discoveries of the World_, from the Portuguese of Antonio Galvano.

HALE, SIR MATTHEW (1609-1676).--Jurist and miscellaneous writer, has left a great reputation as a lawyer and judge. Steering a neutral course during the political changes of his time, he served under the Protectorate and after the Restoration, and rose to be Chief Justice of the King's Bench. He is mentioned here as the author of several works on science, divinity, and law. Among them are _The Primitive Origination of Mankind_, and _Contemplations, Moral and Divine_. His legal works are still of great authority. Though somewhat dissipated in early youth, he has handed down a high reputation for wisdom and piety.

HALES, JOHN (1584-1656).--Theologian, _b._ at Bath, and _ed._ there and at Oxf., became one of the best Greek scholars of his day, and lectured on that language at Oxf. In 1616 he accompanied the English ambassador to the Hague in the capacity of chaplain, and attended the Synod of Dort, where he was converted from Calvinism to Arminianism. A lover of quiet and learned leisure, he declined all high and responsible ecclesiastical preferment, and chose and obtained scholarly retirement in a Fellowship of Eton, of which his friends Sir Henry Savile and Sir Henry Wotton were successively Provost. A treatise on _Schism and Schismatics_ (1636?) gave offence to Laud, but H. defended himself so well that Laud made him a Prebendary of Windsor. Refusing to acknowledge the Commonwealth, he was deprived, fell into poverty, and had to sell his library. After his death his writings were _pub._ in 1659 as _The Golden Remains of the Ever-Memorable Mr. John Hales of Eton College_.

HALIBURTON, THOMAS CHANDLER (1796-1865).--_B._ at Windsor, Nova Scotia, was a lawyer, and rose to be Judge of the Supreme Court of the Colony. He was the author of _The Clock-maker, or Sayings and Doings of Samuel Slick of Slickville_, and a continuation, _The Attaché, or Sam Slick in England_. In these he made a distinctly original contribution to English fiction, full of shrewdness and humour. He may be regarded as the pioneer of the American school of humorists. He wrote various other works, including _The Old Judge_, _Nature and Human Nature_, _A Historical and Statistical Account of Nova Scotia_, etc. In 1856 he settled in England, and sat in the House of Commons for Launceston.

HALIFAX, CHARLES MONTAGU, 1ST EARL of (1661-1715).--A famous wit, statesman, and patron of literature, was _ed._ at Westminster School and Trinity Coll., Camb. Entering Parliament he became Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1694, and First Lord of the Treasury 1697. Vain and arrogant, he soon lost popularity and power. His chief literary effort was his collaboration with Prior in _The Town and Country Mouse_ (1687), a parody of and reply to Dryden's _Hind and Panther_. H. was the friend and patron of Addison, Steele, Congreve, and many other of the classical writers of his day. He became a peer in 1701.

HALL, MRS. ANNA MARIA (FIELDING) (1800-1881).--Novelist, was _b._ in Dublin, but left Ireland at the age of 15. Nevertheless, that country gave her the motive of several of her most successful books, such as _Sketches of Irish Character_ (1829), _Lights and Shadows of Irish Character_ (1838), _Marian_ (1839), and _The White Boy_ (1845). Other works are _The Buccaneer_, and _Midsummer Eve_, a fairy tale, and many sketches in the _Art Journal_, of which her husband, SAMUEL CARTER HALL (1800-1889), was ed. With him she also collaborated in a work entitled _Ireland, its Scenery, Character, etc._ Mrs. H. was a very voluminous writer; her descriptive talents were considerable, as also was her power of depicting character. Her husband was likewise a writer of some note, chiefly on art.

HALL, BASIL (1788-1844).--Traveller, _s._ of Sir James H., an eminent man of science, was in the navy, and rose to be captain. He was one of the first to visit Corea, and wrote _Voyage of Discovery to Corea_ (1818), also _Travels in North America in 1827-28_, a lively work which gave some offence in the U.S., _Fragments of Voyages and Travels_ (1831-40), and some tales and romances. He was latterly insane.

HALL, or HALLE, EDWARD (1499?-1547).--Chronicler, _b._ in London, studied successively at Camb. and Oxf. He was a lawyer, and sat in Parliament for Bridgnorth, and served on various Commissions. He wrote a history of _The Union of the two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancastre and Yorke_, commonly called _Hall's Chronicle_. It was _pub._ after the author's death by Richard Grafton, and was prohibited by Queen Mary.

HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656).--Divine, _b._ at Ashby-de-la-Zouche, and _ed._ at Camb., he entered the Church, and became in 1627 Bishop of Exeter, and in 1641 Bishop of Norwich. He had a chequered career. He accompanied James I. to Scotland in 1617, and was a Deputy to the Synod of Dort. Accused of Puritanism, and at enmity with Laud, he fell on troublous days, and was, in 1641, imprisoned in the Tower for joining those bishops who protested against the validity of laws passed during their exclusion (owing to tumult in the streets) from Parliament. Returning to Norwich he found that his revenues had been sequestrated, and his private property seized. In 1647 he retired to a small farm near Norwich, where he passed the remainder of his life. Among his works are _Contemplations_, _Characters of Virtues and Vices_ (1614), and his _Virgidemiarum, or Satires_ (1597-8), the last written before he was in orders, and condemned by Archbishop Whitgift to be burned. Pope, however, thought them "the best poetry and truest satire in the English language." H.'s _Divine Right of Episcopacy_ gave rise to much controversy, in which Archbishop Ussher, Milton, and the writers who called themselves "Smectymnuus" (a combination of their initials) took part.

HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831).--Divine, _b._ at Arnsby, Leicestershire, the _s._ of a Baptist minister of some note, was _ed._ at a Baptist Academy, and at the Univ. of Aberdeen, from which he received the degree of D.D. in 1817. He ministered to congregations at Bristol, Cambridge, Leicester, and again at Bristol, and became one of the greatest pulpit orators of his day. His most famous sermon was that on the _Death of the Princess Charlotte_ (1817). Another which created a great impression was that on _Modern Infidelity_. H. was a life-long sufferer, and was occasionally insane, yet his intellectual activity was unceasing. After his death a collection of 50 of his sermons was _pub._ (1843), and _Miscellaneous Works and Remains_ (1846).

HALLAM, HENRY (1777-1859).--Historian, _s._ of a Dean of Wells, was _b._ at Windsor, and _ed._ at Eton and Oxf. He was called to the Bar at the Inner Temple, and appointed a Commissioner of Stamps. Among his earliest writings were papers in the _Edinburgh Review_; but in 1818 he leaped into a foremost place among historical writers by the publication of his _View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages_. This was followed in 1827 by _The Constitutional History of England from the Accession of Henry VII. to the Death of George II._, and his third great work, _Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the 15th, 16th, and 17th Centuries_, in 4 vols., appeared in 1837-39. All these, which have gone through several ed., and have been translated into the principal languages of Europe, are characterised by wide and profound learning, indefatigable research, and judicial impartiality. They opened a new field of investigation in which their author has had few, if any, superiors. In politics H. was a Whig; but he took no active share in party warfare. He had two sons of great promise, both of whom predeceased him. Of these the elder, ARTHUR HENRY, is the subject of Tennyson's _In Memoriam_, and of him his _f._ wrote a touching memoir prefixed to his literary remains.

HALLECK, FITZGREENE (1790-1867).--Poet, _b._ at Guilford, Conn., wrote, with Rodman Drake, a young poet who _d._ at 25, _The Croaker Papers_, a series of satirical and humorous verses, and _Fanny_, also a satire. In 1822 he visited Europe, and the traces of this are found in most of his subsequent poetry, _e.g._ his lines on Burns, and on Alnwick Castle.

HALLIWELL-PHILLIPS, JAMES ORCHARD (1820-1889).--Archæologist and Shakespearian scholar, _ed._ at Camb., was the author of a _Life of Shakespeare_ (1848), _New Boke about Shakespeare and Stratford upon Avon_ (1850), _Folio Edition of Shakespeare_ (1853-65), and various other works relative to him, also _Dictionary of Old English Plays_ (1860). He also ed. works for the Camden and Percy Societies, and compiled a _Dictionary of Archaic and Provincial Words_. In 1872 he added his wife's name of Phillips to his own.

HAMERTON, PHILIP GILBERT (1834-1894).--Artist and writer on æsthetics, _s._ of a solicitor, was _b._ near Oldham. Originally intended for the Church, he decided for art and literature. After working as an artist in the Highlands with his wife, who was a Frenchwoman, he settled in France, and devoted himself to writing on art. Among his works are _Etching and Etchers, etc._ (1868), _Painting in France after the Decline of Classicism_ (1869), _The Intellectual Life_ (1873), _Human Intercourse_ (1884), _The Graphic Arts_ (1882), _Landscape_ (1885), some of which were magnificently illustrated. He also left an autobiography. His writings had a great influence upon artists, and also in stimulating and diffusing the love of art among the public.

HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (1757-1804).--Statesman and political writer, _b._ in the West Indies, was one of the framers of the Constitution of the United States, and was the first Sec. of the national Treasury. He was one of the greatest of American statesmen, and has also a place in literature as the principal writer in the _Federalist_, a periodical founded to expound and defend the new Constitution, which was afterwards _pub._ as a permanent work. He contributed 51 of its 85 articles.

HAMILTON, ELIZABETH (1758-1816).--Wrote _The Cottagers of Glenburnie_, a tale which had much popularity in its day, and perhaps had some effect in the improvement of certain aspects of humble domestic life in Scotland. She also wrote _Letters on Education_, _Essays on the Human Mind_, and _The Hindoo Rajah_.

HAMILTON, THOMAS (1789-1842).--Novelist, brother of Sir William Hamilton (_q.v._), wrote a novel, _Cyril Thornton_ (1827), which was received with great favour. He was an officer in the army, and, on his retirement, settled in Edin., and became a contributor to _Blackwood_. He was also the author of _Annals of the Peninsular Campaign_ (1829), and _Men and Manners in America_ (1833).

HAMILTON, WILLIAM (OF BANGOUR) (1704-1754).--Poet, was _b._ at the family seat in Linlithgowshire. Cultivated and brilliant, he was a favourite of society, and began his literary career by contributing verses to Allan Ramsay's _Tea Table Miscellany_. He joined the Pretender in 1745, and celebrated the Battle of Prestonpans in _Gladsmuir_. After Culloden he wandered in the Highlands, where he wrote his _Soliloquy_, and escaped to France. His friends, however, succeeded in obtaining his pardon, and he returned to his native country. In 1750, on the death of his brother, he succeeded to the family estate, which, however, he did not long live to enjoy. He is best remembered for his fine ballad of _The Braes of Yarrow_. He also wrote _The Episode of the Thistle_. He _d._ at Lyons.

HAMILTON, WILLIAM (OF GILBERTFIELD) (1665?-1751).--Poet, served in the army, from which he retired with the rank of Lieutenant. He wrote poetical _Epistles_ to Allan Ramsay, and an abridgment in modern Scotch of Blind Harry's _Life of Sir William Wallace_.

HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1788-1856).--Metaphysician, _b._ in Glasgow, in the Univ. of which his _f._ and grandfather successively filled the Chair of Anatomy and Botany, _ed._ there and at Balliol Coll., Oxf., was called to the Scottish Bar, at which he attained little practice, but was appointed Solicitor of Teinds. In 1816 he established his claim to the baronetcy of H. of Preston. On the death of Dr. Thomas Brown in 1820, he was an unsuccessful candidate for the Chair of Moral Philosophy in Edin., but in the following year he was appointed Prof. of History. It was not until 1829 that he gave full proof of his remarkable powers and attainments as a philosopher in a famous article in the _Edinburgh Review_, a critique of Victor Cousin's doctrine of the Infinite. This paper carried his name over Europe, and won for him the homage of continental philosophers, including Cousin himself. After this H. continued to contribute to the _Review_, many of his papers being translated into French, German, and Italian. In 1852 they were _coll._ with notes and additions, and _pub._ as _Discussions in Philosophy and Literature_, _etc._ In 1836 H. was elected Professor of Logic and Metaphysics at Edinburgh, which office he held with great reputation until his death, after which the lectures he had delivered were edited and _pub._ by Prof. Mansel and Veitch. His _magnum opus_ was his edition of the _Works of Dr. Thomas Reid_, left unfinished, and completed by Mansel. H. was the last, and certainly the most learned and accomplished, of the Scottish school of philosophy, which he considered it his mission to develop and correlate to the systems of other times and countries. He also made various important contributions to the science of logic. During his later years he suffered from paralysis of one side, which, though it left his mind unaffected, impaired his powers of work. A Memoir of H. by Prof. Veitch appeared in 1869.

HANNA, WILLIAM (1808-1882).--Divine and biographer, _s._ of Samuel H., Prof. of Divinity in the Presbyterian Coll., Belfast, was _b._ there, became a distinguished minister of the Free Church of Scotland, and colleague of Dr. T. Guthrie (_q.v._). He wrote an admirable _Life of Dr. Chalmers_, whose son-in-law he was, and ed. his works. He also ed. the _Letters of Thomas Erskine of Linlathen_ (_q.v._), and wrote various theological works.

HANNAY, JAMES (1827-1873).--Novelist and journalist, was _b._ at Dumfries, and after serving for some years in the navy took to literature, and became ed. of the _Edinburgh Courant_. He wrote two novels, _Singleton Fontenoy_ (1850), and _Eustace Conyers_ (1855); also _Lectures on Satire and Satirists_, and _Studies on Thackeray_. For the last five years of his life he was British Consul at Barcelona.

HARE, AUGUSTUS JOHN CUTHBERT (1834-1903).--Youngest _s._ of Francis H., and nephew of Aug. and Julius H. (_q.v._), _b._ at Rome, practically adopted by his aunt, the widow of Aug. H., and _ed._ at Harrow. He was the author of a large number of books, which fall into two classes: biographies of members and connections of his family, and descriptive and historical accounts of various countries and cities. To the first belong _Memorials of a Quiet Life_ (his adoptive mother's), _Story of Two Noble Lives_ (Lady Canning and Lady Waterford), _The Gurneys of Earlham_, and an inordinately extended autobiography; to the second, _Walks in Rome_, _Walks in London_, _Wanderings in Spain_, _Cities of Northern, Southern, and Central Italy_ (separate works), and many others. His writings are all interesting and informing, but in general suffer from his tendency to diffuseness.

HARE, AUGUSTUS WILLIAM (1792-1834).--Was the _s._ of Francis Hare-Naylor, who _m._ a cousin of the famous Duchess of Devonshire, and was the author of a history of Germany. He was sent by the widow of Sir W. Jones, whose godson he was, to Winchester, and New Coll., Oxf., in the latter of which he was for some time a tutor. Entering the Church he became incumbent of the rural parish of Alton Barnes where, leading an absolutely unselfish life, he was the father and friend of his parishioners. In addition to writing in conjunction with his brother Julius (_q.v._), _Guesses at Truth_, a work containing short essays on multifarious subjects, which attracted much attention, he left two vols. of sermons.

HARE, JULIUS CHARLES (1795-1855).--Essayist, etc., younger brother of the above, was _b._ at Vicenza. When two years old his parents left him to the care of Clotilda Tambroni, female Prof. of Greek at Bologna. _Ed._ at Charterhouse and Camb., he took orders and, in 1832, was appointed to the rich family living of Hurstmonceau, which Augustus had refused. Here he had John Sterling (_q.v._) for curate, and Bunsen for a neighbour. He was also Archdeacon of Lewes and a Chaplain to the Queen. His first work was _Guesses at Truth_ (1827), jointly with his brother, and he also _pub._, jointly with Thirlwall (_q.v._), a translation of Niebuhr's _History of Rome_, wrote _The Victory of Faith_ and other theological books and pamphlets on Church and other questions, _A Life of Sterling_, and a _Vindication of Luther_. H., though a lovable, was an eccentric, man of strong antipathies, unmethodical, and unpunctual.

HARINGTON, SIR JOHN (1561-1612).--Miscellaneous writer, and translator, _b._ at Kelston Park near Bath, and _ed._ at Eton and Camb., became a courtier of Queen Elizabeth, whose godson he was. In 1599 he served in Ireland under Essex, by whom he was knighted on the field, a stretch of authority which was much resented by the Queen. While there he wrote _A Short View of the State of Ireland_, first _pub._ 1880. He was in repute for his epigrams, of which some have wit, but others are only indelicate. His translation of the _Orlando Furioso_ of Ariosto, in the metre of the original, is a somewhat free paraphrase, and is now superseded. It first appeared in the form of extracts, which were handed in MS. about the Court until they reached the Queen, who reprimanded the translator for corrupting the morals of her ladies by translating the most unedifying passages, and banished him to his country seat until he should have translated the whole poem. His most valuable work is one which was _pub._ in 1769 by a descendant, under the title of _Nugæ Antiquæ_ (Old-time Trifles), a miscellaneous collection from his writings and papers, containing many things of interest, _e.g._, a minute account of the Queen's last illness, and letters and verses by her and other eminent persons.

HARLAND, HENRY (1861-1905).--Novelist, _b._ of American parentage at St. Petersburg, and _ed._ at Rome. Thereafter he went to Paris, and thence to America, where he graduated at Harvard, and settled in New York. His literary career falls into two distinctly marked sections, very diverse in character. During the first of these he produced, under the pseudonym of "Sidney Luska," a series of highly sensational novels, thrown off with little regard to literary quality, and which it was his wish should be forgotten; but about 1890 his aspirations underwent a complete change, and he became an enthusiast in regard to style and the _mot propre_. The first novels of this new era, _Mademoiselle Miss_ (1893), _Grey Roses_ (1895), and _Comedies and Errors_ (1898), though obtaining the approval of the literary elect, had little general popularity; but the tide turned with the appearance of _The Cardinal's Snuff-box_ (1900), which was widely admired. It was followed by _The Lady Paramount_ (1901), and _My Friend Prospero_ (1903). H. _d._ at San Remo after a prolonged illness.

HARRINGTON, JAMES (1611-1677).--Political theorist, _s._ of Sir Sapcotes H., was _b._ at Upton, Northamptonshire, and _ed._ at Oxf., where he was a pupil of Chillingworth. After leaving the university he travelled on the Continent, visiting, among other places, The Hague and Venice, where he imbibed republican principles. He was for some time a groom of the bedchamber to Charles I. On the outbreak of the Civil War he sided with the Parliament, but disapproved of the execution of the King, for whom he appears, notwithstanding his political theories, to have cherished a personal attachment. Thereafter he withdrew from active life, and devoted himself to composing his political romance (as it may be called) of _Oceana_, which he _pub._ in 1656, and in which Oceana represents England, Marpesia Scotland, and Panopæa Ireland. In this work he propounds the theory that the natural element of power in states is property, of which land is the most important. He further endeavoured to propagate his views by establishing a debating society called the Rota, and by his conversations with his friends. After the Restoration he was confined in the Tower, and subsequently at Plymouth. He issued several defences of _Oceana_, and made translations from Virgil. In his later years he laboured under mental delusions. Aubrey describes him as of middle stature, strong, well-set, with quick, fiery hazel eyes, and thick curly hair.

HARRIS, JAMES (1709-1780).--Grammarian, was a wealthy country gentleman and member of Parliament, who held office in the Admiralty and the Treasury. He was the author of a singular and learned work entitled _Hermes, or a Philosophical Inquiry concerning Universal Grammar_. For the purpose which it had in view it is useless; but it contains much curious matter. His _s._ was the eminent diplomatist, James H., 1st Earl of Malmesbury.

HARRIS, JOEL CHANDLER (1848-1908).--Writer of tales, etc., _b._ at Eatonton, Georgia, was successively printer, lawyer, and journalist. He struck out an original line in his stories of animal life as it presents itself to the mind of the Southern negro, in whose dialect they are written. These not only achieved and retain an exceptional popularity among children, to whom they were in the first instance addressed, but attracted the attention of students of folklore and anthology. Among his writings are _Uncle Remus_ (1880), _Nights with Uncle Remus_ (1884), _Mr. Rabbit at Home_ (1895), _Aaron in the Wild Woods_ (1897), _Chronicles of Aunt Minervy Ann_ (1899), etc.

HARTE, FRANCIS BRET (1839-1902).--American humorist, _b._ in Albany, N.Y., but when still a boy went to California. He had a somewhat varied career as a teacher, miner, and journalist, and it is as a realistic chronicler of the gold-field and an original humorist that his chief literary triumphs were achieved. Among his best known writings are _Condensed Novels_, in which he showed great skill as a parodist, _The Luck of Roaring Camp_, _The Idyll of Red Gulch_, and _The Heathen Chinee_. In 1880 he came to Glasgow as U.S. Consul, and from 1885 he lived in London. His writings often show the tenderness and fine feeling that are allied to the higher forms of humour, and he may be said to have created a special form of short story in his Californian tales and prose idylls.

HARTLEY, DAVID (1705-1757).--Philosopher, _b._ at Luddenden, Yorkshire, and _ed._ at Camb., studied for the Church, but owing to theological difficulties turned to medicine as a profession, and practised with success at various places, including London and Bath. He also attained eminence as a writer on philosophy, and indeed may be said to have founded a school of thought based upon two theories, (1) the Doctrine of Vibrations, and (2) that of Association of Ideas. These he developed in an elaborate treatise, _Observations on Man, his Frame, his Duty, and his Expectations_. Though his system has long been discarded, its main ideas have continued to influence thought and investigation.

HARVEY, GABRIEL (1545?-1630).--Poet, _s._ of a ropemaker, was _b._ at Saffron Walden, _ed._ at Camb., and became the friend of Spenser, being the Hobbinol of _The Shepheard's Calendar_. He wrote various satirical pieces, sonnets, and pamphlets. Vain and ill-tempered, he was a remorseless critic of others, and was involved in perpetual controversy, specially with Greene and Nash, the latter of whom was able to silence him. He wrote treatises on rhetoric, claimed to have introduced hexameters into English, was a foe to rhyme, and persuaded Spenser temporarily to abandon it.

HAWES, STEPHEN (_d._ 1523?).--Poet; very little concerning him is known with certainty. He is believed to have been _b._ in Suffolk, and may have studied at Oxf. or Camb. He first comes clearly into view as a Groom of the Chamber in 1502, in which year he dedicated to Henry VII. his _Pastyme of Pleasure_, first printed in 1509 by Wynkyn de Worde. In the same year appeared the _Convercyon of Swerers_ (1509), and _A Joyful Meditacyon of all England_ (1509), on the coronation of Henry VIII. He also wrote the _Exemple of Vertu_. H. was a scholar, and was familiar with French and Italian poetry. No great poet, he yet had a considerable share in regularising the language.

HAWKER, ROBERT STEPHEN (1804-1875).--Poet and antiquary, _ed._ at Cheltenham and Oxf., became parson of Morwenstow, a smuggling and wrecking community on the Cornish coast, where he exercised a reforming and beneficent, though extremely unconventional, influence until his death, shortly before which he was received into the Roman Catholic Church. He wrote some poems of great originality and charm, _Records of the Western Shore_ (1832-36), and _The Quest of the Sangraal_ (1863) among them, besides short poems, of which perhaps the best known is _Shall Trelawny Die?_ which, based as it is on an old rhyme, deceived both Scott and Macaulay into thinking it an ancient fragment. He also _pub._ a collection of papers, _Footprints of Former Men in Cornwall_ (1870).

HAWTHORNE, NATHANIEL (1804-1864).--Novelist, _b._ at Salem, Massachusetts, _s._. of a sea captain, who _d._ in 1808, after which his mother led the life of a recluse. An accident when at play conduced to an early taste for reading, and from boyhood he cherished literary aspirations. His education was completed at Bowdoin Coll., where he had Longfellow for a fellow-student. After graduating, he obtained a post in the Custom-House, which, however, he did not find congenial, and soon gave up, betaking himself to literature, his earliest efforts, besides a novel, _Fanshawe_, which had no success, being short tales and sketches, which, after appearing in periodicals, were _coll._ and _pub._ as _Twice-told Tales_ (1837), followed by a second series in 1842. In 1841 he joined for a few months the socialistic community at Brook Farm, but soon tired of it, and in the next year he _m._ and set up house in Concord in an old manse, formerly tenanted by Emerson, whence proceeded _Mosses from an Old Manse_ (1846). It was followed by _The Snow Image_ (1851), _The Scarlet Letter_ (1850), his most powerful work, _The House of Seven Gables_, and _The Blithedale Romance_ (1852), besides his children's books, _The Wonder Book_, and _The Tanglewood Tales_. Such business as he had occupied himself with had been in connection with Custom-House appointments at different places; but in 1853 he received from his friend Franklin Pierce, on his election to the Presidency, the appointment of United States Consul at Liverpool, which he retained for four years, when, in consequence of a threatened failure of health, he went to Italy and began his story of _The Marble Faun_, _pub._ in England in 1860 under the title of _The Transformation_. The last of his books _pub._ during his lifetime was _Our Old Home_ (1863), notes on England and the English. He had returned to America in 1860, where, with failing health and powers, he passed his remaining four years. After his death there were _pub._ _The Ancestral Footstep_, _Septimus Felton_, _Dr. Grimshawe's Secret_, and _The Dolliver Romance_, all more or less fragmentary. Most of H.'s work is pervaded by a strong element of mysticism, and a tendency to dwell in the border-land between the seen and the unseen. His style is characterised by a distinctive grace and charm, rich, varied, suggestive, and imaginative. On the whole he is undoubtedly the greatest imaginative writer yet produced by America.

There are several ed. of the _Works_, _e.g._ Little Classics, 25 vols.; Riverside, 15 vols.; Standard Library, 15 vols.; the two last have biographies. _Lives_ by his son Julian, H. James (English Men of Letters, 1850), M.D. Conway (Great Writers, 1890), etc.

HAY, JOHN (1838-1906).--Diplomatist and poet, _b._ at Salem, Indiana, _ed._ at Brown Univ., and called to the Illinois Bar, served in the army, and was one of President Lincoln's secs. He then held diplomatic posts at Paris, Madrid, and Vienna, was Ambassador to Great Britain, and was in 1898 appointed Sec. of State. He has a place in literature by virtue of his _Pike County Ballads_, and _Castilian Days_ (1871).

HAYLEY, WILLIAM (1745-1820).--Poet and biographer, was _b._ at Chichester, and _ed._ at Eton and Camb. Though overstrained and romantic, he had some literary ability, and was a good conversationalist. He was the friend of Cowper, whose Life he wrote; and it was to his influence with Pitt that the granting of a pension to the poet was due. He was the author of numerous poems, including _The Triumph of Temper_, and of _Essays_ on _History_ and _Epic Poetry_, and, in addition to his biography of Cowper, wrote a _Life of Milton_. On the death of Thos. Warton in 1790 he was offered, but declined, the Laureateship. Of him Southey said, "Everything about that man is good except his poetry."

HAYNE, PAUL HAMILTON (1830-1886).--Poet, _b._ at Charleston, S. Carolina, of an old family, contributed to various magazines, and _pub._ _Poems_ (1885), containing "Legends and Lyrics." His graceful verses show the influence of Keats. His sonnets are some of his best work.

HAYWARD, ABRAHAM (1802-1884).--Miscellaneous writer, belonged to an old Wiltshire family and was _ed._ at Tiverton School. He studied law at the Inner Temple, and was called to the Bar 1832. He had a great reputation as a _raconteur_ and sayer of good things, and he was a copious contributor to periodicals, especially the _Quarterly Review_. Many of his articles were reprinted as _Biographical and Critical Essays_, and _Eminent Statesmen and Writers_; he also wrote Lives of George Selwyn and Lord Chesterfield, and books on Whist, Junius, and _The Art of Dining_. His _Select Correspondence_ appeared posthumously.

HAYWARD, SIR JOHN (1564?-1627).--Historian, _b._ at Felixstowe, was the author of various historical works, the earliest of which, _The First Part of the Life and Reign of King Henry IV._, was _pub._ in 1599, and gave such offence to Queen Elizabeth that the author was imprisoned. He, however, managed to ingratiate himself with James I. by supporting his views of kingly prerogative. He also, at the request of Prince Henry, wrote a _History of the three Norman Kings of England_ (William I., William II., and Henry I.) _The Life and Reign of Edward VI._ was _pub._ posthumously in 1630.

HAYWOOD, MRS. ELIZA (FOWLER) (1693-1756).--Dramatist and novelist, _b._ in London, was early _m._ to a Mr. H., but the union turning out unhappily, she took to the stage, upon which she appeared in Dublin about 1715. She afterwards settled in London, and produced numerous plays and novels, into which she introduced scandalous episodes regarding living persons whose identity was very thinly veiled, a practice which, along with her political satires, more than once involved her in trouble, and together with certain attacks upon Pope, made in concert with Curll the bookseller, procured for her a place in _The Dunciad_. Her enemies called her reputation in question, but nothing very serious appears to have been proved. She is repeatedly referred to by Steele, and has been doubtfully identified with his "Sappho." Some of her works, such as _The History of Jemmy and Jenny Jessamy_ had great popularity. Others were _The Fair Captive_ (1721), _Idalia_ (1723), _Love in Excess_ (1724), _Memoirs of a Certain Island adjacent to Utopia_ (anonymously) (1725), _Secret History of Present Intrigues at the Court of Caramania_ (anonymously) (1727). She also conducted _The Female Spectator_, and other papers.

HAZLITT, WILLIAM (1778-1830).--Essayist and critic, _b._ at Maidstone, was the _s._ of a Unitarian minister. At his father's request he studied for the ministry at a Unitarian Coll. at Hackney. His interests, however, were much more philosophical and political than theological. The turning point in his intellectual development was his meeting with Coleridge in 1798. Soon after this he studied art with the view of becoming a painter, and devoted himself specially to portraiture, but though so good a judge as his friend, J. Northcote, R.A., believed he had the talent requisite for success, he could not satisfy himself, and gave up the idea, though always retaining his love of art. He then definitely turned to literature, and in 1805 _pub._ his first book, _Essay on the Principles of Human Action_, which was followed by various other philosophical and political essays. About 1812 he became parliamentary and dramatic reporter to the _Morning Chronicle_; in 1814 a contributor to the _Edinburgh Review_; and in 1817 he _pub._ a vol. of literary sketches, _The Round Table_. In the last named year appeared his _Characters of Shakespeare's Plays_, which was severely attacked in the _Quarterly Review_ and _Blackwood's Magazine_, to which his democratic views made him obnoxious. He defended himself in a cutting _Letter to William Gifford_, the ed. of the former. The best of H.'s critical work--his three courses of Lectures, _On the English Poets_, _On the English Comic Writers_, and _On the Dramatic Literature of the Age of Queen Elizabeth_--appeared successively in 1818, 1819, and 1820. His next works were _Table Talk_, in which he attacked Shelley (1821-22), and _The Spirit of the Age_ (1825), in which he criticised some of his contemporaries. He then commenced what he intended to be his chief literary undertaking, a life of _Napoleon Buonaparte_, in 4 vols. (1828-30). Though written with great literary ability, its views and sympathies were unpopular, and it failed in attaining success. His last work was a _Life of Titian_, in which he collaborated with Northcote. H. is one of the most subtle and acute of English critics, though, when contemporaries came under review, he sometimes allowed himself to be unduly swayed by personal or political feeling, from which he had himself often suffered at the hands of others. His chief principle of criticism as avowed by himself was that "a genuine criticism should reflect the colour, the light and shade, the soul and body of a work." In his private life he was not happy. His first marriage, entered into in 1807, ended in a divorce in 1822, and was followed by an amour with his landlady's _dau._, which he celebrated in _Liber Amoris_, a work which exposed him to severe censure. A second marriage with a Mrs. Bridgewater ended by the lady leaving him shortly after. The fact is that H. was possessed of a peculiar temper, which led to his quarrelling with most of his friends. He was, however, a man of honest and sincere convictions. There is a _coll._ ed. of his works, the "Winterslow," by A.R. Waller and A. Glover, 12 vols., with introduction by W.E. Henley, etc.

HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND (1793-1875).--Traveller, essayist, and biographer, served in the Engineers, went to South America as manager of a mining company, which failed, and then turned to literature, and made considerable reputation by a book of travels, _Rapid Journeys across the Pampas and among the Andes_ (1827), which was followed by _Bubbles from the Brunnens of Nassau_ (1834). He was Governor of Upper Canada 1835-37, but was not a great success. Thereafter he contributed to the _Quarterly Review_, and _repub._ his articles as _Stokers and Pokers--Highways and Byways_, and wrote a _Life of Bruce_, the Abyssinian traveller. He was made a Baronet in 1836.

HEARN, LAFCADIO (1850-1906).--Journalist and writer on Japan, _s._ of an Irish Army surgeon and of a Greek lady, _b._ in Leucadia, Ionian Islands, lost his parents early, and was sent home to be taken charge of by an aunt in Wales, a Roman Catholic. On her death, when he was still a boy, he was left penniless, delicate, and half blind, and after experiencing great hardships, in spite of which he _ed._ himself, he took to journalism. Going to New Orleans he attained a considerable reputation as a writer with a distinctly individual style. He came under the influence of Herbert Spencer, and devoted himself largely to the study of social questions. After spending three years in the French West Indies, he was in 1890 sent by a publisher to Japan to write a book on that country, and there he remained, becoming a naturalised subject, taking the name of Yakomo Koizumi, and marrying a Japanese lady. He lectured on English literature in the Imperial Univ. at Tokio. Though getting nearer than, perhaps, any other Western to an understanding of the Japanese, he felt himself to the end to be still an alien. Among his writings, which are distinguished by acute observation, imagination, and descriptive power of a high order, are _Stray Leaves from Strange Literature_ (1884), _Some Chinese Ghosts_ (1887), _Gleanings in Buddha Fields_ (1897), _Ghostly Japan_, _Kokoro_, _Hints and Echoes of Japanese Inner Life_, etc. He was also an admirable letter-writer.

HEARNE, THOMAS (1678-1735).--Antiquary, _b._ at White Waltham., Berkshire, and _ed._ at Oxf., where in 1712 he became second keeper of the Bodleian Library. A strong Jacobite, he was deprived of his post in 1716, and afterwards he refused, on political grounds, the chief librarianship. He _pub._ a large number of antiquarian works, including _Reliquiæ Bodleianæ_ (1703), and ed. of Leland's _Itinerary_ and _Collectanea_, Camden's _Annals_, and Fordun's _Scotochronicon_. Some of his own collections were _pub._ posthumously.

HEBER, REGINALD (1783-1826).--Poet, _s._ of the Rector of Malpas, a man of family and wealth, and half-brother of Richard H., the famous book-collector, was _ed._ at Oxf., where he gained the Newdigate prize for his poem, _Palestine_, and was elected in 1805 Fellow of All Souls. After travelling in Germany and Russia, he took orders in 1807, and became Rector of the family living of Hodnet. In 1822, after two refusals, he accepted the Bishopric of Calcutta, an office in which he showed great zeal and capacity. He _d._ of apoplexy in his bath at Trichinopoly in 1826. In addition to _Palestine_ he wrote _Europe_, a poem having reference specially to the Peninsular War, and left various fragments, including an Oriental romance based on the story of Bluebeard. H.'s reputation now rests mainly on his hymns, of which several, _e.g._, _From Greenland's Icy Mountains_, _Brightest and Best of the Sons of the Morning_, and _Holy, holy, holy, Lord God Almighty_, are sung wherever the English language is known. He also wrote a _Life of Jeremy Taylor_ (1822). H. was a scholar and wit as well as a devoted Christian and Churchman.

HELPS, SIR ARTHUR (1813-1875).--Essayist and historian, was _b._ at Streatham, Surrey, and _ed._ at Eton and Camb. After leaving the Univ. he was private sec. to various public men, and in 1841, his circumstances rendering him independent of employment, he retired to Bishop's Waltham, and devoted himself for 20 years to study and writing. Appointed, in 1860, Clerk to the Privy Council, he became known to, and a favourite of, Queen Victoria, who entrusted him with the task of editing the _Speeches and Addresses of the Prince Consort_ (1862), and her own book, _Leaves from the Journal of our Life in the Highlands_ (1868). Of his own publications the first was _Thoughts in the Cloister and the Crowd_ (1835), a series of aphorisms, and there followed, among others, _Essays written in the Intervals of Business_ (1841), _Friends in Council_, 4 series (1847-59), _Realmah_ (1869), and _Conversations on War and General Culture_ (1871). In history H. wrote _The Conquerors of the New World_ (1848-52), and _The Spanish Conquests in America_, 4 vols. (1855-61). He also wrote a _Life of Thos. Brassey_, and, as the demand for his historical works fell off, he _repub._ parts of them as individual biographies of Las Casas, Columbus, Pizarro, and Cortez. He also tried the drama, but without success. His essays are his most successful work, containing as they do the thoughts and opinions of a shrewd, experienced, and highly cultivated man, written in what Ruskin called "beautiful quiet English." They have not, however, any exceptional depth or originality.

HEMANS, FELICIA DOROTHEA (BROWNE) (1793-1835).--Poetess, _dau._ of a Liverpool merchant, who, owing to reverses, retired to North Wales. While yet little more than a child she _pub._ her first poems, the reception of which was not encouraging. In the same year, 1808, a further publication appeared which drew a letter from Shelley. Her first important work, _The Domestic Affections_, appeared in 1812, in which year she was _m._ to Captain Hemans, an Irish officer. The union, however, was not a happy one, and her husband practically deserted her and her five sons in 1818. Her literary activity was continued during the whole of her short life, and her works include, _The Vespers of Palermo_, a drama, which was not successful, _The Forest Sanctuary_ (1826), her best poem, _Records of Woman_, _Lays of Leisure Hours_, _Songs of the Affections_, _Hymns for Childhood_, and _Thoughts during Sickness_ (1834), her last effort. In 1829 she visited Scotland, where she was the guest of Scott, who held her in affectionate regard. She also enjoyed the friendship of Wordsworth. Always somewhat delicate, her health latterly entirely gave way, and she _d._ of a decline in 1835. Her shorter pieces enjoyed much popularity, and still, owing to their grace and tenderness, retain a certain place, but her long poems are lacking in energy and depth, and are forgotten.

HENLEY, WILLIAM ERNEST (1849-1903).--Poet and critic, _b._ at Gloucester, made the acquaintance of Robert Louis Stevenson (_q.v._), and collaborated with him in several dramas, including _Deacon Brodie_, and _Robert Macaire_. He engaged in journalism, and became ed. of _The Magazine of Art_, _The National Observer_, and _The New Review_, compiled _Lyra Heroica_, an anthology of English poetry for boys, and, with Mr. Farmer, ed. a _Dictionary of Slang_. His poems, which include _Hospital Rhymes_, _London Voluntaries_, _The Song of the Sword_, _For England's Sake_, and _Hawthorn and Lavender_, are very unequal in quality, and range from strains of the purest music to an uncouth and unmusical realism of no poetic worth. He wrote with T.F. Henderson a _Life of Burns_, in which the poet is set forth as a "lewd peasant of genius."

Complete works, 7 vols., 1908.

HENRY VIII. (1491-1547).--Besides writing songs including _The Kings Ballad_, was a learned controversialist, and contended against Luther in _Assertio Septem Sacramentorum_ (Defence of the Seven Sacraments), a treatise which gained for him the title of Defender of the Faith.

HENRY of HUNTINGDON (1084-1155).--Historian, was Archdeacon of Huntingdon from 1109. His _Historia Anglorum_ (History of the English) comes down to 1154. He also wrote a treatise, _De Contemptu Mundi_ (on Contempt of the World).

HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714).--Commentator, _s._ of Philip H., a learned Nonconformist divine, was _b._ in Flintshire. He was originally destined for the law, and studied at Gray's Inn, but turned his mind to theology, and, in 1687, became minister of a Nonconformist church at Chester. Here he remained until 1712, when he went to take the oversight of a congregation at Hackney, where he _d._ two years later. He wrote many religious works, but is chiefly remembered by his _Exposition of the Old and New Testaments_, which he did not live to complete beyond the Acts. The comment on the Epistles was, however, furnished after his death by 13 Nonconformist divines. Though long superseded from a critical point of view, the work still maintains its place as a book of practical religion, being distinguished by great freshness and ingenuity of thought, and pointed and vigorous expression.

HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790).--Historian, _b._ at St. Ninians, Stirlingshire, entered the Church of Scotland, becoming one of the ministers of Edin. He wrote the _History of Great Britain on a New Plan_ (1771-93), in 6 vols., covering the period from the Roman invasion until the reign of Henry VIII. The novelty consisted in dividing the subjects into different heads, civil history, military, social, and so on, and following out each of them separately. The work was mainly a compilation, having no critical qualities, and is now of little value. Notwithstanding the persistent and ferocious attacks of Dr. Gilbert Stewart (_q.v._), it had a great success, and brought the author over £3000, and a government pension of £100.

HENRY, THE MINSTREL, (_see_ BLIND HARRY).

HENRYSON, ROBERT (1430?-1506?).--Scottish poet. Few details of his life are known, even the dates of his birth and death being uncertain. He appears to have been a schoolmaster, perhaps in the Benedictine Convent, at Dunfermline, and was a member of the Univ. of Glasgow in 1462. He also practised as a Notary Public, and may have been in orders. His principal poems are _The Moral Fables of Esope the Phrygian_, _The Testament of Cresseide_, a sequel to the _Troilus and Cressida_ of Chaucer, to whom it was, until 1721, attributed, _Robene and Makyne_, the first pastoral, not only in Scottish vernacular, but in the English tongue, _The Uplandis Mous and The Burges Mous_ (Country and Town Mouse), and the _Garmond of Gude Ladeis_. H., who was versed in the learning and general culture of his day, had a true poetic gift. His verse is strong and swift, full of descriptive power, and sparkling with wit. He is the first Scottish lyrist and the introducer of the pastoral to English literature.

HENTY, GEORGE ALFRED (1832-1902).--Boys' novelist, wrote over 80 books for boys, which had great popularity. Among them are _By England's Aid_, _Dash for Khartoum_, _Facing Death_, _In Freedom's Cause_, _Out on the Pampas_, etc., all full of adventure and interest, and conveying information as well as amusement.

HERAUD, JOHN ABRAHAM (1799-1887).--Poet, _b._ in London, of Huguenot descent, he contributed to various periodicals, and _pub._ two poems, which attracted some attention, _The Descent into Hell_ (1830), and _The Judgment of the Flood_ (1834). He also produced a few plays, miscellaneous poems, books of travel, etc.

HERBERT, of CHERBURY, EDWARD, 1ST LORD (1583-1648).--Philosopher and historian, was the eldest _s._ of Richard H., of Montgomery Castle, and was _b._ there or at Eyton, Shropshire. He was at Oxf., and while there, at the age of 16, he _m._ a kinswoman four years his senior, the _dau._ of Sir William H. Thereafter he returned to the Univ. and devoted himself to study, and to the practice of manly sports and accomplishments. At his coronation in 1603 James I. made him a Knight of the Bath, and in 1608 he went to the Continent, where for some years he was engaged in military and diplomatic affairs, not without his share of troubles. In 1624 he was _cr._ an Irish, and a few years later, an English, peer, as Baron H., of Cherbury. On the outbreak of the Civil War he sided, though somewhat half-heartedly, with the Royalists, but in 1644 he surrendered to the Parliament, received a pension, held various offices, and _d._ in 1648. It was in 1624 that he wrote his treatise, _De Veritate_, "An empirical theory of knowledge," in which truth is distinguished from (1) revelation, (2) the probable, (3) the possible, (4) the false. It is the first purely metaphysical work written by an Englishman, and gave rise to much controversy. It was reprinted in 1645, when the author added two treatises, _De Causis Errorum_ (concerning the Causes of Errors), and _De Religione Laici_ (concerning the Religion of a Layman). His other chief philosophical work was _De Religione Gentilium_ (1663), of which an English translation appeared in 1705, under the title of _The Ancient Religion of the Gentiles and Cause of their Errors considered_. It has been called "the charter of the Deists," and was intended to prove that "all religions recognise five main articles--(1) a Supreme God, (2) who ought to be worshipped, (3) that virtue and purity are the essence of that worship, (4) that sin should be repented of, and (5) rewards and punishments in a future state." Among his historical works are _Expeditio Buckinghamii Ducis_ (1656), a vindication of the Rochelle expedition, a _Life of Henry VIII._ (1649), extremely partial to the King, his _Autobiography_, which gives a brilliant picture of his contemporaries, and of the manners and events of his time, and a somewhat vainglorious account of himself and his doings. He was also the author of some poems of a metaphysical cast. On the whole his is one of the most shining and spirited figures of the time.

Autobiography ed. by S. Lee (1886). Poems ed. by J. Churton Collins, etc.

HERBERT, GEORGE (1593-1633).--Poet, brother of above, was _ed._ at Westminster School and Trinity Coll., Camb., where he took his degree in 1616, and was public orator 1619-27. He became the friend of Sir H. Wotton, Donne, and Bacon, the last of whom is said to have held him in such high esteem as to submit his writings to him before publication. He acquired the favour of James I., who conferred upon him a sinecure worth £120 a year, and having powerful friends, he attached himself for some time to the Court in the hope of preferment. The death of two of his patrons, however, led him to change his views, and coming under the influence of Nicholas Ferrar, the quietist of Little Gidding, and of Laud, he took orders in 1626 and, after serving for a few years as prebendary of Layton Ecclesia, or Leighton Broomswold, he became in 1630 Rector of Bemerton, Wilts, where he passed the remainder of his life, discharging the duties of a parish priest with conscientious assiduity. His health, however, failed, and he _d._ in his 40th year. His chief works are _The Temple, or Sacred Poems and Private Ejaculations_ (1634), _The Country Parson_ (1652), and _Jacula Prudentium_, a collection of pithy proverbial sayings, the two last in prose. Not _pub._ until the year after his death, _The Temple_ had immediate acceptance, 20,000 copies, according to I. Walton, who was H.'s biographer, having been sold in a few years. Among its admirers were Charles I., Cowper, and Coleridge. H. wrote some of the most exquisite sacred poetry in the language, although his style, influenced by Donne, is at times characterised by artificiality and conceits. He was an excellent classical scholar, and an accomplished musician.

Works with _Life_ by Izaak Walton, ed. by Coleridge, 1846, etc.

HERBERT, SIR THOMAS (1606-1682).--Traveller and historian, belonged to an old Yorkshire family, studied at Oxf. and Camb., and went in connection with an embassy to Persia, of which, and of other Oriental countries, he _pub._ a description. On the outbreak of the Civil War he was a Parliamentarian, but was afterwards taken into the household of the King, to whom he became much attached, was latterly his only attendant, and was with him on the scaffold. At the Restoration he was made a Baronet, and in 1678 _pub._ _Threnodia Carolina_, an account of the last two years of the King's life.

HERD, DAVID (1732-1810).--Scottish anthologist, _s._ of a farmer in Kincardineshire, was clerk to an accountant in Edin., and devoted his leisure to collecting old Scottish poems and songs, which he first _pub._ in 1769 as _Ancient Scottish Songs, Heroic Ballads, etc._ Other and enlarged ed. appeared in 1776 and 1791. Sir W. Scott made use of his MS. collections in his _Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border_.

HERRICK, ROBERT (1591-1674).--Poet, _b._ in London, was apprenticed as a goldsmith to his uncle, Sir William H., with whom he remained for 10 years. Thereafter he went to Camb., took orders, and was in 1629 presented by Charles I. to the living of Dean Prior, a remote parish in Devonshire, from which he was ejected in 1647, returning in 1662. In the interval he appears to have lived in Westminster, probably supported, more or less, by the gifts of wealthy Royalists. His _Noble Numbers or Pious Pieces_ was _pub._ in 1647, his _Hesperides or Works both Human and Divine_ in 1648, and the two together in one vol. in the latter year. Over 60, however, of the lighter poems included in _Hesperides_ had previously appeared anonymously in a collection entitled _Wit's Recreations_. H.'s early life in London had been a free one, and his secular poems, in which he appears much more at ease than in his sacred, show him to have been a thorough Epicurean, though he claims that his life was not to be judged by his muse. As a lyric poet H. stands in the front rank for sweetness, grace, and true poetic fire, and some of his love songs, _e.g._ _Anthea_, and _Gather ye Rose-buds_, are unsurpassed in their kind; while in such exquisite little poems as _Blossoms, Daffodils_, and others he finds a classic expression for his love of nature and country life. In his epigrams, however, he falls much below himself. He has been described as "the most frankly pagan of English poets."

Poems ed. by Nutt (1810), Grosart (1876), Pollard (preface by Swinburne, 1891).

HERSCHEL, SIR JOHN FREDERICK WILLIAM (1792-1871).--_S._ of Sir William H., the eminent astronomer and discoverer of the planet Uranus, was _b._ at Slough, and _ed._ at Camb., where he was Senior Wrangler and first Smith's prizeman. He became one of the greatest of English astronomers. Among his writings are treatises on Sound and Light, and his _Astronomy_ (1831) was for long the leading manual on the subject. He also _pub._ _Popular Lectures_ and _Collected Addresses_, and made translations from Schiller, and from the _Iliad_.

HERVEY, JAMES (1714-1758).--Religious writer, Rector of Weston Favell, Northants, was the author of _Meditations among the Tombs_ (1745-47), _Theron and Aspasio_, and other works, which had a great vogue in their day. They are characterised by over-wrought sentiment, and overloaded with florid ornament. H. was a devout and unselfish man, who by his labours broke down a delicate constitution.

HERVEY, JOHN, LORD (1696-1743).--Writer of memoirs, was a younger _s._ of the 1st Earl of Bristol. Entering Parliament he proved an able debater, and held various offices, including that of Lord Privy Seal. He was a favourite with Queen Caroline, and a dexterous and supple courtier. He wrote _Memoirs of the Reign of George II._, which gives a very unfavourable view of the manners and morals of the Court. It is written in a lively, though often spiteful style, and contains many clever and discriminating character sketches. He was satirised by Pope under the name of "Sporus" and "Lord Fanny."

HEYLIN, PETER (1600-1662).--Ecclesiastical writer, _b._ at Burford, Oxon., was one of the clerical followers of Charles I., who suffered for his fidelity, being deprived under the Commonwealth of his living of Alresford, and other preferments. After the Restoration he was made sub-Dean of Westminster, but the failure of his health prevented further advancement. He was a voluminous writer, and a keen and acrimonious controversialist against the Puritans. Among his works are a _History of the Reformation_, and a Life of Laud (_Cyprianus Anglicanus_) (1668).

HEYWOOD, JOHN (1497?-1580?).--Dramatist and epigrammatist, is believed to have been _b._ at North Mimms, Herts. He was a friend of Sir Thomas More, and through him gained the favour of Henry VIII., and was at the Court of Edward VI. and Mary, for whom, as a young Princess, he had a great regard. Being a supporter of the old religion, he enjoyed her favour, but on the accession of Elizabeth, he left the country, and went to Mechlin, where he _d._ He was famous as a writer of interludes, a species of composition intermediate between the old "moralities" and the regular drama, and displayed considerable constructive skill, and a racy, if somewhat broad and even coarse, humour. Among his interludes are _The Play of the Wether_ (1532), _The Play of Love_ (1533), and _The Pardoner and the Frere_. An allegorical poem is _The Spider and the Flie_ (1556), in which the Spider stands for the Protestants, and the Flie for the Roman Catholics. H. was likewise the author of some 600 epigrams, whence his title of "the old English epigrammatist."

HEYWOOD, THOMAS (_d._ 1650).--Dramatist. Few facts about him have come down, and these are almost entirely derived from his own writings. He appears to have been _b._ in Lincolnshire, and was a Fellow of Peterhouse, Camb., and an ardent Protestant. His literary activity extends from about 1600 to 1641, and his production was unceasing; he claims to have written or "had a main finger in" 220 plays, of which only a small proportion (24) are known to be in existence, a fact partly accounted for by many of them having been written upon the backs of tavern bills, and by the circumstance that though a number of them were popular, few were _pub._ Among them may be mentioned _The Four Prentices of London_ (1600) (ridiculed in Fletcher's _Knight of the Burning Pestle_), _Edward IV._ (2 parts) in 1600 and 1605, _The Royal King and the Loyal Subject_ (1637), _A Woman Killed with Kindness_ (1603), _Rape of Lucrece_ (1608), _Fair Maid of the Exchange_ (1607), _Love's Mistress_ (1636), and _Wise Woman of Hogsdon_ (1638). H. also wrote an _Apology for Actors_ (1612), a poem, _Hierarchy of the Blessed Angels_ (1635), and made various translations. He was thoroughly English in his subjects and treatment, and had invention, liveliness, and truth to nature, but lacked the higher poetic sense, and of course wrote far too much to write uniformly well.

HIGDEN, RANULF or RALPH (_d._ 1364).--Chronicler, is believed to have been _b._ in the West of England, took the monastic vow (Benedictine), at Chester in 1299, and seems to have travelled over the North of England. His fame rests on his _Polychronicon_, a universal history reaching down to contemporary events. The work is divided into 7 books and, though of no great value as an authority, has an interest as showing the state of historical and geographical knowledge at the time. Written in Latin, it was translated into English by John of Trevisa (_q.v._) (1387), and printed by Caxton (1482), and by others. Another translation of the 15th century was issued in the Rolls Series. For two centuries it was an approved work. H. wrote various other treatises on theology and history.

HILL, AARON (1685-1750).--Dramatist and miscellaneous writer, _s._ of a country gentleman of Wiltshire, was _ed._ at Westminster School, and thereafter made a tour in the East. He was the author of 17 dramatic pieces, some of them, such as his versions of Voltaire's _Zaire_ and _Merope_, being adaptations. He also wrote a quantity of poetry, which, notwithstanding some good passages, is as a general rule dull and pompous. Having written some satiric lines on Pope he received in return a niche in _The Dunciad_, which led to a controversy, in which H. showed some spirit. Afterwards a reconciliation took place. He was a friend and correspondent of Richardson, whose _Pamela_ he highly praised. In addition to his literary pursuits H. was a great projector, but his schemes were usually unsuccessful. He was a good and honourable man, but over-impressed with his own importance.

HINTON, JAMES (1822-1875).--Writer on sociology and psychology, _s._ of a Baptist minister, became a successful aurist, but his attention being arrested by social questions, he gave more and more of his time to the consideration and exposition of these. Open-minded and altruistic, his books are full of thought and suggestion. Among his writings may be mentioned _Man and his Dwelling-place_ (1859), _The Mystery of Pain_ (1866), _The Law of Human Life_ (1874), _Chapters on the Art of Thinking_ (1879), and _Philosophy and Religion_ (1881).

HOADLEY, BENJAMIN (1676-1761).--Theologian and controversialist, _ed._ at Camb., entered the Church, and became Bishop successively of Bangor, Hereford, Salisbury, and Winchester. He was a great supporter of the Revolution, and controvertor of the doctrines of divine right and passive obedience. His works were generally either the causes of controversy or elicited by it. One of his sermons, _On the Nature of the Kingdom or Church of Christ_ was the originating cause of what was known as the Bangorian controversy, which raged for a long time with great bitterness.

HOBBES, THOMAS (1588-1679).--Philosopher, was _b._ at Malmesbury, the _s._ of a clergyman, and _ed._ at Oxf. Thereafter he travelled as tutor through France, Italy, and Germany, with William Lord Cavendish, afterwards 2nd Earl of Devonshire, with whom he remained as sec. after the completion of the tour. While engaged in this capacity he became acquainted with Bacon (whose amanuensis he is said to have been), Herbert of Cherbury, and Ben Jonson. In 1629 he _pub._ a translation of _Thucydides_. After the death of his patron, which took place in 1626, he went in 1628 to Paris, where he remained for 18 months, and in 1631 he assumed the position of tutor to his _s._, afterwards the 3rd Earl, with whom he went in 1634 to France, Italy, and Savoy. When in Italy he was the friend of Galileo, Gassendi, and other eminent men. Returning to England he remained in the Earl's service, and devoted himself to his studies on philosophy and politics. The commotions of the times, however, disturbed him; and his Royalist principles, expounded in his treatise, _De Corpore Politico_, led to his again, in 1641, leaving England and going to Paris, where he remained until 1652. While there, he entered into controversy on mathematical subjects with Descartes, _pub._ some of his principal works, including _Leviathan_, and received, in 1647, the appointment of mathematical tutor to the Prince of Wales, afterwards Charles II., who was then in that city. The views expressed in his works, however, brought him into such unpopularity that the Prince found it expedient to break the connection, and H. returned to England. In 1653 he resumed his relations with the Devonshire family, living, however, in London in habits of intimacy with Selden, Cowley, and Dr. Harvey. On the Restoration the King conferred upon him a pension of £100, but like most of the Royal benefactions of the day, it was but irregularly paid. His later years were spent in the family of his patron, chiefly at Chatsworth, where he continued his literary activity until his death, which occurred in 1679, in his 91st year. H. was one of the most prominent Englishmen of his day, and has continued to influence philosophical thought more or less ever since, generally, however, by evoking opposition. His fundamental proposition is that all human action is ultimately based upon selfishness (more or less enlightened), allowing no place to the moral or social sentiments. Similarly in his political writings man is viewed as a purely selfish being who must be held in restraint by the strong hand of authority. His chief philosophical works are _De Corpore Politico_, already mentioned, _pub._ in 1640; _Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and Society_, originally in Latin, translated into English in 1650; _Leviathan, or the Matter, Form, and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil_ (1651); _Treatise on Human Nature_ (1650); and _Letters upon Liberty and Necessity_ (1654). Generally speaking, all his works led him into controversy, one of his principal opponents being Clarendon. The _Letters upon Liberty and Necessity_, which is one of the ablest of them, and indeed one of the ablest ever written on the subject, brought him into collision with Bramhall, Bishop of Londonderry, whom he completely overthrew. He was not, however, so successful in his mathematical controversies, one of the chief of which was on the Quadrature of the Circle. Here his antagonist was the famous mathematician Wallis, who was able easily to demonstrate his errors. In 1672, when 84, H. wrote his autobiography in Latin verse, and in the same year translated 4 books of the _Odyssey_, which were so well received that he completed the remaining books, and also translated the whole of the _Iliad_. Though accurate as literal renderings of the sense, these works fail largely to convey the beauties of the original, notwithstanding which three ed. were issued within 10 years, and they long retained their popularity. His last work was _Behemoth_, a history of the Civil War, completed just before his death, which occurred at Hardwick Hall, one of the seats of the Devonshire family. Although a clear and bold thinker, and a keen controversialist, he was characterised by a certain constitutional timidity believed to have been caused by the alarm of his mother near the time of his birth at the threatened descent of the Spanish Armada. Though dogmatic and impatient of contradiction, faults which grew upon him with age, H. had the courage of his opinions, which he did not trim to suit the times.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1588, _ed._ Oxf., became acquainted with Bacon, went to Paris 1628, in Italy 1634, _pub._ _De Corpore Politico_ (1640), again in Paris 1641-52, and while there was in controversy with Descartes, and _pub._ _Leviathan_ (1651), appointed mathematical tutor to Charles II. 1647, returned to England 1652, pensioned at Restoration, later years spent at Chatsworth, _pub._ _Human Nature_ 1650, _Liberty and Necessity_ 1654, controversy with Bramhall and Wallis, writes autobiography 1672, translates _Homer_, _pub._ _Behemoth_ 1679, _d._ 1679.

_Works_ ed. by Sir W. Molesworth (16 vols. 1839-46), monograph by Croom Robertson. _Life_ by L. Stephen (English Men of Letters Series).

HOBY, SIR THOMAS (1530-1566).--Translator, _b._ at Leominster, and _ed._ at Camb., translated Bucer's _Gratulation to the Church of England_, and _The Courtyer of Count Baldessar Castilio_, the latter of which had great popularity. H. _d._ in Paris while Ambassador to France.

HOCCLEVE, or OCCLEVE, THOMAS (1368?-1450?).--Poet, probably _b._ in London, where he appears to have spent most of his life, living in Chester's Inn in the Strand. Originally intended for the Church, he received an appointment in the Privy Seal Office, which he retained until 1424, when quarters were assigned him in the Priory of Southwick, Hants. In 1399 a pension of £10, subsequently increased to £13, 6s. 8d., had been conferred upon him, which, however, was paid only intermittently, thus furnishing him with a perpetual grievance. His early life appears to have been irregular, and to the end he was a weak, vain, discontented man. His chief work is _De Regimine Principum_ or _Governail of Princes_, written 1411-12. The best part of this is an autobiographical prelude _Mal Regle de T. Hoccleve_, in which he holds up his youthful follies as a warning. It is also interesting as containing, in the MS. in the British Museum, a drawing of Chaucer, from which all subsequent portraits have been taken.

HOFFMAN, CHARLES FENNO (1806-1884).--Poet, etc., _b._ in New York, _s._ of a lawyer, was bred to the same profession, but early deserted it for literature. He wrote a successful novel, _Greyslaer_, and much verse, some of which displayed more lyrical power than any which had preceded it in America.

HOGG, JAMES (THE ETTRICK SHEPHERD) (1770-1835).--Poet, and writer of tales, belonged to a race of shepherds, and began life by herding cows until he was old enough to be trusted with a flock of sheep. His imagination was fed by his mother, who was possessed of an inexhaustible stock of ballads and folk-lore. He had little schooling, and had great difficulty in writing out his earlier poems, but was earnest in giving himself such culture as he could. Entering the service of Mr. Laidlaw, the friend of Scott, he was by him introduced to the poet, and assisted him in collecting material for his _Border Minstrelsy_. In 1796 he had begun to write his songs, and when on a visit to Edin. in 1801 he _coll._ his poems under the title of _Scottish Pastorals, etc._, and in 1807 there followed _The Mountain Bard_. A treatise on the diseases of sheep brought him £300, on the strength of which he embarked upon a sheep-farming enterprise in Dumfriesshire which, like a previous smaller venture in Harris, proved a failure, and he returned to Ettrick bankrupt. Thenceforward he relied almost entirely on literature for support. With this view he, in 1810, settled in Edin., _pub._ _The Forest Minstrel_, and started the _Spy_, a critical journal, which ran for a year. In 1813 _The Queen's Wake_ showed his full powers, and finally settled his right to an assured place among the poets of his country. He joined the staff of _Blackwood_, and became the friend of Wilson, Wordsworth, and Byron. Other poems followed, _The Pilgrims of the Sun_ (1815), _Madoc of the Moor_, _The Poetic Mirror_, and _Queen Hynde_ (1826); and in prose _Winter Evening Tales_ (1820), _The Three Perils of Man_ (1822), and _The Three Perils of Woman_. In his later years his home was a cottage at Altrive on 70 acres of moorland presented to him by the Duchess of Buccleuch, where he _d._ greatly lamented. As might be expected from his almost total want of regular education, H. was often greatly wanting in taste, but he had real imagination and poetic faculty. Some of his lyrics like _The Skylark_ are perfect in their spontaneity and sweetness, and his _Kilmeny_ is one of the most exquisite fairy tales in the language. Hogg was vain and greedy of praise, but honest and, beyond his means, generous. He is a leading character, partly idealised, partly caricatured, in Wilson's _Noctes Ambrosianæ_.

HOGG, THOMAS JEFFERSON (1792-1862).--Biographer, _s._ of John H., a country gentleman of Durham, _ed._ at Durham Grammar School, and Univ. Coll., Oxf., where he made the acquaintance of Shelley, whose lifelong friend and biographer he became. Associated with S. in the famous pamphlet on _The Necessity of Atheism_, he shared in the expulsion from the Univ. which it entailed, and thereafter devoted himself to the law, being called to the Bar in 1817. In 1832 he contributed to Bulwer's _New Monthly Magazine_ his _Reminiscences of Shelley_, which was much admired. Thereafter he was commissioned to write a biography of the poet, of which he completed 2 vols., but in so singular a fashion that the material with which he had been entrusted was withdrawn. The work, which is probably unique in the annals of biography, while giving a vivid and credible picture of S. externally, shows no true appreciation of him as a poet, and reflects with at least equal prominence the humorously eccentric personality of the author, which renders it entertaining in no common degree. Other works of H. were _Memoirs of Prince Alexy Haimatoff_, and a book of travels, _Two Hundred and Nine Days_ (1827). He _m._ the widow of Williams, Shelley's friend, who was drowned along with him.

HOLCROFT, THOMAS (1745-1809).--Dramatist, _s._ of a small shoemaker in London, passed his youth as a pedlar, and as a Newmarket stable boy. A charitable person having given him some education he became a schoolmaster, but in 1770 went on the provincial stage. He then took to writing plays, and was the first to introduce the melodrama into England. Among his plays, _The Road to Ruin_ (1792) is the best, and is still acted; others were _Duplicity_ (1781), and _A Tale of Mystery_. Among his novels are _Alwyn_ (1780), and _Hugh Trevor_, and he wrote the well-known song, _Gaffer Gray_. H. was a man of stern and irascible temper, industrious and energetic, and a sympathiser with the French Revolution.

HOLINSHED, or HOLLINGSHEAD, RAPHAEL or RALPH _d._ (1580?).--Belonged to a Cheshire family, and is said by Anthony Wood to have been at one of the Univ., and to have been a priest. He came to London, and was in the employment of Reginald Wolf, a German printer, making translations and doing hack-work. His _Chronicles of Englande, Scotlande, and Irelande_, from which Shakespeare drew much of his history, was based to a considerable extent on the collections of Leland, and he had the assistance of W. Harrison, R. Stanyhurst, and others. The introductory description of England and the English was the work of Harrison, Stanyhurst did the part relating to Ireland, and H. himself the history of England and Scotland, the latter being mainly translated from the works of Boece and Major. _Pub._ in 1577 it had an eager welcome, and a wide and lasting popularity. A later ed. in 1586 was ed. by J. Hooker and Stow. It is a work of real value--a magazine of useful and interesting information, with the authorities cited. Its tone is strongly Protestant, its style clear.

HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881).--Novelist and poet, _b._ in Massachusetts, helped to found and ed. _Scribner's Monthly_ (afterwards the _Century Magazine_), in which appeared his novels, _Arthur Bonnicastle_, _The Story of Sevenoaks_, _Nicholas Minturn_. In poetry he wrote _Bitter Sweet_ (1858), _Kathrina_, etc.

HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637).--Translator, _b._ at Chelmsford, and _ed._ at Camb., was master of the free school at Coventry, where he also practised medicine. His chief translations, made in good Elizabethan English, are of Pliny's _Natural History_, Plutarch's _Morals_, Suetonius, Xenophon's _Cyropædia_, and Camden's _Britannia_. There are passages in the second of these which have hardly been excelled by any later prose translator of the classics. His later years were passed in poverty.

HOLMES, OLIVER WENDELL (1809-1894).--Essayist, novelist, and poet, was _b._ of good Dutch and English stock at Camb., Massachusetts, the seat of Harvard, where he graduated in 1829. He studied law, then medicine, first at home, latterly in Paris, whence he returned in 1835, and practised in his native town. In 1838 he was appointed Prof. of Anatomy and Physiology at Dartmouth Coll., from which he was in 1847 transferred to a similar chair at Harvard. Up to 1857 he had done little in literature: his first book of poems, containing "The Last Leaf," had been _pub._ But in that year the _Atlantic Monthly_ was started with Lowell for ed., and H. was engaged as a principal contributor. In it appeared the trilogy by which he is best known, _The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table_ (1857), _The Professor_, _The Poet_ (1872), all graceful, allusive, and pleasantly egotistical. He also wrote _Elsie Venner_ (1861), which has been called "the snake story of literature," and _The Guardian Angel_. By many readers he is valued most for the poems which lie imbedded in his books, such as "The Chambered Nautilus," "The Last Leaf," "Homesick in Heaven," "The Voiceless," and "The Boys."

HOME, JOHN (1722-1808).--Dramatist, _s._ of the Town-Clerk of Leith, where he was _b._, _ed._ there and at Edin., and entered the Church. Before doing so, however, he had fought on the Royalist side in the '45, and had, after the Battle of Falkirk, been a prisoner in Doune Castle, whence he escaped. His ministerial life, which was passed at Athelstaneford, East Lothian, was brought to an end by the action of the Church Courts on his producing the play of _Douglas_. This drama, which had been rejected by Garrick, but brought out in Edin. in 1756, created an immense sensation, and made its appearance in London the following year. H. then became private sec. to the Earl of Bute, who gave him the sinecure of Conservator of Scots Privileges at Campvere in Holland. Thereafter he was tutor to the Prince of Wales (George III.), who on his accession conferred upon him a pension of £300. Other plays were _The Siege of Aquileia_, _The Fatal Discovery_ (1769), _Alonzo_, and _Alfred_ (1778), which was a total failure. He also wrote a _History of the Rebellion_. In 1778 he settled in Edin., where he was one of the brilliant circle of literary men of which Robertson was the centre. He supported the claims of Macpherson to be the translator of Ossian.

HONE, WILLIAM (1780-1842).--Miscellaneous writer, _b._ at Bath, in his youth became a convinced and active democrat. His zeal in the propagation of his views, political and philanthropic, was so absorbing as to lead to a uniform want of success in his business undertakings. He _pub._ many satirical writings, which had immense popularity, among which were _The Political House that Jack Built_ (1819), _The Man in the Moon_ (1820), _The Political Showman_ (1821), and _The Apocryphal New Testament_. For one of his earliest satires, _The Political Litany_, _pub._ in 1817, he was prosecuted, but acquitted. Later he brought out _Ancient Mysteries_ (1823), _Every Day Book_ (1826-27), _Table Book_ (1827-28), and _Year Book_ (1828). These works, in which he had the assistance of other writers, are full of curious learning on miscellaneous subjects, such as ceremonies, dress, sports, customs, etc. His last literary enterprise was an ed. of _Strutt's Sports and Pastimes_ (1830). Always a self-sacrificing and honest man, he was originally an unbeliever, but in his latter years he became a sincere Christian.

HOOD, THOMAS (1799-1845).--Poet and comic writer, _s._ of a bookseller in London, where he was _b._, was put into a mercantile office, but the confinement proving adverse to his health, he was sent to Dundee, where the family had connections, and where he obtained some literary employment. His health being restored, he returned to London, and entered the employment of an uncle as an engraver. Here he acquired an acquaintance with drawing, which he afterwards turned to account in illustrating his comic writings. After working for a short time on his own account he became, at the age of 22, sub-editor of the _London Magazine_, and made the acquaintance of many literary men, including De Quincey, Lamb, and Hazlitt. His first separate publication, _Odes and Addresses to Great People_, appeared in 1825, and had an immediate success. Thus encouraged he produced in the next year _Whims and Oddities_, and in 1829, he commenced _The Comic Annual_, which he continued for 9 years, and wrote in _The Gem_ his striking poem, _Eugene Aram_. Meanwhile he had _m._ in 1824, a step which, though productive of the main happiness and comfort of his future life, could not be considered altogether prudent, as his health had begun to give way, and he had no means of support but his pen. Soon afterwards the failure of his publisher involved him in difficulties which, combined with his delicate health, made the remainder of his life a continual struggle. The years between 1834 and 1839 were the period of most acute difficulty, and for a part of this time he was obliged to live abroad. In 1840 friends came to his assistance, and he was able to return to England. His health was, however, quite broken down, but his industry never flagged. During the five years which remained to him he acted as ed. first of the _New Monthly Magazine_, and then of _Hood's Monthly Magazine_. In his last year a Government pension of £100 was granted to his wife. Among his other writings may be mentioned _Tylney Hall_, a novel which had little success, and _Up the Rhine_, in which he satirised the English tourist. Considering the circumstances of pressure under which he wrote, it is little wonder that much of his work was ephemeral and beneath his powers, but in his particular line of humour he is unique, while his serious poems are instinct with imagination and true pathos. A few of them, such as _The Song of the Shirt_, and _The Bridge of Sighs_ are perfect in their kind.

_Life_ by his _s._ and _dau._ Ed. of _Works_ by same (7 vols. 1862). Selections, with Biography, by Ainger, 1897.

HOOK, THEODORE EDWARD (1788-1841).--Dramatist and novelist, _s._ of James H., music-hall composer, was _b._ in London, and _ed._ at Harrow. As a boy he wrote words for his father's comic dramas. In 1805 he produced a comic opera, _The Soldier's Return_, which was followed by _Catch Him who Can_. Both of them were highly successful, and were followed by many others. His marvellous powers as a conversationalist and _improvisatore_ made him a favourite in the highest circles. In 1812 he received the appointment of Accountant-General of Mauritius, which he held for 5 years, when serious irregularities were discovered, and he was sent home in disgrace, prosecuted by Government for a claim of £12,000, and imprisoned. It subsequently appeared that the actual peculation had been the work of a subordinate, and that H. himself was only chargeable with gross neglect of duty, but though he was released the claims against him were not departed from. He then became ed. of _John Bull_, a journal of high Tory and aristocratic proclivities, which he conducted with great ability; he also ed. the _New Monthly Magazine_, and wrote many novels, among which were _Sayings and Doings_ (3 series), _Gilbert Gurney_, and _Jack Brag_. Though making a large income, he was always in difficulties, and, after a long struggle with broken health and spirits, he _d._ at Fulham in 1841.

HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR (1798-1875).--Biographer, _s._ of James H., Dean of Worcester, _b._ at Worcester, and _ed._ at Winchester and Oxf. Entering the Church, he held various benefices, and became Vicar of Leeds (where, largely owing to his exertions, 20 new churches and many schools were built), and afterwards Dean of Chichester. Besides his labours as a churchman he was a voluminous author, his works including _Church Dictionary_ (1842), _Dictionary of Ecclesiastical Biography_ (1845-52), and _Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury_ (1860-75), on which he was still engaged at his death, and which he had brought down to Juxon, vol. xi. His sermon _Hear the Church_ (1838), in which he affirmed the Apostolical succession of the Anglican episcopate, attracted much attention.

HOOKER, RICHARD (1554?-1600).--Theologian, _b._ near Exeter, of a family the original name of which was Vowell. His ability and gentleness as a schoolboy recommended him to the notice of Bishop Jewel, who sent him to Corpus Christi Coll., Oxf., where he graduated and became a Fellow in 1577. His proficiency in Hebrew led to his appointment in 1579 as Deputy Prof. Two years later, 1581, he took orders, and soon thereafter advantage was taken of his simplicity to entrap him into an unsuitable marriage with a woman named Joan Churchman, whose mother had nursed him in an illness. As might have been expected, the connection turned out unhappily, his wife being a scold, and, according to Anthony Wood, "a silly, clownish woman." His fate may, however, have been mitigated by the fact that his own temper was so sweet that he is said never to have been seen angry. Some doubt, moreover, has been cast on some of the reported details of his domestic life. In 1584 he received the living of Drayton-Beauchamp, in Bucks, and in the following year was appointed Master of the Temple. Here he had for a colleague as evening lecturer Walter Travers, a man of mark among the Puritans. Though both men were of the finest moral character, their views on ecclesiastical questions were widely different, and as neither was disposed to conceal his opinions, it came to be said that in the Temple "the pulpit spake pure Canterbury in the morning and Geneva in the afternoon." Things developed into an animated controversy, in which H. was considered to have triumphed, and the Archbishop (Whitgift) suspended Travers. The position, however, had become intolerable for H. who respected his opponent in spite of their differences, and he petitioned Whitgift that he might retire to the country and find time and quiet to complete his great work, the _Ecclesiastical Polity_, on which he was engaged. He was accordingly, in 1591, presented to the living of Boscombe near Amesbury, and made sub-Dean and a minor Prebendary of Salisbury. Here he finished _The Four Books of the Lawes of Ecclesiastical Polity_, _pub._ in 1594. The following year he was presented by Queen Elizabeth to the living of Bishopsbourne, Kent. Here the fifth book was _pub._ (1597), and here he _d._ in 1600. The sixth and eighth books were not _pub._ until 1648, and the seventh only appeared in 1662. The _Ecclesiastical Polity_ is one of the greatest achievements alike in English theology and English literature, a masterpiece of reasoning and eloquence, in a style stately and sonorous, though often laborious and involved. Hallam considered that no English writer had better displayed the capacities of the language. The argument is directed against the Romanists on the one hand and the Puritans on the other, and the fundamental idea is "the unity and all embracing character of law as the manifestation of the divine order of the universe." The distinguishing note of H.'s character was what Fuller calls his "dove-like simplicity." Izaak Walton, his biographer, describes him as "an obscure, harmless man, in poor clothes, of a mean stature and stooping ... his body worn out, not with age, but study, and holy mortification, his face full of heat-pimples ... and tho' not purblind, yet short, or weak, sighted." In his calling as a parish priest he was faithful and diligent. In preaching "his voice was low ... gesture none at all, standing stone-still in the pulpit." The sixth book of the _Ecclesiastical Polity_ has been considered of doubtful authority, and to have no claim to its place, and the seventh and eighth are believed to have been put together from rough notes. Some of his MSS. were destroyed after his death by his wife's relatives. The epithet "judicious" attached to his name first appears in the inscription on his monument at Bishopsbourne.

_Works_, ed. by Keble (1836); new ed. revised by Church, etc. (1888). It includes the _Life_ by I. Walton.

HOOLE, JOHN (1727-1803).--Translator, _s._ of a watch-maker and inventor, was _b._ in London, and was in the India House, of which he rose to be principal auditor (1744-83). He translated Tasso's _Jerusalem Delivered_ (1763), and Ariosto's _Orlando Furioso_ (1773-83), as well as other works from the Italian. He was also the author of three dramas, which failed. He is described by Scott as "a noble transmuter of gold into lead."

HOPE, THOMAS (1770-1831).--Novelist and writer on art, was a wealthy merchant of Amsterdam, of Scotch descent, his family having emigrated to Holland in the 17th century. In early life he spent much time in travel, studying architecture, and collecting objects of art. Returning, he settled in London, and occupied himself in arranging his vast collections. In 1807 he _pub._ a work on _Household Furniture and Decoration_, which had a great effect in improving the public taste in such matters. This was followed by two magnificent works, _On the Costume of the Ancients_ (1809), and _Designs of Modern Costumes_ (1812). Up to this time his reputation had been somewhat that of a transcendent upholsterer, but in 1819 he astonished the literary world by his novel, _Anastasius; or, Memoirs of a Modern Greek_, a work full of imagination, descriptive power, and knowledge of the world. This book, which was _pub._ anonymously, was attributed to Byron, and only credited to the author on his avowing it in _Blackwood's Magazine_. H. also wrote a treatise on the _Origin and Prospects of Man_, and _Essays on Architecture_. He was a munificent and discerning patron of rising artists.

HORNE, RICHARD HENRY or HENGIST (1803-1884).--Eccentric poet, was _b._ in London, and _ed._ at Sandhurst for the East India Company Service, but failed to get a nomination. After a youth of adventure, partly in the Mexican Navy, he returned to England, and began in 1828 a highly combative literary career with a poem, _Hecatompylos_, in the _Athenæum_. His next appearance, _The False Medium_ (1833), an exposition of the obstacles thrown in the way of "men of genius" by literary middlemen, raised a nest of hornets; and _Orion_, an "epic poem," _pub._ 1843 at the price of one farthing, followed. His plays, which include _Cosmo de Medici_ (1837), _The Death of Marlowe_ (1837), and _Judas Iscariot_, did not add greatly to his reputation. In _The New Spirit of the Age_ (1844), he had the assistance of Mrs. Browning. Though a writer of talent, he was not a poet.

HORNE, THOMAS HARTWELL (1780-1862).--Theologian, _ed._ at Christ's Hospital, was for a time in the law, but became a great biblical scholar, and in 1818 _pub._ _Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures_ (1818), in consideration of which he was admitted to orders without the usual preliminaries, and in 1833 obtained a benefice in London and a prebend in St. Paul's, and was senior assistant in the printed books department of the British Museum (1824-60). He wrote an _Introduction to the Study of Bibliography_ (1814), and various other works, but he is chiefly remembered in connection with that first mentioned, which was frequently reprinted, and was very widely used as a text-book both at home and in America.

HOUGHTON, RICHARD MONCKTON MILNES, 1ST LORD (1809-1885).--Poet, _s._ of Robert (known as "single-speech") M., _b._ in London, and _ed._ privately and at Camb. He sat in the House of Commons for Pontefract from 1837-63, when he was raised to the Peerage. His interests were, however, mainly literary and philanthropic, and it was said of him that he "knew everybody worth knowing at home and abroad;" and his sympathies being of the widest, he was able to bring together the most opposite extremes of life and opinion. He championed the cause of oppressed nationalities, and of the slave. He _pub._ many vols. of poetry, among which were _Poetry for the People_ (1840), and _Palm Leaves_ (1848). He also wrote a Life of Keats, and various books of travels. Though he had not the depth of mind or intensity of feeling to make a great poet, his verse is the work of a man of high culture, graceful and refined, and a few of his shorter poems--such as _The Beating of my own Heart_, and _Strangers Yet_, strike a true note which gained for them wide acceptance.

HOWARD, EDWARD (_d._ 1841).--Novelist, a sea-comrade of Captain Marryat, and as sub ed. assisted him in conducting the _Metropolitan Magazine_. He wrote several sea novels, of which _Rattlin the Reefer_, sometimes attributed to Marryat, is the best known. Others were _Outward Bound_ and _Jack Ashore_.

HOWARD, SIR ROBERT (1626-1698).--Dramatist, _s._ of the Earl of Berkshire, and brother-in-law of Dryden. On the outbreak of the Civil War he was of the King's party, and was imprisoned during the Commonwealth. After the Restoration, however, he was in favour with the Court, and held many important posts. He wrote some plays, of which the best was _The Committee_, and collaborated with Dryden in _The Indian Queen_. He was at odds with him, however, on the question of rhyme, the use of which he wrote against in very indifferent blank verse.

HOWE, JOHN (1630-1705).--Puritan divine, _b._ at Loughborough, of which his _f._ was curate, studied at Camb., and became, in 1652, minister of Great Torrington, Devonshire, where he was famous for the unusual length of his sermons and prayers. In 1657 Oliver Cromwell made him his resident chaplain at Whitehall, a position which he retained under Richard C., so long as the latter held the office of Protector. On the Restoration H. returned to Great Torrington, from which, however, he was ejected in 1662. Thereafter he wandered from place to place, preaching in secret until 1671, when he went to Ireland as chaplain to Lord Massareene, and in 1675 he became minister of a dissenting congregation in London. In 1685 he travelled with Lord Wharton on the Continent, but returned in 1687 to London, where he _d._ in 1705. H. was the author of many excellent works of practical divinity, among which are _The Living Temple_, _Inquiry into the Doctrine of the Trinity_, and _The Divine Presence_. The substance of his writings is better than their style, which is involved and extremely diffuse, and evinces much vigour of mind. H. is described as of a fine presence and dignified manners.

HOWELL, JAMES (1594?-1666).--Miscellaneous writer, _s._ of a clergyman at Abernant, Caermarthenshire, was at Oxf. and spent the greater part of his earlier life travelling in various Continental countries, including the Low Countries, France, Spain, and Italy, on various matters of business, during which he became versed in many languages, and amassed stores of information and observations on men and manners. He was a keen Royalist, and was on this account imprisoned in the Fleet, 1643-51. He wrote a large number of books, including _Dodona's Grove_, a political allegory, _Instructions for Foreign Travel_ (1642), _England's Tears for the Present Wars_, _A Trance, or News from Hell_, and above all, _Epistolæ Ho-Elianæ, Familiar Letters_, chiefly written in the Fleet to imaginary correspondents, but no doubt based upon notes of his own travels. It is one of the most interesting and entertaining books in the language.

HOWIE, JOHN (1735-1793).--Biographer, a Renfrewshire farmer, who claimed descent from an Albigensian refugee, wrote Lives of the martyrs of Scotland from Patrick Hamilton, the first, to James Renwick, the last, under the title of _Scots Worthies_. The work of an unlettered man, it has considerable merit as regards both matter and style, and was long a classic among the Scottish peasantry as well as higher orders of the people.

HOWITT, WILLIAM (1792-1879), HOWITT, MARY (BOTHAM) (1799-1888).--Miscellaneous writers. William H. was _b._ at Heanor, Derbyshire, and was apprenticed to a builder; Mary was _b._ at Coleford, Gloucestershire; they _m._ in 1821, and settled at Hanley, where they carried on business as chemists. Two years later they removed to Nottingham, where they remained for 12 years, and where much of their literary work was accomplished. Thereafter they lived successively at Esher, London, Heidelberg, and Rome, at the last of which they both _d._ Their literary work, which was very voluminous, was done partly in conjunction, partly independently, and covered a considerable variety of subjects--poetry, fiction, history, translations, and social and economical subjects. Useful and pleasing in its day, little of it is likely to survive. William's works include _A History of Priestcraft_ (1833), _Rural Life in England_ (1837), _Visits to Remarkable Places_, _Homes and Haunts of the Poets_, _Land, Labour, and Gold_ (1855), _Rural Life in Germany_, _History of the Supernatural_, and _History of Discovery in Australia_. Mary translated the Swedish novels of Frederica Bremer, H.C. Andersen's _Improvisatore_, and wrote novels, including _Wood Leighton_ and _The Cost of Caergwyn_, many successful tales and poems for children, and a _History of the United States_. Their joint productions include _The Forest Minstrel_, _Book of the Seasons_, and _Ruined Abbeys and Castles of Great Britain_. Both brought up as Quakers, they left that communion in 1847, and became believers in spiritualism; and in 1882 Mary joined the Church of Rome.

HUCHOWN, or SIR HUGH of EGLINTON (_fl._ 14th cent.).--Unless identified with Sir Hugh, Huchown is shrouded in mystery. He was a writer of alliterative verse, referred to by Andrew of Wyntoun. If he be identified with Sir Hugh, he was an Ayrshire nobleman related to Robert II., _b.c._ 1300-20, Chamberlain of Cunningham, Justiciar of Lothian, and Commissioner for the Borders. He also held office under David II. In that case also he is believed by some scholars to have translated the poems bearing the titles _The Destruction of Troy_ and _The Wars of Alexander_.

HUGHES, JOHN (1677-1720).--Essayist and dramatist, was a clerk in the Ordnance Office, then sec. for the Commission of the Peace. He contributed to the _Spectator_, _Tatler_, and _Guardian_, ed. Spenser, and wrote several dramas, of which the best is _The Siege of Damascus_. It was his last, he having _d._ on the first night of its performance. Addison thought so well of his dramatic talent that he requested him to write the conclusion of _Cato_. He, however, finished it himself. H. was a highly respectable person, and is affectionately commemorated by Sir Richard Steele.

HUGHES, THOMAS (1823?-1896).--Novelist and biographer, _s._ of a Berkshire squire, was _ed._ at Rugby and Oxf., and called to the Bar in 1848. Much the most successful of his books was _Tom Brown's School-days_ (1856), which had an immense popularity, and perhaps remains the best picture of English public-school life in the language. Its sequel, _Tom Brown at Oxford_ (1861), was a comparative failure, but his _Scouring of the White Horse_ deals in a charming way with his own countryside. He also wrote Lives of Alfred the Great, Bishop Fraser, and D. Macmillan, the publisher. H. devoted much attention to philanthropic work in conjunction with Kingsley and Maurice. In 1882 he was appointed a County Court Judge.

HUME, ALEXANDER (1560-1609).--Poet, _s._ of Patrick, 5th Lord Polwarth, _ed._ at St. Andrews, and on the Continent, was originally destined for the law, but devoted himself to the service of the Church, and was minister of Logie in Stirlingshire. He _pub._ in 1599 _Hymns and Sacred Songs_, including the beautiful "Day Estival," descriptive of a summer day.

HUME, DAVID, (1711-1776).--Philosopher and historian, second _s._ of Joseph H., of Ninewells, Berwickshire, was _b._ and _ed._ in Edin., and was intended for the law. For this, however, he had no aptitude, and commercial pursuits into which he was initiated in a counting-house in Bristol proving equally uncongenial, he was permitted to follow out his literary bent, and in 1734 went to France, where he passed three years at Rheims and La Flèche in study, living on a small allowance made him by his _f._ In 1739 he _pub._ anonymously his _Treatise on Human Nature_, which attracted little attention. Having returned to Scotland, he wrote at Ninewells his _Essays, Moral and Philosophical_ (1741-42). He now became desirous of finding some employment which would put him in a position of independence, and having been unsuccessful in his candidature for the Chair of Moral Philosophy in Edin., he became in 1745 governor to the Marquis of Annandale, a nobleman whose state was little removed from insanity. Two years later he accepted the more congenial appointment of Judge-Advocate-General to General St. Clair on his expedition to Port L'Orient, and in 1748 accompanied him on a diplomatic mission to France, whence he passed on to Vienna and Turin. About the same time he produced his _Philosophical Essays_ (1748), including the famous _Essay in Miracles_ which gave rise to so much controversy. These were followed in 1751 by his _Enquiry into the Principles of Morals_, which he considered his best work; and in 1752 by his _Political Discourses_, which alone of his works had an immediate success. In the same year he applied unsuccessfully for the Chair of Logic in Glasgow, but was appointed Keeper of the Advocates' Library in Edin. The access to books and original authorities which this position gave him appears to have suggested to his mind the idea of writing a history, and the first vol. of his _History of England_, containing the reigns of James I. and Charles I., was _pub._ in 1754. Its reception was not favourable, and the disappointment of the author was so great that, had it not been for the state of war between the two countries, he would have left his native land, changed his name, and settled permanently in France. The second vol., which appeared in 1757, dealing with the Commonwealth, and the reigns of Charles II. and James II., had a better reception, and had the effect of "buoying up its unfortunate brother." Thereafter the tide completely turned, and the remaining four vols., 1759 and 1762, in which he turned back and finished the history from the invasion of Julius Cæsar to the accession of Henry VII., attained a vast popularity, which extended to the whole work. During the progress of the history H. _pub._ in 1757 _Four Dissertations: the Natural History of Religion; of the Passions; of Tragedy; of the Standard of Taste_. Two others on _Suicide_ and on _The Immortality of the Soul_ were cancelled, but _pub._ posthumously. In 1763 H. accompanied Lord Hertford to Paris, and for a few months acted as _Chargé d'Affaires_. While there he was introduced to the brilliant literary society for which the French capital was then famous. Among other acquaintances which he made was that of Rousseau, whom he persuaded to accompany him on his return home, and for whom he procured a pension. The suspicious and fickle character of R., however, soon brought the friendship to an end. Soon after his return H. received a pension, and from 1767-68 he was under-sec. to General Conway, then Sec. of State. In 1769 he retired, and returned to Edin. with an income of £1000 a year which, time and place considered, was an ample competence, and there he spent the remainder of his days, the recognised head of the intellectual and literary society of the city.

The mind of H. was one of the most original and operative of his age. His philosophy was largely a questioning of the views of previous metaphysicians, and he occupied towards mind, considered as a self-subsisting entity, a position analogous to that assumed by Berkeley towards matter similarly considered. He profoundly influenced European thought, and by indirectly calling into being the philosophy of Kant on the one hand, and that of the Scottish School on the other, created a new era of thought. As a historian he showed the same originality. He introduced a new and higher method of writing history than had previously been practised. Until his time chronicles and contemporary memoirs had, generally speaking, been all that had been produced; and though his great work cannot, from its frequent inaccuracies and the fact that it is not based upon original documents, claim the character of an authority, its clear, graceful, and spirited narrative style, and its reflection of the individuality of the writer, constitute it a classic, and it must always retain a place among the masterpieces of historical literature. In character H. was kindly, candid, and good-humoured, and he was beloved as a man even by many who held his views in what was little short of abhorrence.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1711, _ed._ at Edin., tries law and commerce, but decides for literature, goes to France 1734-37, _pub._ _Human Nature_ 1739, _Essays Moral and Philosophical_ 1741-2, governor to M. of Annandale 1745, accompanies expedition to L'Orient, engaged diplomatically 1748, _pub._ _Philosophical Essays_, including _Miracles_ 1748, _Enquiry into Principles of Morals_ 1751, _Political Discourses_ 1752, Keeper of Advocates' Library 1752, _pub._ _History of England_ 1754-62, _Four Dissertations_ 1757, _Chargé d'Affaires_ at Paris 1763, became acquainted with Rousseau, under-sec. of State 1767-8, retires and settles in Edin. 1769.

_Life_ by Hill Burton (2 vols., 1846), shorter ones by Huxley, Knight, and Calderwood. _Works_ ed. by Green and Grose (4 vols., 1874). _History_ often reprinted with Smollett's continuations.

HUNNIS, WILLIAM (_d._ 1597).--Poet, was a gentleman of the Chapel Royal to Edward VI., imprisoned during the reign of Mary, but after the accession of Elizabeth was released, and in 1566 made "master of the children" of the Chapel Royal. He wrote metrical versions of the Psalms, and some vols. of verse, _A Hiveful of Honey_, and _A Handful of Honeysuckles_.

HUNT, JAMES HENRY LEIGH (1784-1859).--Essayist and poet, was _b._ at Southgate, and _ed._ at Christ's Hospital. A selection of his earliest poems was _pub._ by his _f._ in 1801 under the title of _Juvenilia_. In 1805 he joined his brother John in conducting a paper, the _News_, which the latter had started. Thereafter the brothers embarked upon the _Examiner_, a paper of pronounced Radical views. The appearance in this journal of an article on the Prince Regent in which he was described in words which have been condensed into "a fat Adonis of fifty," led to H. being fined £500 and imprisoned for two years. With his customary genial philosophy, however, the prisoner made the best of things, turned his cell into a study, with bookcases and a piano, and his yard into a garden. He had the sympathy of many, and received his friends, including Byron, Moore, and Lamb. On his release he _pub._ his poem, _The Story of Rimini_. Two other vols. of poetry followed, _The Feast of the Poets_ and _Foliage_, in 1814 and 1818 respectively. In the latter year he started the _Indicator_, a paper something in the style of the _Spectator_ or _Tatler_, and after this had run its course the _Companion_, conceived on similar lines, took its place in 1828. In 1822 H. went to Italy with Byron, and there established the _Liberal_, a paper which did not prove a success. Disillusioned with Byron, H. returned home, and _pub._ in 1828 _Lord Byron and his Contemporaries_, a work which gave great offence to Byron's friends, who accused the author of ingratitude. In 1834 H. started the _London Journal_, which he ed. for two years. Among his later works are _Captain Sword and Captain Pen_ (1835), _The Palfrey_, a poem, _A Legend of Florence_ (drama), _Imagination and Fancy_ (1844), _Wit and Humour_ (1846), _A Jar of Honey from Mount Hybla_ (1848), _The Old Court Suburb_ (1855), _The Town_, _Sir Ralph Esher_, a novel, and his Autobiography (1850). Although his poems have considerable descriptive power and brightness, he had not the depth and intensity to make a poet, and his reputation rests rather upon his essays, which are full of a genial philosophy, and display a love of books, and everything pleasant and beautiful. He did much to popularise the love of poetry and literature in general among his fellow-countrymen.

HURD, RICHARD (1720-1808).--Divine, and miscellaneous writer, _b._ at Congreve, Staffordshire, was _ed._ at Camb., and entering the Church, became Bishop successively of Lichfield and Worcester. He produced an ed. of the _Ars Poetica_ of Horace, _Dissertations on Poetry_, _Dialogues on Sincerity_, _Letters on Chivalry and Romance_, and _An Introduction to the Prophecies_. He was in 1783 offered, but declined, the Primacy.

HUTCHESON, FRANCIS (1694-1746).--Philosopher, _b._ in Ireland, and _ed._ for the Presbyterian ministry at Glasgow Univ. After keeping an academy at Dublin for some years he _pub._ his _Enquiry into Beauty and Virtue_, which won for him a great reputation. In 1729 he became Prof. of Moral Philosophy at Glasgow, where he exercised a great influence over his students, and also upon the Scottish system of philosophy. In his philosophical views he was to some extent a disciple of Shaftesbury. He introduced the term, "moral sense," which he defined as a power of perceiving moral attributes in action. His _System of Moral Philosophy_ appeared posthumously in two vols.

HUTCHINSON, MRS. LUCY (_b._ 1620).--Biographer, _dau._ of Sir Allan Apsley, Lieutenant of the Tower of London, _m._ in 1638 John, afterwards Colonel, Hutchinson, one of those who signed the death-warrant of Charles I., but who afterwards protested against the assumption of supreme power by Cromwell. She has a place in literature for her Life of her husband, one of the most interesting biographies in the language, not only on account of its immediate subject, but of the light which it throws upon the characteristics and conditions of the life of Puritans of good family. Originally intended for her family only, it was printed by a descendant in 1806, and did much to clear away the false impressions as to the narrowness and austerity of the educated Puritans which had prevailed. Colonel H. and his wife were noble representatives of their class.

HUTTON, RICHARD HOLT (1826-1897).--Essayist and miscellaneous writer, was brought up as a Unitarian, and for some time was a preacher of that body, but coming under the influence of F.D. Maurice and others of his school, joined the Church of England. He was a frequent contributor to various magazines and reviews, and assisted Walter Bagehot in ed. the _National Review_. In 1861 he became joint-proprietor and ed. of the _Spectator_. Among his other writings may be mentioned _Essays, Theological and Literary_ (1871), _Modern Guides of English Thought_ (1887), and _Contemporary Thought and Thinkers_ (1894), which were more or less reprints or expansions of his work in periodicals, and a memoir of Bagehot prefixed to an ed. of his works.

HUXLEY, THOMAS HENRY (1825-1895).--Scientific writer, _s._ of an assistant master in a public school, was _b._ at Ealing. From childhood he was an insatiable reader. In his 13th year he became a medical apprentice, and in 1842 entered Charing Cross Hospital. Thereafter he was for a few months surgeon on board the _Victory_ at Haslar, and was then appointed surgeon on H.M.S. _Rattlesnake_, which was sent to make surveys at Torres Strait. While in this position he made numerous observations, which he communicated to the Linnæan Society. In 1851 he became a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1854 Prof. of Natural History at the School of Mines. Henceforth his life was a very full one, divided between scientific investigation and public work. He was recognised as the foremost English biologist, and was elected Pres. of the Royal Society 1883. He served on the London School Board and on various Royal Commissions. His writings are in the main distinguished by a clearness, force, and charm which entitle them to a place in literature; and besides the addition which they made to the stock of human knowledge, they did much to diffuse a love and study of science. H. was a keen controversialist, contending for the strictly scientific view of all subjects as distinguished from the metaphysical or theological, and accordingly encountered much opposition, and a good deal of abuse. Nevertheless, he was not a materialist, and was in sympathy with the moral and tender aspects of Christianity. He was a strong supporter of the theory of evolution. Among the more eminent of his opponents were Bishop Wilberforce and Mr. Gladstone. His _pub._ works, including scientific communications, are very numerous. Among the more important are those on the _Medusæ_, _Zoological Evidences of Man's Place in Nature_ (1863), _Elementary Lessons on Physiology_ (1866), _Evolution and Ethics_ (1893), _Collected Essays_ (9 vols. 1893-4). He was also an admirable letter-writer, as appears from the _Life and Letters_, ed. by his son, and to him we owe the word, and almost the idea, "Agnostic."

INCHBALD, MRS. ELIZABETH (SIMPSON) (1753-1821).--Novelist and dramatist, _dau._ of a Suffolk farmer. In a romantic fit she left her home at the age of 16, and went to London, where she became acquainted with Inchbald the actor, who _m._ her in 1772. Seven years later her husband _d._, and for the next ten years she was on the stage, chiefly in Scotland and Ireland. She produced many plays, including _Mogul Tale_ (1784), _I'll Tell you What_ (1785), _Appearance is against Them_ (1785), _Such Things Are_, _The Married Man_, _The Wedding Day_, and two novels, _A Simple Story_ (1791), and _Nature and Art_ (1796), which have been frequently reprinted. She also made a collection of plays, _The Modern Theatre_, in 10 vols. Her life was remarkable for its simplicity and frugality, and a large part of her earnings was applied in the maintenance of a delicate sister. Though of a somewhat sentimental and romantic nature, she preserved an unblemished reputation.

INGELOW, JEAN (1820-1897).--Poetess and novelist, _dau._ of a banker at Boston, Lincolnshire, _pub._ three vols. of poems, of which perhaps the best known individual piece is "The High Tide on the Coast of Lincolnshire," and several successful novels, including _Off the Skelligs_ (1872), _Fated to be Free_ (1875), and _Sarah de Berenger_ (1879). She also wrote excellent stories for children, _Mopsa the Fairy_, _Stories told to Children_, etc. Her poems show a considerable lyric gift.

INNES, COSMO (1798-1874).--Historian and antiquary, was called to the Scottish Bar in 1822, and was appointed Prof. of Constitutional Law and History in the Univ. of Edin. in 1846. He was the author of _Scotland in the Middle Ages_ (1860), and _Sketches of Early Scottish History_ (1861). He also ed. many historical MSS. for the Bannatyne and other antiquarian clubs. Much learning is displayed in his works.

INNES, THOMAS (1662-1744).--Historian, was descended from an old Roman Catholic family in Aberdeenshire. He studied in Paris at the Scots Coll., of which he became Principal. He was the author of two learned works, _Critical Essay on the Ancient Inhabitants of the Northern Parts of Britain_ (1729), and _Civil and Ecclesiastical History of Scotland, 80 to 818_ (_pub._ by the Spalding Club, 1853).

IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835).--Forger of Shakespeare manuscripts, _s._ of an antiquarian bookseller in London. He claimed to have discovered the MSS. in the house of a gentleman of fortune. The forgeries included various deeds, a Protestant confession of faith by Shakespeare, letters to Ann Hathaway, Southampton, and others, a new version of _King Lear_, and a complete drama, _Vortigern and Rowena_. He completely deceived his _f._ and various men of letters and experts, but was detected by Malone, and the representation of _Vortigern_ on the stage completed the exposure. I. then tried novel-writing, in which he failed. He _pub._ a confession in regard to the forgeries, in which he asserted that his _f._ had no part in the imposture, but had been completely deceived by it.

IRVING, EDWARD (1792-1834).--Theologian and orator, _b._ at Annan, Dumfriesshire, and _ed._ at Edin. Univ., for some years thereafter was engaged in teaching at Kirkcaldy. Ordained to the ministry of the Church of Scotland he became, in 1819, assistant to Dr. Chalmers in Glasgow, after which he went to the Scotch Church in Hatton Gardens, London, where he had an almost unprecedented popularity, his admirers including De Quincey, Coleridge, Canning, Scott, and others. The effect of his spoken oratory is not preserved in his writings, and was no doubt in a considerable degree due to his striking appearance and fine voice. He is described as "a tall, athletic man, with dark, sallow complexion and commanding features; long, glossy black hair, and an obvious squint." Soon after removing to a new church in Regent Square he began to develop his views relative to the near approach of the Second Advent; and his _Homilies on the Sacraments_ involved him in a charge of heretical views on the person of Christ, which resulted in his ejection from his church, and ultimately in his deposition from the ministry. Thereafter his views as to the revival, as in the early Church, of the gifts of healing and of tongues, to which, however, he made no personal claim, underwent rapid development, and resulted in the founding of a new communion, the Catholic Apostolic Church, the adherents of which are commonly known as "Irvingites." Whether right or mistaken in his views there can be no doubt of the personal sincerity and nobility of the man. His _pub._ writings include _For the Oracles of God_, _For Judgment to Come_, and _The Last Days_, and contain many passages of majestic eloquence.

IRVING, WASHINGTON (1783-1859).--Essayist and historian, _b._ in New York, _s._ of William I. who had emigrated from Scotland. He was in his youth delicate, and his education was somewhat desultory, but his _f._ had a fine library, of which he had the run, and he was an omnivorous reader. In 1799 he entered a law office, but a threatening of consumption led to his going, in 1804, on a European tour in search of health. On his return in 1806 he was admitted to the Bar. He did not, however, prosecute law, but joined his brothers in business as a sleeping partner, while he devoted himself to literature. In 1807 he conducted _Salmagundi_, an amusing miscellany, and in 1809 appeared _A History of New York by Diedrich Knickerbocker_, a burlesque upon the old Dutch settlers, which has become a classic in America. He made in 1815 a second visit to Europe, from which he did not return for 17 years. In England he was welcomed by Thomas Campbell, the poet, who introduced him to Scott, whom he visited at Abbotsford in 1817. The following year the firm with which he was connected failed, and he had to look to literature for a livelihood. He produced _The Sketch-Book_ (1819), which was, through the influence of Scott, accepted by Murray, and had a great success on both sides of the Atlantic. In 1822 he went to Paris, where he began _Bracebridge Hall_, followed in 1824 by _Tales of a Traveller_. In 1826 Everett, the American minister at Madrid, invited him to come and assist him by making translations relative to Columbus, which opened up to him a new field hitherto little cultivated. The result was a series of fascinating historical and romantic works, beginning with _History of the Life and Voyages of Columbus_ (1828), and including _The Conquest of Granada_ (1829), _Voyages of the Companions of Columbus_ (1831), _The Alhambra_ (1832), _Legends of the Conquest of Spain_ (1835), and _Mahomet and his Successors_ (1849). Meanwhile he had returned to England in 1829, and to America in 1832. In 1842 he was appointed Minister to Spain, and in 1846 he finally returned to America. In the same year he _pub._ a _Life of Goldsmith_, and his great work, the _Life of Washington_, came out 1855-59, _Wolfert's Roost_, a collection of tales and essays, appeared in 1855. I. was never _m._: in his youth he had been engaged to a girl who _d._, and whose memory he faithfully cherished. His last years were spent at Sunnyside, an old Dutch house near his "sleepy hollow," and there he _d._ suddenly on Nov. 28, 1859. Though not, perhaps, a writer of commanding power or originality, I., especially in his earlier works, imparted by his style and treatment a singular charm to every subject he touched, and holds a high place among American men of letters, among whom he is the first who has produced what has, on its own merits, living interest in literature. He was a man of high character and amiable disposition.

JAMES I., KING of SCOTLAND (1394-1437).--Poet, the third _s._ of Robert III., was _b._ at Dunfermline. In 1406 he was sent for safety and education to France, but on the voyage was taken prisoner by an English ship, and conveyed to England, where until 1824 he remained confined in various places, but chiefly in the Tower of London. He was then ransomed and, after his marriage to Lady Jane or Joan Beaufort, _dau._ of the Duke of Somerset, and the heroine of _The King's Quhair_ (or Book), crowned at Scone. While in England he had been carefully _ed._, and on his return to his native country endeavoured to reduce its turbulent nobility to due subjection, and to introduce various reforms. His efforts, however, which do not appear to have been always marked by prudence, ended disastrously in his assassination in the monastery of the Black Friars, Perth, in February, 1437. J. was a man of great natural capacity both intellectual and practical--an ardent student and a poet of no mean order. In addition to _The King's Quhair_, one of the finest love poems in existence, and _A Ballad of Good Counsel_, which are very generally attributed to him, he has been more doubtfully credited with _Peeblis to the Play_ and _Christis Kirke on the Greene_.

JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFORD (1801-1860).--Novelist and historical writer, _s._ of a physician in London, was for many years British Consul at various places in the United States and on the Continent. At an early age he began to write romances, and continued his production with such industry that his works reach to 100 vols. This excessive rapidity was fatal to his permanent reputation; but his books had considerable immediate popularity. Among them are _Richelieu_ (1829), _Philip Augustus_ (1831), _The Man at Arms_ (1840), _The Huguenot_ (1838), _The Robber_, _Henry of Guise_ (1839), _Agincourt_ (1844), _The King's Highway_ (1840). In addition to his novels he wrote _Memoirs of Great Commanders_, a _Life of the Black Prince_, and other historical and biographical works. He held the honorary office of Historiographer Royal.

JAMESON, MRS. ANNA BROWNELL (MURPHY) (1794-1860).--Writer on art, _dau._ of Denis B.M., a distinguished miniature painter, _m._ Robert Jameson, a barrister (afterwards Attorney-General of Ontario). The union, however, did not turn out happily: a separation took place, and Mrs. J. turned her attention to literature, and specially to subjects connected with art. Among many other works she produced _Loves of the Poets_ (1829), _Celebrated Female Sovereigns_ (1831), _Beauties of the Court of Charles II._ (1833), _Rubens_ (translated from the German), _Hand Book to the Galleries of Art_, _Early Italian Painters_, _Sacred and Legendary Art_ (1848), etc. Her works show knowledge and discrimination and, though now in many respects superseded, still retain interest and value.

JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE (1841-1905).--_B._ at Dundee, and _ed._ at St. Columba's Coll., Dublin, Charterhouse, and Camb., at the last of which he lectured on the classics, and was in 1869 elected Public Orator. After being Prof. of Greek at Glasgow, he held from 1889 the corresponding chair at Camb., and for a time represented the Univ. in Parliament. He was one of the founders of the British School of Archæology at Athens. Among his works are _The Attic Orators_, _An Introduction to Homer_, _Lectures on Greek Poetry_, _Life of Richard Bentley_ (English Men of Letters Series), and he ed. the works of Sophocles, and the Poems and Fragments of Bacchylides, discovered in 1896. J. was one of the most brilliant of modern scholars.

JEFFERIES, RICHARD (1848-1887).--Naturalist and novelist, _s._ of a farmer, was _b._ at Swindon, Wilts. He began his literary career on the staff of a local newspaper, and first attracted attention by a letter in the _Times_ on the Wiltshire labourer. Thereafter he wrote for the _Pall Mall Gazette_, in which appeared his _Gamekeeper at Home_, and _Wild Life in a Southern County_ (1879), both afterwards _repub._ Both these works are full of minute observation and vivid description of country life. They were followed by _The Amateur Poacher_ (1880), _Wood Magic_ (1881), _Round about a Great Estate_ (1881), _The Open Air_ (1885), and others on similar subjects. Among his novels are _Bevis_, in which he draws on his own childish memories, and _After London, or Wild England_ (1885), a romance of the future, when London has ceased to exist. _The Story of My Heart_ (1883) is an idealised picture of his inner life. J. _d._ after a painful illness, which lasted for six years. In his own line, that of depicting with an intense sense for nature all the elements of country and wild life, vegetable and animal, surviving in the face of modern civilisation, he has had few equals. Life by E. Thomas.

JEFFREY, FRANCIS (1773-1850).--Critic and political writer, _s._ of a legal official, _b._ in Edinburgh, _ed._ at the High School there, and at Glasgow and Oxf., where, however, he remained for a few months only. Returning to Edinburgh he studied law, and was called to the Bar in 1794. Brought up as a Tory, he early imbibed Whig principles, and this, in the then political state of Scotland, together with his strong literary tendencies, long hindered his professional advancement. Gradually, however, his ability, acuteness, and eloquence carried him to the front of his profession. He was elected Dean of the Faculty of Advocates in 1829 and, on the accession to power of the Whigs in 1830, became Lord Advocate, and had a large share in passing the Reform Bill, in so far as it related to Scotland. In 1832 he was elected M.P. for Edinburgh, and was raised to the Bench as Lord Jeffrey in 1834. His literary fame rests on his work in connection with the _Edinburgh Review_, which he edited from its commencement in 1802 until 1829, and to which he was a constant contributor. The founding of this periodical by a group of young men of brilliant talents and liberal sympathies, among whom were Brougham, Sydney Smith, and F. Horner, constituted the opening of a new epoch in the literary and political progress of the country. J.'s contributions ranged over literary criticism, biography, politics, and ethics and, especially in respect of the first, exercised a profound influence; he was, in fact, regarded as the greatest literary critic of his age, and although his judgments have been far from universally supported either by the event or by later critics, it remains true that he probably did more than any of his contemporaries to diffuse a love of literature, and to raise the standard of public taste in such matters. A selection of his papers, made by himself, was _pub._ in 4 vols. in 1844 and 1853. J. was a man of brilliant conversational powers, of vast information and sparkling wit, and was universally admired and beloved for the uprightness and amiability of his character.

JERROLD, DOUGLAS WILLIAM (1803-1857).--Dramatist and miscellaneous writer, _s._ of an actor, himself appeared as a child upon the stage. From his 10th to his 12th year he was at sea. He then became apprentice to a printer, devoting all his spare time to self-education. He early began to contribute to periodicals, and in his 18th year he was engaged by the Coburg Theatre as a writer of short dramatic pieces. In 1829 he made a great success by his drama of _Black-eyed Susan_, which he followed up by _The Rent Day_, _Bubbles of the Day_, _Time works Wonders_, etc. In 1840 he became ed. of a publication, _Heads of the People_, to which Thackeray was a contributor, and in which some of the best of his own work appeared. He was one of the leading contributors to _Punch_, in which _Mrs. Caudle's Curtain Lectures_ came out, and from 1852 he ed. _Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper_. Among his novels are _St. Giles and St. James_, and _The Story of a Feather_. J. had a great reputation as a wit, was a genial and kindly man, and a favourite with his fellow _littérateurs_, who raised a fund of £2000 for his family on his death.

JESSE, JOHN HENEAGE (1815-1874).--Historical writer, _ed._ at Eton, was a clerk in the Admiralty. He wrote _Memoirs_ of the Court of England, of G. Selwyn and his contemporaries (1843), of the Pretender (1845), etc., and _Celebrated Etonians_ (1875).

JEVONS, WILLIAM STANLEY (1835-1882).--Logician and economist, _b._ in Liverpool, _s._ of an iron merchant, his mother was the _dau._ of W. Roscoe (_q.v._). He was _ed._ at the Mechanics Institute High School, Liverpool, and at University Coll., London. After studying chemistry for some time he received in 1853 the appointment of assayer to the mint at Sydney, where he remained until 1859, when he resigned his appointment, and came home to study mathematics and economics. While in Australia he had been a contributor to the _Empire_ newspaper, and soon after his return home he _pub._ _Remarks on the Australian Goldfields_, wrote in various scientific periodicals, and from time to time _pub._ important papers on economical subjects. The position which he had attained as a scientific thinker and writer was recognised by his being appointed in 1863 tutor, and in 1866, Prof. of Logic, Political Economy, and Mental and Moral Philosophy in Owen's Coll., Manchester. In 1864 he _pub._ _Pure Logic_ and _The Coal Question_; other works were _Elementary Lessons in Logic_ (1870), _Principles of Science_ (1874), and _Investigations in Currency and Finance_ (1884), posthumously. His valuable and promising life was brought to a premature close by his being drowned while bathing. His great object in his writings was to place logic and economics in the position of exact sciences, and in all his work he showed great industry and care combined with unusual analytical power.

JEWSBURY, GERALDINE ENDSOR (1812-1880).--Novelist, wrote several novels, of which _Zoe_, _The Half-Sisters_, and _Constance Herbert_ may be mentioned. She also wrote stories for children, and was a contributor to various magazines.

JOHN of SALISBURY (1120?-1180?).--_B._ at Salisbury, studied at Paris. He became sec. to Theobald Archbishop of Canterbury, and retained the office under Becket. In 1176 he was made Bishop of Chartres. He wrote in Latin, in 8 books, _Polycraticus, seu De Nugis Curialium et Vestigiis Philosophorum_ (on the Trifles of the Courtiers, and the Footsteps of the Philosophers). In it he treats of pastimes, flatterers, tyrannicide, the duties of kings and knights, virtue and vice, glory, and the right of the Church to remove kings if in its opinion they failed in their duty. He also wrote a Life of Anselm. He was one of the greatest scholars of the Middle Ages.

JOHNSON, LIONEL (1867-1902).--Poet and critic. _Ireland and other Poems_ (2 vols.) (1897), _The Art of Thomas Hardy_, and miscellaneous critical works.

JOHNSON, SAMUEL (1649-1703).--Political writer, sometimes called "the Whig" to distinguish him from his great namesake. Of humble extraction, he was _ed._ at St. Paul's School and Camb., and took orders. He attacked James II. in _Julian the Apostate_ (1682), and was imprisoned. He continued, however, his attacks on the Government by pamphlets, and did much to influence the public mind in favour of the Revolution. Dryden gave him a place in _Absalom and Achitophel_ as "Benjochanan." After the Revolution he received a pension, but considered himself insufficiently rewarded by a Deanery, which he declined.

JOHNSON, SAMUEL (1709-1784).--Moralist, essayist, and lexicographer, _s._ of a bookseller at Lichfield, received his early education at his native town, and went in 1728 to Oxf., but had, owing to poverty, to leave without taking a degree. For a short time he was usher in a school at Market Bosworth, but found the position so irksome that he threw it up, and gained a meagre livelihood by working for a publisher in Birmingham. In 1735, being then 26, he _m._ Mrs. Porter, a widow of over 40, who brought him £800, and to whom he was sincerely attached. He started an academy at Ediol, near Lichfield, which, however, had no success, only three boys, one of whom was David Garrick (_q.v._), attending it. Accordingly, this venture was given up, and J. in 1737 went to London accompanied by Garrick. Here he had a hard struggle with poverty, humiliation, and every kind of evil, always, however, quitting himself like the true man he was. He contributed to the _Gentleman's Magazine_, furnishing the parliamentary debates in very free and generally much improved form, under the title of "Debates of the Senate of Lilliput." In 1738 appeared _London_, a satire imitated from Juvenal which, _pub._ anonymously, attracted immediate attention, and the notice of Pope. His next work was the life of his unfortunate friend Savage (_q.v._) (1744); and in 1747 he began his great _English Dictionary_. Another satire, _The Vanity of Human Wishes_, appeared in 1749, and in the same year _Irene_, a tragedy. His next venture was the starting of the _Rambler_, a paper somewhat on the lines of the _Spectator_; but, sententious and grave, it had none of the lightness and grace of its model, and likewise lacked its popularity. It was almost solely the work of J. himself, and was carried on twice a week for two years. In 1752 his wife, "his dear Tetty" _d._, and was sincerely mourned; and in 1755 his _Dictionary_ appeared. The patronage of Lord Chesterfield (_q.v._), which he had vainly sought, was then offered, but proudly rejected in a letter which has become a classic. The work made him famous, and Oxf. conferred upon him the degree of M.A. He had become the friend of Reynolds and Goldsmith; Burke and others were soon added. The _Idler_, a somewhat less ponderous successor of the _Rambler_, appeared in 1758-60, and _Rasselas_, his most popular work, was written in 1759 to meet the funeral expenses of his mother, who then _d._ at the age of 90. At last the tide of his fortunes turned. A pension of £300 was conferred upon him in 1762, and the rest of his days were spent in honour, and such comfort as the melancholy to which he was subject permitted. In 1763 he made the acquaintance, so important for posterity, of James Boswell; and it was probably in the same year that he founded his famous "literary club." In 1764 he was introduced to Mr. Thrale, a wealthy brewer, and for many years spent much of his time, an honoured guest, in his family. The kindness and attentions of Mrs. T., described by Carlyle as "a bright papilionaceous creature, whom the elephant loved to play with, and wave to and fro upon his trunk," were a refreshment and solace to him. In 1765 his ed. of Shakespeare came out, and his last great work was the _Lives of the Poets_, in 10 vols. (1779-81). He had in 1775 _pub._ his _Journey to the Western Isles of Scotland_, an account of a tour made in the company of Boswell. His last years were darkened by the loss of friends such as Goldsmith and Thrale, and by an estrangement from Mrs. T., on her marriage with Piozzi, an Italian musician. Notwithstanding a lifelong and morbid fear of death, his last illness was borne with fortitude and calmness, soothed by the pious attentions of Reynolds and Burke, and he _d._ peacefully on December 13, 1784. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, and a monument in St. Paul's was erected by the "club." Statues of him were also erected in Lichfield and Uttoxeter. He had received from Oxf. and Dublin the degree of LL.D.

Though of rough and domineering manners, J. had the tenderest of hearts, and his house was for years the home of several persons, such as Mrs. Williams and Levett, the surgeon, who had no claim upon him but their helplessness and friendlessness. As Goldsmith aptly said, he "had nothing of the bear but his skin." His outstanding qualities were honesty and courage, and these characterise all his works. Though disfigured by prejudice and, as regards matters of fact, in many parts superseded, they remain, as has been said, "some excellent, all worthy and genuine works;" and he will ever stand one of the greatest and most honourable figures in the history of English literature. Boswell's marvellous _Life_ has made J.'s bodily appearance, dress, and manners more familiar to posterity than those of any other man--the large, unwieldy form, the face seamed with scrofula, the purblind eyes, the spasmodic movements, the sonorous voice, even the brown suit, metal buttons, black worsted stockings, and bushy wig, the conversation so full of matter, strength, sense, wit, and prejudice, superior in force and sparkle to the sounding, but often wearisome periods of his written style. Of his works the two most important are the _Dictionary_, which, long superseded from a philological point of view, made an epoch in the history of the language, and the _Lives of the Poets_, many of them deformed by prejudice and singularly inadequate criticism, others, almost perfect in their kind, and the whole written in a style less pompous and more natural and lively than his earlier works.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1709, _ed._ Oxf., usher and hack writer, starts academy at Ediol, goes to London 1737, reports parliamentary debates, _pub._ _London_ 1738, _Life of Savage_ 1744, began _Dictionary_ 1747, _pub._ _Vanity of Human Wishes_ and _Irene_ 1749, conducts _Rambler_ 1750-52, _pub._ _Dictionary_ 1755, _Idler_ appears 1758-60, _pub._ _Rasselas_ 1759, receives pension 1762, became acquainted with Boswell 1763, _pub._ ed. of _Shakespeare_ 1765, and _Lives of Poets_ 1779-81, _d._ 1784.

Recollections, etc., by Mrs. Piozzi, Reynolds, and others, also _Johnsoniana_ (Mrs. Napier, 1884), Boswell's _Life_, various ed., including that of Napier, 1884, and Birkbeck Hill, 1889.

JOHNSTON, ARTHUR (_c._ 1587-1641).--Poet in Latin, _b._ near Aberdeen, studied medicine at Padua, where he graduated. After living for about 20 years in France, he returned to England, became physician to Charles I., and was afterwards Rector of King's Coll., Aberdeen. He attained a European reputation as a writer of Latin poetry. Among his works are _Musæ Aulicæ_ (1637), and a complete translation of the Psalms, and he ed. _Deliciæ Poetarum Scotorum_, a collection of Latin poetry by Scottish authors.

JOHNSTONE, CHARLES (1719?-1800).--Novelist. Prevented by deafness from practising at the Irish Bar, he went to India, where he was proprietor of a newspaper. He wrote one successful book, _Chrysal, or the Adventures of a Guinea_, a somewhat sombre satire, and some others now utterly forgotten.

JONES, EBENEZER (1820-1860).--Poet, wrote a good deal of poetry of very unequal merit, but at his best shows a true poetic vein. He was befriended by Browning and Rossetti. His chief work was _Studies of Sensation and Event_ (1843). His most widely appreciated poems were "To the Snow," "To Death," and "When the World is Burning." He made an unhappy marriage, which ended in a separation.

JONES, ERNEST CHARLES (1819-1869).--Poet, novelist, and Chartist, _s._ of Major J., equerry to the Duke of Cumberland, afterwards King of Hanover, was _b._ at Berlin. He adopted the views of the Chartists in an extreme form, and was imprisoned for two years for seditious speeches, and on his release conducted a Chartist newspaper. Afterwards, when the agitation had died down, he returned to his practice as a barrister, which he had deserted, and also wrote largely. He produced a number of novels, including _The Maid of Warsaw_, _Woman's Wrongs_, and _The Painter of Florence_, also some poems, _The Battle Day_ (1855), _The Revolt of Hindostan_ (1857), and _Corayda_ (1859). Some of his lyrics, such as _The Song of the Poor_, _The Song of the Day Labourers_, and _The Factory Slave_, were well known.

JONES, SIR WILLIAM (1746-1794).--Orientalist and jurist, was _b._ in London, and _ed._ at Harrow and Oxf. He lost his _f._, an eminent mathematician, at 3 years of age. He early showed extraordinary aptitude for acquiring languages, specially those of the East, and learned 28. Devoting himself to the study of law he became one of the most profound jurists of his time. He was appointed one of the Judges in the Supreme Court of Bengal, knighted in 1783, and started for India, whence he never returned. While there, in addition to his judicial duties, he pursued his studies in Oriental languages, from which he made various translations. Among his original works are _The Enchanted Fruit_, and _A Treatise on the Gods of Greece, Italy, and India_. He founded the Bengal Asiatic Society. He left various works unfinished which, with his other writings, were _coll._ and ed. by Lord Teignmouth. He _d._ universally beloved and honoured at the early age of 48. His chief legal work was _The Institutes of Hindu Law or the Ordinances of Manu_.

JONSON, BEN or BENJAMIN (1573-1637).--Poet and dramatist, was probably _b._ in Westminster. His _f._, who _d._ before Ben was four, seems to have come from Carlisle, and the family to have originally belonged to Annandale. He was sent to Westminster School, for which he seems to have been indebted to the kindness of W. Camden (_q.v._), who was one of the masters. His mother, meanwhile, had _m._ a bricklayer, and he was for a time put to that trade, but disliking it, he ran away and joined the army, fighting against the Spaniards in the Low Countries. Returning to England about 1592 he took to the stage, both as an actor and as a playwright. In the former capacity he was unsuccessful. In 1598, having killed a fellow-actor in a duel, he was tried for murder, but escaped by benefit of clergy. About the same time he joined the Roman Catholic Church, in which he remained for 12 years. It was in 1598 also that his first successful play, _Every Man in his Humour_, was produced, with Shakespeare as one of the players. _Every Man out of his Humour_ (1599), _Cynthia's Revels_ (1600), and _The Poetaster_ (1601), satirising the citizens, the courtiers, and the poets respectively, followed. The last called forth several replies, the most notable of which was the _Satiromastix_ (Whip for the Satirist) of Dekker (_q.v._), a severe, though not altogether unfriendly, retort, which J. took in good part, announcing his intention of leaving off satire and trying tragedy. His first work in this kind was _Sejanus_ (1603), which was not very favourably received. It was followed by _Eastward Ho_, in which he collaborated with Marston and Chapman. Certain reflections on Scotland gave offence to James I., and the authors were imprisoned, but soon released. From the beginning of the new reign J. devoted himself largely to the writing of Court masques, in which he excelled all his contemporaries, and about the same time entered upon the production of the three great plays in which his full strength is shown. The first of these, _Volpone, or the Fox_, appeared in 1605; _Epicæne, or the Silent Woman_ in 1609, and _The Alchemist_ in 1610. His second and last tragedy, _Catiline_, was produced in 1611. Two years later he was in France as companion to the son of Sir W. Raleigh, and on his return he held up hypocritical Puritanism to scorn in _Bartholomew Fair_, which was followed in 1616 by a comedy, _The Devil is an Ass_. In the same year he _coll._ his writings--plays, poems, and epigrams--in a folio entitled his _Works_. In 1618 he journeyed on foot to Scotland, where he was received with much honour, and paid his famous visit to Drummond (_q.v._) at Hawthornden. His last successful play, _The Staple of Newes_, was produced in 1625, and in the same year he had his first stroke of palsy, from which he never entirely recovered. His next play, _The New Inn_, was driven from the stage, for which in its rapid degeneracy he had become too learned and too moral. A quarrel with Inigo Jones, the architect, who furnished the machinery for the Court masques, lost him Court favour, and he was obliged, with failing powers, to turn again to the stage, for which his last plays, _The Magnetic Lady_ and _The Tale of a Tub_, were written in 1632 and 1633. Town and Court favour, however, turned again, and he received a pension of £100; that of the best poets and lovers of literature he had always kept. The older poets were his friends, the younger were proud to call themselves, and be called by him, his sons. In 1637, after some years of gradually failing health, he _d._, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. An admirer caused a mason to cut on the slab over his grave the well-known inscription, "O Rare Ben Jonson." He left a fragment, _The Sad Shepherd_. His works include a number of epigrams and translations, collections of poems (_Underwoods_ and _The Forest_); in prose a book of short essays and notes on various subjects, _Discoveries_.

J. was the founder of a new style of English comedy, original, powerful, and interesting, but lacking in spontaneity and nature. His characters tend to become mere impersonations of some one quality or "humour," as he called it. Thus he is the herald, though a magnificent one, of decadence. He painted in general with a powerful, but heavy hand; in his masques, however, he often shows a singular gracefulness, especially in the lyrics which he introduces. His character, as given by Drummond, is not a

## particularly attractive one, "a great lover and praiser of himself, a

contemner and scorner of others, given rather to lose a friend than a jest, jealous of every word and action of those about him, especially after drink ... a dissembler of ill parts which reign in him, a bragger of some good that he wanteth ... passionately kind and angry ... oppressed with fantasy which hath ever mastered his reason." There must, however, have been far other qualities in a man who could command, as J. undoubtedly did, the goodwill and admiration of so many of the finest minds of his time. In person he was tall, swarthy, marked with small-pox, and in later years burly.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1573, _ed._ Westminster School, serves in Low Countries, returns to England 1592, and takes to stage, kills actor in brawl 1598, a Romanist _c._ 1598-_c._ 1610, _Every Man in his Humour_ 1598, _Every Man out of his Humour_ 1599, and other plays till 1633, _coll._ works _pub._ 1616, visits Drummond 1618, loses and recovers Court favour, _d._ 1637.

Among the ed. of J.'s works may be mentioned those of Gifford (9 vols., 1816), re-issued (1875), selected plays Mermaid Series (3 vols., 1893-5), Morley (1884), and Symonds (1886). Lives and studies by Symonds (English Worthies), and Swinburne (1890).

JORTIN, JOHN (1698-1770).--Ecclesiastical historian, _ed._ at Camb., and entering the Church held various benefices, becoming in 1764 Archdeacon of London. He _pub._ _Remarks on Ecclesiastical History_ (1751-54), a Life of Erasmus, and various miscellaneous pamphlets and tracts; 7 vols. of sermons appeared after his death. All his works show learning, and are written in a lively style.

JOWETT, BENJAMIN (1817-1893).--Scholar, was _b._ at Camberwell, and _ed._ at St. Paul's School and Balliol Coll., where he had a distinguished career, becoming Fellow 1838, Tutor 1840, and Master 1870. He held the Regius Professorship of Greek 1855-93, though for the first 10 years he was, owing to the opposition of his theological opponents in the Univ., deprived of a large part of the usual emoluments. He was a keen and formidable controversialist, and was usually found on what was, for the time, the unpopular side. His contribution (an essay on _The Interpretation of Scripture_) to the famous _Essays and Reviews_, which appeared in 1860, brought him into strong collision with powerful sections of theological opinion, to which he had already given offence by his commentaries on the _Epistles to the Thessalonians, Galatians, and Romans_. His views were, indeed, generally considered to be extremely latitudinarian. Latterly he exercised an extraordinary influence in the Univ., and was held in reverence by his pupils, many of whom have risen to eminence. His chief works are translations, with learned introductions, of _The Dialogues_ of Plato, of Thucydides, and of the _Politics_ of Aristotle. He also, in conjunction with Prof. Campbell, brought out an ed. of _The Republic_ of Plato. He held the degree of LL.D. from the Univ. of Edin. (1884), and Camb. (1890), and Doctor of Theology of Leyden (1875).

JUDD, SYLVESTER (1813-1853).--Novelist, _b._ at Westhampton, Mass., studied for the ministry at Yale, and became a Unitarian pastor. He _pub._ _Philo_, a religious poem, followed by _Margaret, a Tale of the Real and the Ideal_ (1845), _Richard Edney, A Rus-Urban Tale_ (1850). He also produced some theological works. His work is very unequal, but often, as in _Margaret_, contains fine and true descriptive passages both of nature and character.

KAMES, HENRY HOME, LORD (1696-1782).--Miscellaneous writer, _s._ of Geo. H., of Kames, Berwickshire, was admitted an advocate in 1723, and raised to the Bench in 1752. In 1748 he _pub._ a collection of Decisions of the Court of Session. It is, however, on his philosophical and historical writings that his literary fame rests. His writings include _Essays on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion_ (1751), _The Elements of Criticism_ (1762), in which he sought for principles based on the elements of human nature; _Sketches of the History of Man_ (1774), and _Loose Hints on Education_, in which many modern views are anticipated. In all these works, while the style is stiff and crabbed, there is much original thought. Lord K. was also an eminent authority upon agriculture, on which he in 1777 _pub._ a work entitled _The Gentleman Farmer_.

KAVANAGH, JULIA (1824-1877).--Novelist, _dau._ of Morgan K., poet, and philologist, wrote many novels, of which the scene is usually in France, among which are _Madeleine_ (1848), _Adèle_, and _Daisy Burns_; also biographical works, _Woman in France in the 18th Century_ (1850), etc.

KAYE, SIR JOHN WILLIAM (1814-1876).--Historian and biographer, _s._ of a London solicitor, was _ed._ at Eton and Addiscombe. After serving for some time in the Bengal Artillery, he succeeded J.S. Mill as sec. to the political and secret department in the East India Office. His first literary work was a novel _pub._ in 1845, and he then began his valuable series of histories and biographies illustrative of the British occupation of India, including _The War in Afghanistan_ (1851), and _The Sepoy War in India_, which he did not live to finish, and which was completed by G.B. Malleson as _The History of the Indian Mutiny_ (6 vols., 1890); also histories of the East India Company and of Christianity in India, and Lives of Sir John Malcolm and other Indian soldiers and statesmen. All his writings are characterised by painstaking research, love of truth, and a style suited to the importance of his subjects. He was made K.C.S.I. in 1871.

KEARY, ANNIE (1825-1879).--Novelist, wrote some good novels, including _Castle Daly_, _A Doubting Heart_, and _Oldbury_, also books for children and educational works.

KEATS, JOHN (1795-1821).--Poet, _s._ of the chief servant at an inn in London, who _m._ his master's _dau._, and _d._ a man of some substance. He was sent to a school at Enfield, and having meanwhile become an orphan, was in 1810 apprenticed to a surgeon at Edmonton. In 1815 he went to London to walk the hospitals. He was not, however, at all enthusiastic in his profession, and having become acquainted with Leigh Hunt, Hazlitt, Shelley, and others, he gave himself more and more to literature. His first work--some sonnets--appeared in Hunt's _Examiner_, and his first book, _Poems_, came out in 1817. This book, while containing much that gave little promise of what was to come, was not without touches of beauty and music, but it fell quite flat, finding few readers beyond his immediate circle. _Endymion_, begun during a visit to the Isle of Wight, appeared in 1818, and was savagely attacked in _Blackwood_ and the _Quarterly Review_. These attacks, though naturally giving pain to the poet, were not, as was alleged at the time, the cause of his health breaking down, as he was possessed of considerable confidence in his own powers, and his claim to immortality as a poet. Symptoms of hereditary consumption, however, began to show themselves and, in the hope of restored health, he made a tour in the Lakes and Scotland, from which he returned to London none the better. The death soon after of his brother Thomas, whom he had helped to nurse, told upon his spirits, as did also his unrequited passion for Miss Fanny Brawne. In 1820 he _pub._ _Lamia and Other Poems_, containing _Isabella_, _Eve of St. Agnes_, _Hyperion_, and the odes to the _Nightingale_ and _The Grecian Urn_, all of which had been produced within a period of about 18 months. This book was warmly praised in the _Edinburgh Review_. His health had by this time completely given way, and he was likewise harassed by narrow means and hopeless love. He had, however, the consolation of possessing many warm friends, by some of whom, the Hunts and the Brawnes, he was tenderly nursed. At last in 1821 he set out, accompanied by his friend Severn, on that journey to Italy from which he never returned. After much suffering he _d._ at Rome, and was buried in the Protestant cemetery there. The character of K. was much misunderstood until the publication by R.M. Milnes, afterwards Lord Houghton (_q.v._), of his _Life and Letters_, which gives an attractive picture of him. This, together with the accounts of other friends, represent him as "eager, enthusiastic, and sensitive, but humorous, reasonable, and free from vanity, affectionate, a good brother and friend, sweet-tempered, and helpful." In his political views he was liberal, in his religious, indefinite. Though in his life-time subjected to much harsh and unappreciative criticism, his place among English poets is now assured. His chief characteristics are intense, sensuous imagination, and love of beauty, rich and picturesque descriptive power, and exquisitely melodious versification.

_Life, Letters, etc._, by R.M. Milnes (1848), _Poems and Letters_ (Forman, 5 vols., 1900). Keats (Men of Letters Series, Colvin, 1887), etc. _Poems_ (1817), _Endymion_ (1818), _Lamia and Other Poems_ (1820).

KEBLE, JOHN (1792-1866).--Poet and divine, _s._ of the Rev. John K., Vicar of Coln St. Aldwyn's, Gloucestershire, _b._ at Fairford in the same county, _ed._ by his _f._ and at Oxf., where he was elected a Fellow of Oriel Coll., and was for some years tutor and examiner in the Univ. His ideal life, however, was that of a country clergyman, and having taken orders in 1815, he became curate to his _f._ Meantime he had been writing _The Christian Year_, which appeared in 1827, and met with an almost unparalleled acceptance. Though at first anonymous, its authorship soon became known, with the result that K. was in 1831 appointed to the Chair of Poetry at Oxf., which he held until 1841. In 1833 his famous sermon on "national apostasy" gave the first impulse to the Oxf. movement, of which, after the secession of Newman to the Church of Rome, he, along with Pusey, was regarded as the leader, and in connection with which he contributed several of the more important "tracts" in which were enforced "deep submission to authority, implicit reverence for Catholic tradition, firm belief in the divine prerogatives of the priesthood, the real nature of the sacraments, and the danger of independent speculation." His _f._ having _d._, K. became in 1836 Vicar of Hursley, near Winchester, where he remained until his death. In 1846 he _pub._ another book of poems, _Lyra Innocentium_. Other works were a Life of Wilson, Bishop of Sodor and Man, and an ed. of the Works of Hooker. After his death appeared _Letters of Spiritual Counsel_, and 12 vols. of _Parish Sermons_. The literary position of K. must mainly rest upon _The Christian Year_, _Thoughts in Verse for the Sundays_, and _Holidays throughout the Year_, the object of which was, as described by the author, to bring the thoughts and feelings of the reader into unison with those exemplified in the Prayer Book. The poems, while by no means of equal literary merit, are generally characterised by delicate and true poetic feeling, and refined and often extremely felicitous language; and it is a proof of the fidelity to nature with which its themes are treated that the book has become a religious classic with readers far removed from the author's ecclesiastical standpoint and general school of thought. K. was one of the most saintly and unselfish men who ever adorned the Church of England, and, though personally shy and retiring, exercised a vast spiritual influence upon his generation.

_Life_ by J.D. Coleridge (1869), another by Rev. W. Lock (1895).

KEIGHTLEY, THOMAS (1789-1872).--Historian, _ed._ at Trinity Coll., Dublin, wrote works on mythology and folklore, and at the request of Dr. Arnold of Rugby, a series of text-books on English, Greek, and other histories. His _History of Greece_ was translated into modern Greek. Among his other books are _Fairy Mythology_ (1850), and _Mythology of Ancient Greece and Italy_, and a work on Popular Tales and their transmission from one country to another.

KEITH, ROBERT (1681-1757).--Historian, _b._ in Kincardineshire, belonged to the family of the Earls Marischal, and was Bishop of Fife in the Scottish Episcopal Church. He was deeply versed in Scottish antiquities, and _pub._ _History of the Affairs of Church and State in Scotland_ during the Reformation. He also compiled _A Catalogue of the Bishops of Scotland_ (1755).

KELLY, HUGH (1739-1777).--Dramatist, _s._ of a Dublin publican, worked in London as a staymaker, 1760, and after ed. various journals, wrote _Memoirs of a Magdalen_ (1767). His play, _False Delicacy_ (1768), had an extraordinary success, and was translated into French, German, and Portuguese. His other plays had no great success. He left off writing for the stage in 1774, and endeavoured to practise as a barrister, but without success. He also wrote political pamphlets, for which he received a pension from Government.

KEN, THOMAS (1637-1711).--Religious writer, _s._ of an attorney, was _b._ at Little Berkhampstead, _ed._ at Winchester and Oxf., and entering the Church received the living of Brightstone, Isle of Wight, where he composed his _Morning, Evening, and Midnight Hymns_, perhaps the most widely known of English hymns. These he was accustomed to sing daily to the lute. After holding other benefices he became Bishop of Bath and Wells, and a Chaplain to Charles II. He was one of the "Seven Bishops" sent to the Tower by James II. Refusing to take the oaths to William and Mary, he was deprived, and spent his later years in comparative poverty, though he found an asylum at Longleat with Lord Weymouth. Izaak Walton was his brother-in-law. K. wrote a manual of prayers for Winchester School, and other devotional works.

KENNEDY, JOHN PENDLETON (1795-1870).--Novelist, _b._ in Baltimore, was distinguished as a lawyer and politician. He wrote three novels, _Swallow Barn_ (1832), _Horse Shoe Robinson_ (1835), and _Rob of the Bowl_ (1838), which give a vivid presentation of life in the Southern States.

KENNEDY, WALTER (_fl._ 1500).--_S._ of Lord K., was _ed._ at Glasgow, and is perhaps best known as Dunbar's antagonist in the _Flyting of Dunbar and Kennedy_. Other poems are _Praise of Aige_ (Age), _Ane Ballat in Praise of Our Lady_, and _The Passion of Christ_. Most of his work is probably lost.

KILLIGREW, THOMAS (1612-1683).--Dramatist, _s._ of Sir Robert K., of Hanworth, was a witty, dissolute courtier of Charles II., and wrote nine plays, each in a different city. Of them the best known is _The Parson's Wedding_.

KING, HENRY (1592-1669).--Poet, _s._ of a Bishop of London, was _ed._ at Westminster School and Oxf. He entered the Church, and rose in 1642 to be Bishop of Chichester. The following year he was deprived, but was reinstated at the Restoration. He wrote many elegies on Royal persons and on his private friends, who included Donne and Ben Jonson. A selection from his _Poems and Psalms_ was _pub._ in 1843.

KINGLAKE, ALEXANDER WILLIAM (1809-1891).--_B._ near Taunton, _ed._ at Eton and Camb., was called to the Bar in 1837, and acquired a considerable practice, which in 1856 he abandoned in order to devote himself to literature and public life. His first literary venture had been _Eothen_, a brilliant and original work of Eastern travel, _pub._ in 1844; but his _magnum opus_ was his _Invasion of the Crimea_, in 8 vols. (1863-87), which is one of the most effective works of its class. It has, however, been charged with being too favourable to Lord Raglan, and unduly hostile to Napoleon III., for whom the author had an extreme aversion. Its great length is also against it.

KINGSFORD, WILLIAM (1819-1898).--Historian, _b._ in London, served in the army, and went to Canada, where he was engaged in surveying work. He has a place in literature for his _History of Canada_ in 10 vols., a work of careful research, though not distinguished for purely literary merits.

KINGSLEY, CHARLES (1819-1875).--Novelist and historian, _s._ of a clergyman, was _b._ at Holne Vicarage near Dartmoor, but passed most of his childhood at Barnack in the Fen country, and Clovelly in Devonshire, _ed._ at King's Coll., London, and Camb. Intended for the law, he entered the Church, and became, in 1842, curate, and two years later rector, of Eversley, Hampshire. In the latter year he _pub._ _The Saints' Tragedy_, a drama, of which the heroine is St. Elizabeth of Hungary. Two novels followed, _Yeast_ (1848) and _Alton Locke_ (1850), in which he deals with social questions as affecting the agricultural labouring class, and the town worker respectively. He had become deeply interested in such questions, and threw himself heart and soul, in conjunction with F.D. Maurice and others, into the schemes of social amelioration, which they supported under the name of Christian socialism, contributing many tracts and articles under the signature of "Parson Lot." In 1853 appeared _Hypatia_, in which the conflict of the early Christians with the Greek philosophy of Alexandria is depicted; it was followed in 1855 by _Westward Ho_, perhaps his most popular work; in 1857 by _Two Years Ago_, and in 1866 by _Hereward the Wake_. _At Last_ (1870), gave his impressions of a visit to the West Indies. His taste for natural history found expression in _Glaucus, or the Wonders of the Shore_ (1855), and other works. _The Water Babies_ is a story for children written to inspire love and reverence of Nature. K. was in 1860 appointed to the Professorship of Modern History at Camb., which he held until 1869. The literary fruit of this was _Roman and Teuton_ (1864). In the same year he was involved in a controversy with J.H. Newman, which resulted in the publication by the latter of his _Apologia_. K., who had in 1869 been made a Canon of Chester, became Canon of Westminster in 1873. Always of a highly nervous temperament, his over-exertion resulted in repeated failures of health, and he _d._ in 1875. Though hot-tempered and combative, he was a man of singularly noble character. His type of religion, cheerful and robust, was described as "muscular Christianity." Strenuous, eager, and keen in feeling, he was not either a profoundly learned, or perhaps very impartial, historian, but all his writings are marked by a bracing and manly atmosphere, intense sympathy, and great descriptive power.

KINGSLEY, HENRY (1830-1876).--Novelist, brother of the above, _ed._ at King's Coll., London, and Oxf., which he left without graduating, and betook himself to the Australian gold-diggings, being afterwards in the mounted police. On his return in 1858 he devoted himself industriously to literature, and wrote a number of novels of much more than average merit, including _Geoffrey Hamlyn_ (1859), _The Hillyars and the Burtons_ (1865), _Ravenshoe_ (1861), and _Austin Elliot_ (1863). Of these _Ravenshoe_ is generally regarded as the best. In 1869 he went to Edinburgh to ed. the _Daily Review_, but he soon gave this up, and became war correspondent for his paper during the Franco-German War.

KINGSLEY, MARY HENRIETTA (1862-1900).--Traveller, _dau._ of George Henry K. (himself a traveller, and author of _South Sea Bubbles_, a very successful book), and niece of Charles K. (_q.v._). She travelled in West Africa, where she made valuable observations and collections. Her _Travels in West Africa_ is one of the most original and stimulating books of its class. Miss K. had a singular power of viewing the religious rites of savage peoples from their point of view. She was about to undertake another journey, but stopped to nurse Boer prisoners, and _d._ of fever.

KINGSTON, WILLIAM HENRY GILES (1814-1880).--Writer of tales for boys, _b._ in London, but spent much of his youth in Oporto, where his _f._ was a merchant. His first book, _The Circassian Chief_, appeared in 1844. His first book for boys, _Peter the Whaler_, was _pub._ in 1851, and had such success that he retired from business and devoted himself entirely to the production of this kind of literature, in which his popularity was deservedly great; and during 30 years he wrote upwards of 130 tales, including _The Three Midshipmen_ (1862), _The Three Lieutenants_ (1874), _The Three Commanders_ (1875), _The Three Admirals_ (1877), _Digby Heathcote_, etc. He also conducted various papers, including _The Colonist_, and _Colonial Magazine and East India Review_. He was also interested in emigration, volunteering, and various philanthropic schemes. For services in negotiating a commercial treaty with Portugal he received a Portuguese knighthood, and for his literary labours a Government pension.

KIRKLAND, JOSEPH (1830-1894).--Novelist, _b._ in New York State, was a lawyer in Chicago, then served in the war. He is remembered as the author of two very vivid and life-like novels of pioneer life in the Far West, _Illinois Zury_ and _The McVeys_. Other works are _The Captain of Company K._ and _The Story of Chicago_.

KITTO, JOHN (1804-1854).--Biblical scholar, _s._ of a Cornish stonemason, was _b._ at Plymouth. At the age of 12 a fall led to his becoming totally deaf. From poverty and hardship he was rescued by friends, to whom his mental powers had become known, and the means of education were placed within his reach. By these he profited so remarkably that he became a valuable contributor to Biblical scholarship. He travelled much in the East in the pursuit of his favourite studies. Among his works are _Scripture Lands_, _Daily Bible Illustrations_, and _The Lost Senses_ in 2 vols., one dealing with Deafness and the other with Blindness. He also ed. _The Pictorial Bible_, _The Journal of Sacred Literature_, _The Cyclopædia of Bible Literature_, and contributed to various periodicals. He received a pension of £100 from Government. In 1844 the Univ. of Giessen conferred upon him the degree of D.D.

KNIGHT, CHARLES (1791-1873).--Publisher and writer, _b._ at Windsor, where his _f._. was a bookseller. After serving his apprenticeship with him he went to London, and in 1823 started business as a publisher, and co-operated effectively with Brougham and others in connection with The Society for Diffusing Useful Knowledge. He was publisher for the Society, and issued _The Penny Magazine_, _Penny Cyclopædia_, _Pictorial History of England_, etc. He ed. with success _The Pictorial Shakespeare_, and was the author of a vol. of essays, _Once upon a Time_, an autobiography, _Passages from a Working Life_ (1863), a _History of the Thirty Years' Peace_, which was completed by Miss Harriet Martineau, and various other works.

KNIGHT, HENRY GALLY (1786-1846).--A country gentleman of Yorkshire, _ed._ at Eton and Camb., was the author of several Oriental tales, _Ilderim, a Syrian Tale_ (1816), _Phrosyne, a Grecian Tale_, and _Alashtar, an Arabian Tale_ (1817). He was also an authority on architecture, and wrote various works on the subject, including _The Ecclesiastical Architecture of Italy_, and _The Normans in Sicily_, which brought him more reputation than his novels.

KNOLLES, RICHARD (1550?-1610).--Historian, _b._ at Coldashby, Northamptonshire, and _ed._ at Oxf., _pub._ in 1603 _The History of the Turks_, which went through many ed. Its principal value now is as a piece of fine English of its time, for which it is ranked high by Hallam. K. was master of a school at Sandwich. The History was continued by Sir Paul Rycaut (1628-1700).

KNOWLES, HERBERT (1798-1817).--Poet, author of the well-known _Stanzas written in Richmond Churchyard_, which gave promise of future excellence. But he _d._ a few weeks after he had been enabled, through the help of Southey to whom he had sent some of his poems, to go to Camb.

KNOWLES, JAMES SHERIDAN (1784-1862).--Dramatist, _s._ of James K., schoolmaster and lexicographer, was _b._ at Cork. He was the author of a ballad, _The Welsh Harper_, which had great popularity, and gained for him the notice of Hazlitt and others. For some years he studied medicine, which, however, he abandoned for literature, and produced several plays, including _Caius Gracchus_ (1815), _Virginius_ (1820), _The Hunchback_ (1832), and _The Love Chase_ (1837), in some of which he acted. He gave up the stage in 1843, became a preacher in connection with the Baptist communion, and enjoyed great popularity. He _pub._ two polemical works, _The Rock of Rome_, and _The Idol demolished by its own Priests_.

KNOX, JOHN (1505?-1572).--Reformer and historian, was _b._ near Haddington, and _ed._ at the Grammar School there and at Glasgow. He is believed to have had some connection with the family of K. of Ranfurly in Renfrewshire. The year of his birth was long believed to be 1505, but of late some writers have found reason to hold that he was really _b._ some years later, 1510 or even 1513. At Glasgow he was the pupil of John Major (_q.v._), and became distinguished as a disputant. He is believed to have been ordained a priest about 1530, after which he went to St. Andrews and taught. About this time, however, there is a gap of 12 years or more, during which almost nothing is known of his life. About 1545 he came under the influence of George Wishart, who was burned as a heretic at St. Andrews in the following year, and embraced the Reformation principles, of which he became a champion on the Continent, in England, and finally and especially in Scotland. He joined the reforming party in St. Andrews in 1547, and was, much against his will, elected their minister. The next year he was made prisoner, sent to France, and condemned to the galleys, where he remained for nearly two years. For the next five years he was in England, chiefly at Newcastle and Berwick, where he was zealously engaged in propagating and defending the reformed doctrines. On the accession of Mary in 1553 K. escaped to the Continent, where he remained--at Dieppe, Frankfort on the Maine, and Geneva--until 1559. During this period, in addition to his pastoral and ecclesiastical

## activities, he wrote copiously, the best known of his works of that time

being his _First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment [government] of Women_. The first, it proved also the last, as he never produced the other two which he promised or threatened. He finally returned to Scotland in 1559, and was at once the chief actor and the chief narrator of the crowded and pregnant events which culminated in the abdication of Queen Mary and the establishment of Protestantism in Scotland. As minister of the High Church of Edin. K. was at the centre of events, which he probably did more to mould than any other man. As Carlyle says, "He is the one Scotchman to whom, of all others, his country and the world owe a debt." Here, after his long battle with principalities and powers, and spiritual wickedness in high places, his triumphs, and disappointments, after growing weakness and becoming "weary of the world," he _d._ on November 24, 1572. His place in literature he has by virtue of his _Historie of the Reformation in Scotland_. It extends from 1558-67. Its language is much more English than that spoken and written in Scotland at the time. It is of the highest historical value, and in style terse, vigorous, with flashes of a quiet, somewhat saturnine humour, and of vivid description--the writing of a great man of

## action dealing with the events in which he had been the leading actor.

His own figure and that of the Queen are those round which the drama turns. The leading features of his character were courage and intense earnestness. "Here," said the Regent Morton, "lies a man who never feared the face of man." And with all his sternness there was in him a vein of cordial friendliness and humour. He has been accused of intolerance, and of harshness in his dealings with the Queen. But as Carlyle has said, as regards the second accusation, "They are not so coarse, these speeches; they seem to me about as fine as the circumstances would permit. It was unfortunately not possible to be polite with the Queen of Scotland unless one proved untrue to the nation."

_Lives_ by M'Crie (1812), and Prof. Hume Brown (1895). _Works_ ed. by D. Laing.

KNOX, VICESIMUS (1752-1821).--Essayist, etc., _ed._ at Oxf., took orders, and became Head Master of Tunbridge School. He _pub._ _Essays Moral and Literary_ (1778), and compiled the formerly well-known _Elegant Extracts_, often reprinted.

KNOX, WILLIAM (1789-1825).--Poet, _s._ of a farmer in Roxburghshire, wrote several books of poetry, _The Lonely Hearth_, _Songs of Israel_, _Harp of Zion_, etc., which gained him the friendship of Scott. He fell into dissipated habits, was latterly a journalist in Edin., and _d._ at 36.

KYD, THOMAS (1558-1595).--Dramatist, _s._ of a London scrivener, _ed._ at Merchant Taylor's School, appears to have led the life of hardship so common with the dramatists of his time, was for a short time imprisoned for "treasonable and Atheistic views," and made translations from the French and Italian. His drama, _The Spanish Tragedy_ (1594), had extraordinary popularity, and was translated into Dutch and German. Some of the scenes are believed to have been contributed by another hand, probably by Ben Jonson. He also produced a play on the story of Hamlet, not now in existence, and he may have written the first draft of _Titus Andronicus_. Other plays which have been attributed to him are _The First Part of Jeronimo_ (1605), _Cornelia_ (1594), _The Rare Triumphs of Love and Fortune_, and _The Tragedye of Solyman and Perseda_ (1599). But, although one of the best known dramatists in his day, very little is now certain either as to his personal history or his works.

LAIDLAW, WILLIAM (1780-1845).--Poet, _s._ of a border farmer, became steward and amanuensis to Sir W. Scott, and was the author of the beautiful and well-known ballad, _Lucy's Flittin'_.

LAING, DAVID (1793-1878).--Antiquary, _s._ of a bookseller in Edin., with whom he was in partnership until his appointment, in 1837, as librarian of the Signet Library. He ed. many of the publications of the Bannatyne Club, of which he was sec. (1823-61). He was also Honorary Prof. of Antiquities to the Royal Scottish Academy. Among the more important works which he ed. were _Baillie's Letters and Journals_ (1841-2), _John Knox's Works_ (1846-64), and the poems of Sir D. Lyndsay, Dunbar, and Henryson.

LAING, MALCOLM (1762-1818).--Was a country gentleman in Orkney. He completed Henry's _History of Great Britain_, and wrote a _History of Scotland from the Union of the Crowns to the Union of the Kingdoms_ (1802). He was an assailant of the authenticity of the Ossianic poems, and wrote a dissertation on the Participation of Mary Queen of Scots in the Murder of Darnley. He did much to improve the agriculture of Orkney.

LAMB, LADY CAROLINE (1785-1828).--Novelist, _dau._ of 3rd Earl of Bessborough, _m._ the Hon. William Lamb, afterwards Lord Melbourne and Prime Minister. She wrote three novels, which, though of little literary value, attracted much attention. The first of these, _Glenarvon_ (1816), contained a caricature portrait of Lord Byron, with whom the authoress had shortly before been infatuated. It was followed by _Graham Hamilton_ (1822), and _Ada Reis_ (1823). Happening to meet the hearse conveying the remains of Byron, she became unconscious, and fell into mental alienation, from which she never recovered.

LAMB, CHARLES (1775-1834).--Essayist and poet, was _b._ in London, his _f._ being confidential clerk to Samuel Salt, one of the benchers of the Inner Temple. After being at a school in the neighbourhood, he was sent by the influence of Mr. Salt to Christ's Hospital, where he remained from 1782-89, and where he formed a lifelong friendship with Coleridge. He was then for a year or two in the South Sea House, where his elder brother John was a clerk. Thence he was in 1792 transferred to the India House, where he remained until 1825, when he retired with a pension of two-thirds of his salary. Mr. Salt _d._ in 1792, and the family, consisting of the _f._, mother, Charles, and his sister Mary, ten years his senior, lived together in somewhat straitened circumstances. John, comparatively well off, leaving them pretty much to their own resources. In 1796 the tragedy of L.'s life occurred. His sister Mary, in a sudden fit of insanity, killed her mother with a table-knife. Thenceforward, giving up a marriage to which he was looking forward, he devoted himself to the care of his unfortunate sister, who became, except when separated from him by periods of aberration, his lifelong and affectionate companion--the "Cousin Bridget" of his essays. His first literary appearance was a contribution of four sonnets to Coleridge's _Poems on Various Subjects_ (1796). Two years later he _pub._, along with his friend Charles Lloyd, _Blank Verse_, the little vol. including _The Old Familiar Faces_, and others of his best known poems, and his romance, _Rosamund Gray_, followed in the same year. He then turned to the drama, and produced _John Woodvil_, a tragedy, and _Mr. H._, a farce, both failures, for although the first had some echo of the Elizabethan music, it had no dramatic force. Meantime the brother and sister were leading a life clouded by poverty and by the anxieties arising from the condition of the latter, and they moved about from one lodging to another. L.'s literary ventures so far had not yielded much either in money or fame, but in 1807 he was asked by W. Godwin (_q.v._) to assist him in his "Juvenile Library," and to this he, with the assistance of his sister, contributed the now famous _Tales from Shakespeare_, Charles doing the tragedies and Mary the comedies. In 1808 they wrote, again for children, _The Adventures of Ulysses_, a version of the _Odyssey, Mrs. Leicester's School_, and _Poetry for Children_ (1809). About the same time he was commissioned by Longman to ed. selections from the Elizabethan dramatists. To the selections were added criticisms, which at once brought him the reputation of being one of the most subtle and penetrating critics who had ever touched the subject. Three years later his extraordinary power in this department was farther exhibited in a series of papers on Hogarth and Shakespeare, which appeared in Hunt's _Reflector_. In 1818 his scattered contributions in prose and verse were _coll._ as _The Works of Charles Lamb_, and the favour with which they were received led to his being asked to contribute to the _London Magazine_ the essays on which his fame chiefly rests. The name "Elia" under which they were written was that of a fellow-clerk in the India House. They appeared from 1820-25. The first series was printed in 1823, the second, _The Last Essays of Elia_, in 1833. In 1823 the L.'s had left London and taken a cottage at Islington, and had practically adopted Emma Isola, a young orphan, whose presence brightened their lives until her marriage in 1833 to E. Moxon, the publisher. In 1825 L. retired, and lived at Enfield and Edmonton. But his health was impaired, and his sister's attacks of mental alienation were ever becoming more frequent and of longer duration. During one of his walks he fell, slightly hurting his face. The wound developed into erysipelas, and he _d._ on December 29, 1834. His sister survived until 1847.

The place of L. as an essayist and critic is the very highest. His only rival in the former department is Addison, but in depth and tenderness of feeling, and richness of fancy L. is the superior. In the realms of criticism there can be no comparison between the two. L. is here at once profound and subtle, and his work led as much as any other influence to the revival of interest in and appreciation of our older poetry. His own writings, which are self-revealing in a quite unusual and always charming way, and the recollections of his friends, have made the personality of Lamb more familiar to us than any other in our literature, except that of Johnson. His weaknesses, his oddities, his charm, his humour, his stutter, are all as familiar to his readers as if they had known him, and the tragedy and noble self-sacrifice of his life add a feeling of reverence for a character we already love.

Life and Letters and Final Memorials by Talfourd, also Memoir by B.W. Proctor and A. Ainger prefixed to ed. of _Works_ (1883-88). Life, Works, and Letters of Charles and Mary Lamb, in 9 vols., E.V. Lucas, and 12 vols. ed. W. Macdonald.

LANDON, LETITIA ELIZABETH (1802-1838).--Poetess, _dau._ of an army agent, was _b._ in London. She was a prolific and, in her day, remarkably popular writer, but she wrote far too easily and far too much for permanent fame. Many of her poems appeared in the _Literary Gazette_, and similar publications, but she _pub._ separately _The Fate of Adelaide_ (1821), _The Improvisatrice_ (1824), _The Troubadour_ (1825), _The Venetian Bracelet_ (1829), etc. She also wrote a few novels, of which _Ethel Churchill_ was the best, and a tragedy _Castruccio Castracani_ (1837). She _m._ a Mr. Maclean, Governor of one of the West African Colonies, where, shortly after her arrival, she was found dead from the effects of an overdose of poison, which it was supposed she had taken as a relief from spasms to which she was subject. She was best known by her initials, L.E.L., under which she was accustomed to write.

LANDOR, WALTER SAVAGE (1775-1864).--Poet and miscellaneous author, _s._ of a physician, was _b._ at Ipsley Court, Warwick, the property of his mother, and _ed._ at Rugby and Oxf., where he earned the nickname of "the mad Jacobin," and whence he was rusticated. His whole long life thereafter was a series of quarrels, extravagances, and escapades of various kinds, the result of his violent prejudices, love of paradox, and ungovernable temper. He quarrelled with his _f._, his wife, most of his relations, and nearly all his friends, ran through a large fortune, and ended his days in Italy supported by a pension granted by his brothers. Yet he was not devoid of strong affections and generosity. His earliest publication was _Poems_ (1795); _Gebir_ (1798), an epic, had little success, but won for him the friendship of Southey. In 1808 he went to Spain to take part in the war against Napoleon, and saw some service. His first work to attract attention was his powerful tragedy of _Don Julian_ (1811). About the same time he _m._ Miss Julia Thuillier--mainly, as would appear, on account of her "wonderful golden hair"--and purchased the estate of Llantony Abbey, Monmouthshire, whence, after various quarrels with the local authorities, he went to France. After a residence of a year there, he went in 1815 to Italy, where he lived until 1818 at Como, which, having insulted the authorities in a Latin poem, he had to leave. At Florence, which was his residence for some years, he commenced his famous _Imaginary Conversations_, of which the first two vols. appeared 1824, the third 1828, fourth and fifth 1829. Other works were _The Examination of W. Shakespeare touching Deer-stealing_ (1834), _Pericles and Aspasia_ (1836), _Pentameron_ (1837), _Hellenics_ (1847), and _Poemata et Inscriptiones_ (1847). He quarrelled finally with his wife in 1835, and returned to England, which, however, he had to leave in 1858 on account of an action for libel arising out of a book, _Dry Sticks Fagoted_. He went to Italy, where he remained, chiefly at Florence, until his death. L. holds one of the highest places among the writers of English prose. His thoughts are striking and brilliant, and his style rich and dignified.

_Works_ ed. C.G. Crump, 10 vols.

LANE, EDWARD WILLIAM (1801-1876).--Arabic scholar, _s._ of a prebendary of Hereford, where he was _b._, began life as an engraver, but going to Egypt in search of health, devoted himself to the study of Oriental languages and manners, and adopted the dress and habits of the Egyptian man of learning. He _pub._ _Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians_ (1836), which remains a standard authority, and a translation of _The Thousand and One Nights_ (1838-40) (Arabian Nights). What was intended to be the great work of his life, his _Arabic Lexicon_, was left unfinished at his death, but was completed by his nephew, Prof. S.L. Poole. L. was regarded as the chief European Orientalist of his day.

LANGHORNE, JOHN (1735-1779).--Poet, _s._ of a clergyman, was _b._ at Kirkby Stephen; having taken orders, he was for two years a curate in London, and from 1776 Rector of Blagdon, Somerset, and Prebendary of Wells. He is chiefly remembered as being the translator, jointly with his brother, Rev. William L., of _Plutarch's Lives_, but in his day he had some reputation as a poet, his chief work in poetry being _Studley Park_ and _Fables of Flora_. In his _Country Justice_ (1774-77) he dimly foreshadows Crabbe, as in his descriptive poems he dimly foreshadows Wordsworth. He was twice married, and both of his wives _d._ in giving birth to a first child.

LANGLAND, WILLIAM (OR WILLIAM of LANGLEY) (1330?-1400?).--Poet. Little can be gleaned as to his personal history, and of that little part is contradictory. In a note of the 15th century written on one MS. he is said to have been _b._ in Oxfordshire, the _s._ of a freeman named Stacy de Rokayle, while Bale, writing in the 16th century, makes his name Robert (certainly an error), and says he was _b._ at Cleobury Mortimer in Shropshire. From his great poem, _Piers the Plowman_, it is to be gathered that he was bred to the Church, and was at one time an inmate of the monastery at Great Malvern. He _m._, however, and had a _dau._, which, of course, precluded him from going on to the priesthood. It has further been inferred from his poem that his f., with the help of friends, sent him to school, but that on the death of these friends the process of education came to an end, and he went to London, living in a little house in Cornhill and, as he says, not only _in_ but _on_ London, supporting himself by singing _requiems_ for the dead. "The tools I labour with ... [are] _Paternoster_, and my primer _Placebo_, and _Dirige_, and my _Psalter_, and my seven Psalms." References to legal terms suggest that he may have copied for lawyers. In later life he appears to have lived in Cornwall with his wife and _dau._ Poor himself, he was ever a sympathiser with the poor and oppressed. His poem appears to have been the great interest of his life, and almost to the end he was altering and adding to, without, however, improving it. The full title of the poem is _The Vision of Piers Plowman_. Three distinct versions of it exist, the first _c._ 1362, the second _c._ 1377, and the third 1393 or 1398. It has been described as "a vision of Christ seen through the clouds of humanity." It is divided into nine dreams, and is in the unrhymed, alliterative, first English manner. In the allegory appear such personifications as Meed (worldly success), Falsehood, Repentance, Hope, etc. Piers Plowman, first introduced as the type of the poor and simple, becomes gradually transformed into the Christ. Further on appear Do-well, Do-bet, Do-best. In this poem, and its additions, L. was able to express all that he had to say of the abuses of the time, and their remedy. He himself stands out as a sad, earnest, and clear-sighted onlooker in a time of oppression and unrest. It is thought that he may have been the author of a poem, _Richard the Redeless_: if so he was, at the time of writing, living in Bristol, and making a last remonstrance to the misguided King, news of whose death may have reached him while at the work, as it stops in the middle of a paragraph. He is not much of an artist, being intent rather on delivering his message than that it should be in a perfect dress. Prof. Manley, in the _Cambridge History of English Literature_, advances the theory that _The Vision_ is not the work of one, but of several writers, W.L. being therefore a dramatic, not a personal name. It is supported on such grounds as differences in metre, diction, sentence structure, and the diversity of view on social and ecclesiastic matters expressed in different parts of the poem.

LANIER, SIDNEY (1842-1881).--Miscellaneous writer, _s._ of a lawyer of Huguenot descent, was _b._ at Macon, Georgia. He had a varied career, having been successively soldier, shopman, teacher, lawyer, musician, and prof. His first literary venture was a novel, _Tiger Lilies_ (1867). Thereafter he wrote mainly on literature, his works including _The Science of English Verse_ (1881), _The English Novel_ (1883), and _Shakespeare and his Forerunners_ (1902); also some poems which have been greatly admired, including "Corn," "The Marshes of Glynn," and "The Song of the Chattahoochee"; ed. of Froissart, and the Welsh _Mabinogion_ for children. He worked under the shadow of serious lung trouble, which eventually brought about his death.

LARDNER, DIONYSIUS (1793-1859).--Scientific writer, _s._ of a solicitor in Dublin, and _b._ there, was intended for the law, but having no taste for it, he entered Trinity Coll., Dublin, and took orders, but devoted himself to literary and scientific pursuits, and became a contributor to the _Edinburgh Review_, and various Encyclopædias. In 1827 he was appointed Prof. of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in the Univ. of London (afterwards Univ. Coll.), and in 1829 began his great work, _The Cabinet Cyclopædia_, which was finished in 133 vols. 20 years later. In his literary undertakings, which included various other schemes of somewhat similar character, he was eminently successful, financially and otherwise. He lived in Paris from 1845 until his death.

LATIMER, HUGH (1485-1555).--Reformer and divine, _s._ of a Leicestershire yeoman, went to Camb. in 1500, and became Fellow of Clare Hall. Taking orders, he was at first a defender of the ancient faith, but convinced by the arguments of Bilney, embraced the reformed doctrines. He was called to appear before Wolsey, but dismissed on subscribing certain articles. His opposition to the Pope, and his support of the King's supremacy, brought him under the notice of Henry, and he was appointed chaplain to Anne Boleyn, and in 1535 Bishop of Worcester. For preaching in favour of the reformed doctrines he was twice imprisoned in the Tower, 1539 and 1546, and on the former occasion resigned his bishopric, which he declined to resume on the accession of Edward VI. On the accession of Mary he was with Ridley, Bishop of London, thrown into prison (1554), and on October 16, 1555, burned at Oxf. His words of encouragement to his fellow-martyr are well known, "Be of good comfort, Master Ridley, and play the man; we shall this day light such a candle by God's grace in England as I trust shall never be put out." He holds his place in English literature by virtue of his sermons--especially that on _The Ploughers_--which, like himself, are outspoken, homely, and popular, with frequent touches of kindly humour.

LAUDER, SIR THOMAS DICK (1784-1848).--Novelist and miscellaneous writer, _s._ of a Scottish baronet, wrote two novels, _Lochandhu_ (1825), and _The Wolf of Badenoch_ (1827), but is best known for his _Account of the Great Floods in Morayshire in 1829_. He also wrote _Legendary Tales of the Highlands_, and contributed to scientific journals and magazines.

LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761).--Divine, _s._ of a grocer at Kingscliffe, Northamptonshire, was _ed._ at Camb., and in 1727 became tutor to the _f._ of Edward Gibbon, the historian. About 1728 he _pub._ his best known book, _A Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life_, a work which has had a profound influence upon the religious life of England, largely owing to the impression which it produced upon such minds as those of Dr. Johnson, the Wesleys, and others. In 1737 he became a student of the works of Jacob Boehmen, the German mystic, and devoted himself largely to the exposition of his views. The theological position of L. was a complicated one, combining High Churchism, mysticism, and Puritanism: his writings are characterised by vigorous thought, keen logic, and a lucid and brilliant style, relieved by flashes of bright, and often sarcastic, humour. His work attacking Mandeville's _Fable of the Bees_ (1723) is perhaps that in which these qualities are best displayed in combination. He retired in 1740 to Kingscliffe, where he had founded a school for 14 girls.

LAWRENCE, GEORGE ALFRED (1827-1876).--Novelist, was a barrister. He wrote several novels, of which one--_Guy Livingstone_ (1857)--had great popularity. On the outbreak of the American Civil War he went to America with the intention of joining the Confederate Army, but was taken prisoner and only released on promising to return to England.

LAYAMON (_fl._ 1200).--Metrical historian, the _s._ of Leovenath. All that is known of him is gathered from his own writings. He was a priest at Ernley (now Areley Regis), Worcestershire. In his day the works of Geoffrey of Monmouth and Wace, in French, were the favourite reading of the educated, and "it came to him in mind" that he would tell the story of _Brut_ in English verse. He set out in search of books and, founding his poem on the earlier writers, he added so much from his own knowledge of Welsh and West of England tradition that while Wace's poem consists of 15,000 lines, his extends to 32,000. Among the legends he gives are those of _Locrine_, _Arthur_, and _Lear_. The poem is in the old English unrhymed, alliterative verse, and "marks the revival of the English mind and spirit."

LAYARD, SIR AUSTIN HENRY (1817-1894).--Explorer of Nineveh, _b._ at Paris, _s._ of a Ceylon civilian. After spending some years in the office of a London solicitor, he set out in search of employment in Ceylon, but passing through Western Asia, became interested in the work of excavating the remains of ancient cities. Many of his finds--human-headed bulls, etc.--were sent to the British Museum. Two books--_Nineveh and its Remains_ (1848-49), and _The Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon_ (1853)--brought him fame, and on his return home he received many honours, including the freedom of the City of London, the degree of D.C.L. from Oxf., and the Lord Rectorship of Aberdeen Univ. He entered Parliament, where he sat as a Liberal. He held the offices of Under-Foreign Sec. (1861-66), and Chief Commissioner of Works (1868-69), and was Ambassador to Spain 1869, and Constantinople 1877; and on his retirement in 1878 he was made G.C.B. He was a very successful excavator, and described his work brilliantly, but he was no great linguist, and most of the deciphering of the inscriptions was done by Sir H. Rawlinson. His last work was _Early Adventures in Persia, etc._, and he left an autobiography, _pub._ in 1903. He also wrote on Italian art.

LEAR, EDWARD (1812-1888).--Artist and miscellaneous author, _b._ in London, and settled in Rome as a landscape painter. He was an indefatigable traveller, and wrote accounts, finely illustrated, of his journeys in Italy, Greece, and Corsica. His best known works are, however, his _Book of Nonsense_ (1840) (full of wit and _good_ sense), _More Nonsense Rhymes_ (1871), and _Laughable Lyrics_ (1876). L. had also a remarkable faculty for depicting birds.

LECKY, WILLIAM EDWARD HARTPOLE (1838-1903).--Historian, the _s._ of a landed gentleman of Carlow, was _b._ near Dublin, and _ed._ at Cheltenham and Trinity Coll., Dublin. Originally intended for the Church, he devoted himself to a literary career. His first work of importance was _Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland_ (1861) (essays on Swift, Flood, Grattan, and O'Connell). The study of Buckle's _History of Civilisation_ to some extent determined the direction of his own writings, and resulted in the production of two important works, _History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe_ (1865), and _History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne_ (1869), both remarkable for learning, clearness, and impartiality. Both, however, gave rise to considerable controversy and criticism. His principal work is _The History of England in the Eighteenth Century_ (1878-90). Characterised by the same sterling qualities as his preceding books, it deals with a subject more generally interesting, and has had a wide acceptance. His view of the American war, and the controversies which led to it, is more favourable to the English position than that of some earlier historians. Other works are _Democracy and Liberty_ (1896), and _The Map of Life_ (1899). Though of warm Irish sympathies, L. was strongly opposed to Home Rule. He sat in Parliament for his Univ. from 1895 until his death. He received many academical distinctions, and was a Corresponding Member of the Institute of France, and one of the original members of the Order of Merit.

LEE, NATHANIEL (1653?-1692).--Dramatist, _s._ of a clergyman at Hatfield, was _ed._ at Westminster School and Camb. After leaving the Univ. he went to London, and joined the stage both as actor and author. He was taken up by Rochester and others of the same dissolute set, led a loose life, and drank himself into Bedlam, where he spent four years. After his recovery he lived mainly upon charity, and met his death from a fall under the effects of a carouse. His tragedies, which, with much bombast and frequent untrained flights of imagination, have occasional fire and tenderness, are generally based on classical subjects. The principal are _The Rival Queens_, _Theodosius_, and _Mithridates_. He also wrote a few comedies, and collaborated with Dryden in an adaptation of _Oedipus_, and in _The Duke of Guise_.

LEE, SOPHIA (1750-1824), LEE, HARRIET (1757-1851).--Novelists and dramatists, _dau._ of John L., an actor, were the authors of various dramatic pieces and novels. By far their most memorable work was _The Canterbury Tales_, 5 vols. (1797-1805) which, with the exception of two, _The Young Lady's_ and _The Clergyman's_, were all by Harriet. The most powerful of them, _Kruitzner_, fell into the hands of Byron in his boyhood, and made so profound an impression upon him that, in 1821, he dramatised it under the title of _Werner, or the Inheritance_. The authoress also adapted it for the stage as _The Three Strangers_. The tales are in general remarkable for the ingenuity of their plots. Harriet lived to the age of 94, preserving to the last her vigour of mind and powers of conversation. Godwin made her an offer of marriage to which, however, his religious opinions presented an insuperable barrier. Sophia's chief work was _The Chapter of Accidents_, a comedy, which had a great run, the profits of which enabled the sisters to start a school at Bath, which proved very successful, and produced for them a competence on which they were able to retire in their later years.

LE FANU, JOSEPH SHERIDAN (1814-1873).--Novelist, _s._ of a Dean of the Episcopal Church of Ireland, and grand-nephew of Richard Brinsley Sheridan, was _ed._ at Trinity Coll., Dublin, and became a contributor and ultimately proprietor of the _Dublin University Magazine_, in which many of his novels made their first appearance. Called to the Bar in 1839, he did not practise, and was first brought into notice by two ballads, _Phaudrig Croohoore_ and _Shamus O'Brien_, which had extraordinary popularity. His novels, of which he wrote 12, include _The Cock and Anchor_ (1845), _Torlough O'Brien_ (1847), _The House by the Churchyard_ (1863), _Uncle Silas_ (perhaps the most popular) (1864), _The Tenants of Malory_ (1867), _In a Glass Darkly_ (1872), and _Willing to Die_ (posthumously). They are generally distinguished by able construction, ingenuity of plot, and power in the presentation of the mysterious and supernatural. Among Irish novelists he is generally ranked next to Lever.

LEIGHTON, ROBERT (1611-1684).--Divine, was the _s._ of Alexander L., physician, and writer on theology, who, on account of his anti-prelatic books, was put in the pillory, fined, and had his nose slit and his ears cut off. Robert was _ed._ at Edin., after which he resided for some time at Douay. Returning to Scotland he received Presbyterian ordination, and was admitted minister of Newbattle, near Edin. In 1653 he was appointed Principal and Prof. of Divinity in the Univ. of Edin., which offices he held until 1662 when, having separated himself from Presbyterianism, he was appointed Bishop of Dunblane, under the new Episcopal establishment. He repeatedly but unsuccessfully endeavoured to bring about an ecclesiastical union in Scotland on the basis of combining the best elements in each system. Discouraged by his lack of success in his well-meant efforts, he offered in 1665 to resign his see, but was persuaded by Charles II. to remain in it, and in 1669 was promoted to be Archbishop of Glasgow, from which position, wearied and disappointed, he finally retired in 1674, and lived with his widowed sister, Mrs. Lightmaker, at Broadhurst Manor, Sussex. On a visit to London he was seized with a fatal illness, and _d._ in the arms of his friend, Bishop Burnet, who says of him, "he had the greatest elevation of soul, the largest compass of knowledge, the most mortified and heavenly disposition that I ever saw in mortal." His sermons and commentaries, all _pub._ posthumously, maintain a high place among English religious classics, alike for thought and style. They consist of his _Commentary on St. Peter_, _Sermons_, and _Spiritual Exercises, Letters, etc._ His _Lectures and Addresses_ in Latin were also _pub._

LELAND, CHARLES GODFREY (1824-1903).--American humorist, _b._ at Philadelphia, was _ed._ at Princeton, and in Europe. In his travels he made a study of the gipsies, on whom he wrote more than one book. His fame rests chiefly on his _Hans Breitmann Ballads_ (1871), written in the _patois_ known as Pennsylvania Dutch. Other books of his are _Meister Karl's Sketch-book_ (1855), _Legends of Birds_ (1864), _Algonquin Legends_ (1884), _Legends of Florence_ (1895), and _Flaxius, or Leaves from the Life of an Immortal_.

LELAND or LEYLAND, JOHN (1506-1552).--Antiquary, _b._ in London, and _ed._ at St. Paul's School and at Camb., Oxf., and Paris. He was a good linguist, and one of the first Englishmen to acquire Greek, and he was likewise acquainted with French, Italian, Spanish, Welsh, and Anglo-Saxon. He became chaplain and librarian to Henry VIII., from whom he received the Rectory of Poppeling, near Calais, and in 1533 the appointment of King's Antiquary. Soon afterwards he was permitted to do his work in France by deputy, and was commissioned to go over England in search of documents and antiquities; and on the strength of this made his famous tour, which lasted for about six years. He was able to do something to stem the destruction of manuscripts on the dissolution of the monasteries, and made vast collections of documents and information regarding the monuments and general features of the country, which, however, he was unable fully to digest and set in order. They formed, nevertheless, an almost inexhaustible quarry in which succeeding workers in the same field, such as Stow, Camden, and Dugdale, wrought. In his last years he was insane, and hence none of his collections appeared in his lifetime. His _Itinerary_ was, however, at length _pub._ by T. Hearne in 9 vols. (1710-12), and his _Collectanea_ in 6 vols. (1715).

LEMON, MARK (1809-1870).--Journalist and humorist, _b._ in London, wrote many theatrical pieces, and a few novels, of which the best is _Falkner Lyle_, others being _Leyton Hall_, and _Loved at Last_. He also wrote stories for children, lectured and gave public readings, and contributed to various periodicals. He is best known as one of the founders and, from 1843 until his death, the ed. of _Punch_. His _Jest Book_ appeared in 1864.

LENNOX, CHARLOTTE (RAMSAY) (1720-1804).--Was _b._ in New York, of which her _f._, Colonel Ramsay, was Governor. She wrote a novel, _The Female Quixote_ (1752), which had considerable vogue in its day. Her other writings--novels, translations, and a play--are now forgotten. She was befriended by Dr. Johnson. Mrs. Thrale (_q.v._) said that "everybody admired Mrs. L., but nobody liked her."

LESLIE, or LESLEY, JOHN (1527-1596).--Historian, studied at Aberdeen and Paris, at the former of which he became, in 1562, Prof. of Canon Law. He was a Privy Councillor 1565, and Bishop of Ross 1566, and was the confidential friend of Queen Mary, who made him her ambassador to Queen Elizabeth. He was thrown into the Tower for his share in promoting a marriage between Mary and the Duke of Norfolk, whence being released on condition of leaving England, he went first to Paris and then to Rome, where he busied himself on behalf of his mistress. He became Vicar-General of the diocese of Rouen in 1579, and _d._ at the monastery of Guirtenburg near Brussels. While in England he wrote in Scots vernacular his _History of Scotland_ from the death of James I. (where Boece left off) to his own time. At Rouen he rewrote and expanded it in Latin (1575), from which it was re-translated into Scots by James Dalrymple in 1596.

L'ESTRANGE, SIR ROGER (1616-1704).--Journalist and pamphleteer, youngest _s._ of a Norfolk baronet, was probably at Camb., and in 1638 took arms for the King. Six years later he was captured, imprisoned in Newgate, and condemned to death. He, however, escaped, endeavoured to make a rising in Kent, and had to flee to Holland, where he was employed in the service of Charles II. On receiving a pardon from Cromwell he returned to England in 1653. In view of the Restoration he was active in writing on behalf of monarchy, and in 1663 _pub._ _Considerations and Proposals in order to Regulating of the Press_, for which he was appointed Surveyor of Printing-Presses and Licenser of the Press, and received a grant of the sole privilege of printing public news. His first newspaper, _The Intelligencer_, appeared in the same year, and was followed by _The News_ and the _City Mercury, or Advertisements concerning Trade_. Thereafter his life was spent in ed. newspapers and writing political pamphlets in support of the Court and against the Whigs and Dissenters. In 1685 he was knighted. His controversies repeatedly got him into trouble, and after the Revolution he lost his appointments, and was more than once imprisoned. In addition to his political writings he translated _Æsop's Fables_, Seneca's _Morals_, and Cicero's _Offices_. His _Æsop_ contains much from other authors, including himself. In his writings he was lively and vigorous but coarse and abusive.

LEVER, CHARLES JAMES (1806-1872).--Novelist, _b._ at Dublin, and _ed._ at Trinity Coll. there. He studied medicine at Göttingen, and practised at various places in Ireland. In 1837 he contributed to the _Dublin University Magazine_ his first novel, _Harry Lorrequer_, and the immediate and wide acceptance which it found decided him to devote himself to literature. He accordingly followed it with _Charles O'Malley_ (1840), his most popular book. After this scarcely a year passed without an addition to the list of his light-hearted, breezy, rollicking stories, among which may be mentioned _Jack Hinton_ (1842), _Tom Burke of Ours_, _Arthur O'Leary_, and _The Dodd Family Abroad_. _The O'Donoghue_ and _The Knight of Gwynne_ (1847) are more in the nature of historical romances. In 1864 he contributed to _Blackwood's Magazine_ a series of miscellaneous papers, _Cornelius O'Dowd on Men, Women, and Things in General_. L.'s life was largely spent abroad. After practising his profession in Brussels 1840-42 he returned to Dublin to ed. the _Dublin University Magazine_, which he did until 1845, after which he went to Italy, settled at Florence, and thereafter was British Consul successively at Spezzia and Trieste, at the latter of which he _d._ He continued to produce novels up to the end of his life. Among the later ones are _Sir Brooke Fosbrooke_, _The Bramleighs of Bishop's Folly_, and _Lord Kilgobbin_ (1872).

LEWES, GEORGE HENRY (1817-1878).--Philosopher and miscellaneous writer, _b._ in London, and _ed._ at Greenwich, and in Jersey and Brittany. His early life was varied; he tried law, commerce, and medicine successively, and was then for two years in Germany, on returning from which he tried the London stage, and eventually settled down to journalism, writing for the _Morning Chronicle_, for the _Penny Encyclopædia_, and various periodicals. Thereafter he ed. the _Leader_ (1851-54), and the _Fortnightly Review_ (which he founded) (1865-66). His articles deal with an extraordinary variety of subjects--criticism, the drama, biography, and science, both physical and mental. His chief works are _The History of Philosophy from Thales to Comte_, _Comte's Philosophy of the Sciences_ (1853), _The Psychology of Common Life_ (1859), _Studies in Animal Life_ (1862), _Problems of Life and Mind_ (1873-79). L. was an exceptionally able dramatic critic, and in this department he produced _Actors and the Art of Acting_ (1875), and a book on the Spanish Drama. By far his greatest work, however, is his _Life and Works of Goethe_ (1855), which remains the standard English work on the subject, and which by the end of the century had, in its German translation, passed into 16 ed. He also wrote two novels, _Ranthorpe_ (1847), and _Rose, Blanche, and Violet_ (1848), neither of which attained any success. In his writings he is frequently brilliant and original; but his education and training, whether in philosophy or biology, were not sufficiently thorough to give him a place as a master in either. L.'s life was in its latter section influenced by his irregular connection with Miss Evans ("George Eliot"), with whom he lived for the last 24 years of it, in close intellectual sympathy. To his appreciation and encouragement were largely due her taking up prose fiction.

LEWIS, SIR GEORGE CORNEWALL (1806-1863).--Scholar and statesman, _s._ of Sir Thomas F.L., a Radnorshire baronet, was _ed._ at Eton and Oxf. He studied law, was called to the Bar in 1831, and entered Parliament in 1847, where his intellect and character soon gained him great influence. After serving on various important commissions and holding minor offices, he became Chancellor of the Exchequer 1855-58, Home Sec. 1859-61, and War Sec. 1861-63. His official labours did not prevent his entering into profound and laborious studies, chiefly in regard to Roman history, and the state of knowledge among the ancients. In his _Inquiry into the Credibility of Ancient Roman History_ (1855), he combated the methods and results of Niebuhr. Other works are _On the Use and Abuse of Political Terms_, _Authority in Matters of Opinion_, _The Astronomy of the Ancients_, and a _Dialogue on the best Form of Government_. The somewhat sceptical turn of his mind led him to sift evidence minutely, and the labour involved in his wide range of severe study and his public duties no doubt shortened his valuable life.

LEWIS, MATTHEW GREGORY (1775-1818).--Novelist, _s._ of Matthew L., Deputy Sec. in the War Office, was _ed._ at Westminster and Oxf. Thereafter he went to Germany. From his childhood tales of witchcraft and the supernatural had a powerful fascination for him, and in Germany he had ample opportunities for pursuing his favourite study, with the result that at the age of 20 he became the author of _The Monk_, a tale in which the supernatural and the horrible predominate to an unprecedented extent, and from which he is known as "Monk L." The same characteristic appears in all his works, among which may be mentioned _Tales of Terror_ (1779), _Tales of Wonder_ (to which Sir W. Scott contributed), and _Romantic Tales_ (1808). Though affected and extravagant in his manners, L. was not wanting in kindly and generous feelings, and in fact an illness contracted on a voyage to the West Indies to inquire into and remedy some grievances of the slaves on his estates there was the cause of his death.

LEYDEN, JOHN (1775-1811).--Poet and Orientalist, _b._ at Denholm, Roxburghshire, gave early evidence of superior ability, and his _f._, who was a shepherd, destined him for the Church. He accordingly entered the Univ. of Edin., where he had a brilliant career, showing a special aptitude for languages and natural history. In 1800 he became a licentiate of the Church, but continued his scientific and linguistic studies, and also began to write. In 1799 he had _pub._ a sketch of the _Discoveries and Settlements of the Europeans in Northern and Western Africa_, and he contributed to Scott's _Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border_, and to "Monk" Lewis's _Tales of Wonder_. His enthusiasm for Oriental learning led to application being made on his behalf to Government for some situation which would make his acquirements available for the public service, but the only opening which could be obtained was that of a ship's surgeon. By extraordinary exertions L. qualified himself for this in a few months, and set sail for the East, after finishing his poem, _Scenes of Infancy_. Soon after his arrival at Madras his health gave way, and after some time passed in Prince of Wales Island he visited the Malay Peninsula, and some of the East Indian Islands, collecting vast stores of linguistic and ethnographical information, on which was founded his great _Dissertation on the Indo-Persian, Indo-Chinese, and Dekkan Languages_ (1807). Soon after this L. was appointed a prof. in the Bengal Coll., and a little later a judge in Calcutta. In 1811 he accompanied the Governor-General, Lord Minto, to Java. His health, however, had been undermined by his almost super-human exertions, and immediately after landing he contracted a fever, of which he _d._ in three days at the early age of 36. Two Oriental works translated by him, _Sejârah Malâyu_ (Malay Annals) and _Commentaries of Baber_ were _pub._ respectively in 1821 and 1826.

LIDDELL, HENRY GEORGE (1811-1898).--Historian, etc. _Ed._ at Charterhouse and Christ Church, Oxf., of which in 1855 he became Dean. He wrote a _History of Ancient Rome_ (1855), and, along with R. Scott, _pub._ a _Greek-English Lexicon_ (1843).

LIDDON, HENRY PARRY (1829-1890).--Divine, _s._ of a captain in the navy, was _b._ at North Stoneham, Hants, and _ed._ at King's Coll. School, London, and Oxf. He took orders 1853, was Vice-Principal of Cuddesdon Theological Coll. 1854-59, Prebendary of Salisbury 1864, and Canon of St. Paul's 1870. He was also Ireland Prof. of Exegesis at Oxf. 1870-82. In 1866 he delivered his Bampton Lectures on _The Divinity of Our Lord_, and came to be recognised as one of the ablest and most eloquent representatives of the High Church party. His sermons in St. Paul's were among the leading features of the religious life of London. L. was an ardent protagonist in the various controversies of his time bearing upon ecclesiastical and moral questions.

LIGHTFOOT, JOSEPH BARBER (1828-1889).--Theologian and scholar, _b._ at Liverpool, and _ed._ at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and Camb., entered the Church, and was successively Hulsean Prof. of Divinity 1861, Chaplain to Queen Victoria 1862, member of the New Testament Company of Revisers 1870-80, Margaret Prof. of Divinity, Camb., 1875, and Bishop of Durham 1879. He was probably the greatest scholar of his day in England, especially as a grammarian and textual critic. Among his works are _Commentaries_ on several of the minor Pauline epistles, a fragmentary work on the Apostolic Fathers, _Leaders in the Northern Church_ (1890), and _The Apostolic Age_ (1892).

LILLO, GEORGE (1693-1739).--Dramatist, of Dutch descent, was _b._ in London, succeeded his _f._ in business as a jeweller, in which he had good speed, and devoted his leisure to the composition of plays in the line of what was known as the "domestic drama." He wrote in all seven of these, among which are _The London Merchant, or the History of George Barnewell_, acted 1731, _The Christian Hero_ (1735), and _Fatal Curiosity_ (1736). He was a friend of Fielding, who said of him that "he had the spirit of an old Roman joined to the innocence of a primitive Christian."

LINDSAY, or LYNDSAY, SIR DAVID (1490-1555).--Scottish poet and satirist, _s._ of David L. of Garmylton, near Haddington, was _b._ either there or at The Mount in Fife, and _ed._ at St. Andrews. Early in life he was at the Court of James IV., and on the King's death was appointed to attend on the infant James V., whose friend and counsellor he remained, though his advice was, unhappily for his country, not always given heed to. In 1529 he was knighted and made Lyon King at Arms. He was employed on various missions to the Emperor Charles V., and to Denmark, France, and England. He was always in sympathy with the people as against the nobles and the clergy, and was their poet, with his words in their mouths. He favoured the Reformers, and was one of those who urged Knox to become a preacher. He did not, however, adhere to the reformed congregation, and _d._ at least nominally in the Roman Church. Yet he lashed the vices of the clergy as they had never been lashed before, and only escaped their vengeance by the protection of the King, who also condoned the severities directed against himself. His latter days were spent at The Mount, where he _d._ His chief writings are _The Dreme_, written 1528, _The Complaynt to the King_ (1529), _The Testament and Complaynt of our Soverane Lord's Papyngo_ (Parrot) (1530), _Ane Pleasant Satyre of the Three Estaitis_, _A Dialogue betwixt Experience and a Courtier_ (1552), _The Monarchy_ (1554), and _The History of Squyer Meldrum_. L. was a true poet, gifted with fancy, humour, and a powerful satiric touch and a love of truth and justice. He had a strong influence in turning the minds of the common people in favour of the Reformation.

_Works_ ed. by Chalmers (3 vols., 1806), and D. Laing (3 vols., 1879).

LINDSAY, or LINDESAY, ROBERT (1500?-1565?).--Historian, Laird or tenant of Pitscottie, Fife, wrote a history entitled _The Chronicles of Scotland_, intended as a continuation of that of Boece. It deals with the period 1436-1515, and though often inaccurate in detail, is often vivid and quaint.

LINGARD, JOHN (1771-1851).--Historian, _b._ at Winchester of humble Roman Catholic parentage, was in 1782 sent to the English Coll. at Douay, whence he escaped from the revolutionaries in 1793, and returning to England, went to Crookhall Coll., near Durham, and afterwards to Ushaw. Ordained a priest in 1795, he became Vice-Pres. and Prof. of Philosophy at the latter coll. In 1806 he _pub._ _The Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church_, and while a missioner at Hornby, Lancashire, began his _History of England to the Accession of William and Mary_ (8 vols., 1819-30). In the preparation of this work L. had access to material hitherto _unpub._, and not available for Protestant historians, such as documents in the Vatican and other Roman Catholic sources, and was consequently able to throw new light on various parts of his subject. The work was attacked by various writers from the Protestant standpoint. L. replied to his critics with the result that it is now generally admitted that the history, while in parts coloured by the theological and political point of view of the author, is generally an impartial and valuable work, and it remains a leading authority on the Reformation period viewed from the side of the enlightened Roman Catholic priesthood. This opinion is supported by the fact that the Ultramontane party among the Roman Catholics regarded the book as a dangerous one in respect of the interests of their Church.

LINTON, MRS. ELIZA LYNN (1822-1898).--Novelist and miscellaneous writer, _dau._ of a clergyman, settled in London in 1845, and next year produced her first novel, _Azeth, the Egyptian; Amymone_ (1848), and _Realities_ (1851), followed. None of these had any great success, and she then joined the staff of the _Morning Chronicle_, and _All the Year Round_. In 1858 she _m._ W.J. Linton, an eminent wood-engraver, who was also a poet of some note, a writer upon his craft, and a Republican. In 1867 they separated in a friendly way, the husband going to America, and the wife devoting herself to novel-writing, in which she attained wide popularity. Her most successful works were _The True History of Joshua Davidson_ (1872), _Patricia Kemball_ (1874), and _Christopher Kirkland_. She was a severe critic of the "new woman."

LISTER, THOMAS HENRY (1800-1842).--Novelist, _ed._ at Westminster and Camb., was latterly the first Registrar-General for England and Wales. He wrote several novels, among which are _Granby_ (1826), _Herbert Lacy_ (1828), _Arlington_ (1832). He was also the author of a Life of Clarendon.

LITHGOW, WILLIAM (1582-1645).--Traveller, _b._ at Lanark, claimed at the end of his various peregrinations to have tramped 36,000 miles on foot. Previous to 1610 he had visited Shetland, Switzerland, and Bohemia. In that year he set out for Palestine and Egypt. His next journey, 1614-16, was in Tunis and Fez; but his last, 1619-21, to Spain, ended unfortunately in his apprehension at Malaga and torture as a spy. He gave an account of his travels in _Rare Adventures and Paineful Peregrinations_, and wrote _The Siege of Breda_, _The Siege of Newcastle_, and _Poems_.

LIVINGSTONE, DAVID (1813-1873).--Missionary explorer, _b._ at Blantyre, Lanarkshire, spent the years between 10 and 24 as an operative in a cotton mill there. Becoming interested in foreign missions he qualified himself, and entering the service of the London Missionary Society, set out in 1846 to South Africa. He subsequently made journeys into the interior, which ultimately developed into his great pioneering and exploration expeditions, in which he discovered Lake Ngami 1849, and the river Zambesi 1851. In 1856 he visited England, _pub._ his _Missionary Travels_ (1857), and retired from the service of the London Missionary Society. He was Consul at Quilimane 1858-64, and in 1858 commanded an expedition for exploring Eastern and Central Africa, in the course of which he discovered Lakes Shirwa and Nyassa 1859. Again visiting England he _pub._ his second book, _The Zambesi and its Tributaries_ (1865). Returning to Africa he organised an expedition to the Nile basin, discovered Lake Bangweolo, explored the cannibal country, enduring terrible sufferings and dangers, from which he was rescued just in time by H.M. Stanley. His last journey was to discover the sources of the Nile, but it proved fatal, as he _d._ at a village in Ilala. His remains were brought home and buried in Westminster Abbey. L. was a man of indomitable courage, and of a simple nobility of character. His writings are plain, unadorned statements of his work and experiences. He ranks among the greatest explorers and philanthropists. The diary which he kept was _pub._ as _Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa_ (1874). His view of his duty in the circumstances in which he found himself was to be a pioneer opening up new ground, and leaving native agents to work it up.

LLOYD, ROBERT (1733-1764).--Poet, _ed._ at Westminster and Camb., _pub._ _The Actor_ (1760), a poem which had considerable popularity, some miscellaneous verses, and a comic opera, _The Conscious Lovers_ (1764). He was a friend of Churchill, who showed him much kindness in his frequent misfortunes; and on hearing of C.'s death he took to bed, and soon _d._, apparently of a broken heart.

LOCKE, DAVID Ross (PETROLEUM V. NASBY) (1833-1888).--Humorist, _b._ in New York State. His political satires really influenced opinion during the war. He was a printer and then a journalist, and his writings include _Swingin' round the Cirkle_, _Struggles of P.V. Nasby_, _Nasby in Exile_, and two novels, _A Paper City_ and _The Demagogue_.

LOCKE, JOHN (1632-1704).--Philosopher, _s._ of a landsteward, was _b._ at Wrington, near Bristol, and _ed._ at Westminster School and Oxf. In 1660 he became lecturer on Greek, in 1662 on Rhetoric, and in 1664 he went as sec. to an Embassy to Brandenburg. While a student he had turned from the subtleties of Aristotle and the schoolmen, had studied Descartes and Bacon, and becoming attracted to experimental science, studied medicine, and practised a little in Oxf. At the same time his mind had been much exercised by questions of morals and government, and in 1667 he wrote his _Essay on Toleration_. In the same year he became known to Lord Ashley (afterwards 1st Earl of Shaftesbury), in whose house he went to reside. Here he made the acquaintance of Buckingham, Halifax, and other leading men of the time, and was entrusted by Ashley with the education of his _s._, and afterwards of his grandson, the famous 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury (_q.v._). He was also employed by him to draw up a constitution for the new colony of Carolina, the provisions of which in regard to religion were regarded as too liberal and were, at the instance of the Established Church, departed from. In 1672 when Ashley became Chancellor he bestowed upon L. the office of Sec. of Presentations, and afterwards a post at the Board of Trade. In 1675 L. graduated M.B., and in the same year went for the benefit of his health, which had always been delicate, to Montpelier, where there was then a celebrated medical school, and subsequently to Paris, where he became acquainted with most of the eminent Frenchmen of the day. Recalled by Shaftesbury in 1679 he returned to England but, his patron having in 1682 been obliged to take refuge in Holland from a prosecution for high treason, he followed him there. In consequence of this he became obnoxious to the Government, and was in 1684 deprived of his studentship at Christ Church. Shaftesbury having _d._ in Holland, L. remained there until the Revolution, when he returned to England in the fleet which carried the Princess of Orange. He was now in favour with Government, and had the offer of diplomatic employment which, on account of his health, he declined, but was appointed a Commissioner of Appeals. In 1698 he was an adviser of the Government on the question of the coinage, and was made a member of the newly instituted Council on Trade, which position he resigned in 1700. During his last years he lived with Sir Francis and Lady Masham at Gates in Essex, where Lady M., who was a _dau._ of Ralph Cudworth (_q.v._), and an old friend, assiduously tended his last years. The services of L. to his country in civil and religious matters were various and great; but it is upon his philosophical writings, and chiefly on his _Essay on the Human Understanding_ (1690) that his fame rests. It is divided into four books, of which the first treats of innate ideas (the existence of which he denies), the second traces the origin of ideas, the third deals with language, and the fourth lays down the limits of the understanding. Other works of his are _Thoughts concerning Education_ (1693), _On the Conduct of the Understanding_ (_pub._ posthumously), _The Reasonableness of Christianity_ (1695), _Treatise on Government_, and _Letters on Toleration_. If not a very profound or original philosopher L. was a calm, sensible, and reasonable writer, and his books were very influential on the English thought of his day, as well as on the French philosophy of the next century. His style is plain and clear, but lacking in brightness and variety.

_Lives_ by Lord King (1829), and Bourne (1876). _Works_ ed. by Prof. A.C. Fraser (1894). _See_ also T.H. Green's Introduction to Hume (1874).

LOCKER-LAMPSON, FREDERICK (1821-1895).--Poet, _s._ of the sec. of Greenwich Hospital, held appointments in Somerset House and the Admiralty. He wrote a number of clever _vers de societé_, which were _coll._ as _London Lyrics_ (1857). He also compiled _Lyra Elegantiarum_, an anthology of similar verse by former authors, and _Patchwork_, a book of extracts, and wrote an autobiography, _My Confidences_ (1896).

LOCKHART, JOHN GIBSON (1794-1854).--Novelist and biographer, _s._ of a minister of the Church of Scotland of good family, was _b._ at Cambusnethan, Lanarkshire, and _ed._ at Glasgow and Oxf. He studied law at Edin., and was called to the Scottish Bar in 1816, but had little taste for the profession. Having, however, already tried literature (he had translated Schlegel's _Lectures on the History of Literature_), he devoted himself more and more to a literary life. He joined John Wilson, and became one of the leading contributors to _Blackwood's Magazine_. After bringing out _Peter's Letters to his Kinsfolk_ (1819), sketches mainly of Edinburgh society, he produced four novels, _Valerius_ (1821), _Adam Blair_ (1822), _Reginald Dalton_ (1824), and _Matthew Wald_ (1824). His _Life of Burns_ appeared in 1828. He was ed. of the _Quarterly Review_ 1824-53. In 1820 he had _m._ Sophia, _dau._ of Sir Walter Scott, which led to a close friendship with the latter, and to his writing his famous _Life of Scott_, undoubtedly one of the greatest biographies in the language. His later years were overshadowed with deep depression caused by the death of his wife and children. A singularly reserved and cold manner led to his being regarded with dislike by many, but his intimate friends were warmly attached to him.

LODGE, THOMAS (1558?-1625).--Poet and dramatist, _s._ of Sir Thomas L., Lord Mayor of London, was _ed._ at Merchant Taylor's School and Oxf. He was a student of Lincoln's Inn, but abandoned law for literature, ultimately studied medicine, and took M.D. at Oxf. 1603; having become a Roman Catholic, he had a large practice, chiefly among his co-religionists. In 1580 he _pub._ _A Defence of Plays_ in reply to Gosson's _School of Abuse_; and he wrote poems, dramas, and romances. His principal dramatic works are _The Wounds of Civil War_, and (in conjunction with Greene, _q.v._) _A Looking-glass for London and England_. Among his romances may be mentioned _Euphues' Shadow_, _Forbonius and Prisceria_ (1584), and _Rosalynde, Euphues' Golden Legacie_ (1590). His poems include _Glaucus and Scilia_ (1589), _Phillis honoured with Pastoral Sonnets, Elegies, and Amorous Delights_ (1593). _Rosalynde_, his best known work, and the source from which Shakespeare is said to have drawn _As you like It_, was written to beguile the tedium of a voyage to the Canaries. _Robin the Divell_ and _William Longbeard_ are historical romances. L. was also a voluminous translator. He was one of the founders of the regular English drama, but his own plays are heavy and tedious. His romances, popular in their day, are sentimental and over-refined in language, but are enlivened by lyrical pieces in which he is far more successful than in his dramatic work.

LOGAN, JOHN (1748-1788).--Poet, _s._ of a small farmer at Soutra, Midlothian, was destined for the ministry of a small Dissenting sect to which his _f._ belonged, but attached himself to the Church of Scotland, and became minister of South Leith in 1773. He read lectures on the philosophy of history in Edin., and was the author of a vol. of poems. He also ed. those of his friend, Michael Bruce (_q.v._), in such a way, however, as to lead to a controversy, still unsettled, as to the authorship of certain of the pieces inserted. L., in fact, suppressed some of Bruce's poems and introduced others of his own. Unfortunately for the reputation of both poets the disputed authorship extends to the gem of the collection, the exquisite _Ode to the Cuckoo_, beginning "Hail, beauteous stranger of the grove," which Burke considered the most beautiful lyric in the language. L. fell into dissipated habits, resigned his ministerial charge, and went to London, where he took an active part in the controversy regarding the impeachment of Warren Hastings.

LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879).--Classical scholar, _ed._ at Camb. He was Prof. of Ancient Languages in the Univ. of Virginia, Charlottesville, 1824-28, of Greek at University Coll., London, 1828-31, and of Latin there, 1842-46. He did much for the diffusion of education, was one of the founders and sec. of the Royal Geographical Society, and ed. of the _Penny Cyclopædia_. He translated Marcus Aurelius (1862), and _The Discourses of Epictetus_ (1877), and wrote _Two Discourses on Roman Law_ (1847), a subject on which he was the greatest English authority.

LONGFELLOW, HENRY WADSWORTH (1807-1882).--Poet, was _b._ at Portland, Maine, the _s._ of Stephen L., a lawyer. From childhood he cared little for games, but was always devoted to reading. In 1822 he was sent to Bowdoin Coll., of which his _f._ was a Trustee, and after graduating was appointed to a new Chair of Modern Languages, which the coll. had decided to establish, and with the view of more completely qualifying him for his duties, he was sent to Europe for a three years' course of study. He accordingly went to France, Spain, and Italy. Returning in 1829 he commenced his professional duties, writing also in the _North American Review_. In 1831 he entered into his first marriage, and in 1833 he _pub._ his first books, a translation from the Spanish, followed by the first part of _Outre Mer_, an account of his travels. At the end of the year L. was invited to become Prof. of Modern Languages at Harvard, an offer which he gladly accepted. He paid a second visit to Europe accompanied by his wife, who, however, _d._ at Amsterdam. He returned to his duties in 1836, and in 1838 appeared _Voices of the Night_, containing the "Psalm of Life" and "Excelsior," which had extraordinary popularity, and gave him a place in the affections of his countrymen which he held until his death. The same year saw the publication of _Hyperion_. His next work was _Ballads and other Poems_, containing "The Wreck of the Hesperus" and "The Village Blacksmith." In 1843 he _m._ his second wife, and in the same year appeared _The Spanish Student_, a drama. The _Belfry of Bruges_ and _Evangeline_ (1847), generally considered his masterpiece, followed. In 1849 he _pub._ _Kavanagh_, a novel which added nothing to his reputation, and in 1851 _Seaside and Fireside_, and _The Golden Legend_. Having now a sufficient and secure income from his writings, he resigned his professorship, and devoted himself entirely to literature. _Hiawatha_ appeared in 1855, and _The Courtship of Miles Standish_ in 1858. In 1861 he lost his wife under tragic circumstances, a blow which told heavily upon him. His latest works were a translation of Dante's _Divina Commedia_, _Tales of a Wayside Inn_, _The New England Tragedies_, and _The Divine Tragedy_, the last two of which he combined with _The Golden Legend_ into a trilogy, which he named _Christus_. In 1868 he paid a last visit to England, where he was received with the highest honour. Later works were _Three Books of Song_, _Aftermath_, and _Ultima Thule_. He _d._ on March 14, 1882. L. lacked the intensity of feeling and power of imagination to make him a great poet; but few poets have appealed to a wider circle of readers. If he never soars to the heights or sounds the deeps of feeling he touches the heart by appealing to universal and deep-seated affections. He was a man of noble and chivalrous character.

_Lives_ by S. Longfellow in Riverside ed. of works (11 vols. 1886-90), Robertson (Great Writers Series), and Higginson (American Men of Letters).

LOVELACE, RICHARD (1618-1658).--Poet, _b._ at Woolwich, _s._ of Sir William L., was _ed._ at Oxf., where he is described by Anthony Wood as "the most amiable and beautiful person that eye ever beheld." He was an enthusiastic Royalist, and spent his whole fortune in support of that cause. For presenting "the Kentish petition" in favour of the King, he was imprisoned in 1642, when he wrote his famous song, _When Love with unconfinéd wings_. After his release he served in the French army, and was wounded at Dunkirk. Returning, he was again imprisoned, 1648, and produced his _Lucasta: Epodes, Odes_, etc. He lives in literature by a few of his lyrics which, though often careless, are graceful and tender. He _d._ in poverty.

LOVER, SAMUEL (1797-1868).--Song-writer and novelist, was a painter of portraits, chiefly miniatures. He produced a number of Irish songs, of which several--including _The Angel's Whisper_, _Molly Bawn_, and _The Four-leaved Shamrock_--attained great popularity. He also wrote some novels, of which _Rory O'More_ (in its first form a ballad), and _Handy Andy_ are the best known, and short Irish sketches, which, with his songs, he combined into a popular entertainment called _Irish Nights_. He joined with Dickens in founding _Bentley's Magazine_.

LOWELL, JAMES RUSSELL (1819-1891).--Poet and essayist, _b._ at Camb., Massachusetts, _s._ of a Unitarian minister, was _ed._ at Harvard. He began active life as a lawyer, but soon abandoned business, and devoted himself mainly to literature. In 1841 he _pub._ a vol. of poems, _A Year's Life_, and in 1843 a second book of verses appeared. He also wrote at this time political articles in the _Atlantic_ and _North American Review_. In 1848 he _pub._ a third vol. of _Poems_, _A Fable for Critics_, _The Biglow Papers_, and _The Vision of Sir Launfal_; and he was in 1855 appointed Professor of Modern Languages at Harvard in succession to Longfellow. _Among my Books_ appeared in 2 series, in 1870 and 1876. His later poems included various _Odes_ in celebration of national events, some of which were _coll._ in _Under the Willows_, _The Cathedral_, and _Heartsease and Rue_. In 1877 he was appointed United States minister to Spain, and he held a similar appointment in England 1880-85. He _d._ at Elmwood, the house in which he was _b._ L. was a man of singularly varied gifts, wit, humour, scholarship, and considerable poetic power, and he is the greatest critic America has yet produced. He was a strong advocate of the abolition of slavery.

LOWTH, ROBERT (1710-1787).--Theologian and scholar, _s._ of William L., Prebendary of Winchester, and author of a _Commentary on the Prophets_, was _b._ at Winchester, and _ed._ there and at Oxf. Entering the Church he became Bishop successively of St. David's, Oxf., and London. In 1753 he _pub._ _De Sacra Poesi Hebræorum_. He also wrote a _Life of William of Wykeham_, the founder of Winchester Coll., and made a new translation of Isaiah.

LYDGATE, JOHN (1370?-1451?).--Poet, _b._ in Suffolk, was ordained a priest in 1397. After studying at Oxf., Paris, and Padua, he taught literature in his monastery at Bury St. Edmunds. He appears to have been a bright, clear-minded, earnest man, with a love of the beautiful, and a faculty of pleasant, flowing verse. He wrote copiously and with tiresome prolixity whatever was required of him, moral tales, legends of the saints, and histories, and his total output is enormous, reaching 130,000 lines. His chief works are _Troy Book_ (1412-20), written at the request of Henry V. when Prince of Wales, _The Falls of Princes_ (1430-38), and _The Story of Thebes_ (_c._ 1420). These books were first _printed_ in 1513, 1494, and _c._ 1500 respectively. L. also wrote many miscellaneous poems. He was for a time Court poet, and was patronised by Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester; but the greater part of his life was spent in the monastery at Bury St. Edmunds. He was an avowed admirer of Chaucer, though he largely follows the French romancists previous to him.

LYELL, SIR CHARLES (1797-1875).--Geologist and writer, _s._ of Charles L., of Kinnordy, Forfarshire (a distinguished botanist and student of Dante), was brought up near the New Forest. After going to school at various places in England, he was sent to Oxf., where under Buckland he imbibed a taste for science. He studied law, and was called to the Bar, but soon devoted himself to geology, and made various scientific tours on the Continent, the results of his investigations being _pub._ chiefly in the Transactions of the Geological Society, of which he was afterwards repeatedly Pres. His two chief works are _The Principles of Geology_ (1830-33), and _The Elements of Geology_ (1838). In these books he combated the necessity of stupendous convulsions, and maintained that the greatest geologic changes might be produced by remote causes still in operation. He also _pub._, among other works, _Geological Evidence of the Antiquity of Man_ (1863). He was Prof. of Geology in King's Coll., London, 1831-33, Pres. of the British Association 1864, knighted in 1848, and _cr._ a Baronet in 1864. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. In his later years he was generally recognised as the greatest of living geologists.

LYLY, JOHN (1554?-1606).--Dramatist and miscellaneous writer, was _b._ in the Weald of Kent, and _ed._ at both Oxf. and Camb. He wrote several dramas, most of which are on classical and mythological subjects, including _Campaspe_ and _Sapho and Phao_ (1584), _Endymion_ (1591), and _Midas_ (1592). His chief fame, however, rests on his two didactic romances, _Euphues, the Anatomy of Wit_ (1579), and _Euphues and his England_ (1580). These works, which were largely inspired by Ascham's _Toxophilus_, and had the same objects in view, viz., the reform of education and manners, exercised a powerful, though temporary, influence on the language, both written and spoken, commemorated in our words "euphuism" and "euphuistic." The characteristics of the style have been set forth as "pedantic and far-fetched allusion, elaborate indirectness, a cloying smoothness and drowsy monotony of diction, alliteration, punning, and such-like puerilities, which do not, however, exclude a good deal of wit, fancy, and prettiness." Many contemporary authors, including Shakespeare, made game of it, while others, _e.g._ Greene, admired and practised it. L. also wrote light dramatic pieces for the children of the Chapel Royal, and contributed a pamphlet, _Pappe with an Hatchet_ (1589) to the Mar-prelate controversy in which he supported the Bishops. He sat in Parliament for some years.

LYNDESAY, SIR D., (_see_ LINDSAY.)

LYTE, HENRY FRANCIS (1793-1847).--Hymn-writer, _b._ at Ednam, near Kelso, of an ancient Somersetshire family, and _ed._ at Trinity Coll., Dublin, took orders, and was incumbent of Lower Brixham, Devonshire. He _pub._ _Poems: chiefly religious_ (1833). He is chiefly remembered for his hymns, one of which, _Abide with Me_, is universally known and loved.

LYTTELTON, GEORGE, 1ST LORD LYTTELTON (1709-1773).--Poet, _s._ of Sir Thomas L., of Hagley, Worcestershire, _ed._ at Eton and Oxf., was the patron of many literary men, including Thomson and Mallet, and was himself a somewhat voluminous author. Among his works are _Letters from a Persian in England to his friend in Ispahan_ (1735), a treatise _On the Conversion of St. Paul_ (1746), _Dialogues of the Dead_ (1760), which had great popularity, and a _History of the Reign of Henry II._, well-informed, careful, and impartial, but tedious. He is chiefly remembered by his _Monody_ on the death of his wife. The stanza in _The Castle of Indolence_ in which Thomson is playfully described (canto 1, st. lxviii.), is by L., who is himself referred to in lxv. He took some

## part in public affairs, and was Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1756.

LYTTON, EDWARD GEORGE EARLE LYTTON-BULWER, 1ST LORD (1803-1873).--Novelist and statesman, third son of General Earle Bulwer of Heydon and Dalling, Norfolk, and of Elizabeth Lytton, heiress of Knebworth, Herts, was _b._ in London, and _ed._ privately and at Camb. He began to write when still a boy, and _pub._, in 1820, _Ismael and other Poems_. His marriage in 1825 to Rosina Wheeler, an Irish beauty, caused a quarrel with his mother, and the loss of his income, and thus incidentally gave the impulse to his marvellous literary activity. The marriage proved an unhappy one, and was terminated by a separation in 1836. During its continuance, however, his life was a busy and productive one, its literary results including _Falkland_ (1827), _Pelham_ (1828), _Paul Clifford_ (1830), _Eugene Aram_ (1832), _The Pilgrims of the Rhine_, _Last Days of Pompeii_, _Rienzi_ (1835), besides _England and the English_, _Athens its Rise and Fall_, and innumerable tales, essays, and articles in various reviews and magazines, including the _New Monthly_, of which he became ed. in 1831. In the same year he entered Parliament as a Liberal, but gradually gravitated towards Conservatism, and held office in the second government of Lord Derby as Colonial Sec. 1858-59. As a politician he devoted himself largely to questions affecting authors, such as copyright and the removal of taxes upon literature. He continued his literary labours with almost unabated energy until the end of his life, his works later than those already mentioned including the _Last of the Barons_ (1843), _Harold_ (1848), the famous triad of _The Caxtons_ (1850), _My Novel_ (1853), and _What will he do with it?_ (1859); and his studies in the supernatural, _Zanoni_ (1842), and _A Strange Story_ (1862). Later still were _The Coming Race_ (1870) and _Kenelm Chillingly_ (1873). To the drama he contributed three plays which still enjoy popularity, _The Lady of Lyons_, _Richelieu_, both (1838), and _Money_ (1840). In poetry he was less successful. _The New Timon_, a satire, is the best remembered, largely, however, owing to the reply by Tennyson which it brought down upon the author, who had attacked him. In his works, numbering over 60, L. showed an amazing versatility, both in subject and treatment, but they have not, with perhaps the exception of the Caxton series, kept their original popularity. Their faults are artificiality, and forced brilliancy, and as a rule they rather dazzle by their cleverness than touch by their truth to nature. L. was raised to the peerage in 1866.

_Life, Letters, etc._, of Lord Lytton by his son, 2 vols., comes down to 1832 only. Political Memoir prefaced to _Speeches_ (2 vols., 1874).

LYTTON, EDWARD ROBERT BULWER, 1ST EARL OF LYTTON (1831-1891).--Poet and statesman, _s._ of the above, was _ed._ at Harrow and Bonn, and thereafter was private sec. to his uncle, Sir H. Bulwer, afterwards Lord Dalling and Bulwer (_q.v._), at Washington and Florence. Subsequently he held various diplomatic appointments at other European capitals. In 1873 he succeeded his _f._ in the title, and in 1876 became Viceroy of India. He was _cr._ an Earl on his retirement in 1880, and was in 1887 appointed Ambassador at Paris, where he _d._ in 1891. He valued himself much more as a poet than as a man of affairs; but, though he had in a considerable degree some of the qualities of a poet, he never quite succeeded in commanding the recognition of either the public or the critics. His writings, usually appearing under the pseudonym of "Owen Meredith," include _Clytemnestra_ (1855), _The Wanderer_ (1857), _Lucile_ (1860), _Chronicles and Characters_ (1868), _Orval, or the Fool of Time_ (1869), _Fables in Song_ (1874), and _King Poppy_ (1892). As Viceroy of India he introduced important reforms, and his dispatches were remarkable for their fine literary form.

MACAULAY, MRS. CATHERINE (SAWBRIDGE) (1731-1791).--_Dau._ of a landed proprietor of Kent, was an advocate of republicanism, and a sympathiser with the French Revolution. She wrote a _History of England from the Accession of James I. to the Elevation of the House of Hanover_ (8 vols., 1763-83), which had great popularity in its day, some critics, _e.g._ Horace Walpole, placing it above Hume. Though a work of no real research or authority, it is in the main well written.

MACAULAY, THOMAS BABINGTON, LORD (1800-1859).--Historian, essayist, and statesman, _s._ of Zachary M., a wealthy merchant, and one of the leaders of the anti-slavery party, was _b._ at Rothley Temple, Leicestershire, and _ed._ at a private school and at Trinity Coll., Camb., of which he became a Fellow in 1824, and where, though he gained distinction as a classical scholar and debater, he did not take a high degree, owing to his weakness in mathematics. About the time of his leaving the Univ. his prospects were entirely changed by the failure of his father's firm. He accordingly read law, and in 1826 was called to the Bar, which led to his appointment two years later as a Commissioner in Bankruptcy. He had by this time made his first appearance in print, in _Knight's Quarterly Magazine_, and in 1825 he formed the connection with the _Edinburgh Review_ which redounded so greatly to the fame of both. His first contribution was the famous essay on Milton, which, although he afterwards said of it that "it contained scarcely a paragraph which his matured judgment approved," took the reading public by storm, and at once gave him access to the first society in London, in which his extraordinary conversational powers enabled him to take a leading place. He now began to turn his mind towards public life, and by favour of Lord Lansdowne sat in the House of Commons for his family borough of Calne. Entering the House in 1830 in the thick of the Reform struggle, M. at once leaped into a foremost place as a debater, and after the passage of the Reform Bill sat as one of the two members for the new borough of Leeds, and held office as Sec. to the Board of Control. The acquaintance with Indian affairs which he thus gained led to his appointment as a member of the Supreme Council of India, whither he went in 1834. Here his chief work was the codification of the criminal law, which he carried out with great ability, and by which he wrote his name on the history of the empire. By the regard for the rights of the natives which he showed, he incurred much ill-will in interested quarters. For this he consoled himself with the pleasures of literature, which gradually assumed the preponderance in his mind over political ambitions. In 1838 he returned to England. The next year he began _The History of England_, but for some time to come his energies were still divided between this task, the demands of the _Edinburgh Review_, and politics. He was elected for Edin., for which he sat until 1847, when he was thrown out on the Maynooth question, and from 1839-41 was Sec. for War. The _Lays of Ancient Rome_ were _pub._ in 1842, and a collection of his essays in _The Edinburgh_ the following year. In 1846 he joined the government of Lord John Russell as Paymaster-General, an office with light duties, his retirement from which, however, followed the loss of his seat in the next year. He was now finally set free for his great work, which became thenceforth the leading interest of his life. The first and second vols. appeared in 1848, and were received with extraordinary applause. In 1852 he was offered, but declined, a seat in the coalition government of Lord Aberdeen, accepting, however, the seat in Parliament which Edin., now repentant, gave him unsolicited. His health began about this time to show symptoms of failure, and he spoke in the House only once or twice. In 1855 the third and fourth vols. of the _History_ came out, and meeting with a success both at home and in America unprecedented in the case of an historical work, were translated into various foreign languages. In 1857 M. was raised to the Peerage, a distinction which he appreciated and enjoyed. His last years were spent at Holly Lodge, Kensington, in comparative retirement, and there he _d._ on December 28, 1859. Though never _m._, M. was a man of the warmest family affections. Outside of his family he was a steady friend and a generous opponent, disinterested and honourable in his public life. Possessed of an astonishing memory, knowledge of vast extent, and an unfailing flow of ready and effective speech, he shone alike as a parliamentary orator and a conversationalist. In his writings he spared no pains in the collection and arrangement of his materials, and he was incapable of deliberate unfairness. Nevertheless, his mind was strongly cast in the mould of the orator and the pleader: and the vivid contrasts, antitheses, and even paradoxes which were his natural forms of expression do not always tend to secure a judicial view of the matter in hand. Consequently he has been accused by some critics of party-spirit, inaccuracy, and prejudice. He has not often, however, been found mistaken on any important matter of fact, and in what he avowedly set himself to do, namely, to give a living picture of the period which he dealt with, he has been triumphantly successful. Unfortunately, strength and life failed before his great design was completed. He is probably most widely known by his _Essays_, which retain an extraordinary popularity.

_Life_ by his nephew, Sir G.O. Trevelyan. _See_ also J.C. Monson's _Life_ (English Men of Letters).

MACCARTHY, DENIS FLORENCE (1817-1882).--Poet, _b._ at Dublin, and _ed._ at Maynooth with a view to the priesthood, devoted himself, however, to literature, and contributed verses to _The Nation_. Among his other writings are _Ballads, Poems, and Lyrics_ (1850), _The Bell Founder_ (1857), and _Under-Glimpses_. He also ed. a collection of Irish lyrics, translated Calderon, and wrote _Shelley's Early Life_ (1872).

M'COSH, JAMES (1811-1894).--Philosophical writer, _s._ of an Ayrshire farmer, was a minister first of the Church of Scotland, and afterwards of the Free Church. From 1851-68 he was Prof. of Logic at Queen's Coll., Belfast, and thereafter Pres. of Princeton Coll., New Jersey. He wrote several works on philosophy, including _Method of the Divine Government_ (1850), _Intuitions of the Mind inductively investigated_ (1860), _Laws of Discursive Thought_ (1870), _Scottish Philosophy_ (1874), and _Psychology_ (1886).

M'CRIE, THOMAS (1772-1835).--Biographer and ecclesiastical historian, _b._ at Duns, and _ed._ at the Univ. of Edin., became the leading minister of one of the Dissenting churches of Scotland. His _Life of Knox_ (1813) ranks high among biographies for the ability and learning which it displays, and was the means of vindicating the great Reformer from a cloud of prejudice and misunderstanding in which he had been enveloped. It was followed by a _Life of Andrew Melville_ (1819), Knox's successor as the leader of the Reformers in Scotland, also a work of great merit. M'C. also _pub._ histories of the Reformation in Italy and Spain. He received the degree of D.D. in 1813.

MACDONALD, GEORGE (1824-1905).--Poet and novelist, _s._ of a farmer, was _b._ at Huntly, Aberdeenshire, and _ed._ at the Univ. of Aberdeen, and at the Independent Coll., Highbury. He became minister of a congregation at Arundel, but after a few years retired, on account partly of theological considerations, partly of a threatened, breakdown of health. He then took to literature, and _pub._ his first book, _Within and Without_ (1856), a dramatic poem, _Poems_ followed in 1857, and _Phantasies, a Faerie Romance_, in 1858. He then turned to fiction, and produced numerous novels, of which _David Elginbrod_ (1862), _Alec Forbes_ (1865), _Robert Falconer_ (1868), _The Marquis of Lossie_ (1877), and _Sir Gibbie_ (1879), are perhaps the best. He also wrote stories for children of great charm and originality, including _The Princess and the Goblin_, _At the Back of the North Wind_, and _Ranald Bannerman's Boyhood_. As a novelist he had considerable narrative and dramatic power, humour, tenderness, a genial view of life and character, tinged with mysticism, and within his limits was a true poet. On retiring from the ministry he attached himself to the Church of England, but frequently preached as a layman, never accepting any remuneration for his sermons.

MACKAY, CHARLES (1814-1889).--Poet and journalist, _s._ of a naval officer, was _b._ at Perth, and _ed._ at the Royal Caledonian Asylum, London, and at Brussels, but much of his early life was spent in France. Coming to London in 1834, he engaged in journalism, _pub._ _Songs and Poems_ (1834), wrote a _History of London_, _Popular Delusions_, and a romance, _Longbeard_. His fame, however, chiefly rests upon his songs, some of which, including _Cheer, Boys, Cheer_, were in 1846 set to music by Henry Russell, and had an astonishing popularity. In 1852 he became ed. of the _Illustrated London News_, in the musical supplement to which other songs by him were set to old English music by Sir H.R. Bishop. M. acted as _Times_ correspondent during the American Civil War, and in that capacity discovered and disclosed the Fenian conspiracy. He had the degree of LL.D. from Glasgow in 1846.

MACKENZIE, SIR GEORGE (1636-1691).--Lawyer and miscellaneous writer, _s._ of Sir Simon M., of Lochslin, a brother of the Earl of Seaforth, was _ed._ at St. Andrews, Aberdeen, and Bourges, called to the Bar in 1659, in 1677 became Lord Advocate, in which capacity he was the subservient minister of the persecuting policy of Charles II. in Scotland, and the inhumanity and relentlessness of his persecution of the Covenanters gained for him the name of "Bloody Mackenzie." In private life, however, he was a cultivated and learned gentleman with literary tendencies, and is remembered as the author of various graceful essays, of which the best known is _A Moral Essay preferring Solitude to Public Employment_ (1665). He also wrote legal, political, and antiquarian works of value, including _Institutions of the Law of Scotland_ (1684), _Antiquity of the Royal Line of Scotland_ (1686), _Heraldry_, and _Memoirs of the Affairs of Scotland from the Restoration of Charles II._, a valuable work which was not _pub._ until 1821. M. was the founder of the Advocates' Library in Edin. He retired at the Revolution to Oxf., where he _d._

MACKENZIE, HENRY (1745-1831).--Novelist and miscellaneous writer, _s._ of a physician in Edin., where he was _b._ and _ed._ He studied for the law, and became Controller of Taxes for Scotland. He was the author of three novels, _The Man of Feeling_ (1771), _The Man of the World_ (1773), and _Julia de Roubigné_ (1777), all written in a strain of rather high-wrought sentimentalism, in which the influence of Sterne is to be seen. He was also a leading contributor to _The Mirror_ and _The Lounger_, two periodicals somewhat in the style of the _Spectator_. In his later days he was one of the leading members of the literary society of Edinburgh.

MACKINTOSH, SIR JAMES (1765-1832).--Philosopher and historian, was _b._ at Aldowrie, Inverness-shire, _s._ of an officer in the army and landowner, _ed._ at Aberdeen, whence he proceeded to Edinburgh to study medicine, in which he _grad._ in 1787. In the following year he went to London, where he wrote for the press and studied law, and in 1791 he _pub._ _Vindiciæ Gallicæ_ in answer to Burke's _Reflections on the French Revolution_, which was well received by those who, in its earlier stages, sympathised with the Revolution, and procured for him the friendship of Fox, Sheridan, and other Whigs. Called to the Bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1795, he delivered before that society in 1799 a brilliant course of lectures on _The Law of Nature and Nations_, which greatly increased his reputation. In 1804 he went out to India as Recorder of Bombay, and two years later was appointed a Judge of the Admiralty Court. He remained in India until 1811, discharging his official duties with great efficiency. After his return he entered Parliament in 1813 as member for Nairnshire, and attained a considerable reputation as a forcible and informing speaker on questions of criminal law and general politics. On the accession of the Whigs in 1830 he was made a member of the Board of Control for India. He also held from 1818-24 the Professorship of Law and General Politics at Haileybury. His true vocation, however, was to literature, and it is to be regretted that so much of his time and strength was withdrawn from it, his writings being confined to a _Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical Philosophy_ in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_, a sketch of the History of England for Lardner's _Cabinet Cyclopædia_, a Life of Sir Thomas More for the same, a fragment of a projected _History of the Revolution of 1688_, and some articles in the _Edinburgh Review_.

MACKLIN, CHARLES (1697?-1797).--Actor and dramatist, _b._ in the north of Ireland, was one of the most distinguished actors of his day, shining equally in tragedy and comedy. Having killed another actor in a quarrel he was tried for murder, but acquitted, and _d._ a centenarian. He wrote, among other comedies, _Love à la Mode_ (1759) and _The Man of the World_ (1781), which were the only ones printed. He was the creator of Sir Pertinax Macsycophant, a famous burlesque character.

M'LENNAN, JOHN FERGUSON (1827-1881).--Sociologist, _b._ at Inverness, and _ed._ at Aberdeen and Camb., was in 1857 called to the Scottish Bar, and was subsequently Parliamentary Draftsman for Scotland. His main contribution to literature is his original and learned book, _Primitive Marriage_ (1865). Another work, _The Patriarchal Theory_, left unfinished, was completed by his brother (1884). These works and other papers by M. gave a great impulse to the study of the problems with which they deal, and cognate questions. M. received the degree of LL.D. from Aberdeen in 1874.

"MACLEOD, FIONA," (_see_ SHARP, WILLIAM).

MACLEOD, NORMAN (1812-1872).--Scottish divine and miscellaneous writer, _s._ of the Rev. Norman M., D.D., a distinguished minister of the Scottish Church, studied at Edin., and was ordained in 1838. He became one of the most distinguished ministers, and most popular preachers of his Church, was made one of the Royal Chaplains in Scotland in 1857, and became a trusted friend of Queen Victoria. He was the first ed. of _Good Words_, to which he contributed many articles and stories, including _Wee Davie_, _The Starling_, and _The Old Lieutenant and his Son_.

MACNEILL, HECTOR (1746-1818).--Poet, was in the West Indies 1780-86, and clerk on a flagship. He wrote various political pamphlets, two novels, and several poems, _The Harp_ (1789), _The Carse of Forth_, and _Scotland's Skaith_, the last against drunkenness, but is best known for his songs, such as _My Boy Tammy_, _I lo'ed ne'er a Laddie but ane_, and _Come under my Plaidie_.

MACPHERSON, JAMES (1736?-1796).--Alleged translator of the Ossianic poems, _s._ of a small farmer at Ruthven, Inverness-shire, studied for the Church at Aberdeen and Edin., became teacher of the school in his native parish, and afterwards tutor in a gentleman's family. In 1758 he _pub._ _The Highlander_, an ambitious poem in 6 cantos, which, however, attracted no attention. But in the following year he submitted to John Home (_q.v._), the author of _Douglas_, certain writings which he represented to be translations from ancient Gaelic poems. By the help of Home and some of his friends M. was enabled to _pub._ a considerable number of his _Fragments of Poetry translated from the Gaelic and Erse Languages_. These were received with profound and widely-spread interest, and gave rise to a controversy which can hardly yet be said to be settled. While some authorities received them with enthusiastic admiration, others immediately called their genuineness in question. In the first instance, however, a subscription was raised to enable M. to make a journey in search of further poetic remains, the result of which was the production in 1761 of _Fingal_, an epic in 6 books, and in 1763 of _Temora_, also an epic, in 8 books. The fame which these brought to their discoverer was great, and the sales enormous. In 1764 M. went as sec. to the Governor of Pensacola in Florida. Returning in 1766 he settled in London, became an energetic pamphleteer in support of the Government, and in 1780 entered Parliament, and was next year appointed to the lucrative post of Agent for the Nabob of Arcot. He retired in 1789, and bought an estate in his native parish, where he _d._ in 1796. Great doubt still rests upon the subject of the Ossianic poems: it is, however, generally admitted that M. took great liberties with the originals, even if they ever really existed in anything at all resembling the form given in the alleged translations. No manuscripts in the original have ever been forthcoming. Few, however, will deny that M. either discovered, or composed, a body of poetry unlike anything that has preceded it, of unequal merit, indeed, but containing many striking and beautiful passages, and which unquestionably contributed to break up the tyranny of the classical school and thus prepare the way for the romantic revival.

MAGINN, WILLIAM (1793-1842).--Journalist and miscellaneous writer, _b._ at Cork, became a contributor to _Blackwood's Magazine_, and afterwards foreign correspondent to _The Representative_, a paper started by J. Murray, the publisher, and when its short career was run, one of the leading supporters of _Fraser's Magazine_. One of the most brilliant periodical writers of his time, he has left no permanent work behind him. In his later years he fell into intemperate habits, and _d._ in poverty.

MAHONY, FRANCIS SYLVESTER (FATHER PROUT) (1804-1866).--Humorist, _b._ at Cork, and _ed._ at the Jesuit Coll. at Clongoweswood, Co. Kildare, at Amiens, and at Rome, becoming a member of the society, was Prof. of Rhetoric at Clongoweswood, but was soon after expelled from the order. He then came to London, and became a leading contributor to _Fraser's Magazine_, under the signature of "Father Prout." He was witty and learned in many languages. One form which his humour took was the professed discovery of the originals in Latin, Greek, or mediæval French of popular modern poems and songs. Many of these _jeux d'esprit_ were _coll._ as _Reliques of Father Prout_. He wittily described himself as "an Irish potato seasoned with Attic salt." Latterly he acted as foreign correspondent to various newspapers, and _d._ at Paris reconciled to the Church.

MAINE, SIR HENRY JAMES SUMNER (1822-1888).--Jurist, _ed._ at Christ's Hospital and at Camb., where he became Regius Prof. of Civil Law 1847-54. Called to the Bar in 1850, he went in 1862 to India as legal member of the Government. On his return he was in 1870 appointed Prof. of Comparative Jurisprudence at Oxf., which office he held until his election in 1878 as Master of Trinity Hall. He became Whewell Prof. of International Law at Camb. in 1887, and was the author of many valuable works on law and the history of political institutions, and profoundly influenced the study of jurisprudence. Among his writings are _Ancient Law_ (1861), _Village Communities_ (1871), _Early History of Institutions_ (1875), and _Dissertations on Early Law and Customs_ (1883).

MAIR, or MAJOR, JOHN (1469?-1550).--Historian, studied at Camb. and Paris, was the teacher of John Knox and George Buchanan. In 1506 he was a Doctor of the Sorbonne, and in 1519 became Prof. of Divinity at St. Andrews. He wrote, in Latin, treatises on divinity and morals, and a _History of Greater Britain_, in which the separate histories of England and Scotland were brought together, _pub._ at Paris (1521). In his writings, while upholding the doctrinal teaching of Rome, he was outspoken in condemning the corruptions of the clergy.

MAITLAND, SIR RICHARD (1496-1586).--Poet, _f._ of M. of Lethington, Sec. of State to Mary Queen of Scots. In his later years he was blind, and occupied himself in composing a _History of the House of Seaton_, and by writing poems, _e.g._ _On the New Year_, _On the Queene's Maryage_, etc. He held various offices, chiefly legal, but appears to have kept as far as possible out of the fierce political struggles of his time, and to have been a genially satirical humorist.

MALCOLM, SIR JOHN (1769-1833).--Indian soldier, statesman, and historian, _b._ at Burnfoot, Dumfriesshire, went to India in 1782, studied Persian, was employed in many important negotiations and held various distinguished posts, being Ambassador to Persia and Governor of Bombay 1826-30. He was the author of several valuable works regarded as authorities, viz., _A History of Persia_ (1815), _Memoir of Central India_ (1823), _Political History of India from 1784 to 1823_ (1826), and _Life of Lord Clive_ (1836).

MALLET, originally MALLOCH, DAVID (1705-1765).--Poet and miscellaneous writer, _ed._ at Crieff parish school and the Univ. of Edin., where he became acquainted with James Thomson, and in 1723 went to London as tutor in the family of the Duke of Montrose. In the following year appeared his ballad of _William and Margaret_, by which he is chiefly remembered, and which made him known to Pope, Young, and others. In 1726 he changed his name to Mallet to make it more pronounceable by Southern tongues. His _Excursion_, an imitation of Thomson, was _pub._ in 1728. At the request of the Prince of Wales, whose sec. he had become, he wrote with Thomson a masque, _Alfred_ (1740), in which _Rule Britannia_ first appeared, which, although he claimed the authorship, is now generally attributed to Thomson. He also wrote a _Life of Bacon_; and on Bolingbroke bequeathing to him his manuscripts and library, he _pub._ an ed. of his works (1754). On the accession of George III., M. became a zealous supporter of Lord Bute, and was rewarded with a sinecure. In addition to the works above named M. wrote some indifferent dramas, including _Eurydice_, _Mustapha_, and _Elvira_. Dr. Johnson said of him that he was "the only Scotsman whom Scotsmen did not commend."

MALONE, EDMUND (1741-1812).--Critic, _s._ of an Irish judge, _b._ in Dublin, and _ed._ at Trinity Coll. there, studied for the law, but coming into a fortune, decided to follow a literary career. Acute, careful, and sensible, he was a useful contributor to the study of Shakespeare, of whose works he _pub._ a valuable ed. in 1790. He also aided in the detection of the Rowley forgeries of Chatterton, and the much less respectable Shakespeare ones of Ireland. At his death he was engaged upon another ed. of Shakespeare, which was brought out under the editorship of James Boswell (_q.v._). M. also wrote Lives of Dryden and others, and was the friend of Johnson, Goldsmith, Reynolds, and Burke.

MALORY, SIR THOMAS (_fl._ 1470).--Translator of _Morte d'Arthur_. Very little is known of him. An endeavour has been made to identify him with a Sir Thomas Malory of Warwickshire, who fought successively on both sides in the Wars of the Roses, sat in Parliament 1444-45, and _d._ 1471. In his book he strove to make a continuous story of the Arthurian legends, and showed judgment alike in what he included and omitted.

MALTHUS, THOMAS ROBERT (1766-1834).--Economist, _s._ of a landed proprietor, was _b._ near Dorking, and _ed._. at Jesus Coll., Camb., of which he became a Fellow. Taking orders he became incumbent of Albury, Essex. He travelled much on the continent, collecting information as to the means of livelihood and mode of life of various peoples. In 1798 the first ed. of his famous _Essay on Population_ appeared, and in 1803 a second greatly enlarged. Its leading proposition, supported by much learning, is that while population increases approximately in a geometrical ratio, the means of subsistence do so in an arithmetical ratio only, which, of course, opened up an appalling prospect for the race. It necessarily failed to take into account the then undreamed-of developments whereby the produce of the whole world has been made available for all nations. The work gave rise to a great deal of controversy, much of it based on misunderstanding. M. was Prof. of Political Economy at Haileybury.

MANDEVILLE, BERNARD DE (1670-1733).--Satirist, a native of Dort in Holland, who having studied medicine at Leyden, came over to England to practise his profession. In 1705 he _pub._ a short poem, _The Grumbling Hive_, which in 1714 reappeared with a prose commentary, and various dissertations on the origin of moral virtue, etc., as _The Fable of the Bees, or Private Vices Public Benefits_, and in 1729 was made the subject of a persecution for its immoral tendency. It was also vigorously combated by, among others, Bishop Berkeley and William Law, author of _The Serious Call_. While the author probably had no intention of subverting morality, his views of human nature were assuredly cynical and degrading in a high degree. Another of his works, _A Search into the Nature of Society_ (1723), appended to the later versions of the _Fable_, also startled the public mind, which his last works, _Free Thoughts on Religion_ and _An Enquiry into the Origin of Honour and the Usefulness of Christianity_ did little to reassure.

MANDEVILLE, SIR JOHN.--Was the ostensible author only of a book of travels bearing his name, written about the middle of the 14th century, giving an account of journeys in the East, including India and the Holy Land. It appears to have been compiled from the writings of William of Boldensele, Oderic of Pordenone, and Vincent de Beauvais. The name of Mandeville was probably fictitious.

MANGAN, JAMES CLARENCE (1803-1849).--Poet, _b._ at Dublin, _s._ of a small grocer, was brought up in poverty, and received most of his education from a priest who instructed him in several modern languages. He then became a lawyer's clerk, and was later an assistant in the library of Trinity College, Dublin. He contributed verses of very various merit to a number of Irish newspapers, and translations from the German to _The Dublin University Magazine_. By some critics his poetical powers were considered to be such as to have gained for him the first place among Irish poets; but his irregular and intemperate habits prevented him from attaining any sure excellence. His best work, generally inspired by the miseries of his country, often rises to a high level of tragic power, and had his strength of character been equal to his poetic gift it is difficult to say to what heights he might have attained. He _d._ of cholera.

MANLEY, MRS. MARY DE LA RIVIERE (1663 or 1672-1724).--Novelist, dramatist, and political writer, _dau._ of Sir Roger Manley, was decoyed into a bigamous connection with her cousin, John M. Her subsequent career was one of highly dubious morality, but considerable literary success. Her principal works are _The New Atalantis_ (_sic_) (1709), a satire in which great liberties were taken with Whig notabilities, _Memoirs of Europe_ (1710), and _Court Intrigues_ (1711). She also wrote three plays, _The Royal Mischief_, _The Lost Lover_, and _Lucius_, and conducted the _Examiner_. In her writings she makes great havoc with classical names and even with spelling. She was a vivacious and effective political writer.

MANNING, ANNE (1807-1879).--Miscellaneous writer. Her best known works are _Mistress Mary Powell_, which first appeared in _Sharpe's Magazine_ in 1849, and _The Household of Sir Thomas More_, a delightful picture of More's home life told in the form of a diary written by his daughter Margaret. Her writings have much literary charm, and show a delicate historical imagination.

MANNING, HENRY EDWARD (1808-1892).--Cardinal and theologian. _B._ at Totteridge, Herts, and _ed._ at Harrow and Oxf., where he became notable as an eloquent preacher, and as one of the ablest of the Tractarian party. He was rector of Woollavington-cum-Graffham 1833, and Archdeacon of Chichester 1840. In 1851 he entered the Church of Rome, in which he attached himself to the Ultramontane party. More even than Newman he was the leading spirit of the Roman Church in England. His writings consist of sermons, of which he _pub._ several vols. before his secession from the Church of England, and controversial works, including _Petri Privilegium_ (1871), _The Vatican Decrees_ (1875), in answer to Gladstone's _Vaticanism_, and _The Eternal Priesthood_ (1883). He became Roman Catholic Archbishop of Westminster 1865, and Cardinal 1875.

MANNYNG, ROBERT, or ROBERT DE BRUNNE (_fl._ 1288-1338).--Was a Canon of the Gilbertine Order. His work, _Handlynge Sinne_ (_c._ 1300), translated with original additions from the _Manuel des Péchés_, a book written in French verse by William of Waddington, is practically a collection of tales and short stories on the Commandments, Seven Deadly Sins, Sacraments, etc., and is of value as giving a contemporary picture of the time. He also made (_c._ 1335) a translation in verse of the French _Chronicle_ of Peter Langtoft, the second and more interesting part of which covers the period from the death of Cadwallader to the end of the reign of Edward I.

MANSEL, HENRY LONGUEVILLE (1820-1871).--Metaphysician, _s._ of a clergyman, was _b._ at Cosgrave, Northamptonshire, and _ed._ at Merchant Taylors' School and Oxf. He took orders, was Reader in Theology at Magdalen Coll. 1855, Bampton Lecturer 1858, Prof. of Ecclesiastical History 1867, and Dean of St. Paul's 1869. Among his writings are _Prolegomena Logica_ (1851), _The Limits of Demonstrative Science_ (1853), _Man's Conception of Eternity_ (1854), _Limits of Religious Thought_ (1858), _Philosophy of the Conditioned_ (1866). He was also joint ed. of Sir. W. Hamilton's _Lectures_.

MAP, or MAPES, WALTER DE (_fl._ 1200).--Ecclesiastical statesman and romancist. Most of the facts about him are gleaned from his _De Nugis Curialium_ (Of the Trifles of the Courtiers), a miscellany of contemporary notes and anecdotes, throwing much light on the manners and opinions of the Court of Henry II. He was _b._ probably in Herefordshire, and had Celtic blood in his veins, his _f._ had rendered service to the King, and he had studied at Paris, and on his return attended the Court, where he found favour, and obtained preferment both in Church and State, and in 1173 was a travelling justice. Thereafter he attended the King, probably as chaplain, on his foreign wars, represented him at the French Court, and went to Rome to the Lateran Council of 1179. After the death of Henry II. he seems to have continued in favour under Richard I. and John, and was Archdeacon of Oxf. in 1196. M. is the reputed author of some at least of the _Golias_ poems, rough satires on the vices of the clergy, but his great work, which has influenced the future of English literature, was his systematising and spiritualising the Arthurian legends with additions of his own, including the legends of _Launcelot_, of the _Quest of the Holy Grail_, and of the _Morte d' Arthur_.

MARKHAM, GERVASE (1568?-1637).--Translator and miscellaneous writer, served as a soldier in the Low Countries and Ireland. Retiring into civil life about 1593 he displayed extraordinary industry as a translator, compiler, and original writer. Among his original writings are a poem on the _Revenge_ (1595) (Sir R. Grenville's ship), a continuation of Sidney's _Arcadia_, _The Discourse of Horsemanshippe_ (1593), _The Young Sportsman's Instructor_, _Country Contentments_ (1611), and various books on agriculture; also plays and poems, some of the latter of which are religious.

MARLOWE, CHRISTOPHER (1564-1593).--Dramatist, _s._ of a shoemaker at Canterbury, where he was _b._, was _ed._ at the King's School there, and in 1581 went to Benet's (now Corpus Christi) Coll., Camb., where he graduated B.A. 1583, and M.A. in 1587. Of his life after he left the Univ. almost nothing is known. It has, however, been conjectured, partly on account of his familiarity with military matters, that he saw service, probably in the Low Countries. His first play, _Tamburlaine_, was acted in 1587 or 1588. The story is drawn from the Spanish Life of Timur by Pedro Mexia. Its resounding splendour, not seldom passing into bombast, won for it immediate popularity, and it long held the stage. It was followed in 1604 by _Faustus_, a great advance upon _Tamburlaine_ in a dramatic sense. The absence of "material horror" in the treatment, so different in this respect from the original legend, has often been remarked upon. M.'s handling of the subject was greatly admired by Goethe, who, however, in his own version, makes the motive knowledge, while M. has power, and the mediæval legend pleasure. In his next play, _The Jew of Malta_, M. continues to show an advance in technical skill, but the work is unequal, and the Jew Barabas is to Shylock as a monster to a man. In _Edward II._, M. rises to his highest display of power. The rhodomontade of _Tamburlaine_ and the piled-up horror of _The Jew_ are replaced by a mature self-restraint, and in the whole workmanship he approaches more nearly to Shakespeare than any one else has ever done. Speaking of it Lamb says, "The death scene of Marlowe's King moves pity and terror beyond any scene, ancient or modern, with which I am acquainted." M. is now almost certainly believed to have had a large share in the three parts of _Henry VI._, and perhaps also he may have collaborated in _Titus Andronicus_. His next plays, _The Massacre of Paris_ and _The Tragedy of Dido_ (written with Nash, _q.v._), both show a marked falling off; and it seems likely that in his last years, perhaps, breaking down under the effects of a wild life, he became careless of fame as of all else. Greene, in his _Groat's Worth of Wit_, written on his deathbed, reproaches him with his evil life and atheistic opinions, and a few days before his hapless death an information was laid against him for blasphemy. The informer was next year hanged for an outrageous offence, and his witness alone might not be conclusive, but M.'s life and opinions, which he made no secret of, were notorious. On the other hand, his friends, Shakespeare, Nash, Drayton, and Chapman, all make kindly reference to him. To escape the plague which was raging in London in 1593, he was living at Deptford, then a country village, and there in a tavern brawl he received a wound in the head, his own knife being turned against him by a serving man, upon whom he had drawn it. The quarrel was about a girl of the town. The parish record bears the entry, "Christopher Marlowe, slain by ffrancis Archer, the 1 of June 1593." M. is the father of the modern English drama, and the introducer of the modern form of blank verse. In imagination, richness of expression, originality, and general poetic and dramatic power he is inferior to Shakespeare alone among the Elizabethans. In addition to his plays he wrote some short poems (of which the best known is _Come live with me and be my love_), translations from Ovid's _Amores_ and Lucan's _Pharsalia_, and a glowing paraphrase of Musaeus' _Hero and Leander_, a poem completed by Chapman.

Ed. of _Works_ by Dyce, Cunningham, and Bullen; Ingram's _C. Marlowe and his Associates_, etc.

MARMION, SHACKERLEY (1603-1639).--Dramatist, _s._ of a country gentleman of Northamptonshire, was _ed._ at Oxford. After a youth of extravagance, he fought in the Low Countries. His writings consist of an epic, _Cupid and Psyche_, and three comedies, _Holland's Leaguer_, _A Fair Companion_, and _The Antiquary_. His plays show some power of satire, and were popular, but he had little of the dramatist.

MARRYAT, FREDERICK (1792-1848).--Novelist, _s._ of a West India merchant, was _b._ in London. In 1806 he entered the navy as a midshipman under Lord Cochrane (afterwards Earl of Dundonald), and saw much service in the Mediterranean, at Walcheren, and in the Burmese War of 1824. He returned in 1830 as a Captain and C.B. The scenes and experiences through which he had passed were the preparation for and the foundation of his numerous novels, of which the first, _Frank Mildmay_, was _pub._ in 1829. It was followed by over 30 others, of which perhaps the best are _Peter Simple_, _Jacob Faithful_ (1834), _Mr. Midshipman Easy_ (1836), _The Dog Fiend_ (1837), and _The Phantom Ship_ (1839). M. is the prince of sea story-tellers; his knowledge of the sea, vigorous definition of character, and hearty and honest, if somewhat broad, humour never failing to please.

MARSH, HERBERT (1757-1839).--Theologian and controversialist, _s._ of a clergyman, _ed._ at Canterbury, Cambridge, and Leipsic, was the first to introduce the German methods of Biblical criticism into England, and gave lectures on the subject at Camb., which excited great interest and controversy. In 1816 he was made Bishop of Llandaff, and was translated to Peterborough in 1819. His critical views and his opposition to the evangelical party in the Church, to the Bible Society, to hymns in Divine service, and to Catholic emancipation, involved him in controversy with high, low, and broad churchmen alike. He was the author of a _History of the Politics of Great Britain and France_ (1799), _Comparative View of the Churches of England and Rome_, and _Horæ Pelasgicæ_.

MARSTON, JOHN (1575?-1634).--Dramatist and satirist, _b._ at Coventry, was _ed._ at Oxf. In later life he gave up writing for the stage, took orders, and was incumbent of Christchurch, Hants, 1616-31. He began his literary career in 1598 with satire, _The Scourge of Villanie_ and _The Metamorphosis of Pygmalion's Image_ (1598), the latter of which was burned by order of Archbishop Whitgift. In 1602 appeared _The History of Antonio and Mellida_, and its sequel, _Antonio's Revenge_, ridiculed by Ben Jonson. In repayment of this M. co-operated with Dekker in attacking Jonson in _Satiromastix_ (a Whip for the Satirist). A reconciliation, however, took place, and his comedy, _The Malcontent_ (1604), was dedicated to J., another, _Eastward Ho_ (1605), was written in collaboration with him and Chapman. Other plays of his are _Sophonisba_, _What You Will_ (1607), and possibly _The Insatiate Countess_ (1613). Amid much bombast and verbiage there are many fine passages in M.'s dramas, especially where scorn and indignation are the motives. Sombre and caustic, he has been called "a screech-owl among the singing birds."

MARSTON, PHILIP BOURKE (1850-1887).--Poet, was _b._ in London, and lost his sight at the age of 3. His poems, _Song-tide_, _All in All_, and _Wind Voices_ bear, in their sadness, the impress of this affliction, and of a long series of bereavements. He was the friend of Rossetti and of Swinburne, the latter of whom has written a sonnet to his memory.

MARTIN, SIR THEODORE (1816-1909).--Poet, biographer, and translator, _s._ of James M., solicitor in Edin., where he was _b._ and _ed._ at the High School and Univ. He practised as a solicitor in Edin. 1840-45, after which he went to London and became head of the firm of Martin and Leslie, parliamentary agents. His first contribution to literature was _The Bon Gaultier Ballads_, written along with W.E. Aytoun (_q.v._), full of wit and humour, which still retain their popularity; originally contributed to a magazine, they appeared in book form in 1855. His translations include _Dante's Vila Nuova_, Oehlenschläger's _Correggio_ and _Aladdin_, Heine's _Poems and Ballads_, Schiller's _Song of the Bell_, and Hertz's _King René's Daughter_. He also _pub._ a complete translation of Horace with a Life, and one of Catullus. He is, however, perhaps best known for his _Life of the Prince Consort_ (1874-80), the writing of which was committed to him by Queen Victoria, a work which he executed with such ability and tact as to win for him her lifelong friendship. He also wrote Lives of Prof. Aytoun and Lord Lyndhurst. He _m._ in 1851 Miss Helen Faucit (_d._ 1898), the well-known actress, and authoress of studies on _Shakespeare's Female Characters_, whose Life he _pub._ in 1901. M. kept up his intellectual activity into old age, _pub._ in 1905 a translation of Leopardi's poems, and _Monographs_ (1906). He was Lord Rector of St. Andrews 1881, LL.D. of Edin. 1875, and K.C.B. 1880.

MARTINEAU, HARRIET (1802-1876).--Novelist and economist, _b._ at Norwich, where her _f._, descended from a French family, was a manufacturer. From her earliest years she was delicate and very deaf, and took to literary pursuits as an amusement. Afterwards, when her _f._ had fallen into difficulties, they became her means of support. Her first publication was _Devotional Exercises for Young Persons_ (1823). Becoming interested in political economy, she endeavoured to illustrate the subject by tales, of which two were _The Rioters_ and _The Turn-out_. Later she _pub._ a more serious treatment of it in _Illustrations of Political Economy_ (1832-4), _Poor Law and Paupers_ (1833), and _Illustrations of Taxation_ (1834). About this time she went to London, and was regarded as an authority on economic questions, being occasionally consulted by Cabinet Ministers. Among her books of travel are _Society in America_ (1837), and _Eastern Life, Present and Past_ (1848), which she considered her best book: in it she declared herself no longer a believer in revelation. She also wrote two novels, _Deerbrook_ (1839), and _The Hour and the Man_ (1840), also a number of books for children. Perhaps her most important work is her _History of England during the Thirty Years' Peace_, 1816-46, which appeared in 1849. She translated Comte's _Philosophy_ (1853), and _pub._ a collection of letters between herself and Mr. H.G. Atkinson _On the Laws of Man's Nature and Development_, which encountered severe criticism. In addition to her separate publications she wrote innumerable articles for newspapers, specially the _Daily News_, and for periodicals. In 1845 she settled in the Lake District, where she died.

MARTINEAU, JAMES (1805-1900).--Unitarian theologian, younger brother of the above, was _b._ at Norwich. Possessed of considerable inventive and mathematical talents, he was originally intended for engineering, but studied for the Unitarian ministry, to which he was ordained in 1828. After serving as pastor in various places he became in 1840 Prof. of Mental and Moral Philosophy in the Manchester New Coll. (subsequently removed to London), and Principal 1869-85. Among his writings, which were very influential, are _Rationale of Religious Inquiry_ (1836), _Ideal Substitutes for God_ (1879), _Study of Spinoza_ (1882), _Types of Ethical Theory_ (1885), _Study of Religion_ (1888), _Seat of Authority in Religion_ (1890), and religious poems and hymns. M. was a man of very elevated character and powerful intellect; of great acuteness, candour, and openness to new ideas. He was D.D. of Edin. 1884, and D.C.L. of Oxf. 1888.

MARVELL, ANDREW (1621-1678).--Poet and satirist, _s._ of the Rector of Winestead, Yorkshire, where he was _b._, _ed._ Camb., and thereafter travelled in various Continental countries. He sat in Parliament for Hull, proving himself an assiduous and incorruptible member, with strong republican leanings. In spite of this he was a favourite of Charles II., who took pleasure in his society, and offered him a place at Court, and a present of £1000, which were both declined. In his own day he was best known as a powerful and fearless political writer, and for some time from 1657 was assistant to Milton as Latin Sec. After the Restoration he wrote against the Government, his chief work in this kind being on the _Growth of Popery and Arbitrary Government in England_ (1677). He was also the author of an _Historical Essay regarding General Councils_. His controversial style was lively and vigorous, but sometimes coarse and vituperative. His fame now rests on his poems which, though few, have many of the highest poetical qualities. Among the best known are _The Emigrants in the Bermudas_, _The Nymph complaining for the Death of her Fawn_, and _Thoughts in a Garden_. Of the last Palgrave says that "it may be regarded as a test of any reader's insight into the most poetical aspects of poetry," and his _Horatian Ode on Cromwell's Return from Ireland_. The town of Hull voted him a monument, which was, however, forbidden by the Court. His appearance is thus described, "He was of middling stature, pretty strong-set, roundish-faced, cherry-cheeked, hazel-eyed, brown-haired."

_Life and Works_ by Cooke, 1726, reprinted 1772; Thomson, 1726; Dove, 1832; and specially Grosart (4 vols., 1872-74).

MASON, WILLIAM (1724-1797).--Poet, _s._ of a clergyman, was _b._ at Hull, and _ed._ at Camb. He took orders and rose to be a Canon of York. His first poem was _Musæus_, a monody on the death of Pope, and his other works include _Elfrida_ (1752), and _Caractacus_ (1759), dramas--an _Heroic Epistle_ to Sir William Chambers, the architect, in which he satirised some modern fashions in gardening, _The English Garden_, his largest work, and some odes. He was a close friend of Gray, whose Life he wrote. His language was too magnificent for his powers of thought, but he has passages where the rich diction has a pleasing effect.

MASSEY, GERALD (1828-1907).--Poet, _b._ near Tring, Herts. As a boy he worked in a silk-factory, and as a straw-plaiter and errand boy. When he was 15 he came to London, where he was taken up by Maurice and Kingsley. His first book was _pub._ in 1851, but he first attracted attention by _Babe Christabel_ (1854). This was followed by _War Waits_, _Craigcrook Castle_, and _Havelock's March_. A selection from these was _pub._ 1889, under the title of _My Lyrical Life_. Later he wrote and lectured on spiritualism, and produced prose works on the origin of myths and mysteries in _The Book of Beginnings_ (1881), _The Natural Genesis_ (1883), and _Ancient Egypt: the Light of the World_ (1907). He also wrote a book on the sonnets of Shakespeare. M. had a true lyrical vein, but though often musical, he was at times harsh and rugged, and did not give sufficient attention to form and finish.

MASSINGER, PHILIP (1583-1640).--Dramatist, was probably _b._ at Salisbury. His _f._ appears to have been a retainer of the Earl of Pembroke, by whom and by Queen Elizabeth he was employed in a confidential capacity. M. was at Oxf., but quitted the Univ. suddenly without graduating. He is next found in London writing for the stage, frequently in collaboration with others. Few details of his life have come down, but it seems that he was on the whole unfortunate. He was found dead in bed on March 16, 1640, and was buried in St. Saviour's, Southwark, by some of the actors. The burial register has the entry, "buried Philip Massinger, a stranger." Of the many plays which he wrote or had a hand in, 15 believed to be entirely his are extant, other 8 were burned by a servant in the 18th century. He, however, collaborated so much with others--Fletcher, Dekker, etc., that much fine work probably his can only be identified by internal evidence. Among his plays may be mentioned _The Unnatural Combat_ (_pr._ 1639), _The Virgin Martyr_ (1622) (partly by Dekker), which contains perhaps his finest writing. His best plays on the whole, however, are _The City Madam_ (1632), and _A New Way to pay Old Debts_ (_pr._ 1633), which latter kept the stage until the 19th century. He is believed to have joined with Fletcher and Shakespeare in _Henry VIII._ and _The Two Noble Kinsmen_. Other plays which he wrote or had a hand in are _The Duke of Milan_, _The Bondman_, _The Renegado_, _The Roman Actor_, _The Great Duke of Florence_, _The Maid of Honour_, _The Picture_, and _The Fatal Dowry_. His verse is fluent and sweet, and in his grave and reflective passages he rises to a rich and stately music. He often repeats himself, has little humour, and is not seldom coarse. He has, however, much skill in the construction and working out of a story.

MASSON, DAVID (1822-1907).--Biographer and historian, _b._ at Aberdeen, and _ed._ at Marischal Coll. there and at Edin., where he studied theology under Chalmers. He did not, however, enter the Church, but began a literary career by ed. a newspaper in Aberdeen. He then returned to Edin., where he worked for the brothers Chambers, the eminent publishers, and where he became acquainted with Wilson, Sir William Hamilton, and Chalmers, for the last of whom he cherished an extraordinary veneration. Going to London in 1847 he wrote extensively in reviews, magazines, and encyclopædias. In 1852 he became Prof. of English Literature in Univ. Coll., and in 1858 ed. of _Macmillan's Magazine_. He was appointed in 1865 Prof. of English Literature in Edin., where he exercised a profound influence on his students, many of whom have risen to high positions in literature. Though a most laborious student and man of letters, M. took a warm interest in various public questions, including Italian emancipation, and the higher education of women. He was the author of many important works, including _Essays Biographical and Critical_ (1856), _British Novelists_ (1859), and _Recent British Philosophy_ (1865). His _magnum opus_ is his monumental _Life of John Milton_ (6 vols., 1859-80) the most complete biography of any Englishman, dealing as it does not only with the personal life of the poet, but with the history, political, social, and religious of his time. Other books are _Drummond of Hawthornden_ (1873), _De Quincey_ (in English Men of Letters Series) (1878), _Edinburgh Sketches and Memories_ (1892), and _Carlyle Personally and in his Writings_. He also ed. the standard ed. of De Quincey's works, and the Register of the Privy Council of Scotland, his introductions in connection with which are of great historical value. He was appointed Historiographer for Scotland in 1893. M. was full of learning guided by sagacity, genial, broad-minded, and sane in his judgments of men and things, and thoroughly honest and sincere.

MATHER, COTTON (1663-1728).--Divine, _s._ of Increase M., a leading American divine, was _ed._ at Harvard, became a minister, and was colleague to his _f._ He was laborious, able, and learned, but extremely bigoted and self-sufficient. He carried on a persecution of so-called "witches," which led to the shedding of much innocent blood; on the other hand he was so much of a reformer as to advocate inoculation for small-pox. He was a copious author, his chief work being _Magnalia Christi Americana_ (1702), an ecclesiastical history of New England. Others were _Late Memorable Providences relating to Witchcraft and Possession_ (1689), and _The Wonders of the Invisible World_ (1693). In his later years he admitted that "he had gone too far" in his crusade against witches.

MATHIAS, THOMAS JAMES (1754?-1835).--Satirist, _ed._ at Camb., and held some minor appointments in the Royal household. He was an accomplished Italian scholar, and made various translations from the English into Italian, and _vice versâ_. He also produced a fine ed. of Gray, on which he lost heavily. His chief work, however, was _The Pursuits of Literature_ (1794), an undiscriminating satire on his literary contemporaries which went through 16 ed., but is now almost forgotten.

MATURIN, CHARLES ROBERT (1782-1824).--Novelist, _b._ in Dublin of Huguenot ancestry, was _ed._ at Trinity Coll. there, and taking orders held various benefices. He was the author of a few dramas, one of which, _Bertram_, had some success. He is, perhaps, better known for his romances in the style of Mrs. Radcliffe and "Monk" Lewis. The first of these, _The Fatal Revenge_ appeared in 1807, and was followed by, among others, _The Milesian Chief_ (1812), _Women_, which was the most successful, and lastly by _Melmoth_, in which he outdoes his models in the mysterious, the horrible, and indeed the revolting, without, except very occasionally, reaching their power. His last work, _The Albigenses_, in a somewhat different style, was _pub._ in the year of his death.

MAURICE, FREDERICK DENISON (1805-1872).--Divine, _s._ of a Unitarian minister, was _b._ at Normanston, near Lowestoft, and studied at Camb., but being then a Dissenter, could not graduate. He went to London, and engaged in literary work, writing for the _Westminster Review_ and other periodicals, and for a short time ed. the _Athenæum_. His theological views having changed, he joined the Church of England, went to Oxf., graduated, and was ordained 1834. He became Chaplain to Guy's Hospital, and held other clerical positions in London. In 1840 he was appointed Prof. of English Literature and History at King's Coll., and subsequently Prof. of Theology. He became a leader among the Christian socialists, and for a short time ed. their paper. On the publication of his _Theological Essays_ in 1853 he was asked to resign his professorship at King's Coll. In 1854 he was one of the founders of the Working Men's Coll., of which he became Principal, and in 1866 he was made Prof. of Moral Philosophy at Camb. Among his writings are _The Religions of the World and their Relation to Christianity_, _Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy_, _The Prophets and Kings of the Old Testament_ (1853), _The Doctrine of Sacrifice_, and _Theological Essays_. M.'s style was copious, and was often blamed as obscure; nevertheless, he exercised an extraordinary influence over some of the best minds of his time by the originality of his views, and the purity and elevation of his character.

MAXWELL, WILLIAM HAMILTON (1792-1850).--Novelist, a Scoto-Irishman, _b._ at Newry, and _ed._ at Trinity Coll., Dublin, entered the army, and saw service in the Peninsula, and at Waterloo. Afterwards he took orders, but was deprived of his living for non-residence. His novels, _O'Hara_, and _Stories from Waterloo_, started the school of rollicking military fiction, which culminated in the novels of Lever. M. also wrote a Life of the Duke of Wellington, and a _History of the Irish Rebellion_.

MAX-MÜLLER, FRIEDRICH (1823-1900).--Philologist, _s._ of the German poet, Wilhelm M., was _b._ at Dessau, and _ed._ at Leipzig, Berlin, and Paris. In 1846 he was requested by the East India Company to ed. the _Rig Veda_. He settled at Oxf. in 1848, and in 1850 was appointed deputy Taylorian Prof. of Modern European languages, becoming Prof. 4 years later, and Curator of the Bodleian Library in 1856. In 1868 he was elected first Prof. of Comparative Philology. He ed. _Sacred Books of the East_, and wrote in English _Chips from a German Workshop_ (1867-75). He did much to stimulate the study of comparative religion and philology. He was made a Privy Councillor in 1896.

MAY, THOMAS (1595-1650).--Poet and historian, _b._ in Sussex, _s._ of Sir Thomas M., of Mayfield, went to Camb., and thence to Gray's Inn, but discarded law for literature. In 1622 he produced his first comedy, _The Heir_, and also a translation of Virgil's _Georgics_. Six years later, 1627, appeared his translation of _Lucan_, which gained him the favour of Charles I. at whose command he wrote two poems, _The Reigne of King Henry II._, and _The Victorious Reigne of King Edward III._, each in 7 books. When the Civil War broke out M., to the disappointment of his friends, took the side of the Parliament, and was made Sec. to the Long Parliament, the historian of which he became, _pub._ 1647, _The History of the Parliament of England, which began Nov. 3, 1640_. This work he prefaced with a short review of the preceding reigns from that of Elizabeth. The narrative closes with the Battle of Newbury, 1643, and is characterised by fulness of information and candour. M. was also the author of several tragedies, including _Antigone_, of no great merit.

MAY, SIR THOMAS ERSKINE, 1ST BARON FARNBOROUGH (1815-1886).--Jurist and historian, _ed._ at Bedford School, and after holding various minor offices became in 1871 clerk to the House of Commons, retiring in 1886, when he was raised to the peerage. He had previously, 1866, been made K.C.B. He was the author of a treatise on the laws, privileges, etc., of Parliament, which, first _pub._ in 1844, reached in 1901 its tenth ed., and was translated into various languages. His _Constitutional History of England_, 1760-1860 is practically a continuation of Hallam's great work. He also wrote _Democracy in Europe_. As an historical writer M. was learned, painstaking, and impartial.

MAYNE, JASPER (1604-1672).--Dramatist, was at Oxf., entered the Church, and became Archdeacon of Chichester. He wrote two dramas, _The City Match_ (1639), and _The Amorous War_ (1648), in neither of which did he sustain the clerical character. He had, however, some humour.

MAYNE, JOHN (1759-1836).--Poet, was _b._ in Dumfries. In 1780 he _pub._ the _Siller Gun_ in its original form in _Ruddiman's Magazine_. It is a humorous poem descriptive of an ancient custom in Dumfries of shooting for the "Siller Gun." He was continually adding to it, until it grew to 5 cantos. He also wrote a poem on _Hallowe'en_, and a version of the ballad, _Helen of Kirkconnel_. His verses were admired by Scott.

MELVILLE, HERMAN (1819-1891).--Novelist, _b._ in New York, and took to the sea, which led to strange adventures, including an imprisonment of some months in the hands of cannibals in the Marquesas Islands. His first novel, _Typee_ (1846), is based upon this experience. _Omoo_ followed in 1847, _Moby Dick, or the White Whale_, a powerful sea story, in 1852, and _Israel Potter_ in 1855. He was a very unequal writer, but occasionally showed considerable power and originality.

MELVILLE, JAMES (1556-1614).--Scottish divine and reformer, _s._ of the laird of Baldovie, in Forfarshire, and nephew of the great reformer and scholar, Andrew M., by whom, when Principal of the Univ. of Glasgow, he was chosen to assist him as a regent or professor. When, in 1580, Andrew became Principal of St. Mary's Coll., St. Andrews, James accompanied him, and acted as Prof. of Hebrew and Oriental Languages. He wrote many poems, but his chief work was his _Diary_, an original authority for the period, written with much naïveté, and revealing a singularly attractive personality. M., who for his part in Church matters, had been banished to England, _d._ at Berwick on his way back to Scotland.

MELVILLE, SIR JAMES (1535-1617).--Historian, _s._ of Sir John M., of Hallhill, was a page to Mary Queen of Scots at the French Court, and afterwards one of her Privy Council. He also acted as her envoy to Queen Elizabeth and the Elector Palatine. He was the author of an autobiography which is one of the original authorities for the period. The MS., which lay for long hidden in Edin. Castle, was discovered in 1660, and _pub._ 1683. A later ed. was brought out in 1827 by the Bannatyne Club. The work is written in a lively style, but is not always to be implicitly relied upon in regard either to facts or the characters attributed to individuals.

MEREDITH, GEORGE (1828-1909).--Novelist and poet, _b._ at Portsmouth, _s._ of Augustus M., a naval outfitter, who afterwards went to Cape Town, and _ed._ at Portsmouth and Neuwied in Germany. Owing to the neglect of a trustee, what means he had inherited were lost, and he was in his early days very poor. Articled to a lawyer in London, he had no taste for law, which he soon exchanged for journalism, and at 21 he was writing poetry for magazines, his first printed work, a poem on the Battle of Chillianwallah, appearing in _Chambers's Journal_. Two years later he _pub._ _Poems_ (1851), containing _Love in the Valley_. Meantime he had been ed. a small provincial newspaper, and in 1866 he was war correspondent in Italy for the _Morning Post_, and he also acted for many years as literary adviser to Chapman and Hall. By this time, however, he had produced several of his novels. _The Shaving of Shagpat_ had appeared in 1856, _Farina_ in 1857, _The Ordeal of Richard Feverel_ in 1859, _Evan Harrington_ in 1861, _Emilia in England_ (also known as _Sandra Belloni_) in 1864, its sequel, _Vittoria_, in 1866, and _Rhoda Fleming_ in 1865. In poetry he had produced _Modern Love and Poems of the English Roadside_ (1862), generally regarded as his best poetical work. These were followed by _The Adventures of Harry Richmond_ (1871), _Beauchamp's Career_ (1875), said to be the author's favourite, _The Egoist_ (1879), which marks the beginning of a change in style characterised by an even greater fastidiousness in the choice of words, phrases, and condensation of thought than its predecessors, _The Tragic Comedians_ (1880), and _Diana of the Crossways_, the first of the author's novels to attain anything approaching general popularity. The same period yielded in poetry, _Poems and Lyrics of the Joy of Earth_ (1883), _Ballads and Poems of Tragic Life_ (1887), and _A Reading of Earth_ (1888). His later novels, _One of our Conquerors_ (1891), _Lord Ormont and his Aminta_ (1894), and _The Amazing Marriage_ (1895), exhibit a tendency to accentuate those qualities of style which denied general popularity to all of M.'s works, and they did little to add to his reputation. The contemporary poems include _The Empty Purse_ and _Jump to Glory Jane_ (1892). In 1905 he received the Order of Merit, and he _d._ on May 19, 1909. He was twice _m._, his first wife, who _d._ 1860, being a _dau._ of Thomas Love Peacock (_q.v._). This union did not prove in all respects happy. His second wife was Miss Vulliamy, who _d._ 1885. In his earlier life he was vigorous and athletic, and a great walker; latterly he lost all power of locomotion.

Though the writings of M. never were and probably never will be generally popular, his genius was, from the very first, recognised by the best judges. All through he wrote for the reader who brought something of mind, thought, and attention, not for him who read merely to be amused without trouble; and it is therefore futile to attribute failure to him because he did not achieve what he did not aim at. Nevertheless, the long delay in receiving even the kind of recognition which he sought was a disappointment to him. Few writers have striven to charge sentences and even words so heavily with meaning, or to attain so great a degree of condensation, with the result that links in the chain of thought are not seldom omitted and left for the careful reader to supply. There is also a tendency to adopt unusual words and forms of expression where plainness and simplicity would have served as well, and these features taken together give reason for the charges of obscurity and affectation so often made. Moreover, the discussion of motive and feeling is often out of proportion to the narrative of the events and circumstances to which they stand related. But to compensate us for these defects he offers humour, often, indeed, whimsical, but keen and sparkling, close observation of and exquisite feeling for nature, a marvellous power of word-painting, the most delicate and penetrating analysis of character, and an invincible optimism which, while not blind to the darker aspects of life, triumphs over the depression which they might induce in a weaker nature. In matters of faith and dogma his standpoint was distinctly negative.

MERES, FRANCIS (1565-1647).--Miscellaneous author, was of a Lincolnshire family, studied at Camb. and Oxf., and became Rector of Wing in Rutland. He _pub._ in 1598 _Palladis Tamia: Wit's Treasury_, containing a comparison of English poets with Greek, Latin, and Italian.

MERIVALE, CHARLES (1808-1893).--Historian, _s._ of John Herman M., a translator and minor poet, _b._ in London, _ed._ at Harrow, Haileybury, and Camb., he took orders, and among other preferments held those of chaplain to the Speaker of the House of Commons, 1863-69, and Dean of Ely. From his college days he was a keen student of Roman history, and between 1850 and 1864 he _pub._ his _History of the Romans under the Empire_, an able and scholarly work, though considered by some critics to be too favourable to the Emperors, and the imperial idea. An earlier work was _The Fall of the Roman Republic_ (1853).

MERRIMAN, H. SETON, (_see_ SCOTT, H.S.).

MESTON, WILLIAM (1688?-1745).--_S._ of a blacksmith, was _ed._ at Marischal Coll., Aberdeen, took part in the '15, and had to go into hiding. His _Knight of the Kirk_ (1723) is an imitation of _Hudibras_. It has little merit.

MICKLE, WILLIAM JULIUS (1735-1788).--Poet, _s._ of the minister of Langholm, Dumfriesshire, was for some time a brewer in Edin., but failed. He went to Oxf., where he was corrector for the Clarendon Press. After various literary failures and minor successes he produced his translation of the _Lusiad_, from the Portuguese of Camoens, which brought him both fame and money. In 1777 he went to Portugal, where he was received with distinction. In 1784 he _pub._ the ballad of _Cumnor Hall_, which suggested to Scott the writing of _Kenilworth_. He is perhaps best remembered, however, by the beautiful lyric, _There's nae luck aboot the Hoose_, which, although claimed by others, is almost certainly his.

MIDDLETON, CONYERS (1683-1750).--Divine and scholar, _b._ at Richmond, Yorkshire, and _ed._ at Camb. He was the author of several latitudinarian treatises on miracles, etc., which brought him into controversy with Waterland (_q.v._) and others, and of a _Life of Cicero_ (1741), largely plagiarised from William Bellenden, a Scottish writer of the 17th century. Another of his controversies was with Bentley on college administration. He was master of a very fine literary style.

MIDDLETON, THOMAS (1570-1627).--Dramatist, was a Londoner and city chronologer, in which capacity he composed a chronicle of the city, now lost. He wrote over 20 plays, chiefly comedies, besides masques and pageants, and collaborated with Dekker, Webster, and other playwrights. His best plays are _The Changeling_, _The Spanish Gipsy_ (both with Rowley), and _Women beware Women_. Another, _The Game of Chess_ (1624), got the author and the players alike into trouble on account of its having brought the King of Spain and other public characters upon the stage. They, however, got off with a severe reprimand. M. was a keen observer of London life, and shone most in scenes of strong passion. He is, however, unequal and repeats himself. Other plays are: _The Phoenix_, _Michaelmas Term_ (1607), _A Trick to Catch the old One_ (1608), _The Familie of Love_ (1608), _A Mad World, My Masters_ (1608), _The Roaring Girl_ (1611) (with Dekker), _The Old Law_ (1656) (with Massinger and Rowley), _A Faire Quarrel_ (1617); and among his pageants and masques are _The Triumphs of Truth_ (1613), _The Triumphs of Honour and Industry_ (1617), _The Inner Temple Masque_ (1619), etc.

MILL, JAMES (1773-1836).--Philosopher and historian, _s._ of a shoemaker, was _b._ at Montrose, and showing signs of superior ability, was sent to the Univ. of Edin. with a view to the ministry. He was licensed as a preacher in 1798, but gave up the idea of the Church, and going to London in 1802 engaged in literary work, ed. the _St. James's Chronicle_, and wrote for the _Edinburgh Review_. In 1806 he began his _History of British India_ (1817-18), and in 1819 received the appointment of Assistant Examiner to the India Office, and in 1834 became head of the department. M. had meanwhile become the intimate friend of Jeremy Bentham, was perhaps the chief exponent of the utilitarian philosophy, and was also one of the founders of the London Univ. His philosophical writings include _Elements of Political Economy_ (1821), and _Analysis of the Human Mind_ (1824). M.'s intellect was powerful, though rigid and somewhat narrow; his style was clear and precise, and his conversational powers very remarkable, and influential in moulding the opinions of those who came into contact with him, especially his distinguished son, John Stuart (_q.v._).

MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873).--Philosopher, _s._ of the above, _b._ in London, was _ed._ by his _f._ with the view of making him the successor of Bentham and himself, as the exponent of the Utilitarian philosophy. In all respects he proved an apt pupil, and by his 15th year had studied classical literature, logic, political economy, and mathematics. In that year he went to France, where he was under the charge of Sir S. Bentham, a brother of Jeremy. His studies had led him to the adoption of the utilitarian philosophy, and after his return he became acquainted with Grote, the Austins, and other Benthamites. In 1823 he entered the India House as a clerk, and, like his _f._, rose to be examiner of Indian correspondence; and, on the dissolution of the Company, retired on a liberal pension. In 1825 he ed. Bentham's _Rationale of Judicial Evidence_. During the following years he was a frequent contributor to Radical journals, and ed. the _London Review_. His _Logic_ appeared in 1843, and produced a profound impression; and in 1848 he _pub._ _Principles of Political Economy_. The years between 1858 and 1865 were very productive, his treatises on _Liberty_, _Utilitarianism_, _Representative Government_, and his _Examination of Sir W. Hamilton's Philosophy_ being _pub._ during this period. In 1865 he entered the House of Commons as one of the members for Westminster, where, though highly respected, he made no great mark. After this political parenthesis he returned to his literary pursuits, and wrote _The Subjection of Women_ (1869), _The Irish Land Question_ (1870), and an _Autobiography_. M. had _m._ in 1851 Mrs. Taylor, for whom he showed an extraordinary devotion, and whom he survived for 15 years. He _d._ at Avignon. His _Autobiography_ gives a singular, and in some respects painful account of the methods and views of his _f._ in his education. Though remaining all his life an adherent of the utilitarian philosophy, M. did not transmit it to his disciples altogether unmodified, but, finding it too narrow and rigid for his own intellectual and moral requirements, devoted himself to widening it, and infusing into it a certain element of idealism.

Bain's _Criticism with Personal Recollections_ (1882), L. Courtney's _John Stuart Mill_ (1889), _Autobiography_, Stephens's _Utilitarians_, J. Grote's _Examination of the Utilitarian Philosophy of Mill_, etc.

MILLER, HUGH (1802-1856).--Geologist, and man of letters, _b._ at Cromarty, had the ordinary parish school education, and early showed a remarkable love of reading and power of story-telling. At 17 he was apprenticed to a stonemason, and his work in quarries, together with rambles among the rocks of his native shore, led him to the study of geology. In 1829 he _pub._ a vol. of poems, and soon afterwards threw himself as an ardent and effective combatant into the controversies, first of the Reform Bill, and thereafter of the Scottish Church question. In 1834 he became accountant in one of the local banks, and in the next year brought out his _Scenes and Legends in the North of Scotland_. In 1840 the popular party in the Church, with which he had been associated, started a newspaper, _The Witness_, and M. was called to be ed., a position which he retained till the end of his life, and in which he showed conspicuous ability. Among his geological works are _The Old Red Sandstone_ (1841), _Footprints of the Creator_ (1850), _The Testimony of the Rocks_ (1856), and _Sketch-book of Popular Geology_. Other books are: _My Schools and Schoolmasters_, an autobiography of remarkable interest, _First Impressions of England and its People_ (1847), and _The Cruise of the Betsy_. Of the geological books, perhaps that on the old red sandstone, a department in which M. was a discoverer, is the best: but all his writings are distinguished by great literary excellence, and especially by a marvellous power of vivid description. The end of his life was most tragic. He had for long been overworking his brain, which at last gave way, and in a temporary loss of reason, he shot himself during the night.

_Life and Letters_, P. Bayne (1871), etc.

MILLER, THOMAS (1807-1874).--Poet and novelist, of humble parentage, worked in early life as a basket-maker. He _pub._ _Songs of the Sea Nymphs_ (1832). Going to London he was befriended by Lady Blessington (_q.v._) and S. Rogers (_q.v._), and for a time engaged in business as a bookseller, but was unsuccessful and devoted himself exclusively to literature, producing over 40 vols., including several novels, _e.g._, _Royston Gower_ (1838), _Gideon Giles the Roper_, and _Rural Sketches_. In his stories he successfully delineated rural characters and scenes.

MILMAN, HENRY HART (1791-1868).--Poet and historian, _s._ of Sir Francis M., a distinguished physician, _ed._ at Eton and Oxf. Taking orders he became in 1835 Rector of St. Margaret's, Westminster, and in 1849 Dean of St. Paul's. He also held the professorship of Poetry at Oxf. 1821-31. Among his poetical works may be mentioned _Fazio_ (drama) (1815), _Samor_ (epic) (1818), _The Fall of Jerusalem_ (1820), _The Martyr of Antioch_ (1822), and _Anne Boleyn_ (1826). It is, however, on his work as an historian that his literary fame chiefly rests, his chief works in this department being his _History of the Jews_ (1830), _History of Christianity_ (1840), and especially _The History of Latin Christianity_ (6 vols. 1854-56), which is one of the most important historical works of the century, characterised alike by literary distinction and by learning and research. M. also brought out a valuable ed. of Gibbon's _Decline and Fall_, and wrote a _History of St. Paul's Cathedral_.

MILNES, R. MONCKTON, (_see_ HOUGHTON).

MILTON, JOHN (1608-1674).--Poet, was _b._ 9th December 1608 in Bread Street, London. His _f._, also John, was the _s._ of a yeoman of Oxfordshire, who cast him off on his becoming a Protestant. He had then become a scrivener in London, and grew to be a man of good estate. From him his illustrious _s._ inherited his lofty integrity, and his love of, and proficiency in, music. M. received his first education from a Scotch friend of his father's, Thomas Young, a Puritan of some note, one of the writers of _Smectymnuus_. Thereafter he was at St. Paul's School, and in 1625 went to Christ's Coll., Camb., where for his beauty and his delicacy of mind he was nicknamed "the lady." His sister Anne had _m._ Edward Phillips, and the death of her first child in infancy gave to him the subject of his earliest poem, _On the death of a Fair Infant_ (1626). It was followed during his 7 years' life at the Univ., along with others, by the poems, _On the Morning of Christ's Nativity_ (1629), _On the Circumcision_, _The Passion_, _Time_, _At a Solemn Music_, _On May Morning_, and _On Shakespeare_, all in 1630; and two sonnets, _To the Nightingale_ and _On arriving at the Age of Twenty-three_, in 1631. In 1632, having given up the idea of entering the Church, for which his _f._ had intended him, he lived for 6 years at Horton, near Windsor, to which the latter had retired, devoted to further study. Here he wrote _L'Allegro_ and _Il Penseroso_ in 1632, _Arcades_ (1633), _Comus_ in 1634, and _Lycidas_ in 1637. The first celebrates the pleasures of a life of cheerful innocence, and the second of contemplative, though not gloomy, retirement, and the last is a lament for a lost friend, Edward King, who perished at sea. _Arcades_ and _Comus_ are masques set to music by Henry Lawes, having for their motives respectively family affection and maiden purity. Had he written nothing else these would have given him a place among the immortals. In 1638 he completed his education by a period of travel in France and Italy, where he visited Grotius at Paris, and Galileo at Florence. The news of impending troubles in Church and State brought him home the following year, and with his return may be said to close the first of three well-marked divisions into which his life falls. These may be called (1) the period of preparation and of the early poems; (2) the period of controversy, and of the prose writings; and (3) the period of retirement and of the later poems. Soon after his return M. settled in London, and employed himself in teaching his nephews, Edward and John Phillips, turning over in his mind at the same time various subjects as the possible theme for the great poem which, as the chief object of his life, he looked forward to writing. But he was soon to be called away to far other matters, and to be plunged into the controversies and practical business which were to absorb his energies for the next 20 years. The works of this period fall into three classes--(1) those directed against Episcopacy, including _Reformation of Church Discipline in England_ (1641), and his answers to the writings of Bishop Hall (_q.v._), and in defence of _Smectymnuus_ (_see_ under Calamy); (2) those relating to divorce, including _The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce_ (1643), and _The Four Chief Places of Scripture which treat of Marriage_ (1645); and (3) those on political and miscellaneous questions, including the _Tractate on Education_ (1644), _Areopagitica_ (1644), _A Speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing_ (his greatest prose work), _Eikonoklastes_, an answer to the _Eikon Basiliké_ of Dr. Gauden (_q.v._), _The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates_ (1649), in defence of the execution of Charles I., which led to the furious controversy with Salmasius, the writing of _Pro Populo Anglicano Defensio_ (1650), the second _Defensio_ (1654), which carried his name over Europe, and _The Ready and Easy Way to establish a Free Commonwealth_, written on the eve of the Restoration. In 1643 M. had _m._ Mary Powell, the _dau._ of an Oxfordshire cavalier, a girl of 17, who soon found her new life as the companion of an austere poet, absorbed in severe study, too abrupt a change from the gay society to which she had been accustomed, and in a month returned to her father's house on a visit. When the time fixed for rejoining her husband arrived, she showed no disposition to do so, upon which he began to aim at a divorce, and to advocate in the works above mentioned "unfitness and contrariety of mind" as a valid ground for it, views which incurred for him much notoriety and unpopularity. A reconciliation, however, followed in 1645, and three _dau._ were born of the marriage. In 1649 the reputation of M. as a Latinist led to his appointment as Latin or Foreign Sec. to the Council of State, in the duties of which he was, after his sight began to fail, assisted by A. Marvell (_q.v._) and others, and which he retained until the Restoration. In 1652 his wife _d._, and four years later he entered into a second marriage with Katharine Woodcock, who _d._ in child-birth in the following year. To her memory he dedicated one of the most touching of his sonnets. At the Restoration he was, of course, deprived of his office, and had to go into hiding; but on the intercession of Marvell (_q.v._), and perhaps Davenant (_q.v._), his name was included in the amnesty. In 1663, being now totally blind and somewhat helpless, he asked his friend Dr. Paget to recommend a wife for him. The lady chosen was Elizabeth Minshull, aged 25, who appears to have given him domestic happiness in his last years. She survived him for 53 years. The Restoration closed his second, and introduced his third, and for his fame, most productive period. He was now free to devote his whole powers to the great work which he had so long contemplated. For some time he had been in doubt as to the subject, had considered the Arthurian legends, but had decided upon the Fall of Man. The result was _Paradise Lost_, which was begun in 1658, finished in 1664, and _pub._ in 1667. A remark of his friend, Thomas Ellwood (_q.v._), suggested to him the writing of _Paradise Regained_, which, along with _Samson Agonistes_, was _pub._ in 1671. Two years before he had printed a _History of Britain_, written long before, which, however, is of little value. The work of M. was now done. In addition to his blindness he suffered from gout, to which it was

## partly attributable, and, his strength gradually failing, but with mind

unimpaired and serene, he _d._ peacefully on November 8, 1674. In M. the influences of the Renaissance and of Puritanism met. To the former he owed his wide culture and his profound love of everything noble and beautiful, to the latter his lofty and austere character, and both these elements meet in his writings. Leaving Shakespeare out of account, he holds an indisputable place at the head of English poets. For strength of imagination, delicate accuracy and suggestiveness of language, and harmony of versification, he is unrivalled, and almost unapproached; and when the difficulties inherent in the subject of his great masterpiece are considered, the power he shows in dealing with them appears almost miraculous, and we feel that in those parts where he has failed, success was impossible for a mortal. In his use of blank verse he has, for majesty, variety, and music, never been approached by any of his successors. He had no dramatic power and no humour. In everything he wrote, a proud and commanding genius manifests itself, and he is one of those writers who inspire reverence rather than affection. His personal appearance in early life has been thus described, "He was a little under middle height, slender, but erect, vigorous, and agile, with light brown hair clustering about his fair and oval face, with dark grey eyes."

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1608, _ed._ at St. Paul's School and Camb., and while at the latter wrote earlier poems including _The Nativity_ and Sonnets, lived for 6 years at Horton and wrote _L'Allegro_, _Il Penseroso_, _Arcades_, _Comus_, and _Lycidas_, travelled in France and Italy 1638, settled in London, entered on his political and controversial labours, and wrote _inter alia_ on _Reform of Discipline_ 1641, _Divorce_ 1643-45, _Education_ 1644, _Areopagitica_ 1644, and the two _Defences_ 1650 and 1654, appointed Latin Sec. 1649, this period closed by Restoration 1660, _Paradise Lost_ written 1658-64, _pub._ 1667, _Paradise Regained_ and _Samson Agonistes_ 1671, _d._ 1674, _m._ first 1643 Mary Powell, second 1652 Katharine Woodcock, third 1663 Eliz. Minshull, who survived till 1727.

_Life_ by Prof. Masson (_6_ vols. 1859-80), also short Lives by M. Patteson (1880), Garnett (1889). Ed. of _Works_ by Boydell, Sir E. Brydges, and Prof. Masson.

MINOT, LAURENCE (1300?-1352?).--Poet. Nothing is certainly known of him. He may have been a soldier. He celebrates in northern English and with a somewhat ferocious patriotism the victories of Edward III. over the Scots and the French.

MINTO, WILLIAM (1845-1893).--Critic and biographer, _b._ at Alford, Aberdeenshire, and _ed._ at Aberdeen and Oxf., went to London, and became ed. of the _Examiner_, and also wrote for the _Daily News_ and the _Pall Mall Gazette_. In 1880 he was appointed Prof. of Logic and Literature at Aberdeen. He wrote a _Manual of English Prose Literature_ (1873), _Characteristics of the English Poets_ (1874), and a _Life of Defoe_ for the Men of Letters Series.

MITCHELL, JOHN (1815-1875).--Journalist and political writer, _s._ of a Presbyterian minister, was _b._ in Ulster. For some time he practised as a solicitor, but becoming acquainted with Thomas Davis (_q.v._), he associated himself with the Young Ireland party, and was a leading contributor to the _Nation_ newspaper. His political sympathies and acts were carried so far as to bring about in 1848 his trial for treason-felony, and his transportation for 14 years. After his release he resided chiefly at New York, and ed. various papers, and opposed the abolition of slavery; but in 1874 he was elected M.P. for Tipperary, for which, however, he was declared incapable of sitting. On a new election he was again returned, but _d._ before the resulting petition could be heard. He wrote a _Jail Journal_, a work of great power, _The Last Conquest of Ireland_ (_perhaps_) (1860), and a _History of Ireland_ of little value.

MITFORD, MARY RUSSELL (1787-1855).--Poetess and novelist, _b._ at Alresford, Hants, _dau._ of a physician, without practice, selfish and extravagant, who ran through three fortunes, his own, his wife's, and his daughter's, and then lived on the industry of the last. After a vol. of poems which attracted little notice, she produced her powerful tragedy, _Julian_. In 1812, what ultimately became the first vol. of _Our Village_ appeared in the _Lady's Magazine_. To this four additional vols. were added, the last in 1832. In this work Miss M. may be said to have created a new branch of literature. Her novel, _Belford Regis_ (1835), is somewhat on the same lines. She added two dramas, _Rienzi_ (1828), and _Foscari_, _Atherton and other Tales_ (1852), and _Recollections of a Literary Life_, and _d._ at her cottage at Swallowfield, much beloved for her benevolent and simple character, as well as valued for her intellectual powers.

MITFORD, WILLIAM (1744-1827).--Historian, _e.s._ of John M. of Exbury, Hants, descended from an old Northumbrian family, was _b._ in London, and _ed._ at Cheam School and Oxf. He studied law, but on succeeding to the family estates devoted himself to study and literature, and to his duties as an officer of the militia. His first _pub._ was an _Essay on the Harmony of Language_ (1774). His great work, _The History of Greece_, is said to have been undertaken at the suggestion of Gibbon, who was a fellow-officer in the South Hants Militia. This work, the successive vols. of which appeared at considerable intervals between 1784 and 1810, was long a standard one, though it is now largely superseded by the histories of Thirwall and Grote. M. wrote with strong prejudices against democracy, and in defence of tyrants, but his style is forcible and agreeable, and he brought learning and research to bear on his subject. He sat for many years in Parliament.

MOIR, DAVID MACBETH (1798-1851).--Poet and miscellaneous writer, was a doctor at Musselburgh, near Edin., and a frequent contributor, under the signature of [Greek: D], to _Blackwood's Magazine_ in which appeared _Mansie Waugh_, a humorous Scottish tale. He also wrote _The Legend of Genevieve_ (1824), _Domestic Verses_ (1843), and sketches of the poetry of the earlier half of the 19th century. His poetry was generally grave and tender, but occasionally humorous.

MONBODDO, JAMES BURNETT, LORD (1714-1799).--Philosopher and philologist, _b._ at the family seat in Kincardineshire, was _ed._ at the Univ. of Aberdeen, Edin., and Groningen, and called to the Scottish Bar in 1737. Thirty years later he became a judge with the title of Lord Monboddo. He was a man of great learning and acuteness, but eccentric and fond of paradox. He was the author of two large works alike learned and whimsical, _An Essay on the Origin and Progress of Language_ (6 vols. 1773-92), and _Ancient Metaphysics_ (6 vols. 1779-99). He mooted and supported the theory that men were originally monkeys, and gradually attained to reason, language, and civilisation by the pressure of necessity. His doctrines do not sound so absurd now as they did in his own day. He was visited by Dr. Johnson at Monboddo.

MONTAGU, ELIZABETH (ROBINSON) (1720-1800).--Critic, _dau._ of a gentleman of Yorkshire, _m._ a grandson of Lord Sandwich. She was one of the original "blue-stockings," and her house was a literary centre. She wrote an _Essay on the Writings and Genius of Shakespeare_ (1769), in which she compared him with the classical and French dramatists, and defended him against the strictures of Voltaire. It had great fame in its day, but has long been superseded.

MONTAGU, LADY MARY WORTLEY (PIERREPONT) (1690-1762).--Letter-writer, was the eldest _dau._ of the 1st Duke of Kingston. In her youth she combined the attractions of a reigning beauty and a wit. Her early studies were encouraged and assisted by Bishop Burnet, and she was the friend of Pope, Addison, and Swift. In 1712 she _m._, against the wishes of her family, Edward Wortley-Montagu, a cousin of the celebrated Charles Montagu, afterwards Earl of Halifax. Her husband having been appointed Ambassador to the Porte, she accompanied him, and wrote the sparkling _Letters from the East_ which have given her a place high among the great letter-writers of the world. While in Turkey she became acquainted with the practice of inoculation against smallpox, which she did much to introduce into western countries. After her return to England she settled at Twickenham, and renewed her friendship with Pope, which, however, ended in a violent quarrel, arising out of her publication of _Town Eclogues_. She was furiously attacked by both Pope and Swift, and was not slow to defend herself. In 1737, for reasons which have never been explained, she left her husband and country, and settled in Italy. Mr. M. having _d._ 1761, she returned at the request of her _dau._, the Countess of Bute, but _d._ the following year.

MONTGOMERIE, ALEXANDER (1545?-1610?).--Poet, probably _b._ in Ayrshire, was in the service of the Regent Morton and James VI., by whom he was pensioned. He is sometimes styled "Captain," and was laureate of the Court. He appears to have fallen on evil days, was imprisoned on the Continent, and lost his pension. His chief work is _The Cherrie and the Slae_ (1597), a somewhat poor allegory of Virtue and Vice, but with some vivid description in it, and with a comparatively modern air. He also wrote _Flyting_ (scolding) _betwixt Montgomerie and Polwart_, _pub._ 1621, and other pieces.

MONTGOMERY, JAMES (1771-1854).--Poet, _s._ of a pastor and missionary of the Moravian Brethren, was _b._ at Irvine, Ayrshire, and _ed._ at the Moravian School at Fulneck, near Leeds. After various changes of occupation and abode, he settled in Sheffield in 1792 as clerk to a newspaper. In 1796 he had become ed. of the _Sheffield Iris_, and was twice imprisoned for political articles for which he was held responsible. In 1797 he _pub._ _Prison Amusements_; but his first work to attract notice was _The Wanderer of Switzerland_ (1806). It was followed by _The West Indies_ (1809), _The World before the Flood_ (1812), _Greenland_ (1819), and _The Pelican Island_ (1828), all of which contain passages of considerable imaginative and descriptive power, but are lacking in strength and fire. He himself expected that his name would live, if at all, in his hymns, and in this his judgment has proved true. Some of these, such as _For ever with the Lord_, _Hail to the Lord's Anointed_, and _Prayer is the Soul's sincere Desire_, are sung wherever the English language is spoken. M. was a good and philanthropic man, the opponent of every form of injustice and oppression, and the friend of every movement for the welfare of the race. His virtues attained wide recognition.

MONTGOMERY, ROBERT (1807-1855).--Poet, a minister of the Scottish Episcopal Church, wrote some ambitious religious poems, including _The Omnipresence of the Deity_ and _Satan_, which were at first outrageously puffed, and had a wide circulation. Macaulay devoted an essay to the demolition of the author's reputation, in which he completely succeeded.

MOORE, EDWARD (1712-1757).--Fabulist and dramatist, _s._ of a dissenting minister, was _b._ at Abingdon. After being in business as a linen-draper, in which he was unsuccessful, he took to literature, and wrote a few plays, of which _The Gamester_ (1753) had a great vogue, and was translated into various languages. He is best known by his _Fables for the Female Sex_ (1744), which rank next to those of Gay (_q.v._).

MOORE, JOHN (1729 or 1730-1802).--Physician and miscellaneous writer, _s._ of an Episcopal minister, was _b._ in Stirling. After studying medicine at Glasgow, he acted as a surgeon in the navy and the army, and ultimately settled in Glasgow as a physician. In 1779 he _pub._ _View of Manners and Society in France, Switzerland, and Germany_, which was well received. A similar work, relating to Italy, followed in 1781. He is, however, chiefly remembered by his romance _Zeluco_ (1786?). One or two other novels followed, and his last works are a _Journal during a Residence in France_ (1792), and _Causes and Progress of the French Revolution_ (1795), the latter of which was used both by Scott and Carlyle. M. was one of the friends of Burns, and was the _f._ of Sir John M., the hero of Corunna.

MOORE, THOMAS (1779-1852).--Poet, _b._ in Dublin, _s._ of a grocer and wine-merchant in a small way, was _ed._ at Trinity Coll., after which he went to London, and studied law at the Middle Temple, 1799. He took with him a translation of _Anacreon_, which appeared, dedicated to the Prince Regent, in 1800, was well received, and made a position for him. In the following year appeared _Poems by Thomas Little_. In 1803 he received the appointment of Admiralty Registrar at Bermuda, and after visiting the island and travelling in America, he committed his official duties to a deputy (an unfortunate step as it proved), and returned to England. The literary fruit of this journey was _Epistles, Odes, and other Poems_ (1806). In 1807 M. found his true poetic vocation in his _Irish-Melodies_--the music being furnished by Sir John Stevenson, who adapted the national airs. The reception they met with was enthusiastic, and M. was carried at once to the height of his reputation. They continued to appear over a period of 25 years, and for each of the 130 songs he received 100 guineas. His charming singing of these airs, and his fascinating conversational and social powers made him sought after in the highest circles. In 1815 there appeared _National Airs_ which, however, cannot be considered equal to the _Melodies_. After making various unsuccessful attempts at serious satire, he hit upon a vein for which his light and brilliant wit eminently qualified him--the satirical and pungent verses on men and topics of the day, afterwards _coll._ in _The Twopenny Post Bag_, in which the Prince Regent especially was mercilessly ridiculed, and about the same time appeared _Fables for the Holy Alliance_. In 1818 he produced the _Fudge Family in Paris_, written in that city, which then swarmed with "groups of ridiculous English." _Lalla Rookh_, with its gorgeous descriptions of Eastern scenes and manners, had appeared in the previous year with great applause. In 1818 the great misfortune of his life occurred through the dishonesty of his deputy in Bermuda, which involved him in a loss of £6000, and necessitated his going abroad. He travelled in Italy with Lord John Russell, and visited Byron. Thereafter he settled for a year or two in Paris, where he wrote _The Loves of the Angels_ (1823). On the death of Byron his memoirs came into the hands of Moore, who, in the exercise of a discretion committed to him, destroyed them. He afterwards wrote a _Life of Byron_ (1830), which gave rise to much criticism and controversy, and he also ed. his works. His last imaginative work was _The Epicurean_ (1827). Thereafter he confined himself almost entirely to prose, and _pub._ Lives of Sheridan (1827), and Lord Edward Fitzgerald (1831). His last work, written in failing health, was a _History of Ireland_ for Lardner's _Cabinet Cyclopædia_, which had little merit. Few poets have ever enjoyed greater popularity with the public, or the friendship of more men distinguished in all departments of life. This latter was largely owing to his brilliant social qualities, but his genuine and independent character had also a large share in it. He left behind him a mass of correspondence and autobiographical matter which he committed to his friend Lord John (afterwards Earl) Russell for publication. They appeared in 8 vols. (1852-56).

_Memoir, Journal, and Correspondence_, by Lord John Russell (1856).

MORE, HANNAH (1745-1833).--Miscellaneous and religious writer, was one of the five daughters of a schoolmaster at Stapleton, Gloucestershire. The family removed to Bristol, where Hannah began her literary efforts. Some early dramas, including _The Search after Happiness_ and the _Inflexible Captive_ brought her before the public, and she went to London in 1774, where, through her friend, Garrick, she was introduced to Johnson, Burke, and the rest of that circle, by whom she was highly esteemed. After publishing some poems, now forgotten, and some dramas, she resolved to devote herself to efforts on behalf of social and religious amelioration, in which she was eminently successful, and exercised a wide and salutary influence. Her works written in pursuance of these objects are too numerous to mention. They included _Hints towards forming the Character of a young Princess_ (1805), written at the request of the Queen for the benefit of the Princess Charlotte, _Coelebs in search of a Wife_ (1809), and a series of short tales, the _Cheap Repository_, among which was the well-known _Shepherd of Salisbury Plain_. This enterprise, which had great success, led to the formation of the Religious Tract Society. The success of Miss M.'s literary labours enabled her to pass her later years in ease, and her sisters having also retired on a competency made by conducting a boarding-school in Bristol, the whole family resided on a property called Barley Grove, which they had purchased, where they carried on with much success philanthropic and educational work among the people of the neighbouring district of Cheddar. Few persons have devoted their talents more assiduously to the well-being of their fellow-creatures, or with a greater measure of success.

MORE, HENRY (1614-1687).--Philosopher, _b._ at Grantham, and _ed._ at Camb., took orders, but declined all preferment, including two deaneries and a bishopric; and also various appointments in his Univ., choosing rather a quiet life devoted to scholarship and philosophy, especially the study of writings of Plato and his followers. He led a life of singular purity and religious devotion, tinged with mysticism, and his writings had much popularity and influence in their day. Among them may be mentioned _Psychozoia Platonica_ (1642), _repub._ (1647) as _Philosophicall Poems_, _Divine Dialogues_ (prose) (1668), _The Mystery of Godliness_, and _The Mystery of Iniquity_. His life was written by his friend Richard Ward.

MORE, SIR THOMAS (1478-1535).--Historical and political writer, _s._ of Sir John M., a Justice of the King's Bench, was _b._ in London. In his 16th year he was placed in the household of Morton, Archbishop of Canterbury, who was wont to say, "This child here waiting at the table ... will prove a marvellous man." In 1497 he went to Oxf., where he became the friend of Erasmus and others, and came in contact with the new learning. He studied law at New Inn and Lincoln's Inn, and for some time thought of entering the Church. He was, however, in 1504 sent up to Parliament, where his powerful speaking gained for him a high place. Meanwhile, he had brilliant success in the Law Courts, and was introduced by Wolsey to Henry VIII., with whom he soon rose into high favour. He became Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, Speaker of the House of Commons, 1523, and was sent on missions to Charles V. and Francis I. At length, on the fall of Wolsey, M. was, much against his will, appointed Lord Chancellor, an office which he filled with singular purity and success, though he was harsh in his dealings with persons accused of heresy. But differences with the King soon arose. M. disapproved of Henry's ecclesiastical policy, as well as of his proceedings in regard to the Queen, and in 1532 he resigned his office. In 1534 he refused the oath which pledged him to approval of the King's marriage to Anne Boleyn, and for this he was imprisoned in the Tower, and on July 7, 1535, beheaded. His body was buried in St. Peter's in the Tower, and his head exhibited on London Bridge, whence it was taken down and preserved by his _dau._, the noble Margaret Roper. All Catholic Europe was shocked at the news of what was truly a judicial murder. Among his works are a Life of _Picus, Earl of Mirandula_ (1510), and a _History of Richard III._, written about 1513. His great work, _Utopia_, was written in Latin in two books--the second 1515, and the first 1516. It had immediate popularity, and was translated into French 1530, English 1551, German 1524, Italian 1548, and Spanish 1790. It gives an account of an imaginary island and people, under cover of which it describes the social and political condition of England, with suggested remedies for abuses. The opinions on religion and politics expressed in it are not, however, always those by which he was himself guided. M. wrote many works of controversy, among which are _Dyaloge concerning Heresies_, also epigrams and dialogues in Latin. His pure and religious character, his sweet temper, his wit, his constancy and fortitude under misfortune combine to render him one of the most attractive and admirable figures in English history.

_Life_ by W. Roper (son-in-law), Lord Campbell, _Lives of Chancellors, Utopia_ was translated by Robinson (1551, etc.), Bishop Burnet (1684, etc.), and ed. by Lupton (1895), and Michelis (1896).

MORGAN, LADY (SYDNEY OWENSON) (1780?-1859).--Novelist, _dau._ of Robert Owenson, an actor, was the author of several vivacious Irish tales, including _The Wild Irish Girl_ (1806), _O'Donnel_ (1814), and _The O'Briens and the O'Flaherties_ (1827); also two books on society in France and in Italy characterised by "more vivacity and point than delicacy," and a Life of Salvator Rosa.

MORIER, JAMES JUSTINIAN (1780?-1849).--Traveller and novelist, _s._ of Isaac M., descended from a Huguenot family resident at Smyrna, where he was _b._, was _ed._ at Harrow. Returning to the East he became in 1809 Sec. of Legation in Persia. He wrote accounts of travels in Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor; also novels, in which he exhibits a marvellous familiarity with Oriental manners and modes of thought. The chief of these are _The Adventures of Hajji Baba_ (1824), and _Hajji Baba in England_ (1828), _Zohrab the Hostage_ (1832), _Ayesha_ (1834), and _The Mirza_ (1841). All these works are full of brilliant description, character-painting, and delicate satire.

MORISON, JAMES COTTER (1832-1888).--Was _ed._ at Oxf. He wrote _Lives of Gibbon_ (1878), and _Macaulay_ (1882); but his best work was his _Life of St. Bernard_ (1863). _The Service of Man_ (1887) is written from a Positivist point of view.

MORLEY, HENRY (1822-1894).--Writer on English literature, _s._ of an apothecary, was _b._ in London, _ed._ at a Moravian school in Germany, and at King's Coll., London, and after practising medicine and keeping schools at various places, went in 1850 to London, and adopted literature as his profession. He wrote in periodicals, and from 1859-64 ed. the _Examiner_. From 1865-89 he was Prof. of English Literature at Univ. Coll. He was the author of various biographies, including Lives of _Palissy_, _Cornelius Agrippa_, and _Clement Marot_. His principal work, however, was _English Writers_ (10 vols. 1864-94), coming down to Shakespeare. His _First Sketch of English Literature_--the study for the larger work--had reached at his death a circulation of 34,000 copies.

MORRIS, SIR LEWIS (1833-1907).--Poet, _b._ at Penrhyn, Carnarvonshire, and _ed._ at Sherborne and Oxf., was called to the Bar, and practised as a conveyancer until 1880, after which he devoted himself to the promotion of higher education in Wales, and became honorary sec. and treasurer of the New Welsh Univ. In 1871 he _pub._ _Songs of Two Worlds_, which showed the influence of Tennyson, and was well received, though rather by the wider public than by more critical circles. It was followed in 1876-77 by _The Epic of Hades_, which had extraordinary popularity, and which, though exhibiting undeniable talent both in versification and narrative power, lacked the qualities of the higher kinds of poetry. It deals in a modern spirit with the Greek myths and legends. Other works are _A Vision of Saints_, _Gwen_, _The Ode of Life_, and _Gycia_, a tragedy.

MORRIS, WILLIAM (1834-1896).--Poet, artist, and socialist, _b._ at Walthamstow, and _ed._ at Marlborough School and Oxf. After being articled as an architect he was for some years a painter, and then joined in founding the manufacturing and decorating firm of Morris, Marshall, Faulkner and Co., in which Rossetti, Burne-Jones, and other artists were partners. By this and other means he did much to influence the public taste in furnishing and decoration. He was one of the originators of the _Oxford and Cambridge Magazine_, to which he contributed poems, tales, and essays, and in 1858 he _pub._ _Defence of Guenevere and other Poems_. _The Life and Death of Jason_ followed in 1867, _The Earthly Paradise_ in 1868-70, and _Love is Enough_ in 1875. In the last mentioned year he made a translation in verse of Virgil's _Æneid_. Travels in Iceland led to the writing of _Three Northern Love Stories_, and the epic of _Sigurd the Volsung_ (1876). His translation of the _Odyssey_ in verse appeared 1887. A series of prose romances began with _The House of the Wolfings_ (1889), and included _The Roots of the Mountains_, _Story of the Glittering Plain_, _The Wood beyond the World_, _The Well at the World's End_ (1896), and posthumously _The Water of the Wondrous Isles_, and _Story of the Sundering Flood_. In addition to poems and tales M. produced various illuminated manuscripts, including two of Fitzgerald's _Omar Khayyam_, and many controversial writings, among which are tales and tracts in advocacy of Socialism. To this class belong the _Dream of John Ball_ (1888), and _News from Nowhere_ (1891). In 1890 M. started the Kelmscott Press, for which he designed type and decorations. For his subjects as a writer he drew upon classic and Gothic models alike. He may perhaps be regarded as the chief of the modern romantic school, inspired by the love of beauty for its own sake; his poetry is rich and musical, and he has a power of description which makes his pictures live and glow, but his narratives sometimes suffer from length and slowness of movement.

_Life_ by J.W. Mackail (2 vols., 1899), _The Books of W. Morris_, Forman, etc.

MORTON, THOMAS (1764-1838).--Dramatist, _b._ in Durham, came to London to study law, which he discarded in favour of play-writing. He wrote about 25 plays, of which several had great popularity. In one of them, _Speed the Plough_, he introduced Mrs. Grundy to the British public.

MOTHERWELL, WILLIAM (1797-1835).--Poet, _b._ and _ed._ in Glasgow, he held the office of depute sheriff-clerk at Paisley, at the same time contributing poetry to various periodicals. He had also antiquarian tastes, and a deep knowledge of the early history of Scottish ballad literature, which he turned to account in _Minstrelsy, Ancient and Modern_ (1827), a collection of Scottish ballads with an historical introduction. In 1830 he became ed. of the _Glasgow Courier_, and in 1832 he _coll._ and _pub._ his poems. He also joined Hogg in ed. the Works of Burns.

MOTLEY, JOHN LOTHROP (1814-1877).--Historian, _b._ at Dorchester, a suburb of Boston, Massachusetts, was _ed._ at Harvard, where O.W. Holmes (_q.v._), afterwards his biographer, was a fellow-student. After graduating he went to Europe, studied at Göttingen and Berlin, and visited Italy. On his return he studied law, and was admitted to the Bar in 1837. He did not, however, practise, and was in 1840 sent to St. Petersburg as Sec. of Legation. Meanwhile, having _pub._ two novels, _Morton's Hope_ and _Merry Mount_, which had little success, he turned to history, and attracted attention by some essays in various reviews. Having decided to write an historical work on Holland, he proceeded in 1851 to Europe to collect materials, and in 1856 _pub._ _The Rise of the Dutch Republic_. It was received with the highest approval by such critics as Froude and Prescott, and at once took its place as a standard work. It was followed in 1860 by the first two vols. of _The United Netherlands_. The following year M. was appointed Minister at Vienna, and in 1869 at London. His latest works were a _Life of Barneveldt_, the Dutch statesman, and _A View of ... the Thirty Years' War_. M. holds a high place among historical writers both on account of his research and accuracy, and his vivid and dramatic style, which shows the influence of Carlyle.

MOULTRIE, JOHN (1799-1874).--Poet, _ed._ at Eton and Camb., took orders and was Rector of Rugby. He wrote several books of poetry, his best known pieces are _My Brother's Grave_, and _Godiva_.

MULOCK, DINAH MARIA (MRS. CRAIK) (1826-1887).--Novelist, _dau._ of a Nonconformist minister of Irish descent. Beginning with stories for children, she developed into a prolific and popular novelist. Her best and most widely known book is _John Halifax, Gentleman_ (1857), which had a wide popularity, and was translated into several languages. Others are _The Head of the Family_, _Agatha's Husband_, _A Life for a Life_, and _Mistress and Maid_. She also wrote one or two vols. of essays.

MUNDAY, ANTHONY (1553-1633).--Dramatist, poet, and pamphleteer, _s._ of a draper in London, appears to have had a somewhat chequered career. He went to Rome in 1578, and _pub._ _The Englyshe Romayne Life_, in which he gives descriptions of rites and other matters fitted to excite Protestant feeling; and he appears to have acted practically as a spy upon Roman Catholics. He had a hand in 18 plays, of which four only are extant, including two on _Robert, Earl of Huntingdon_ (_Robin Hood_) (1598), and one on the _Life of Sir John Oldcastle_. He was ridiculed by Ben Jonson in _The Case is Altered_. He was also a ballad-writer, but nothing of his in this kind survives, unless _Beauty sat bathing in a Spring_ be correctly attributed to him. He also wrote city pageants, and translated popular romances, including _Palladino of England_, and _Amadis of Gaule_. He was made by Stow the antiquary (_q.v._) his literary executor, and _pub._ his _Survey of London_ (1618).

MURE, WILLIAM (1799-1860).--Scholar, laird of Caldwell, Ayrshire, _ed._ at Westminster, Edin., and Bonn, sat in Parliament for Renfrewshire 1846-55. He was a sound classical scholar, and _pub._ _A Critical History of the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece_ (5 vols., 1850-57). He held the view that the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ are now substantially as they were originally composed. M. was Lord Rector of Glasgow Univ. 1847-48.

MURPHY, ARTHUR (1727-1805).--Actor and dramatist, _b._ in Ireland, and _ed._ at St. Omer, went on the stage, then studied for the Bar, to which he was ultimately admitted after some demur on account of his connection with the stage. His plays were nearly all adaptations. They include _The Apprentice_ (1756), _The Spouter_, and _The Upholsterer_. He also wrote an essay on Dr. Johnson, and a Life of Garrick.

MURRAY, LINDLEY (1745-1826).--Grammarian, was _b._ in Pennsylvania, and practised as a lawyer. From 1785 he lived in England, near York, and was for his last 16 years confined to the house. His _English Grammar_ (1795) was long a standard work, and his main claim to a place in literature. His other writings were chiefly religious.

MYERS, FREDERIC WILLIAM HENRY (1843-1901).--Poet and essayist, _s._ of a clergyman, was _b._ at Keswick, and _ed._ at Cheltenham and Camb. He became an inspector of schools, and was the author of several vols. of poetry, including _St. Paul_ (1867). He also wrote _Essays Classical and Modern_, and Lives of Wordsworth and Shelley. Becoming interested in mesmerism and spiritualism he aided in founding the Society for Psychical Research, and was joint author of _Phantasms of the Living_. His last work was _Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death_ (1903).

NABBES, THOMAS (_fl._ 1638).--Dramatist, was at Oxf. in 1621. He lived in London, and wrote comedies, satirising bourgeois society. He was most successful in writing masques, among which are _Spring's Glory_ and _Microcosmus_. He also wrote a continuation of Richard Knolles' _History of the Turks_.

NAIRNE, CAROLINA (OLIPHANT), BARONESS (1766-1845).--_B._ at the House of Gask ("the auld house"), _m._ in 1806 her second cousin, Major Nairne, who on reversal of attainder became 5th Lord Nairne. On his death, after residing in various places in England, Ireland, and on the Continent, she settled at the new house of Gask (the old one having been pulled down in 1801). Of her songs--87 in number--many first appeared anonymously in _The Scottish Minstrel_ (1821-24); a collected ed. with her name, under the title of _Lays' from Strathearn_, was _pub._ after her death. Although the songs, some of which were founded on older compositions, had from the first an extraordinary popularity, the authoress maintained a strict anonymity during her life. For direct simplicity and poetic feeling Lady N. perhaps comes nearer than any other Scottish song-writer to Burns, and many of her lyrics are enshrined in the hearts of her fellow-countrymen. Among the best of them are _The Land of the Leal_ (1798), _Caller Herrin'_, _The Laird o' Cockpen_, _The Auld House_, _The Rowan Tree_, _The Hundred Pipers_, and _Will ye no come back Again?_ The Jacobitism of some of these and many others was, of course, purely sentimental and poetical, like that of Scott. She was a truly religious and benevolent character, and the same modesty which concealed her authorship withdrew from public knowledge her many deeds of charity.

NAPIER, MARK (1798-1879).--Historian, _s._ of a lawyer in Edinburgh, was called to the Bar, practised as an advocate, and was made Sheriff of Dumfries and Galloway. He _pub._ Memoirs of the Napiers, of Montrose, and of Graham of Claverhouse, the last of which gave rise to much controversy. N. wrote from a strongly Cavalier and Jacobite standpoint, and had remarkably little of the judicial spirit in his methods. His writings, however, have some historical value.

NAPIER, SIR WILLIAM FRANCIS PATRICK (1785-1860).--was one of the sons of Col. the Hon. George N. and Lady Sarah Lennox, _dau._ of the 2nd Duke of Richmond, and the object of a romantic attachment on the part of George III. One of his brothers was Sir Charles N., the conqueror of Scinde. Entering the army at 15, he served with great distinction in the Peninsula under Moore and Wellington. His experiences as a witness and

## participator in the stupendous events of the war combined with the

possession of remarkable acumen and a brilliant style to qualify him for the great work of his life as its historian. _The History of the War in the Peninsula and in the South of France from 1807-14_ (1828-40) at once took rank as a classic, and superseded all existing works on the subject. Though not free from prejudice and consequent bias, it remains a masterpiece of historical writing, especially in the description of military operations. It was translated into French, German, Spanish, Italian, and Persian. N. also _pub._ _The Conquest of Scinde_ (1844-46), mainly a defence of his brother Charles, whose life he subsequently wrote. He became K.C.B. in 1848, and General 1859.

NASH, THOMAS (1567-1601).--Satirist, etc., _b._ at Lowestoft, _ed._ at Camb. A reckless life kept him in perpetual poverty, and a bitter and sarcastic tongue lost him friends and patrons. He cherished an undying hatred for the Puritans, and specially for Gabriel Hervey, with whom he maintained a lifelong controversy, and against whose attacks he defended Robert Greene (_q.v._). Among his writings are _Anatomy of Absurdities_ (1589), _Have with you to Saffron Walden_, and _Pierce Pennilesse, his Supplication to the Divell_ (1592), all against the Puritans. In _Summer's_ (a jester of Henry VIII.) _Last Will and Testament_ occurs the well-known song, "Spring, the sweet Spring, is the year's pleasant King." _Christ's Tears over Jerusalem_ (1593) may have indicated some movement towards repentance. Another work in a totally different style, _The Unfortunate Traveller, or the Life of Jack Wilton_ (1594), a wild tale, may be regarded as the pioneer of the novel of adventure. It had, however, so little success that the author never returned to this kind of fiction. A comedy, _The Isle of Dogs_ (now lost), adverted so pointedly to abuses in the state that it led to his imprisonment. His last work was _Lenten Stuffe_ (1599), a burlesque panegyric on Yarmouth and its red herrings. N.'s verse is usually hard and monotonous, but he was a man of varied culture and great ability.

NAYLER, JAMES (1617?-1660).--Quaker theologian, _s._ of a Yorkshire yeoman, who, after serving in the Parliamentary army, joined the Quakers in 1651, became one of Foxe's most trusted helpers, and exercised a powerful influence. By some of the more enthusiastic devotees of the sect he was honoured with such blasphemous titles as "the Lamb of God," which, however, he did not arrogate to himself, but asserted that they were ascribed to "Christ in him." He was found guilty of blasphemy, pilloried, whipped, and branded, and cast into prison, from which he was not released until after the death of Cromwell, when he made public confession and resumed preaching. He was the author of a number of short works both devotional and controversial. He ranks high among the Quakers for eloquence, insight, and depth of thought.

NEAL, JOHN (1793-1876).--Novelist and poet, _b._ at Portland, Maine, was self-educated, kept a dry goods store, and was afterwards a lawyer. He wrote several novels, which show considerable native power, but little art, and are now almost forgotten. Among those which show the influence of Byron and Godwin are _Keep Cool_ (1818), _Logan_ (1822), and _Seventy-six_ (1823). His poems have the same features of vigour and want of finish. In 1823 he visited England, and became known to Jeremy Bentham. He contributed some articles on American subjects to _Blackwood's Magazine_.

NEAVES, CHARLES, LORD (1800-1876).--Miscellaneous author, _b._ and _ed._ in Edinburgh, was called to the Bar, and became a judge. He was a frequent contributor to _Blackwood's Magazine_. His verses, witty and satirical, were _coll._ as _Songs and Verses, Social and Scientific_. He wrote also on philology, and _pub._ a book on the Greek Anthology.

NECKHAM, ALEXANDER (1157-1217).--Scholar, _b._ at St. Albans, was foster-brother to Richard Coeur de Lion. He went to Paris in 1180, where he became a distinguished teacher. Returning, to England in 1186 he became an Augustinian Canon, and in 1213 Abbot of Cirencester. He is one of our earliest men of learning, and wrote a scientific work in Latin verse. _De Naturis Rerum_ (_c._ 1180-94) in 10 books. Other works are _De Laudibus Divinæ Sapientiæ_ (in Praise of the Divine Wisdom), and _De Contemptu Mundi_ (on Despising the World), and some grammatical treatises.

NEWCASTLE, MARGARET, DUCHESS of (1624?-1674).--_Dau._ of Sir Thomas Lucas, and a maid of honour to Queen Henrietta. Maria, _m._ in 1645 the 1st Duke of Newcastle (then Marquis), whom she regarded in adversity and prosperity with a singular and almost fantastic devotion, which was fully reciprocated. The noble pair collaborated (the Duchess contributing by far the larger share) in their literary ventures, which filled 12 vols., and consisted chiefly of dramas (now almost unreadable), and philosophical exercitations which, amid prevailing rubbish, contain some weighty sayings. One of her poems, _The Pastimes and Recreations of the Queen of Fairies in Fairyland_ has some good lines. Her Life of her husband, in which she rates him above Julius Cæsar, was said by Lamb to be "a jewel for which no casket was good enough."

NEWMAN, FRANCIS WILLIAM (1805-1897).--Scholar and theological writer, brother of Cardinal N., _b._ in London, and _ed._ at Oxf. After spending three years in the East, he became successively classical tutor in Bristol Coll., Professor of Classical Literature in Manchester New Coll. (1840), and of Latin in Univ. Coll., London, 1846-63. Both brought up under evangelical influences, the two brothers moved from that standpoint in diametrically opposite directions, Francis through eclecticism towards scepticism. His writings include a _History of the Hebrew Monarchy_ (1847), _The Soul_ (1849), and his most famous book, _Phases of Faith_ (1850), a theological autobiography corresponding to his brother's _Apologia_, the publication of which led to much controversy, and to the appearance of Henry Rogers' _Eclipse of Faith_. He also _pub._ _Miscellanea_ in 4 vols., a Dictionary of modern Arabic, and some mathematical treatises. He was a vegetarian, a total abstainer, and enemy of tobacco, vaccination, and vivisection. Memoir by I.G. Sieveking, 1909.

NEWMAN, JOHN HENRY (1801-1890).--Theologian, _s._ of a London banker, and brother of the above, was _ed._ at Ealing and Trinity Coll., Oxf., where he was the intimate friend of Pusey and Hurrell Froude. Taking orders he was successively curate of St. Clement's 1824, and Vicar of St. Mary's, Oxford, 1828. He was also Vice-principal of Alban Hall, where he assisted Whately, the Principal, in his _Logic_. In 1830 he definitely broke with the evangelicalism in which he had been brought up; and in 1832, accompanied by H. Froude, went to the South of Europe, and visited Rome. During this lengthened tour he wrote most of his short poems, including "Lead Kindly Light," which were _pub._ 1834 as _Lyra Apostolica_. On his return he joined with Pusey, Keble, and others in initiating the Tractarian movement, and contributed some of the more important tracts, including the fateful No. xc., the publication of which brought about a crisis in the movement which, after two years of hesitation and mental and spiritual conflict, led to the resignation by N. of his benefice. In 1842 he retired to Littlemore, and after a period of prayer, fasting, and seclusion, was in 1845 received into the Roman Catholic Church. In the following year he went to Rome, where he was ordained priest and made D.D., and returning to England he established the oratory in Birmingham in 1847, and that in London in 1850. A controversy with C. Kingsley, who had written that N. "did not consider truth a necessary virtue," led to the publication of his _Apologia pro Vita Sua_ (1864), one of the most remarkable books of religious autobiography ever written. N.'s later years were passed at the oratory at Birmingham. In 1879 he was summoned to Rome and _cr._ Cardinal of St. George in Velabro. Besides the works above mentioned he wrote, among others, _The Arians of the Fourth Century_ (1833), _Twelve Lectures_ (1850), _Lectures on the Present Position of Catholics_ (1851), _Idea of a University_, _Romanism and Popular Protestantism_, _Disquisition on the Canon of Scripture_, and his poem, _The Dream of Gerontius_. Possessed of one of the most keen and subtle intellects of his age, N. was also master of a style of marvellous beauty and power. To many minds, however, his subtlety not seldom appeared to pass into sophistry; and his attitude to schools of thought widely differing from his own was sometimes harsh and unsympathetic. On the other hand he was able to exercise a remarkable influence over men ecclesiastically, and in some respects religiously, most strongly opposed to him. His sermons place him in the first rank of English preachers.

_Lives_ or books about him by R.H. Hutton, E.A. Abbott. _Works_ (36 vols., 1868-81), _Apologia pro Vita Sua_ (1864), etc.

NEWTON, SIR ISAAC (1642-1727).--Natural philosopher, _b._ at Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, the _s._ of a small landed proprietor, and _ed._ at the Grammar School of Grantham and at Trinity Coll., Camb. By propounding the binomial theorem, the differential calculus, and the integral calculus, he began in 1665 the wonderful series of discoveries in pure mathematics, optics, and physics, which place him in the first rank of the philosophers of all time. He was elected Lucasian Prof. of Mathematics at Camb. in 1669, and a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1672, over which body he presided for 25 years from 1703. In the same year his new theory of flight was _pub._ in a paper before the society. His epoch-making discovery of the law of universal gravitation was not promulgated until 1687, though the first glimpse of it had come to him so early as 1665. The discovery of fluxions, which he claimed, was contested by Leibnitz, and led to a long and bitter controversy between the two philosophers. He twice sat in Parliament for his Univ., and was Master of the Mint from 1699, in which capacity he presented reports on the coinage. He was knighted in 1705, and _d._ at Kensington in 1727. For a short time, after an unfortunate accident by which a number of invaluable manuscripts were burned, he suffered from some mental aberration. His writings fall into two classes, scientific and theological. In the first are included his famous treatises, _Light and Colours_ (1672), _Optics_ (1704), the _Principia_ (1687), in Latin, its full title being _Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica_. In the second are his _Observations upon the Prophecies of Holy Writ_ and _An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture_. In character N. was remarkable for simplicity, humility, and gentleness, with a great distaste for controversy, in which, nevertheless, he was repeatedly involved. _Life_ by Sir D. Brewster, second ed., 1855, etc.

NEWTON, JOHN (1725-1807).--Divine and hymn-writer, _s._ of a shipmaster, was _b._ in London, and for many years led a varied and adventurous life at sea, part of the time on board a man-of-war and part as captain of a slaver. In 1748 he came under strong religious convictions, and after

## acting as a tide-waiter at Liverpool for a few years, he applied for

orders in 1758, and was ordained curate of Olney in 1764. Here he became the intimate and sympathetic friend of Cowper, in conjunction with whom he produced the _Olney Hymns_. In 1779 he was translated to the Rectory of St. Mary, Woolnoth, London, where he had great popularity and influence, and wrote many religious works, including _Cardiphonia_, and _Remarkable Passages in his Own Life_. He lives, however, in his hymns, among which are some of the best and most widely known in the language, such as _In evil long I took delight_, _Glorious things of Thee are Spoken_, _How Sweet the Name of Jesus sounds_, and many others. In his latter years N. was blind.

NICHOL, JOHN (1833-1894).--Poet and biographer, _s._ of John P.N., Prof. of Astronomy in Glasgow, _ed._ at Glasgow and Oxf., and held the chair of English Literature in Glasgow, 1862-1889. Among his writings are _Hannibal_ (1873), a drama, _Death of Themistocles and other Poems_ (1881), _Fragments of Criticism_, and _American Literature_; also Lives of Bacon, Burns, Carlyle, and Byron.

NOEL, HON. RODEN BERKELEY WRIOTHESLEY (1834-1894).--Poet, _s._, of the 1st Earl of Gainsborough, was _ed._ at Camb. He wrote _Behind the Veil_ (1863), _The Red Flag_ (1872), _Songs of the Heights and Deeps_ (1885), and _Essays_ on various poets, also a Life of Byron.

NORRIS, JOHN (1657-1711).--Philosopher and poet, _ed._ at Oxf., took orders, and lived a quiet and placid life as a country parson and thinker. In philosophy he was a Platonist and mystic, and was an early opponent of Locke. His poetry, with occasional fine thoughts, is full of far-fetched metaphors and conceits, and is not seldom dull and prosaic. From 1692 he held G. Herbert's benefice of Bemerton. Among his 23 works are _An Idea of Happiness_ (1683), _Miscellanies_ (1687), _Theory and Regulation of Love_ (1688), _Theory of the Ideal and Intelligible World_ (1701-4), and a _Discourse concerning the Immortality of the Soul_ (1708).

NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-1601?).--Translator, 2nd _s._ of the 1st Lord N., may have studied at Camb. He entered Lincoln's Inn 1557, but gave more attention to literature than to law. He is best known by his translation of _Plutarch_, from the French of Amyot, in fine, forcible, idiomatic English, which was the repertory from which Shakespeare drew his knowledge of ancient history: in _Antony and Cleopatra_ and _Coriolanus_ North's language is often closely followed. Another translation was from an Italian version of an Arabic book of fables, and bore the title of _The Morale Philosophie of Doni_.

NORTON, CAROLINE ELIZABETH SARAH (SHERIDAN) (1808-1877).--Grand-daughter of Richard Brinsley S. (_q.v._), _m._ in 1827 the Hon. G.C. Norton, a union which turned out most unhappy, and ended in a separation. Her first book, _The Sorrows of Rosalie_ (1829), was well received. _The Undying One_ (1830), a romance founded upon the legend of the Wandering Jew, followed, and other novels were _Stuart of Dunleath_ (1851), _Lost and Saved_ (1863), and _Old Sir Douglas_ (1867). The unhappiness of her married life led her to interest herself in the amelioration of the laws regarding the social condition and the separate property of women and the wrongs of children, and her poems, _A Voice from the Factories_ (1836), and _The Child of the Islands_ (1845), had as an object the furtherance of her views on these subjects. Her efforts were largely successful in bringing about the needed legislation. In 1877 Mrs. N. _m._ Sir W. Stirling Maxwell (_q.v._).

NORTON, CHARLES ELIOT, LL.D., D.C.L., etc. (1827-1909).--American biographer and critic. _Church Building in the Middle Ages_ (1876), translation of the _New Life_ (1867), and _The Divine Comedy_ of Dante (1891); has ed. _Correspondence of Carlyle and Emerson_ (1883), _Carlyle's Letters and Reminiscences_ (1887), etc.

OCCAM or OCKHAM, WILLIAM (1270?-1349?).--Schoolman, _b._ at Ockham, Surrey, studied at Oxf. and Paris, and became a Franciscan. As a schoolman he was a Nominalist and received the title of the Invincible Doctor. He attacked the abuses of the Church, and was imprisoned at Avignon, but escaped and spent the latter part of his life at Munich, maintaining to the last his controversies with the Church, and with the Realists. He was a man of solid understanding and sense, and a masterly logician. His writings, which are of course all in Latin, deal with the Aristotelean philosophy, theology, and specially under the latter with the errors of Pope John XXII., who was his _bête-noir_.

OCCLEVE, (_see_ HOCCLEVE).

OCKLEY, SIMON (1678-1720).--Orientalist, _b._ at Exeter, and _ed._ at Camb., became the greatest Orientalist of his day, and was made in 1711 Prof. of Arabic in his Univ. His chief work is the _Conquest of Syria, Persia, and Egypt by the Saracens_ (3 vols., 1708-57), which was largely used by Gibbon. The original documents upon which it is founded are now regarded as of doubtful authority. O. was a clergyman of the Church of England.

O'KEEFFE, JOHN (1747-1833).--Dramatist, wrote a number of farces and amusing dramatic pieces, many of which had great success. Among these are _Tony Lumpkin in Town_ (1778), _Wild Oats_, and _Love in a Camp_. Some of his songs set to music by Arnold and Shield, such as _I am a Friar of Orders Grey_, and _The Thorn_, are still popular. He was blind in his later years.

OLDHAM, JOHN (1653-1683).--Satirist and translator, _s._ of a Nonconformist minister, was at Oxf., and was the friend of most of the literary men of his time, by whom his early death from smallpox was bewailed. He made clever adaptations of the classical satirists, wrote an ironical _Satire against Virtue_, and four severe satires against the Jesuits. He is cynical to the verge of misanthropy, but independent and manly.

OLDMIXON, JOHN (1673-1742).--Historical and miscellaneous writer, belonged to an old Somersetshire family, wrote some, now forgotten, dramas and poems which, along with an essay on criticism, in which he attacked Addison, Swift, and Pope, earned for him a place in _The Dunciad_. He was also the author of _The British Empire in America_ (1708), _Secret History of Europe_ (against the Stuarts), and in his _Critical History_ (1724-26) attacked Clarendon's _History of the Rebellion_. All these works are partisan in their tone. O. was one of the most prolific pamphleteers of his day.

OLDYS, WILLIAM (1696-1761).--Antiquary, wrote a Life of Sir W. Raleigh prefixed to an ed. of his works (1736), a _Dissertation on Pamphlets_ (1731), and was joint ed. with Dr. Johnson of the _Harleian Miscellany_. He amassed many interesting facts in literary history, the fruits of diligent, though obscure, industry. The only poem of his that still lives is the beautiful little anacreontic beginning "Busy, curious, thirsty Fly." O. held the office of Norroy-King-at-Arms. He produced in 1737 _The British Librarian_, a valuable work left unfinished.

OLIPHANT, LAURENCE (1829-1888).--Novelist and miscellaneous writer, _s._ of Sir Anthony O., Chief Justice of Ceylon. The first 38 years of his life were spent in desultory study, travel, and adventure, varied by occasional diplomatic employment. His travels included, besides Continental countries, the shores of the Black Sea, Circassia, where he was _Times_ correspondent, America, China, and Japan. He was in the Crimean War, Indian Mutiny, Chinese War, the military operations of Garibaldi, and the Polish insurrection, and served as private sec. to Lord Elgin in Washington, Canada, and China, and as Sec. of Legation in Japan. In 1865 he entered Parliament, and gave promise of political eminence, when in 1867 he came under the influence of Thomas L. Harris, an American mystic of questionable character, went with him to America, and joined the Brotherhood of the New Life. In 1870-71 he was correspondent for the _Times_ in the Franco-German War. Ultimately he broke away from the influence of Harris and went to Palestine, where he founded a community of Jewish immigrants at Haifa. After revisiting America he returned to England, but immediately fell ill and _d._ at Twickenham. O. was a voluminous and versatile author, publishing books of travel, novels, and works on mysticism. The most important are as follows: _The Russian Shores of the Black Sea_ (1853), _Minnesota and the Far West_ (1855), _The Transcaucasian Campaign_ (1856), _Patriots and Fillibusters_ (adventures in Southern States) (1860), _Narrative of a Mission to China and Japan_ (1857-59), _The Land of Gilead_ (1880), _Piccadilly_ (1870), and _Altiora Peto_ (1883) (novels), and _Scientific Religion_.

OLIPHANT, MRS. MARGARET OLIPHANT (WILSON) (1828-1897).--Novelist and miscellaneous writer, was _b._ near Musselburgh. Her literary output began when she was little more than a girl, and was continued almost up to the end of her life. Her first novel, _Mrs. Margaret Maitland_, appeared in 1849, and its humour, pathos, and insight into character gave the author an immediate position in literature. It was followed by an endless succession, of which the best were the series of _The Chronicles of Carlingford_ (1861-65), including _Salem Chapel_, _The Perpetual Curate_, and _Miss Marjoribanks_, all of which, as well as much of her other work, appeared in _Blackwood's Magazine_, with which she had a lifelong connection. Others of some note were _The Primrose Path_, _Madonna Mary_ (1866), _The Wizard's Son_, and _A Beleaguered City_. She did not, however, confine herself to fiction, but wrote many books of history and biography, including _Sketches of the Reign of George II._ (1869), _The Makers of Florence_ (1876), _Literary History of England_ 1790-1825, _Royal Edinburgh_ (1890), and Lives of _St. Francis of Assisi_, _Edward Irving_, and _Principal Tulloch_. Her generosity in supporting and educating the family of a brother as well as her own two sons rendered necessary a rate of production which was fatal to the permanence of her work. She was negligent as to style, and often wrote on subjects to which her intellectual equipment and knowledge did not enable her to do proper justice. She had, however, considerable power of painting character, and a vein of humour, and showed untiring industry in getting up her subjects.

OPIE, MRS. AMELIA (ALDERSON) (1769-1853).--Novelist, _dau._ of a medical man, was _b._ at Norwich. In 1798 she _m._ John Opie, the painter. Her first acknowledged work was _Father and Daughter_ (1801), which had a favourable reception, and was followed by _Adeline Mowbray_ (1804), _Temper_ (1812), _Tales from Real Life_ (1813), and others, all having the same aim of developing the virtuous affections, the same merit of natural and vivid painting of character and passions, and the same fault of a too great preponderance of the pathetic. They were soon superseded by the more powerful genius of Scott and Miss Edgeworth. In 1825 she became a Quaker. After this she wrote _Illustrations of Lying_ (1825), and _Detraction Displayed_ (1828). Her later years, which were singularly cheerful, were largely devoted to philanthropic interests.

ORDERICUS VITALIS (1075-1143?).--Chronicler, _b._ near Shrewsbury, was in childhood put into the monastery of St. Evroult, in Normandy, where the rest of his life was passed. He is the author of a chronicle, _Ecclesiastical History of England and Normandy_ (_c._ 1142) in 13 books. Those from the seventh to the thirteenth are invaluable as giving a trustworthy, though not very clear, record of contemporary events in England and Normandy. It was translated into English in 1853-55.

ORM, or ORMIN (_fl._ 1200).--Was an Augustinian canon of Mercia, who wrote the _Ormulum_ in transition English. It is a kind of mediæval _Christian Year_, containing a metrical portion of the Gospel for each day, followed by a metrical homily, largely borrowed from Ælfric and Bede. Its title is thus accounted for, "This boc iss nemmed the _Ormulum_, forthi that Orm it wrohhte."

ORME, ROBERT (1728-1801).--Historian, _s._ of an Indian army doctor, _b._ at Travancore, and after being at Harrow, entered the service of the East India Company. Owing to failure of health he had to return home in 1760, and then wrote his _History of the Military Transactions of the British Nation in Indostan from 1745_ (1763-78), a well-written and accurate work, showing great research. He also _pub._ _Historical Fragments of the Mogul Empire, the Morattoes and English Concerns in Indostan from 1659_ (1782). His collections relating to India are preserved at the India Office.

ORRERY, ROGER BOYLE, 1ST EARL of (1621-1679).--Statesman and dramatist, third _s._ of the Earl of Cork, was _ed._ at Trinity Coll., Dublin. After having fought on the Royalist side he was, on the death of the King, induced by Cromwell to support him in his Irish wars and otherwise. After the death of the Protector he secured Ireland for Charles II., and at the Restoration was raised to the peerage. He wrote a romance in 6 vols., entitled _Parthenissa_, some plays, and a treatise on the _Art of War_. He has the distinction of being the first to introduce rhymed tragedies.

O'SHAUGHNESSY, ARTHUR WILLIAM EDGAR (1844-1881).--Poet, _b._ in London, entered the library of the British Museum, afterwards being transferred to the natural history department, where he became an authority on fishes and reptiles. He _pub._ various books of poetry, including _Epic of Women_ (1870), _Lays of France_ (1872), and _Music and Moonlight_ (1874). Jointly with his wife he wrote _Toyland_, a book for children. He was associated with D.G. Rossetti and the other pre-Raphaelites. There is a certain remoteness in his poetry which will probably always prevent its being widely popular. He has a wonderful mastery of metre, and a "haunting music" all his own.

OTWAY, CÆSAR (1780-1842).--Writer of Irish tales. His writings, which display humour and sympathy with the poorer classes in Ireland, include _Sketches in Ireland_ (1827), and _A Tour in Connaught_ (1839). He was concerned in the establishment of various journals.

OTWAY, THOMAS (1651 or 1652-1685).--Dramatist, _s._ of a clergyman, was _b._ near Midhurst, Sussex, and _ed._ at Oxf., which he left without graduating. His short life, like those of many of his fellows, was marked by poverty and misery, and he appears to have _d._ practically of starvation. Having failed as an actor, he took to writing for the stage, and produced various plays, among which _Don Carlos, Prince of Spain_ (1676), was a great success, and brought him some money. Those by which he is best remembered, however, are _The Orphan_ (1680), and _Venice Preserved_ (1682), both of which have been frequently revived. O. made many adaptations from the French, and in his tragedy of _Caius Marius_ incorporated large parts of _Romeo and Juliet_. He has been called "the most pathetic and tear-drawing of all our dramatists," and he excelled in delineating the stronger passions. The grossness of his comedies has banished them from the stage. Other plays are _The Cheats of Scapin_, _Friendship in Fashion_, _Soldier's Fortune_ (1681), and _The Atheist_.

OUIDA, (_see_ RAMÉE).

OUTRAM, GEORGE (1805-1856).--Humorous poet, was a Scottish advocate, a friend of Prof. Wilson, and for some time ed. of the _Glasgow Herald_. He printed privately in 1851 _Lyrics, Legal and Miscellaneous_, which were _pub._ with a memoir in 1874. Many of his pieces are highly amusing, the _Annuity_ being the best.

OVERBURY, SIR THOMAS (1581-1613).--Poet and miscellaneous writer, _ed._ at Oxf., became the friend of Carr, afterwards Earl of Rochester and Somerset, and fell a victim to a Court intrigue connected with the proposed marriage of Rochester and Lady Essex, being poisoned in the Tower with the connivance of the latter. He wrote a poem, _A Wife, now a Widowe_, and _Characters_ (1614), short, witty descriptions of types of men. Some of those _pub._ along with his are by other hands.

OWEN, JOHN (1560-1622).--Epigrammatist, _b._ at Plas Dhu, Carnarvonshire, _ed._ at Winchester and Oxf., and became head master of King Henry VIII. School at Warwick. His Latin epigrams, which have both sense and wit in a high degree, gained him much applause, and were translated into English, French, German, and Spanish.

OWEN, JOHN (1616-1683).--Puritan divine, _b._ at Stadhampton, Oxfordshire, and _ed._ at Oxf., from which he was driven by Laud's statutes. Originally a Presbyterian, he passed over to Independency. In 1649 he accompanied Cromwell to Ireland, and in 1650 to Edinburgh. He was Dean of Christ Church, Oxf. (1651-60), and one of the "triers" of ministers appointed by Cromwell. After the Restoration he was ejected from his deanery, but was favoured by Clarendon, who endeavoured to induce him to conform to the Anglican Church by offers of high preferment. Strange to say Charles II. also held him in regard, and gave him money for the Nonconformists; and he was allowed to preach to a congregation of Independents in London. His great learning and ability rendered him a formidable controversialist, specially against Arminianism and Romanism. His works fill 28 vols; among the best known being _The Divine Original, etc., of the Scriptures_, _Indwelling Sin_, _Christologia_, or ... The Person of Christ_, and a commentary on Hebrews.

OWEN, ROBERT (1771-1858).--Socialist and philanthropist, _b._ at Newton, Montgomeryshire, had for his object the regeneration of the world on the principles of socialism. His sincerity was shown by the fact that he spent most of the fortune, which his great capacity for business enabled him to make, in endeavours to put his theories into practice at various places both in Britain and America. He was sincerely philanthropic, and incidentally did good on a considerable scale in the course of his more or less impracticable schemes. He propounded his ideas in _New Views of Society, or Essays on the Formation of the Human Character_ (1816).

OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, EARL of (1550-1604).--Was a courtier of Queen Elizabeth, who lost his friends by his insolence and pride, and his fortune by his extravagance. He _m._ a _dau._ of Lord Burghley, who had to support his family after his death. He had some reputation as a writer of short pieces, many of which are in the _Paradise of Dainty Devices_.

PAINE, THOMAS (1737-1809).--Political and anti-Christian writer, _s._ of a stay-maker and small farmer of Quaker principles at Thetford, became with large classes perhaps the most unpopular man in England. After trying various occupations, including those of schoolmaster and exciseman, and having separated from his wife, he went in 1774 to America where, in 1776, he _pub._ his famous pamphlet, _Common Sense_, in favour of American independence. He served in the American army, and also held some political posts, including that of sec. to a mission to France in 1781. Returning to England in 1787 he _pub._ his _Rights of Man_ (1790-92), in reply to Burke's _Reflections on the French Revolution_. It had an enormous circulation, 1,500,000 copies having been sold in England alone; but it made it necessary for him to escape to France to avoid prosecution. Arrived in that country he was elected to the National Convention. He opposed the execution of Louis XVI., and was, in 1794, imprisoned by Robespierre, whose fall saved his life. He had then just completed the first part of his _Age of Reason_, of which the other two appeared respectively in 1795 and 1807. It is directed alike against Christianity and Atheism, and supports Deism. Becoming disgusted with the course of French politics, he returned to America in 1802, but found himself largely ostracised by society there, became embroiled in various controversies, and is said to have become intemperate. He _d._ at New York in 1809. Though apparently sincere in his views, and courageous in the expression of them, P. was vain and prejudiced. The extraordinary lucidity and force of his style did much to gain currency for his writings.

PAINTER, WILLIAM (1540?-1594).--Translator, etc., _ed._ at Camb., was then successively schoolmaster at Sevenoaks, and Clerk of the Ordnance, in which position his intromissions appear to have been of more advantage to himself than to the public service. He was the author of _The Palace of Pleasure_ (1566), largely consisting of translations from Boccaccio, Bandello, and other Italian writers, and also from the classics. It formed a quarry in which many dramatists, including Shakespeare, found the plots for their plays.

PALEY, WILLIAM (1743-1805).--Theologian, _s._ of a minor canon of Peterborough, where he was _b._, went at 15 as a sizar to Christ's Coll., Camb., where he was Senior Wrangler, and became a Fellow and Tutor of his coll. Taking orders in 1767 he held many benefices, and rose to be Archdeacon of Carlisle, and Sub-Dean of Lincoln. P., who holds one of the highest places among English theologians, was the author of four important works--_Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy_ (1785), _Horæ Paulinæ_, his most original, but least popular, book (1790), _View of the Evidences of Christianity_ (1794), and _Natural Theology_ (1802). Though now to a large extent superseded, these works had an immense popularity and influence in their day, and are characterised by singular clearness of expression and power of apt illustration. The system of morals inculcated by P. is Utilitarian, modified by theological ideas. His view of the "divine right of Kings" as on a level with "the divine right of constables" was unpleasing to George III., notwithstanding which his ecclesiastical career was eminently successful. His manners were plain and kindly.

PALGRAVE, SIR FRANCIS (1788-1861).--Historian, _s._ of Meyer Cohen, a Jewish stockbroker, but at his marriage in 1823, having previously become a Christian, assumed his mother-in-law's name of Palgrave. He studied law, and was called to the Bar in 1827. From 1838 until his death in 1861 he was Deputy Keeper of the Records, and in that capacity arranged a vast mass of hitherto inaccessible documents, and ed. many of them for the Record Commission. His historical works include a _History of England in Anglo-Saxon Times_ (1831), _Rise and Progress of the English Commonwealth_ (1832), and _History of Normandy and England_ (4 vols., 1851-64), _pub._ posthumously. He was knighted in 1832. His works are of great value in throwing light upon the history and condition of mediæval England.

PALGRAVE, FRANCIS TURNER (1824-1897).--Poet and critic, _s._ of the above, _ed._ at Oxf., was for many years connected with the Education Department, of which he rose to be Assistant Sec.; and from 1886-95 he was Prof. of Poetry at Oxf. He wrote several vols. of poetry, including _Visions of England_ (1881), and _Amenophis_ (1892), which, though graceful and exhibiting much poetic feeling, were the work rather of a man of culture than of a poet. His great contribution to literature was his anthology, _The Golden Treasury of Songs and Lyrics_ (1864), selected with marvellous insight and judgment. A second series showed these qualities in a less degree. He also _pub._ an anthology of sacred poetry.

PALTOCK, ROBERT (1697-1767).--Novelist, was an attorney, and wrote _The Life and Adventures of Peter Wilkins, a Cornish Man_ (1751), admired by Scott, Coleridge, and Lamb. It is somewhat on the same plan as _Robinson Crusoe_, the special feature being the _gawry_, or flying woman, whom the hero discovered on his island, and married. The description of Nosmnbdsgrutt, the country of the flying people, is a dull imitation of Swift, and much else in the book is tedious.

PARDOE, JULIA (1806-1862).--Novelist and miscellaneous writer, _b._ at Beverley, showed an early bias towards literature, and became a voluminous and versatile writer, producing in addition to her lively and well-written novels many books of travel, and others dealing with historical subjects. She was a keen observer, and her Oriental travels had given her an accurate and deep knowledge of the peoples and manners of the East. Among her books are _The City of the Sultan_ (1836), _Romance of the Harem_, _Thousand and One Days_, _Louis XIV. and the Court of France_, _Court of Francis I._, etc.

PARIS, MATTHEW (_c._ 1195-1259).--Chronicler, entered in 1217 the Benedictine Monastery of St. Albans, and continued the work of Roger de Wendover (_q.v._) as chronicler of the monastery. In 1248 he went on the invitation of Hacon King of Norway to reform the Abbey of St. Benet Holm. In this he was successful, and on his return to England enjoyed the favour of Henry III., who conversed familiarly with him, and imparted information as to matters of state, which constitutes a valuable element in his histories. He had a high reputation for piety and learning, was a patriotic Englishman, and resisted the encroachments of Rome. His chief work is _Historia Major_, from the Conquest until 1259. In it he embodied the _Flores Historiarum_ of his predecessor Roger, and the original part is a bold and vigorous narrative of the period (1235-59). He also wrote _Historia Minor_ and _Historia Anglorum_, a summary of the events (1200-1250).

PARK, MUNGO (1771-1806).--Traveller, _b._ near Selkirk, studied medicine at Edin. As a surgeon in the mercantile marine he visited Sumatra, and on his return attracted the attention of various scientific men by his botanical and zoological investigations. In 1795 he entered the service of the African Association, and made a voyage of discovery on the Niger. His adventures were _pub._ in _Travels in the Interior of Africa_ (1799), which had great success. He _m._ and set up in practice in Peebles; but in 1805 accepted an invitation by Government to undertake another journey in Africa. From this he never returned, having perished in a conflict with natives. His narratives, written in a straightforward and pleasing style, are among the classics of travel.

PARKER, THEODORE (1810-1860).--Theologian, _b._ at Lexington, Massachusetts, _ed._ at Harvard, was an indefatigable student, and made himself master of many languages. In 1837 he was settled at West Roxbury as a Unitarian minister, but the development of his views in a rationalistic direction gradually separated him from the more conservative portion of his co-religionists. He lectured on theological subjects in Boston in 1841, travelled in Europe, and in 1845 settled in Boston, where he lectured to large audiences, and exercised a wide influence. He took a leading part in the anti-slavery crusade, and specially in resisting the Fugitive Slave Act. In 1859 his health, which had never been robust, gave way; he went to Italy in search of restoration, but _d._ at Florence. Although he was a powerful theological and social influence, his writings are not of corresponding importance: it was rather as a speaker that he influenced his countrymen, and he left no contribution to literature of much permanent account, though his _coll._ works fill 14 vols. Among the most outstanding of his writings are _A Discourse of Matters Pertaining to Religion_, and _Sermons for the Times_.

PARKMAN, FRANCIS (1823-1893).--Historian, _s._ of a Unitarian minister in Boston, Massachusetts, graduated at Harvard, and qualified as a lawyer, but never practised, and though hampered by a state of health which forbade continuous application, and by partial blindness, devoted himself to the writing of the history of the conflict between France and England in North America. This he did in a succession of works--_The Conspiracy of Pontiac_ (1851), _The Pioneers of France in the New World_ (1865), _The Jesuits in North America_ (1867), _La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West_ (1869), _The Old Regime in Canada_ (1874), _Count Frontenac and New France_ (1877), _Montcalm and Wolfe_ (1884), and _A Half Century of Conflict_ (1892). In these the style, at first somewhat turgid, gradually improved, and became clear and forcible, while retaining its original vividness. P. spared no labour in collecting and sifting his material, much of which was gathered in the course of visits to the places which were the scenes of his narrative, and his books are the most valuable contribution in existence to the history of the struggle for Canada and the other French settlements in North America. He also wrote two novels, which had little success, and a book upon rose-culture.

PARNELL, THOMAS (1679-1718).--Poet, _b._ and _ed._ in Dublin, took orders in 1700, and was Vicar of Finglas and Archdeacon of Clogher. The death of his young wife in 1706 drove him into intemperate habits. He was a friend of Swift and Pope, a contributor to the _Spectator_, and aided Pope in his translation of the _Iliad_. He wrote various isolated poems showing a fine descriptive touch, of which the most important are _The Hermit_, _The Night Piece_, and _The Hymn to Contentment_. P. was a scholar, and had considerable social gifts. His Life was written by Goldsmith.

PARR, DR. SAMUEL (1747-1825).--Scholar, _s._ of an apothecary at Harrow, where and at Camb. he was _ed._ He was successively an assistant-master at Harrow and headmaster of schools at Colchester and Norwich, and having taken orders, finally settled down at Hatton, Warwickshire, where he took private pupils. He was undoubtedly a great Latinist, but he has left no work to account for the immense reputation for ability which he enjoyed during his life. His chief power appears to have been in conversation, in which he was bold, arrogant, and epigrammatic. He was nicknamed "the Whig Johnson," but fell very far short of his model. His writings, including correspondence, were _pub._ in 8 vols.

PATER, WALTER HORATIO (1839-1894).--Essayist and critic, _s._ of Richard G.P., of American birth and Dutch extraction, a benevolent physician, _b._ at Shadwell, and _ed._ at the King's School, Canterbury, and at Queen's Coll., Oxf., after leaving which he made various tours in Germany and Italy where, especially in the latter, his nature, keenly sensitive to every form of beauty, received indelible impressions. In 1864 he was elected a Fellow of Brasenose, and in its ancient and austere precincts found his principal home. As a tutor, though conscientious, he was not eminently successful; nevertheless his lectures, on which he bestowed much pains, had a fit audience, and powerfully influenced a few select souls. He resigned his tutorship in 1880, partly because he found himself not entirely in his element, and partly because literature was becoming the predominant interest in his life. In 1885 he went to London, where he remained for 8 years, continuing, however, to reside at Brasenose during term. The reputation as a writer which he had gained made him welcome in whatever intellectual circles he found himself. Leaving London in 1893 he settled in a house in St. Giles, Oxf. In the spring of 1894 he went to Glasgow to receive the honorary degree of LL.D., a distinction which he valued. In the summer he had an attack of rheumatic fever, followed by pleurisy. From these he had apparently recovered, but he succumbed to an attack of heart-failure which immediately supervened. Thus ended prematurely in its 55th year a life as bare of outward events as it was rich in literary fruit and influence.

P. is one of the greatest modern masters of style, and one of the subtlest and most penetrating of critics. Though not a philosopher in the technical sense, he deeply pondered the subjects with which philosophy sets itself to deal; but art was the dominating influence in his intellectual life, and it was said of him that "he was a philosopher who had gone to Italy by mistake instead of to Germany." He may also be called the prophet of the modern æsthetic school. His attitude to Christianity, though deeply sceptical, was not unsympathetic. As a boy he came under the influence of Keble, and at one time thought of taking orders, but his gradual change of view led him to relinquish the idea. Among his works may be mentioned an article on Coleridge, and others on Winckelmann, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Botticelli, etc., which were _coll._ and _pub._ as _Studies in the History of the Renaissance_ (1873); _Appreciations_ (1889) contained his great essays on _Æsthetic Poetry_ and _Style_, various Shakespearian studies and papers on Lamb and Sir T. Browne; _Imaginary Portraits_, and _Greek Studies_ (1894); _Plato and Platonism_ (1893). His masterpiece, however, is _Marius the Epicurean_ (1885), a philosophical romance of the time of Marcus Aurelius. The style of P. is characterised by a subdued richness, and complicated, but perfect structure of sentences. In character he was gentle, refined, and retiring, with a remarkable suavity of manner and dislike of controversy.

PATMORE, COVENTRY KERSEY DIGHTON (1823-1896).--Poet, _s._ of Peter George P., also an author, _b._ at Woodford, Essex, was in the printed book department of the British Museum. He _pub._ _Tamerton Church Tower_ (1853), and between 1854 and 1862 the four poems which, combined, form his masterpiece, _The Angel in the House_, a poetic celebration of married love. In 1864 he entered the Church of Rome. Thereafter he _pub._ _The Unknown Eros_ (1877), _Amelia_ (1878), and _Rod, Root, and Flower_ (1895), meditations chiefly on religious subjects. His works are full of graceful and suggestive thought, but occasionally suffer from length and discursiveness. He was successful in business matters, and in character was energetic, masterful, and combative. He numbered Tennyson and Ruskin among his friends, was associated with the pre-Raphaelites, and was a contributor to their organ, the _Germ_.

PATTISON, MARK (1813-1884).--Scholar and biographer, _b._ at Hornby, Yorkshire, _s._ of a clergyman, _ed._ privately and at Oxf., where in 1839 he became Fellow of Lincoln Coll., and acquired a high reputation as a tutor and examiner. At first strongly influenced by Newman and the Tractarian movement, he ultimately abandoned that school. In 1851, failing to be elected head of his coll., he threw up his tutorship, and devoted himself to severe study, occasionally writing on educational subjects in various reviews. In 1861, however, he attained the object of his ambition, being elected Rector of Lincoln Coll. In 1883 he dictated a remarkable autobiography, coming down to 1860. In 1875 he had _pub._ a _Life of Isaac Casaubon_, and he left materials for a Life of Scaliger, which he had intended to be his _magnum opus_. He also wrote _Milton_ for the English Men of Letters Series, and produced an ed. of his sonnets.

PAULDING, JAMES KIRKE (1779-1860).--Novelist, etc., _b._ in the state of New York, was chiefly self-educated. He became a friend of W. Irving, and was part author with him of _Salmagundi_--a continuation of which by himself proved a failure. Among his other writings are _John Bull and Brother Jonathan_ (1812), a satire, _The Dutchman's Fireside_ (1831), a romance which attained popularity, a _Life of Washington_ (1835), and some poems.

PAYN, JAMES (1830-1898).--Novelist, _s._ of an official in the Thames Commission, _ed._ at Eton, Woolwich, and Camb. He was a regular contributor to _Household Words_ and to _Chambers's Journal_, of which he was ed. 1859-74, and in which several of his works first appeared; he also ed. the _Cornhill Magazine_ 1883-96. Among his novels--upwards of 60 in number--may be mentioned _Lost Sir Massingberd_, _The Best of Husbands_, _Walter's Word_, _By Proxy_ (1878), _A Woman's Vengeance_, _Carlyon's Year_, _Thicker than Water_, _A Trying Patient_, etc. He also wrote a book of poems and a volume of literary reminiscences.

PEACOCK, THOMAS LOVE (1785-1866).--Novelist, _b._ at Weymouth, the only child of a London merchant, was in boyhood at various schools, but from the age of 13 self-educated. Nevertheless, he became a really learned scholar. He was for long in the India Office, where he rose to be Chief Examiner, coming between James Mill and John Stuart Mill. He was the author of several somewhat whimsical, but quite unique novels, full of paradox, prejudice, and curious learning, with witty dialogue and occasional poems interspersed. Among them are _Headlong Hall_ (1816), _Nightmare Abbey_ (1818), _Maid Marian_ (1822), _Misfortunes of Elphin_ (1829), _Crotchet Castle_ (1831), and _Gryll Grange_ (1860). He was the intimate friend of Shelley, memoirs of whom he contributed to _Fraser's Magazine_.

PEARSON, CHARLES HENRY (1830-1894).--_B._ at Islington, _ed._ at Rugby and King's Coll., London, at the latter he became Prof. of Modern History. Owing to a threatened failure of sight he went to Australia, where he remained for 20 years, and was for a time Minister of Education of Victoria. Returning to England in 1892 he wrote his _National Life and Character: a Forecast_, in which he gave utterance to very pessimistic views as to the future of the race. He also wrote a _History of England during the Early and Middle Ages_ (1867).

PEARSON, JOHN (1613-1686).--Theologian, _s._ of an archdeacon of Suffolk, _b._ at Great Snoring, Norfolk, _ed._ at Eton and Camb., took orders, and after holding various preferments, including the archdeaconry of Surrey, the mastership of Jesus Coll., and of Trinity Coll., Camb., was made, in 1673, Bishop of Chester. His _Exposition of the Creed_ (1659) has always been regarded as one of the most finished productions of English theology, remarkable alike for logical argument and arrangement, and lucid style. He was also the author of other learned works, including a defence of the authenticity of the epistles of Ignatius. In his youth P. was a Royalist, and acted in 1645 as a chaplain in the Royal army. He was one of the commissioners in the Savoy Conference.

PECOCK, REGINALD (1395?-1460?).--Theologian, _b._ in Wales, entered the Church, and rose to be successively Bishop of St. Asaph 1444, and of Chichester 1450. He was a strenuous controversialist, chiefly against the Lollards; but his free style of argument, and especially his denial of the infallibility of the Church, led him into trouble, and on being offered the choice of abjuration or death at the stake, he chose the former, but nevertheless was deprived of his bishopric, had his books burned, and spent his latter days in the Abbey of Thorney, Cambridgeshire. His chief work is _The Repressor of overmuch blaming of the Clergy_ (1455), which, from its clear, pointed style, remains a monument of 15th century English. _The Book of Faith_ (1456) is another of his writings.

PEELE, GEORGE (1558?-1597?).--Dramatist and poet, _s._ of a salter in London, _ed._ at Christ's Hospital and Oxf., where he had a reputation as a poet. Coming back to London about 1581 he led a dissipated life. He appears to have been a player as well as a playwright, and to have come into possession of some land through his wife. His works are numerous and consist of plays, pageants, and miscellaneous verse. His best plays are _The Arraignment of Paris_ (1584), and _The Battle of Alcazar_ (1594), and among his poems _Polyhymnia_ (1590), and _The Honour of the Garter_ (1593). Other works are _Old Wives' Tale_ (1595), and _David and Fair Bethsabe_ (1599). P. wrote in melodious and flowing blank verse, with abundance of fancy and brilliant imagery, but his dramas are weak in construction, and he is often bombastic and extravagant.

PENN, WILLIAM (1644-1718).--Quaker apologist, _s._ of Sir William P., a celebrated Admiral, was _b._ in London, and _ed._ at Oxf., where he became a Quaker, and was in consequence expelled from the Univ. His change of views and his practice of the extremest social peculiarities imposed by his principles led to a quarrel with his _f._, who is said to have turned him out of doors. Thereafter he began to write, and one of his books, _The Sandy Foundation Shaken_ (_c._ 1668), in which he attacked the doctrines of the Trinity, the atonement, and justification by faith, led to his being, in 1668, imprisoned in the Tower, where he wrote his most popular work, _No Cross, No Crown_ (1668), and a defence of his own conduct, _Innocency with her Open Face_ (1668), which resulted in his liberation. Shortly after this, in 1670, on the death of his _f._, who had been reconciled to him, P. succeeded to a fortune, including a claim against the Government amounting to £15,000, which was ultimately in 1681 settled by a grant of the territory now forming the state of Pennsylvania. Meanwhile, however, he had again suffered imprisonment for preaching, and employed his enforced leisure in writing four treatises, of which one, _The Great Cause of Liberty of Conscience_ (_c._ 1671), is an able defence of religious toleration. In 1682, having obtained the grant above referred to, he set sail for America, with the view of founding a community based upon the principles of toleration. Having established a Constitution and set matters in working order there, P. returned to England in 1684 and busied himself in efforts for the relief of those Quakers who had remained at home. The peculiar position of affairs when James II. was endeavouring to use the Dissenters as a means of gaining concessions to the Roman Catholics favoured his views, and he was to some extent successful in his efforts. His connection with the Court at that time has, however, led to his conduct being severely animadverted upon by Macaulay and others. In 1690 and for some time thereafter he was charged with conspiring against the Revolution Government, but after full investigation was completely acquitted. His later years were embittered by troubles in Pennsylvania, and by the dishonesty and ingratitude of an agent by whose defalcations he was nearly ruined, as a consequence of which he was imprisoned for debt. He _d._ soon after his release in 1718.

PENNANT, THOMAS (1726-1798).--Naturalist and traveller, _b._ in Flintshire, and _ed._ at Oxf., was one of the most distinguished naturalists of the 18th century, and _pub._, among other works on natural history, _British Zoology_ (1768), and _History of Quadrupeds_ (1781). In literature he is, however, best remembered by his _Tours in Scotland_ (1771-75), which did much to make known the beauties of the country to England. He also travelled in Ireland and Wales, and on the Continent, and _pub._ accounts of his journeys. Dr. Johnson said of him, "he observes more things than any one else does."

PEPYS, SAMUEL (1633-1703).--Diarist, _s._ of John P., a London tailor, but of good family and connected with Sir E. Montague, afterwards Earl of Sandwich, was _ed._ at St. Paul's School and at Camb. After leaving the Univ. he entered the household of Montagu, who became his life long patron. He held various Government posts, including that of Surveyor-General of the Victualling Office, in which he displayed great administrative ability and reforming zeal, and in 1672 he became Sec. of the Admiralty. After being imprisoned in the Tower on a charge in connection with the Popish plot, and deprived of his office, he was in 1686 again appointed Sec. of the Admiralty, from which, however, he was dismissed at the Revolution. Thereafter he lived in retirement chiefly at Clapham. P. was a man of many interests, combining the characters of the man of business, man of pleasure, and _virtuoso_, being skilled in music and a collector of books, manuscripts, and pictures, and he was Pres. of the Royal Society for two years. He wrote _Memoirs of the Royal Navy_ (1690), but his great legacy to literature is his unique and inimitable _Diary_, begun January 1, 1660, and coming down to May 31, 1669, when the failure of his sight prevented its further continuance. As an account by an eye-witness of the manners of the Court and of society it is invaluable, but it is still more interesting as, perhaps, the most singular example extant of unreserved self-revelation--all the foibles, peccadilloes, and more serious offences against decorum of the author being set forth with the most relentless _naïveté_ and minuteness, it was written in a cypher or shorthand, which was translated into long-hand by John Smith in 1825, and ed. by Lord Braybrooke, with considerable excisions. Later and fuller ed. have followed. P. left his books, MSS., and collections to Magdalene Coll., Camb., where they are preserved in a separate library.

PERCIVAL, JAMES GATES (1795-1854).--Poet, _b._ at Berlin, Conn., was a precocious child, and a morbid and impractical, though versatile man, with a fatal facility in writing verse on all manner of subjects and in nearly every known metre. His sentimentalism appealed to a wide circle, but his was one of the tapers which were extinguished by Lowell. He had also a reputation as a geologist. His poetic works include _Prometheus_ and _The Dream of a Day_ (1843).

PERCY, THOMAS (1729-1811).--Antiquary and poet, _s._ of a grocer at Bridgnorth, where he was _b._, _ed._ at Oxf., entered the Church, and became in 1778 Dean of Carlisle, and in 1782 Bishop of Dromore. He _pub._ various antiquarian works, chiefly with reference to the North of England; but is best remembered for his great service to literature in collecting and ed. many ancient ballads, _pub._ in 1765 as _Reliques of Ancient Poetry_, which did much to bring back interest in the ancient native literature, and to usher in the revival of romanticism.

PHILIPS, AMBROSE (1675?-1749).--Poet, _b._ in Shropshire and _ed._ at Camb., wrote pastorals and dramas, was one of the Addison circle, and started a paper, the _Freethinker_, in imitation of the _Spectator_. He also made translations from Pindar and Anacreon, and a series of short complimentary verses, which gained for him the nickname of "Namby Pamby." His _Pastorals_, though poor enough, excited the jealousy of Pope, who pursued the unfortunate author with life-long enmity. P. held various Government appointments in Ireland.

PHILIPS, JOHN (1676-1709).--Poet, _s._ of an archdeacon of Salop, and _ed._ at Oxf. His _Splendid Shilling_, a burlesque in Miltonic blank verse, still lives, and _Cyder_, his chief work, an imitation of Virgil's _Georgics_, has some fine descriptive passages. P. was also employed by Harley to write verses on Blenheim as a counterblast to Addison's _Campaign_. He _d._ at 33 of consumption.

PHILLIPS, SAMUEL (1814-1854).--Novelist, of Jewish descent, studied for the Church at Göttingen and Camb., but his _f._ dying, he was obliged to give up his intention and take to business, in which, however, he was unsuccessful, and fell into great straits. He then tried writing, and produced some novels, of which the best known was _Caleb Stukely_, which appeared in _Blackwood_ in 1842. He was latterly a leader-writer for the _Times_.

PICKEN, ANDREW (1788-1833).--Miscellaneous writer, _b._ in Paisley, was in business in the West Indies, and in Glasgow and Liverpool, but not being successful, went to London to try his fortunes in literature. His earlier writings, _Tales and Sketches of the West of Scotland_ and _The Sectarian_ (1829), gave offence in dissenting circles: his next, _The Dominie's Legacy_ (1830), had considerable success, and a book on _Travels and Researches of Eminent Missionaries_ (1830) did something to rehabilitate him with those whom he had offended. His last work, _The Black Watch_ (1833), had just appeared when he _d._ of an apoplectic seizure. His best work is somewhat like that of Galt (_q.v._).

PIERPONT, JOHN (1785-1860).--Poet, _b._ at Litchfield, Conn., was first a lawyer, then a merchant, and lastly a Unitarian minister. His chief poem is _The Airs of Palestine_.

PIKE, ALBERT (1809-1891).--Poet, _b._ at Boston, Mass., was in his early days a teacher, and afterwards a successful lawyer. His now little-remembered poems were chiefly written under the inspiration of Coleridge and Keats. His chief work, _Hymns to the Gods_, which appeared in _Blackwood's Magazine_, closely imitates the latter. He also wrote prose sketches.

PINDAR, PETER, (_see_ WOLCOT, J.).

PINKERTON, JOHN (1758-1826).--Historian and Antiquary, _b._ in Edin., was apprenticed to a lawyer, but took to literature, and produced a number of works distinguished by painstaking research, but disfigured by a controversial and prejudiced spirit. His first publication was _Select Scottish Ballads_ (1783), some of which, however, were composed by himself. A valuable _Essay on Medals_ (1784) introduced him to Gibbon and Horace Walpole. Among his other works are _Ancient Scottish Poems_ (1786), _Dissertation on the Goths_ (1787), _Medallic History of England_ (1790), _History of Scotland_ (1797), and his best work, _Treatise on Rocks_ (1811). One of his most inveterate prejudices was against Celts of all tribes and times. He _d._ in obscurity in Paris.

PINKNEY, EDWARD COATE (1802-1828).--_B._ in London, where his _f._ was U.S. ambassador. He wrote a number of light, graceful short poems, but fell a victim to ill-health and a morbid melancholy at 25. His longest poem is _Rudolph_ (1825).

PIOZZI, HESTER LYNCH (SALUSBURY) (1741-1821).--Miscellaneous writer, _m._ Henry Thrale, a wealthy brewer, and, after his death, Gabriel Piozzi, an Italian musician. Her chief distinction is her friendship with Dr. Johnson, who was for a time almost domesticated with the Thrales. Her second marriage in the year of Johnson's death, 1784, broke up the friendship. She wrote _Anecdotes of Dr. Johnson_, a work which had a favourable reception, and gives a lifelike picture of its subject, and left an _Autobiography_. Her poem, _The Three Warnings_, is supposed to have been touched up by Johnson. Many details of her friendship with J. are given in the _Diary_ of Madame D'Arblay (_q.v._).

PLANCHÉ, JAMES ROBINSON (1796-1880).--Dramatist and miscellaneous writer, _b._ in London of Huguenot descent, was in the Herald Office, and rose to be Somerset Herald, in which capacity he was repeatedly sent on missions to invest foreign princes with the Order of the Garter. He produced upwards of 90 adaptations, and about 70 original pieces for the stage. He also wrote a _History of British Costumes_, _The Pursuivant of Arms_ (1852), and _The Conqueror and his Companions_ (1874), besides autobiographical _Recollections_ (1872).

POE, EDGAR ALLAN (1809-1849).--Poet and writer of tales, was _b._ at Boston, where his parents, who were both actors, were temporarily living. He was left an orphan in early childhood in destitute circumstances, but was adopted by a Mr. Allan of Richmond, Virginia. By him and his wife he was treated with great indulgence, and in 1815 accompanied them to England, where they remained for five years, and where he received a good education, which was continued on their return to America, at the Univ. of Virginia. He distinguished himself as a student, but got deeply into debt with gaming, which led to his being removed. In 1829 he _pub._ a small vol. of poems containing _Al Araaf_ and _Tamerlane_. About the same time he proposed to enter the army, and was placed at the Military Academy at West Point. Here, however, he grossly neglected his duties, and fell into the habits of intemperance which proved the ruin of his life, and was in 1831 dismissed. He then returned to the house of his benefactor, but his conduct was so objectionable as to lead to a rupture. In the same year P. _pub._ an enlarged ed. of his poems, and in 1833 was successful in a competition for a prize tale and a prize poem, the tale being the _MS. found in a Bottle_, and the poem _The Coliseum_. In the following year Mr. Allan _d._ without making any provision for P., and the latter, being now thrown on his own resources, took to literature as a profession, and became a contributor to various periodicals. In 1836 he entered into a marriage with his cousin Virginia Clemm, a very young girl, who continued devotedly attached to him notwithstanding his many aberrations, until her death in 1847. _The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym_ appeared in 1838, and in 1839 P. became ed. of the _Gentleman's Magazine_, in which appeared as _Tales of the Arabesque and Grotesque_ many of his best stories. In 1845 his famous poem, _The Raven_, came out, and in 1848 _Eureka, a Prose Poem_, a pseudo-scientific lucubration. The death of his wife gave a severe shock to his constitution, and a violent drinking bout on a visit to Baltimore led to his death from brain fever in the hospital there. The literary output of P., though not great in volume, limited in range, and very unequal in merit, bears the stamp of an original genius. In his poetry he sometimes aims at a musical effect to which the sense is sacrificed, but at times he has a charm and a magic melody all his own. His better tales are remarkable for their originality and ingenuity of construction, and in the best of them he rises to a high level of imagination, as in _The House of Usher_, while _The Gold Beetle_ or _Golden Bug_ is one of the first examples of the cryptogram story; and in _The Purloined Letters_, _The Mystery of Marie Roget_, and _The Murders in the Rue Morgue_ he is the pioneer of the modern detective story.

_Life_, Woodberry (American Men of Letters). _Works_ ed. by Woodberry and Stedman (10 vols.), etc.

POLLOK, ROBERT (1789-1827).--Poet, _b._ in Refrewshire, studied for the ministry of one of the Scottish Dissenting communions. After leaving the Univ. of Glasgow he _pub._ anonymously _Tales of the Covenanters_, and in 1827, the year of his untimely death from consumption, appeared his poem, _The Course of Time_, which contains some fine passages, and occasionally faintly recalls Milton and Young. The poem went through many ed. in Britain and America. He _d._ at Shirley, near Southampton, whither he had gone in search of health.

POMFRET, JOHN (1667-1702).--Poet, _s._ of a clergyman, entered the Church. He wrote several rather dull poems, of which the only one remembered, though now never read, is _The Choice_, which celebrates a country life free from care, and was highly popular in its day.

POPE, ALEXANDER (1688-1744).--Poet, was _b._ in London, of Roman Catholic parentage. His _f._ was a linen-merchant, who _m._ as his second wife Edith Turner, a lady of respectable Yorkshire family, and of some fortune, made a competence, and retired to a small property at Binfield, near Windsor. P. received a somewhat desultory education at various Roman Catholic schools, but after the age of 12, when he had a severe illness brought on by over-application, he was practically self-educated. Though never a profound or accurate scholar, he had a good knowledge of Latin, and a working acquaintance with Greek. By 1704 he had written a good deal of verse, which attracted the attention of Wycherley (_q.v._), who introduced him to town life and to other men of letters. In 1709 his _Pastorals_ were _pub._ in Tonson's _Miscellany_, and two years later _The Essay on Criticism_ appeared, and was praised by Addison. The _Rape of the Lock_, which came out in 1714, placed his reputation on a sure foundation, and thereafter his life was an uninterrupted and brilliant success. His industry was untiring, and his literary output almost continuous until his death. In 1713 _Windsor Forest_ (which won him the friendship of Swift) and _The Temple of Fame_ appeared, and in 1715 the translation of the _Iliad_ was begun, and the work _pub._ at intervals between that year and 1720. It had enormous popularity, and brought the poet £5000. It was followed by the _Odyssey_ (1725-26), in which he had the assistance of Broome and Fenton (_q.v._), who, especially the former, caught his style so exactly as almost to defy identification. It also was highly popular, and increased his gains to about £8000, which placed him in a position of independence. While engaged upon these he removed to Chiswick, where he lived 1716-18, and where he issued in 1717 a _coll._ ed. of his works, including the _Elegy on an Unfortunate Lady_ and the _Epistle of Eloisa to Abelard_. In 1718, his _f._ having _d._, he again removed with his mother to his famous villa at Twickenham, the adornment of the grounds of which became one of his chief interests, and where, now the acknowledged chief of his art, he received the visits of his friends, who included the most distinguished men of letters, wits, statesmen, and beauties of the day. His next task was his ed. of Shakespeare (1725), a work for which he was not well qualified, though the preface is a fine piece of prose. The _Miscellanies_, the joint work of Pope and Swift, were _pub._ in 1727-28, and drew down upon the authors a storm of angry comment, which in turn led to the production of _The Dunciad_, first _pub._ in 1728, and again with new matter in 1729, an additional book--the fourth--being added in 1742. In it he satirised with a wit, always keen and biting, often savage and unfair, the small wits and poetasters, and some of a quite different quality, who had, or whom he supposed to have, injured him. Between 1731 and 1735 he produced his _Epistles_, the last of which, addressed to Arbuthnot, is also known as the _Prologue to the Satires_, and contains his ungrateful character of Addison under the name of "Atticus;" and also, 1733, the _Essay on Man_, written under the influence of Bolingbroke. His last, and in some respects best, works were his _Imitations of Horace_, _pub._ between 1733 and 1739, and the fourth book of _The Dunciad_ (1742), already mentioned. A naturally delicate constitution, a deformed body, extreme sensitiveness, over-excitement, and overwork did not promise a long life, and P. _d._ on May 30, 1744, aged 56.

His position as a poet has been the subject of much contention among critics, and on the whole is lower than that assigned him by his contemporaries and immediate successors. Of the higher poetic qualities, imagination, sympathy, insight, and pathos, he had no great share; but for the work which in his original writings, as distinguished from translations, he set himself to do, his equipment was supreme, and the medium which he used--the heroic couplet--he brought to the highest technical perfection of which it is capable. He wrote for his own age, and in temper and intellectual and spiritual outlook, such as it was, he exactly reflected and interpreted it. In the forging of condensed, pointed, and sparkling maxims of life and criticism he has no equal, and in painting a portrait Dryden alone is his rival; while in the _Rape of the Lock_ he has produced the best mock-heroic poem in existence. Almost no author except Shakespeare is so often quoted. His extreme vanity and sensitiveness to criticism made him often vindictive, unjust, and venomous. They led him also into frequent quarrels, and lost him many friends, including Lady M. Wortley Montagu, and along with a strong tendency to finesse and stratagem, of which the circumstances attending the publication of his literary correspondence is the chief instance, make his character on the whole an unamiable one. On the other hand, he was often generous; he retained the friendship of such men as Swift and Arbuthnot, and he was a most dutiful and affectionate son.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1688, _ed._ at various Romanist schools, introduced to Wycherley 1704, _pub._ _Pastorals_ 1709, _Essay on Criticism_ 1711, _Rape of the Lock_ 1714, _Windsor Forest_ and _Temple of Fame_ 1713, translation of _Iliad_ 1715-20, _Odyssey_ 1725-26, _coll._ _Works_ 1717, buys villa at Twickenham 1718, _pub._ ed. of _Shakespeare_ 1725, _Miscellanies_ 1727-28, _Dunciad_ 1728 (fourth book 1742), _Epistles_ 1731-35, _Essay on Man_ 1733, _Imitations of Horace_ 1733-39, _d._ 1744.

The best ed. of the _Works_ is that of Elwin and Courthope, with _Life_ by Courthope (10 vols., 1871-89).

PORDAGE, SAMUEL (1633-1691?).--Poet, _s._ of a clergyman in Berks, _ed._ at Merchant Taylor's School, studied law at Lincoln's Inn, and made various translations, wrote some poems, two tragedies, _Herod and Mariamne_ (1673), and _The Siege of Babylon_ (1678), and a romance, _Eliana_. He is best known by his _Azaria and Hushai_ (1682), in reply to Dryden's _Absalom and Achitophel_, distinguished from the other replies by its moderation and freedom from scurrility.

PORSON, RICHARD (1759-1808).--Scholar, _s._ of the parish clerk of E. Ruston, Norfolk, was distinguished from childhood by a marvellous tenacity of memory which attracted the attention of the curate of the parish, who _ed._ him, after which he was sent by a gentleman to Eton. Subsequently a fund was collected for the purpose of maintaining him at Camb., where he had a brilliant career, and became a Fellow of Trinity Coll. This position he lost by refusing to take orders. In 1792 he was appointed Prof. of Greek in the Univ., but resided for the most part in London, where he was much courted by literary men, but unfortunately fell into extremely intemperate habits. P. was one of the very greatest of Greek scholars and critics; but he has left little permanent work of his own. He ed. four plays of Euripides, viz., _Hecuba_, _Orestes_, _Phoenissæ_, and _Medea_. His most widely read work was his _Letters_ to Archdeacon Travis on the disputed passage, 1 John v. 7, which is considered a masterpiece of acute reasoning. He is buried in the chapel of Trinity Coll.

PORTER, ANNA MARIA (1780-1832), PORTER, JANE (1776-1850).--Novelists, were the _dau._ of an Irish army surgeon, and sisters of Sir Robert Ker P., the painter and traveller. After the death of the _f._ the family settled in Edin., where they enjoyed the friendship of Scott. ANNA at the age of 12 _pub._ _Artless Tales_, the precursor of a series of tales and novels numbering about 50, the best being _Don Sebastian_ (1809). JANE, though the elder by four years, did not _pub._ until 1803, when her first novel, _Thaddeus of Warsaw_, appeared. _The Scottish Chiefs_ followed in 1810. Both of these works, especially the latter, had remarkable popularity, the _Chiefs_ being translated into German and Russian. She had greater talent than her sister, but like her, while possessed of considerable animation and imagination, failed in grasping character, and imparting local verisimilitude. Both were amiable and excellent women. A romance, _Sir Edward Seaward's Diary_ (1831), purporting to be a record of actual circumstances, and ed. by Jane, is generally believed to have been written by a brother, Dr. William Ogilvie P.

POWELL, FREDERICK YORK (1850-1904).--Historian, _ed._ at Rugby and Oxf., called to the Bar at the Middle Temple 1874, became an ardent student of history, and succeeded Froude as Prof. of Modern History at Oxf. in 1894. Absorbed in study, he wrote less than his wide and deep learning qualified him for. Among his works are _A History of England to_ 1509, and he also wrote on Early England up to the Conquest, and on Alfred and William the Conqueror.

PRAED, WINTHROP MACKWORTH (1802-1839).--Poet, _s._ of a sergeant-at-law, was _b._ in London, _ed._ at Eton and Camb., and called to the Bar 1829. He sat in Parliament for various places, and was Sec. to the Board of Control 1834-35. He appeared to have a brilliant career before him, when his health gave way, and he _d._ of consumption in 1839. His poems, chiefly bright and witty skits and satirical pieces, were _pub._ first in America 1844, and appeared in England with a memoir by Derwent Coleridge in 1864. His essays appeared in 1887.

PRESCOTT, WILLIAM HICKLING (1796-1859).--Historian, _b._ at Salem, Massachusetts, the _s._ of an eminent lawyer, was _ed._ at Harvard, where he graduated in 1814. While there he met with an accident to one of his eyes which seriously affected his sight for the remainder of his life. He made an extended tour in Europe, and on his return to America he _m._, and abandoning the idea of a legal career, resolved to devote himself to literature. After ten years of study, he _pub._ in 1837 his _History of Ferdinand and Isabella_, which at once gained for him a high place among historians. It was followed in 1843 by the _History of the Conquest of Mexico_, and in 1847 by the _Conquest of Peru_. His last work was the _History of Philip II._, of which the third vol. appeared in 1858, and which was left unfinished. In that year he had an apoplectic shock, and another in 1859 was the cause of his death, which took place on January 28 in the last-named year. In all his works he displayed great research, impartiality, and an admirable narrative power. The great disadvantage at which, owing to his very imperfect vision, he worked, makes the first of these qualities specially remarkable, for his authorities in a foreign tongue were read to him, while he had to write on a frame for the blind. P. was a man of amiable and benevolent character, and enjoyed the friendship of many of the most distinguished men in Europe as well as in America.

PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791).--Writer on morals, politics, and economics, _s._ of a dissenting minister, was _b._ at Tynton in Wales, _ed._ at a dissenting coll. in London, and was then for some years chaplain to a Mr. Streatfield, who left him some property. Thereafter he officiated as minister to various congregations near London. In 1758 his _Review of the Principal Questions and Difficulties in Morals_, a work of considerable metaphysical power, appeared; and it was followed in 1766 by a treatise on _The Importance of Christianity_. In 1769 his work on _Reversionary Payments_ was _pub._, and his Northampton Mortality Table was about the same time constructed. These, though long superseded, were in their day most valuable contributions to economical science. His most popular work, _Observations on Civil Liberty and the Justice and Policy of the War with America_, appeared in 1776, had an enormous sale, and led to his being invited to go to America and assist in establishing the financial system of the new Government. This he declined chiefly on the score of age. Simplicity, uprightness, and toleration of opinions opposed to his own appear to have been marked traits in his character.

PRIDEAUX, HUMPHREY (1648-1724).--Divine and scholar, belonged to an ancient Cornish family, was _b._ at Padstow, and _ed._ at Westminster School and at Oxf. He first attracted notice by his description of the Arundel Marbles (1676), which gained for him powerful patrons, and he rose to be Dean of Norwich. Among his other works are a _Life of Mahomet_ (1697), and _The Old and New Testament connected in the History of the Jews and Neighbouring Nations_ (1715-17), long an important work, of which many ed. were brought out.

PRIESTLY, JOSEPH (1733-1804).--Chemist, theologian, and political writer, _s._ of a draper at Fieldhead, Yorkshire, where he was _b._ Brought up as a Calvinist, he gradually became a modified Unitarian, and after attending a dissenting academy at Daventry, he became minister to various congregations. About 1756 he _pub._ _The Scripture Doctrine of Remission_, denying the doctrine of atonement, and in 1761 succeeded Dr. Aiken as teacher of languages and _belles-lettres_ in the dissenting academy at Warrington. About the same time he became acquainted with Franklin and Dr. Price (_q.v._), and began to devote himself to science, the fruits of which were his _History and Present State of Electricity_ (1767), and _Vision, Light, and Colours_. He also became a distinguished chemist, and made important discoveries, including that of oxygen. In 1773 he travelled on the Continent as companion to Lord Shelburne, where he was introduced to many men of scientific and literary eminence, by some of whom he was rallied upon his belief in Christianity. In reply to this he wrote _Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever_ (1774), and in answer to the accusations of Atheism brought against him at home, he _pub._ (1777) _Disquisition relating to Matter and Spirit_. In 1780 he settled in Birmingham, in 1782 _pub._ his _Corruptions of Christianity_, and in 1786 his _History of Early Opinions concerning Jesus Christ_. He was one of those who wrote replies to Burke's _Reflections on the French Revolution_, one consequence of which was his election as a French citizen, and another the destruction of his chapel, house, papers, and instruments by a mob. Some years later he went to America, where he _d._ P. has been called the father of modern chemistry. He received many scientific and academic honours, being a member of the Royal Society, of the Academies of France, and of St. Petersburg, and an LL.D. of Edin. He was a man of powerful and original mind, of high character, and of undaunted courage in maintaining his opinions, which were usually unpopular.

PRINGLE, THOMAS (1789-1834).--Poet, _b._ in Roxburghshire, studied at Edin., and became known to Scott, by whose influence he obtained a grant of land in South Africa, to which he, with his _f._ and brothers, emigrated. He took to literary work in Cape Town, and conducted two papers, which were suppressed for their free criticisms of the Colonial Government. Thereupon he returned and settled in London, where he _pub._ _African Sketches_. He also produced a book of poems, _Ephemerides_.

PRIOR, MATTHEW (1664-1721).--Poet, _b._ near Wimborne Minster, Dorset, _s._ of a joiner who, having _d._, he was _ed._ by an uncle, and sent to Westminster School. Befriended by the Earl of Dorset he proceeded to Camb., and while there wrote, jointly with Charles Montague, _The Town and Country Mouse_, a burlesque of Dryden's _Hind and Panther_. After holding various diplomatic posts, in which he showed ability and discretion, he entered Parliament in 1700, and, deserting the Whigs, joined the Tories, by whom he was employed in various capacities, including that of Ambassador at Paris. On the death of Queen Anne he was recalled, and in 1715 imprisoned, but after two years released. In 1719 a folio ed. of his works was brought out, by which he realised £4000, and Lord Harley having presented him with an equal sum, he looked forward to the peace and comfort which were his chief ambition. He did not, however, long enjoy his prosperity, dying two years later. Among his poems may be mentioned _Solomon_, which he considered his best work, _Alma, or the Progress of the Mind_, _The Female Phaeton_, _To a Child of Quality_, and some prose tales. His chief characteristic is a certain elegance and easy grace, in which he is perhaps unrivalled. His character appears to have been by no means unimpeachable, but he was amiable and free from any trace of vindictiveness.

PROCTER, ADELAIDE ANN (1825-1864).--Poetess, eldest _dau._ of Bryan W.P. (_q.v._). Many of her poems were first _pub._ in _Household Words_ and _All the Year Round_, and afterwards _coll._ under the title of _Legends and Lyrics_ (1858), of which many ed. appeared. In 1851 Miss P. became a Roman Catholic. She took much interest in social questions affecting women. She wrote the well-known songs, _Cleansing Fires_ and _The Lost Chord_, and among her many hymns are, _I do not ask, O Lord, that Life may be_, and _My God, I thank Thee who hast made_.

PROCTER, BRYAN WALLER ("BARRY CORNWALL") (1787-1874).--Poet, _b._ at Leeds, and _ed._ at Harrow, went to London and practised successfully as a solicitor. Thereafter he became a barrister, and was, 1832-61, a Commissioner of Lunacy. By 1823 he had produced four vols. of poetry and a tragedy, _Mirandola_ (1821). His works include _Dramatic Scenes_ (1819), _A Sicilian Story_, _Marcian Colonna_ (1820), _The Flood of Thessaly_ (1823), and _English Songs_ (1832), which last will perhaps survive his other writings. P. was the friend of most of his literary contemporaries, and was universally beloved.

PROUT, FATHER, (_see_ MAHONY, F.S.).

PRYNNE, WILLIAM (1600-1669).--Controversial writer, _b._ near Bath, _ed._ at Oxf., studied law at Lincoln's Inn, of which he became a bencher, but soon became immersed in the writing of controversial pamphlets. After the _Unloveliness of Lovelocks_ and _Health's Sicknesse_ (1627-30) appeared his best known controversial work, _Histrio-Mastix_, or a _Scourge for Stage Players_ (1633), a bitter attack on most of the popular amusements of the day. It was punished with inhuman severity. P. was brought before the Star Chamber, fined £5000, pilloried, and had both his ears cut off. Undeterred by this he issued from his prison a fierce attack upon Laud and the hierarchy, for which he was again fined, pilloried, and branded on both cheeks with the letters S.L. (seditious libeller). Removed to Carnarvon Castle he remained there until liberated in 1641 by the Long Parliament. He soon after became a member of the House, and joined with extreme, but not inexcusable, rancour in the prosecution of Laud. After this he turned his attention to the Independents, whom he hated scarcely less than the Prelatists, and was among those expelled from the House of Commons by Cromwell, whom he had opposed in regard to the execution of the King with such asperity that he again suffered imprisonment, from which he was released in 1652. He supported the Restoration, and was by Charles II. appointed Keeper of the Records in the Tower. Here he did good service by compiling the _Calendar of Parliamentary Writs_ and _Records_. He _pub._ in all about 200 books and pamphlets.

PSALMANAZAR, GEORGE (1679?-1763).--Literary impostor. His real name is unknown. He is believed to have been a native of France or Switzerland, but represented himself as a native of the island of Formosa, and palmed off a Formosan language of his own construction, to which he afterwards added a description of the island. For a time he was in the military service of the Duke of Mecklenburg, and formed a connection with William Innes, chaplain of a Scottish regiment, who collaborated with him in his frauds, and introduced various refinements into his methods. Innes, however, was appointed chaplain to the forces in Portugal, and P. was unable to maintain his impositions, and was exposed. After a serious illness in 1728 he turned over a new leaf and became a respectable and efficient literary hack; his works in his latter days included a _General History of Printing_, contributions to the _Universal History_, and an _Autobiography_ containing an account of his impostures.

PURCHAS, SAMUEL (1575?-1626).--Compiler of travels, _b._ at Thaxton, and _ed._ at Camb., took orders, and held various benefices, including the rectory of St. Martin's, Ludgate Hill. The papers of R. Hakluyt (_q.v._) came into his hands, and he made several compilations relating to man, his nature, doings, and surroundings. His three works are (1) _Purchas his Pilgrimage, or Relations of the World and the Religions observed in all Ages and Places, etc._; (2) _Purchas his Pilgrim, Microcosmus, or the History of Man, etc._; and (3) _Hakluytus Posthumus, or Purchas his Pilgrimes, containing a History of the World in Sea Voyages and Land Travels, etc._ Although credulous, diffuse, and confused, these works have preserved many interesting and curious matters which would otherwise have been lost.

PUSEY, EDWARD BOUVERIE (1800-1882).--Scholar and theologian, _b._ at Pusey, Berks, _ed._ at Eton and Oxf., belonged to the family of Lord Folkstone, whose name was Bouverie, his _f._ assuming that of P. on inheriting certain estates. After studying in Germany, he became in 1828 Regius Prof. of Hebrew at Oxf. His first important work was an _Essay on the Causes of Rationalism in German Theology_, and the arrest of similar tendencies in England became one of the leading objects of his life. He was one of the chief leaders of the Tractarian movement, and contributed tracts on _Baptism_ and on _Fasting_. In consequence of a sermon on the Eucharist, he was in 1843 suspended from the office of Univ. Preacher which he then held. Later writings related to _Confession_ and _The Doctrine of the Real Presence_, and in 1865 he issued an _Eirenicon_ in support of union with the Church of Rome. He was prominent in all movements and controversies affecting the Univ., and was foremost among the prosecutors of Jowett (_q.v._). Among his other literary labours are commentaries on Daniel and the minor Prophets, a treatise on Everlasting Punishment, and a Catalogue of the Arabic MS. in the Bodleian Library.

PUTTENHAM, GEORGE (1530?-1590).--Was one of the _s._ of Robert P., a country gentleman. There has been attributed to him the authorship of _The Arte of Poesie_, a treatise of some length divided into three parts, (1) of poets and poesy, (2) of proportion, (3) of ornament. It is now thought rather more likely that it was written by his brother RICHARD (1520?-1601). George was the author of an _Apologie_ for Queen Elizabeth's treatment of Mary Queen of Scots.

PYE, HENRY JAMES (1745-1813).--A country gentleman of Berkshire, who _pub._ _Poems on Various Subjects_ and _Alfred, an Epic_, translated the _Poetics_ of Aristotle, and was Poet Laureate from 1790. In the last capacity he wrote official poems of ludicrous dulness, and was generally a jest and a byword in literary circles.

QUARLES, FRANCIS (1592-1644).--Poet, _b._ at the manor-house of Stewards near Romford, was at Camb., and studied law at Lincoln's Inn. Thereafter he went to the Continent, and at Heidelberg acted as cup-bearer to Elizabeth of Bohemia, _dau._ of James I. He next appears as sec. to Archbishop Ussher in Ireland, and was in 1639 Chronologer to the City of London. On the outbreak of the Civil War he sided with the Royalists, and was plundered by the Parliamentarians of his books and rare manuscripts, which is said to have so grieved him as to bring about his death. His first book of poems was _A Feast for Worms_ (1620); others were _Hadassa_ (Esther) (1621), _Sion's Elegies_ (1625), and _Divine Emblems_ (1635), by far his most popular book. His style was that fashionable in his day, affected, artificial, and full of "conceits," but he had both real poetical fire and genuine wit, mixed with much that was false in taste, and though quaint and crabbed, is seldom feeble or dull. He was twice _m._, and had by his first wife 18 children.

RADCLIFFE, MRS. ANN (WARD) (1764-1823).--Novelist, only _dau._ of parents in a respectable position, in 1787 _m._ Mr. William Radcliffe, ed. and proprietor of a weekly newspaper, the _English Chronicle_. In 1789 she _pub._ her first novel, _The Castles of Athlin and Dunbayne_, of which the scene is laid in Scotland. It, however, gave little promise of the future power of the author. In the following year appeared _The Sicilian Romance_, which attracted attention by its vivid descriptions and startling incidents. Next came _The Romance of the Forest_ (1791), followed by _The Mysteries of Udolpho_ (1794), and _The Italian_ (1797), a story of the Inquisition, the last of her works _pub._ during her life-time. _Gaston de Blondeville_, ed. by Sergeant Talfourd, was brought out posthumously. Mrs. R. has been called the Salvator Rosa of British novelists. She excels in the description of scenes of mystery and terror whether of natural scenery or incident: in the former displaying a high degree of imaginative power, and in the latter great ingenuity and fertility of invention. She had, however, little power of delineating character. Though her works belong to a type now out of fashion, they will always possess an historical interest as marking a stage in the development of English fiction.

"RAINE, ALLEN" (MRS. BEYNON PUDDICOMBE).--Novelist. _A Welsh Singer_ (1897), _Tom Sails_ (1898), _A Welsh Witch_ (1901), _Queen of the Rushes_ (1906), etc.

RALEIGH, SIR WALTER (1552?-1618).--Explorer, statesman, admiral, historian, and poet, _s._ of Walter R., of Fardel, Devonshire, was _b._ at Hayes Barton in that county. In 1568 he was sent to Oxf., where he greatly distinguished himself. In the next year he began his career of adventure by going to France as a volunteer in aid of the Huguenots, serving thereafter in the Low Countries. The year 1579 saw him engaged in his first voyage of adventure in conjunction with his half-brother, Sir Humphrey Gilbert. Their object was to discover and settle lands in North America; but the expedition failed, chiefly owing to opposition by the Spaniards. The next year he was fighting against the rebels in Ireland; and shortly thereafter attracted the notice of Queen Elizabeth, in whose favour he rapidly rose. In 1584 he fitted out a new colonising expedition to North America, and succeeded in discovering and occupying Virginia, named after the Queen. On his return he was knighted. In the dark and anxious days of the Armada, 1587-88, R. was employed in organising resistance, and rendered distinguished service in action. His favour with the Queen, and his haughty bearing, had, however, been raising up enemies and rivals, and his intrigue and private marriage with Elizabeth Throckmorton, one of the maids of honour, in 1593, lost him for a time the favour of the Queen. Driven from the Court he returned to the schemes of adventure which had so great a charm for him, and fired by the Spanish accounts of the fabulous wealth of Guiana, he and some of his friends fitted out an expedition which, however, though attended with various brilliant episodes, proved unsuccessful. Restored to the favour of the Queen, he was appointed an Admiral in the expeditions to Cadiz, 1596, and in the following year was engaged in an attack on the Azores, in both of which he added greatly to his reputation. The death of Elizabeth in 1603 was the turning point in R.'s fortunes. Thenceforward disaster clouded his days. The new sovereign and his old enemies combined to compass his ruin. Accused of conspiring against the former he was, against all evidence, sentenced to death, and though this was not at the time carried out, he was imprisoned in the Tower and his estates confiscated. During this confinement he composed his _History of the World_, which he brought down to 130 B.C. It is one of the finest specimens of Elizabethan prose, reflective in matter and dignified and grave in style. Released in 1615 he set out on his last voyage, again to Guiana, which, like the former, proved a failure, and in which he lost his eldest _s._ He returned a broken and dying man, but met with no pity from his ungenerous King who, urged, it is believed, by the King of Spain, had him beheaded on Tower Hill, October 29, 1618. R. is one of the most striking and brilliant figures in an age crowded with great men. Of a noble presence, he was possessed of a commanding intellect and a versatility which enabled him to shine in every enterprise to which he set himself. In addition to his great fragment the _History of the World_, he wrote _A Report of the Truth of the Fight about the Azores_, and _The Discoverie of the Empire of Guiana_, besides various poems chiefly of a philosophic cast, of which perhaps the best known are _The Pilgrimage_, and that beginning "Go, Soul, the Body's Guest."

The most recent _Lives_ are by Stebbing (1892), and Hume (1898). _Works_ (1829), with _Lives_ by Oldys and Birch.

RAMÉE, LOUISE DE LA ("OUIDA") (1840?-1908).--Novelist, _b._ at Bury St. Edmunds, _dau._ of an English _f._ and a French mother. For many years she lived in London, but about 1874 she went to Italy, where she _d._ She wrote over 40 novels, which had considerable popularity. Among the best known of them are _Under Two Flags_, _Puck_, _Two Little Wooden Shoes_, _In a Winter City_, _In Maremma_. She also wrote a book of stories for children, _Bimbi_. Occasionally she shows considerable power, but on the whole her writings have an unhealthy tone, want reality, and are not likely to have any permanent place in literature.

RAMSAY, ALLAN (1686-1758).--Poet, _s._ of a mine-manager at Leadhills, Dumfriesshire, who claimed kin with the Ramsays of Dalhousie. In his infancy he lost his _f._, and his mother _m._ a small "laird," who gave him the ordinary parish school education. In 1701 he came to Edinburgh as apprentice to a wig-maker, took to writing poetry, became a member of the "Easy Club," of which Pitcairn and Ruddiman, the grammarian, were members, and of which he was made "laureate." The club _pub._ his poems as they were thrown off, and their appearance soon began to be awaited with interest. In 1716 he _pub._ an additional canto to _Christ's Kirk on the Green_, a humorous poem sometimes attributed to James I., and in 1719 he became a bookseller, his shop being a meeting-place of the _literati_ of the city. A _coll._ ed. of his poems appeared in 1720, among the subscribers to which were Pope, Steele, Arbuthnot, and Gay. It was followed by _Fables and Tales_, and other poems. In 1724 he began the _Tea Table Miscellany_, a collection of new Scots songs set to old melodies, and the _Evergreen_, a collection of old Scots poems with which R. as ed. took great liberties. This was a kind of work for which he was not qualified, and in which he was far from successful. _The Gentle Shepherd_, by far his best known and most meritorious work, appeared in 1725, and had an immediate popularity which, to a certain extent, it retains. It is a pastoral drama, and abounds in character, unaffected sentiment, and vivid description. After this success R., satisfied with his reputation, produced nothing, more of importance. He was the first to introduce the circulating library into Scotland, and among his other enterprises was an unsuccessful attempt to establish a theatre in Edin. On the whole his life was a happy and successful one, and he had the advantage of a cheerful, sanguine, and contented spirit. His foible was an innocent and good-natured vanity.

RAMSAY, EDWARD BANNERMAN (1793-1872).--A clergyman of the Scottish Episcopal Church, and Dean of Edinburgh in that communion from 1841, has a place in literature by his _Reminiscences of Scottish Life and Character_, which had gone through 22 ed. at his death. It is a book full of the engaging personality of the author, and preserves many interesting and entertaining traits and anecdotes which must otherwise, in all probability, have perished. The Dean was deservedly one of the most popular men in Scotland.

RANDOLPH, THOMAS (1605-1635).--Poet and dramatist, _ed._ at Westminster School and Camb., was a friend of Ben Jonson, and led a wild life in London. He wrote six plays, including _The Jealous Lovers_, _Amyntas_, and _The Muses' Looking-glass_, and some poems. He was a scholar as well as a wit, and his plays are full of learning and condensed thought in a style somewhat cold and hard.

RAPIN DE THOYRAS, PAUL (1661-1725).--Historian, _b._ at Castres, Languedoc, belonged to a Protestant Savoyard family, and came to England on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1686. He afterwards served with William III. in Holland, and accompanied him to England in 1688. His _History of England_, written in French, was translated into English, and continued by various writers, and was the standard history until the appearance of Hume's.

RASPE, RUDOLF ERIC- (1737-1794).--_B._ in Hanover, was a prof. in Cassel, and keeper of the Landgrave of Hesse's antique gems and medals, in the purloining of some of which he was detected, and fled to England. Here he won for himself a certain place in English literature by the publication in 1785 of _Baron Munchausen's Narrative_. Only a small portion of the work in its present form is by R., the rest having been added later by another hand. He appears to have maintained more or less during life his character of a rogue, and is the prototype of Douster-swivel in Scott's _Antiquary_.

RAWLINSON, GEORGE (1812-1902).--Historian, _b._ at Chadlington. Oxfordshire, and _ed._ at Oxf., took orders, and was Canon of Canterbury from 1872. He held the Camden Professorship of Ancient History at Oxf. from 1861. Among his works are a translation of Herodotus (1858-62) (with his brother, Sir Henry R., _q.v._), _Historical Evidences of the Truth of the Scripture Records_, _The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World_ (1862-67), _Manual of Ancient History_ (1869), _The Sixth and Seventh Great Oriental Monarchies_ (1873-77), _History of Ancient Egypt_ (1881), _Histories of the Phoenicians and Parthians_, _Memoirs of Sir H.C. Rawlinson_ (1898).

RAWLINSON, SIR HENRY CRESSWICKE (1810-1895).--Brother of the above, entered the service of the East India Company, and held many important diplomatic posts. He studied the cuneiform inscriptions, and _pub._ _The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia_ (1861-80), _Outlines of the History of Assyria_ (1852). He deciphered most of the inscriptions discovered by Sir A.H. Layard (_q.v._).

RAY, JOHN (1627-1705).--Naturalist, _s._ of a blacksmith at Black Notley, Essex, was at Camb., where he became a Fellow of Trinity, and successively lecturer on Greek and mathematics. His first publication was a Latin catalogue of plants growing near Cambridge, which appeared in 1660. Thereafter he made a tour of Great Britain, and _pub._ in 1670 his _Catalogue of the Plants of England and the adjacent Isles_. In 1663 he had travelled on the Continent for three years with his pupil-friend, F. Willughby, and in 1673 appeared _Observations_ on his journeys, which extended over the Low Countries, Germany, Italy, and France, with a catalogue of plants not native to England. On the death of Willughby, R. _ed._ his sons, and in 1679 retired to his native village, where he continued his scientific labours until his death. These included the ed. of W.'s _History of Birds and Fishes_, a collection of English proverbs, _Historia Plantarum Generalis_ (1686-1704), and _Synopsis Methodica Animalium_. He was for long popularly known by his treatise, _The Wisdom of God manifested in the works of the Creation_ (1691), a precursor of Paley's _Natural Theology_. R. is the father of English botany, and appears to have grasped the idea of the natural classification of plants, afterwards developed by Jussieu and other later naturalists. His greatest successors, including Cuvier, highly commended his methods and acquirements.

READ, THOMAS BUCHANAN (1822-1872).--American poet, was a portrait-painter, and lived much abroad. He wrote a prose romance, _The Pilgrims of the Great St. Bernard_, and several books of poetry, including _The New Pastoral_, _The House by the Sea_, _Sylvia_, and _A Summer Story_. Some of the shorter pieces included in these, _e.g._, "Sheridan's Ride," "Drifting," and "The Closing Scene," have great merit.

READE, CHARLES (1814-1884).--Novelist, _s._ of a country gentleman of Oxfordshire, _ed._ at Oxf., and called to the Bar at Lincoln's Inn 1843. He did not, however, practise, but began his literary career with some dramas, of which the most remarkable were _Masks and Faces_, _Gold_, and _Drink_. He afterwards rewrote the first of these as a novel, _Peg Woffington_ (1852), which attained great popularity. _It is never too late to Mend_ appeared in 1856, his historical novel, _The Cloister and the Hearth_, generally regarded as his masterpiece (1861), _Hard Cash_ (1863), _Griffith Gaunt_ (1867), _Foul Play_ (1869), _Put Yourself in his Place_ (1870), and _A Terrible Temptation_ (1871). Critics have differed very widely as to the merits of R. as a novelist, and have attributed to, and denied him the same qualities; but it will be generally admitted that, while very unequal, he was at his best a writer of unusual power and vividness. Nearly all are agreed as to the great excellence of _The Cloister and the Hearth_, Mr. Swinburne placing it "among the very greatest masterpieces of narrative." Many of his novels were written with a view to the reformation of some abuse. Thus _Hard Cash_ exposes certain private asylums, and _Foul Play_, written in collaboration with Dion Boucicault, is levelled against ship-knackers.

REED, HENRY (1808-1854).--Critic, was Prof. of English Literature in the Univ. of Pennsylvania. He _d._ in a shipwreck. He was a sympathetic and delicate critic, and was among the first of American men of letters to appreciate the genius of Wordsworth, of whose works he brought out an ed. in 1837. His lectures on English Literature, English History, and English Poets were _pub._

REEVE, CLARA (1729-1807).--Novelist, was the author of several novels, of which only one is remembered--_The Old English Baron_ (1777), written in imitation of, or rivalry with, H. Walpole's _Castle of Otranto_, with which it has often been printed.

REEVE, HENRY (1813-1895).--Editor, etc., _s._ of a physician, was on the staff of the _Times_, the foreign policy of which he influenced for many years. He was ed. of the _Edinburgh Review_ 1855-95, and of the Greville Memoirs 1865. He held a leading place in society, and had an unusually wide acquaintance with men of letters all over the continent.

REID, MAYNE (1818-1883).--Novelist, _b._ in the north of Ireland, he set off at the age of 20 for Mexico to push his fortunes, and went through many adventures, including service in the Mexican War. He also was for a short time settled in Philadelphia engaged in literary work. Returning to this country he began a long series of novels of adventure with _The Rifle Rangers_ (1849). The others include _The Scalp Hunters_, _Boy Hunters_, and _Young Voyagers_, and had great popularity, especially with boys.

REID, THOMAS (1710-1796).--Philosopher, was the _s._ of the minister of Strachan, Kincardineshire, where he was _b._ His mother was one of the gifted family of the Gregorys. At the age of 12 he was sent to Marischal Coll., Aberdeen, where he graduated, and thereafter resided for some time as librarian, devoting himself to study, especially of mathematics and the Newtonian philosophy. He was in 1737 ordained minister of New Machar, Aberdeen, and in 1748 he communicated to the Royal Society an _Essay on Quantity_. Four years later he became one of the Prof. of Philosophy (including mathematics and natural philosophy) in King's Coll., Aberdeen, and in 1763 he was chosen to succeed Adam Smith as Prof. of Moral Philosophy in Glasgow. In the following year he _pub._ his great work, _Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense_, directed against Hume's _Essay on Human Nature_. Up to the appearance of the latter work in 1739 R. had been a follower of Berkeley, but the conclusions drawn therein from the idealistic philosophy led him to revise his theories, and to propound what is usually known as the "common sense" philosophy, by which term is meant the beliefs common to rational beings as such. In 1785 he _pub._ his _Essay on the Intellectual Powers_, which was followed in 1788 by that _On the Active Powers_. R., who, though below the middle size, was strong and fond of exercise, maintained his bodily and mental vigour until his death at 86. His writings, distinguished by logical rigour of method and clearness of style, exercised a profound influence in France as well as at home; but his attempted refutation of Berkeley is now generally considered to have failed.

_Works_ ed. by Sir W. Hamilton and H.L. Mansel. Sketch by Prof. A.C. Fraser (1898).

REID, SIR THOMAS WEMYSS (1842-1905).--Novelist and biographer, _b._ at Newcastle, and after being connected with various provincial newspapers came to London in 1887 as manager for Cassell and Co. Thereafter he was, 1890-99, ed. of _The Speaker_. Among his more permanent writings are _The Land of the Bey_ (1882), _Gladys Fane_ (1883), and Lives of W.E. Forster (1888), and Lords Houghton (1891), and Playfair (1899), and William Black (1902). He was knighted in 1894.

REYNOLDS, SIR JOSHUA (1723-1792).--Painter and writer on art, _s._ of a clergyman and schoolmaster at Plympton, Devonshire. After studying art in Italy, he settled in London, where he attained extraordinary fame as a portrait-painter. He is regarded as the greatest English representative of that art, and was first Pres. of the Royal Academy. He was the intimate friend of Johnson, Burke, Goldsmith, and indeed of most of the celebrated men of his time. He has also a place in literature for his _Fifteen Discourses_ on painting, delivered to the Academy. He also contributed to the _Idler_, and translated Du Fresney's _Art of Painting_. He suffered from deafness, and in his latter years from failure of sight. He was a man of great worth and amiability. He was knighted in 1769.

RHODES, WILLIAM BARNES (1772-1826).--Dramatist, was in the Bank of England, of which he became Chief Teller. He wrote a burlesque, _Bombastes Furioso_, which achieved great popularity.

RHYMER, THOMAS THE, (_see_ ERCILDOUN).

RICARDO, DAVID (1772-1823).--Political economist, _s._ of a Jewish stockbroker, himself followed the same business, in which he acquired a large fortune. On his marriage he conformed to Christianity. He was an original and powerful writer on economic subjects, his chief work being _The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation_ (1817). After retiring from business he entered the House of Commons, where, owing to his remarkable power of lucid exposition, combined with his reputation as a highly successful man of business, he acquired great influence. The writings of R. are among the classics of his subject.

RICE, JAMES (1844-1882).--Novelist, was _ed._ at Camb., and studied law, from which he drifted into literature. He wrote a number of successful novels in collaboration with W. Besant (_q.v._).

RICH, BARNABE (1540?-1620?).--Writer of romances, _b._ in Essex, saw military service in the Low Countries. He began to write in 1574, and took Lyly's _Euphues_ as his model. Among his numerous romances is _The Strange and Wonderful Adventures of Simonides, a Gentleman Spaniard_ and _Riche, his Farewell to the Military Profession_ (1581), which furnished Shakespeare with the plot for _Twelfth Night_.

RICHARDSON, SAMUEL (1689-1761).--Novelist, _s._ of a joiner, was _b._ at Derby. His _f._ had intended him for the Church, but means failed, and at the age of 17 he went to London, and was apprenticed to a printer. Careful and diligent, he prospered in business, became printer of the Journals of the House of Commons, and in the year before his death purchased the moiety of the patent of King's Printer. He was twice _m._, and each of his wives brought him six children, of whom, however, only four daughters were living at his death. R., who was the originator of the modern novel, did not take seriously to literature until he was past 50 when, in 1740, _Pamela_ appeared. It originated in a proposal by two printers that R. should write a collection of model letters for the use of persons unaccustomed to correspondence, but it soon developed in his hands into a novel in which the story is carried on in the form of a correspondence. With faults and absurdities, it struck a true note of sentiment, and exploded the prevalent idea that dukes and princesses were the only suitable heroes and heroines (Pamela was a maid-servant), and it won immediate and phenomenal popularity. In 1748 _Clarissa Harlow_, his masterpiece, was _pub._, and in 1753 _Sir Charles Grandison_, in which the author embodies his ideal of a Christian gentleman. All these surfer from an elaboration of detail which often becomes tedious; but in deep acquaintance with the motives of conduct, and especially of the workings of the female heart, they are almost unrivalled; their pathos also is genuine and deep. R. had an unusual faculty as the platonic friend and counsellor of women, and was the centre of an admiring circle of the sex, who ministered to a vanity which became somewhat excessive. R. has also the distinction of evoking the genius of Fielding, whose first novel, _Joseph Andrews_, was begun as a skit or parody upon _Pamela_. R. is described as "a stout, rosy, vain, prosy little man." _Life_ by Sir W. Scott in Ballantyne's _Novelists Library_. _Works_ with preface by L. Stephen (12 vols., 1883), etc.

RITCHIE, LEITCH (1800?-1865).--Novelist, _b._ at Greenock and in business as a clerk in Glasgow, but about 1820 adopted literature as his profession. He wrote several novels of which the best known is _Wearyfoot Common_; others were _The Robber of the Rhine_ and _The Magician_. In his later years he ed. _Chambers's Journal_.

RITSON, JOSEPH (1752-1803).--Antiquary and critic, _b._ at Stockton-on-Tees, settled in London as a conveyancer, at the same time devoting himself to the study of ancient English poetry. By his diligence as a collector and acuteness as a critic he rendered essential service to the preservation and appreciation of our ancient poetry. His chief works are _A Collection of English Songs_ (1783), _Ancient Songs from Henry III. to the Revolution_ (1790), _A Collection of Scottish Songs_ (1794), and _A Collection of all the Ancient Poems, etc., relating to Robin Hood_ (1795). Of a jealous and quarrelsome temper, R. was continually in controversy with his fellow-collectors and critics, including Johnson, Warton, and Percy. His acuteness enabled him to detect the Ireland forgeries. He _d._ insane.

ROBERTSON, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1816-1853).--Divine, _s._ of Captain Frederick R., of the Royal Artillery, was _b._ in London, and _ed._ at Edin. and Oxf. After holding various curacies he became in 1847 incumbent of Trinity Chapel, Brighton, where his preaching, though it brought him under the suspicion both of the High and Evangelical parties in the Church, had an extraordinary influence. Always of delicate and highly-strung constitution, his health gave way after his ministry in Brighton had extended to six years, and he _d._ in 1853. The beauty of his life and character had almost conquered the suspicion and dislike with which his views had inspired many. His sermons, of which five series were _pub._ posthumously, have had a very wide popularity.

ROBERTSON, THOMAS WILLIAM (1829-1871).--Dramatist, belonged to a family famous for producing actors. Never a successful actor himself, he produced a number of plays, which had unusual popularity. Among these are _David Garrick_, _Society_, _Caste_, and _School_.

ROBERTSON, WILLIAM (1721-1793).--Historian, _s._ of the parish minister of Borthwick, Midlothian, where he was _b._, received his earlier _ed._ at Dalkeith, which then had a school of some repute; but his _f._ being translated to Edin., he attended school, and afterwards the Univ. there, studying for the Church. In 1743 he became minister of Gladsmuir, near Prestonpans. In the '45 he showed his loyalty by offering himself to Sir J. Cope as a volunteer, a service which was, however, declined. He soon began to take a prominent part in the debates of the General Assembly, of which he rose to be the undisputed leader. In 1758 he became one of the city ministers of Edin., and in the following year _pub._ his _History of Scotland_, which had an extraordinary success, and at once raised him to a foremost place among British historians. Preferment immediately followed: he was made Chaplain of Stirling Castle 1759, King's Chaplain for Scotland 1760, Principal of the Univ. of Edin. 1761, and Historiographer for Scotland 1763. In 1769 appeared the _History of the Reign of the Emperor Charles V._, in 1777 _The History of America_, and in 1791 _Historical Disquisition on Ancient India_. In 1780 R. retired from the management of Church affairs, in which he had shown conspicuous ability, and gave himself to study, and the society of his friends, among whom were most of his distinguished contemporaries. As a writer he possessed a finished style, clear, measured, and stately, which carried his well-arranged narrative as on a full and steady stream; he was also cool and sagacious but, like Hume, he was apt to take his facts at second hand, and the vast additional material which has been in course of accumulation since his day has rendered the value of his work more and more literary, and less and less historical.

_Lives_ by Dugald Stewart (1801), Bishop Gleig (1812), and Lord Brougham in _Men of Letters_.

ROBINSON, HENRY CRABB (1775-1867).--Diarist, _b._ at Bury St. Edmunds, was articled to an attorney in Colchester. Between 1800 and 1805 he studied at various places in Germany, and became acquainted with nearly all the great men of letters there, including Goethe, Schiller, Herder, Wieland, etc. Thereafter he became war correspondent to the _Times_ in the Peninsula. On his return to London he studied for the Bar, to which he was called in 1813, and became leader of the Eastern Circuit. Fifteen years later he retired, and by virtue of his great conversational powers and other qualities, became a leader in society, going everywhere and knowing everybody worth knowing. He _d._ unmarried, aged 91, and his _Diary, Reminiscences and Correspondence_, which stands in the forefront of its class, was _pub._ in 1869.

ROCHESTER, JOHN WILMOT (2ND EARL OF) (1647-1680).--Poet, _s._ of the 1st Earl, _b._ at Ditchley in Oxfordshire, and _ed._ at Oxf., saw some naval service when he showed conspicuous bravery. He became one of the most dissolute of the courtiers of Charles II., and wore himself out at 33 by his wild life. He was handsome, and witty, and possessed a singular charm of manner. He wrote a number of light, graceful poems, many of them extremely gross. Bishop Burnet, who attended him on his deathbed, believed him to have been sincerely repentant. In addition to his short pieces he wrote a _Satyr against Mankind_, and a tragedy, _Valentinian_, adapted from Beaumont and Fletcher.

ROGERS, HENRY (1806-1877).--Critic and theologian, was a minister of the Congregationalist Church, and ultimately Prof. of English Literature in Univ. Coll., London. He was a contributor to the _Edinburgh Review_, and is best known by his _Eclipse of Faith_ (1852), a reply to F.W. Newman's _Phases of Faith_. This work, which displays remarkable acuteness and logical power, had great popularity.

ROGERS, SAMUEL (1763-1855).--Poet, _s._ of a banker in London, received a careful private education, and entered the bank, of which, on his father's death, he became the principal partner. From his early youth he showed a marked taste for literature and the fine arts, which his wealth enabled him to gratify; and in his later years he was a well-known leader in society and a munificent patron of artists and men of letters, his breakfasts, at which he delighted to assemble celebrities in all departments, being famous. He was the author of the following poems: _The Pleasures of Memory_ (1792), _Columbus_ (1810), _Jacqueline_ (1814), _Human Life_ (1819), and _Italy_ (1822). R. was emphatically the poet of taste, and his writings, while full of allusion and finished description, rarely show passion or intensity of feeling; but are rather the reflections and memory-pictures of a man of high culture and refinement expressed in polished verse. He had considerable powers of conversation and sarcasm. He was offered, but declined, the laureateship.

ROLLE, RICHARD (1290?-1349).--Hermit and poet, _b._ at Thornton, Yorkshire, was at Oxf. Impressed by the uncertainty and the snares of life he decided to become a hermit, a resolution which he carried out with somewhat romantic circumstances. He wrote various religious treatises in Latin and English, turned the Psalms into English verse, and composed a poem--_The Pricke of Conscience_--in 7 books, in which is shown the attitude of protest which was rising against certain Papal pretensions and doctrines.

ROLLOCK, ROBERT (1555?-1599).--Theologian and scholar, _b._ in Stirlingshire, was first a Prof. in St. Andrews, and then the first Principal of the Univ. of Edin. He also held office as Prof. of Theology, and was one of the ministers of the High Church. He was one of the earliest of Protestant commentators. He wrote chiefly in Latin, but some of his sermons and commentaries are in vernacular Scotch.

ROPER, WILLIAM (1496-1578).--Biographer, _s._ of a Kentish gentleman, _m._ Margaret, _dau._ of Sir Thomas More. He has a place in literature for his excellent and appreciative biography of his father-in-law. He was a member of various Parliaments between 1529 and 1558. Although he remained a Roman Catholic, he was permitted to retain his office of prothonotary of the Court of King's Bench after the accession of Elizabeth.

ROSCOE, WILLIAM (1753-1831).--Historian, _s._ of a market-gardener near Liverpool, for a time assisted his _f._, devoting all his spare time to mental improvement. Subsequently he entered the office of an attorney, and in due time went into business on his own account, continuing, however, his literary studies. In 1799 he joined a local bank as partner and manager, which proved an unfortunate step, as the bank was obliged, in 1816, to suspend payment. In 1795 he rose into fame at a bound by his _Life of Lorenzo de' Medici_. It was followed in 1805 by the _Life and Pontificate of Leo the Tenth_, which, though also a work of great ability, had not the same success--his treatment of the Reformation offending Protestants and Roman Catholics alike. Both works were translated into various languages. He also wrote some poems, including _The Butterfly's Ball and the Grasshopper's Feast_, and several pamphlets on political questions, including the slave-trade, of which he was a determined opponent. He also took a leading part in the public life of Liverpool, which he represented in Parliament for a few years. He was an accomplished botanist.

ROSCOMMON, WENTWORTH DILLON, 4TH EARL of (1633?-1685).--Poet, nephew of the famous Earl of Strafford, was _b._ in Ireland. He studied and travelled on the Continent, and enjoyed a considerable literary reputation in his own day on the strength of a poetical _Essay on Translated Verse_, and translations from Horace's _Art of Poetry_.

ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843).--Poet and translator, _s._ of George R., who held various Government offices, including that of Treasurer of the Navy. After being _ed._ at Eton and Camb., he was appointed Reading Clerk to the House of Lords. He translated the romance of _Amadis de Gaul_ (1803), _Partenopex de Blois_ (1807), etc., and from 1823-31 was occupied with the principal work of his life, his translations from the Italian, including the _Orlando Furioso_ of Ariosto, in which he was encouraged by Sir W. Scott, whose friend he was. He also produced a vol. of poems, _The Crusade of St. Louis_ (1810).

ROSSETTI, CHRISTINA GEORGINA (1830-1894).--Poetess, sister of Dante Gabriel R. (_q.v._), was _b._ in London, where she lived all her life. She began to write poetry in early girlhood, some of her earliest verse appearing in 1850 in the _Germ_, the magazine of the pre-Raphaelites, of which her brother was one of the founders. Her subsequent publications were _Goblin Market and other Poems_ (1862), _The Prince's Progress_ (1866), _A Pageant and other Poems_ (1881), and _Verses_ (1893). _New Poems_ (1896) appeared after her death. _Sing-Song_ was a book of verses for children. Her life was a very retired one, passed largely in attending on her mother, who lived until 1886, and in religious duties. She twice rejected proposals of marriage. Her poetry is characterised by imaginative power, exquisite expression, and simplicity and depth of thought. She rarely imitated any forerunner, and drew her inspiration from her own experiences of thought and feeling. Many of her poems are definitely religious in form; more are deeply imbued with religious feeling and motive. In addition to her poems she wrote _Commonplace and other Stories_, and _The Face of the Deep_, a striking and suggestive commentary on the Apocalypse.

ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL (1828-1882).--Poet and painter, was _b._ in London. His _f._ was Gabriele Rossetti, an Italian scholar, who came to England in 1824, and was Prof. of Italian in King's Coll., London. His mother was Frances Polidori, English on her mother's side, so that the poet was three-fourths Italian, and one-fourth English. He was _ed._ at King's Coll. School, and began the systematic study of painting in 1842, and in 1848, with Holman Hunt, Millais, and others, founded the pre-Raphaelite school of painting. In 1849 he exhibited the "Girlhood of Mary Virgin," and among his other pictures are "Beata Beatrix," "Monna Vanna," and "Dante's Dream." Simultaneously with art he worked hard at poetry, and by 1847 he had written _The Blessed Damozel_ and _Hand and Soul_ (both of which appeared in the _Germ_, the magazine of the pre-Raphaelites), _Retro me Sathanas_, _The Portrait_, and _The Choice_, and in 1861 he brought out a vol. of translations from the early Italian poets under the title of _Dante and his Circle_. The death of his wife in 1862, after a married life of less than two years, told heavily upon him, as did various attacks upon his poetry, including that of Robert Buchanan (_q.v._)--_The Fleshly School of Poetry_--to which he replied with _The Stealthy School of Criticism_. His _Poems_ which, in the vehemence of his grief, he had buried in the coffin of his wife, and which were afterwards exhumed, appeared in 1870; and his last literary effort, _Ballads and Sonnets_, containing the sonnets forming _The House of Life_, in 1881. In his later years he suffered acutely from neuralgia, which led to the habit of taking chloral. Rossetti was fastidious in composition; his poems are as remarkable for condensation, finish, and exact expression of the poet's thought as for their sumptuous colouring and rich concrete imagery. In later years he was subject to depression, and became somewhat embittered, and much of a recluse.

_Life_ by A.C. Benson (English Men of Letters). _Family Letters and Memoir_ by W.M. Rossetti. Poetical Works with preface by the same, etc.

ROUS, FRANCIS (1579-1659).--Versifier of the Psalms, a Cornishman, and a prominent Puritan, took a leading part in Parliament, was Provost of Eton, and wrote several theological and devotional works. His memory has, however, been chiefly kept green by his translation of the Psalms into verse, which with some modifications was adopted by the Church and Parliament of Scotland for use in public worship, a position which it held almost exclusively until the middle of the 19th century. It is still in universal use in the Presbyterian churches of that country, though now accompanied by hymns. Though rough, and sometimes, through the endeavour to maintain literalness, grotesque, it is strong and simple, and not seldom rises to a certain severe beauty; and association has endeared it to many generations of Scottish Christians.

ROW, JOHN (1568-1646).--Scottish ecclesiastical historian, _b._ at Perth, _s._ of John R., one of the Scottish Reformers, was minister of Carnock in Fife, and a leading opponent of Episcopacy. His _Historie of the Kirk of Scotland_, 1558-1637, left by him in manuscript, was printed in 1842 for the Wodrow Society. It is an original authority for the period.

ROWE, NICHOLAS (1674-1718).--Dramatist and poet, _b._ of a good family at Little Barford, Bedfordshire, was bred to the law, but inheriting an income of £300 a year, he devoted himself to literature, and produced several dramas, including _The Ambitious Stepmother_, _The Fair Penitent_, and _Jane Shore_. The last, which is his best, contains some scenes of true pathos, and holds its place. He also wrote some poems, and translated Lucan. R., who was a man of very engaging manners, was the friend of Pope, Swift, and Addison, and received many lucrative appointments, including that of Under-Sec. of State. He has the distinction of being the first ed. and biographer of Shakespeare (1709). He was appointed Poet Laureate in 1715, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, with an epitaph by Pope.

ROWLEY, WILLIAM (1585?-1642?).--Dramatist, was an actor in the Queen's Company 1610. He collaborated with Middleton in _A Fair Quarrel_ and _The Changeling_, and in others with Dekker, Webster, etc., and wrote unassisted _A New Wonder_, _A Match at Midnight_, _A Shoemaker, a Gentleman_, and several others; also a picture of life in London called _A Search for Money_. R. was vigorous and humorous, but his verse lacked sweetness and smoothness.

RUDDIMAN, THOMAS (1674-1757).--Grammarian, _b._ in Banffshire, and _ed._ at King's Coll., Aberdeen, obtained a position in the Advocates' Library in Edin., of which in 1730 he became Librarian. In 1714 he _pub._ his _Rudiments of the Latin Tongue_, which was for long the recognised Latin grammar in the schools of Scotland. He was made printer to the Univ. in 1728. R., who was one of the greatest of Scottish Latinists, produced an ed. of the works of George Buchanan, and an ed. of _Livy_ said to be "immaculate." He also reprinted, with notes, Gavin Douglas's version of the _Æneid_.

RUSKIN, JOHN (1819-1900).--Writer on art, economics, and sociology, was _b._ in London, the _s._ of a wealthy wine merchant, a Scotsman. Brought up under intellectually and morally bracing Puritan influences, his education was mainly private until he went to Oxf. in 1836; he remained until 1840, when a serious illness interrupted his studies, and led to a six months' visit to Italy. On his return in 1842 he took his degree. In 1840 he had made the acquaintance of Turner, and this, together with a visit to Venice, constituted a turning point in his life. In 1843 appeared the first vol. of _Modern Painters_, the object of which was to insist upon the superiority in landscape of the moderns, and especially of Turner, to all the ancient masters. The earnestness and originality of the author and the splendour of the style at once called attention to the work which, however, awakened a chorus of protest from the adherents of the ancients. A second vol. appeared in 1846, the third and fourth in 1856, and the fifth in 1860. Meanwhile he had _pub._ _The Seven Lamps of Architecture_ (1849), _The Stones of Venice_ (1851-53), perhaps his greatest work, _Lectures on Architecture and Painting_ (1854), _Elements of Drawing_ (1856), and _Elements of Perspective_ (1859). During the 17 years between the publication of the first and the last vols. of _Modern Painters_ his views alike on religion and art had become profoundly modified, and the necessity of a radical change in the moral and intellectual attitude of the age towards religion, art, and economics in their bearing upon life and social conditions had become his ruling idea. He now assumed the _rôle_ of the prophet as Carlyle, by whose teaching he was profoundly influenced, had done, and the rest of his life was spent in the endeavour to turn the mind of the nation in the direction he desired. _The Political Economy of Art_ (1857) showed the line in which his mind was moving; but it was in _Unto this Last_, _pub._ in the _Cornhill Magazine_ in 1860, that he began fully to develop his views. It brought down upon him a storm of opposition and obloquy which continued for years, and which, while it acted injuriously upon his highly sensitive nervous system, had no effect in silencing him or modifying his views. There followed _Munera Pulveris_ (Gifts of the Dust), _The Crown of Wild Olive_, _Sesame and Lilies_ (1865), _Time and Tide by Wear and Tyne_, and innumerable fugitive articles. In 1869 R. was appointed first Slade Prof. of the Fine Arts at Oxf., and endowed a school of drawing in the Univ. His successive courses of lectures were _pub._ as _Aratra Pentelici_ (Ploughs of Pentelicus) (1870), _The Eagle's Nest_ (1872), _Ariadne Florentina_ (1872), and _Love's Meinie_ (1873). Contemporaneously with these he issued with more or less regularity, as health permitted, _Fors Clavigera_ (Chance the Club-bearer), a series of miscellaneous notes and essays, sold by the author himself direct to the purchasers, the first of a series of experiments--of which the Guild of St. George, a tea room, and a road-making enterprise were other examples--in practical economics. After the death of his mother in 1871 he purchased a small property, Brantwood, in the Lake district, where he lived for the remainder of his life, and here he brought out in monthly parts his last work, _Præterita_, an autobiography, 24 parts of which appeared, bringing down the story to 1864. Here he _d._ on January 20, 1900. R. was a man of noble character and generous impulses, but highly strung, irritable, and somewhat intolerant. He is one of our greatest stylists, copious, eloquent, picturesque, and highly coloured. His influence on his time was very great, at first in the department of art, in which he was for a time regarded as the supreme authority, later and increasingly in the realms of economics and morals, in which he was at first looked upon as an unpractical dreamer. He _m._ in 1848, but the union proved unhappy, and was dissolved in 1855.

For his Life _see_ his own works, especially _Præterita_. _Life and Works_ by Collingwood (2 vols., 1893). _Bibliography_, T.J. Wise (1889-93). Shorter works by Mrs. Meynell, J.A. Hobson, F. Harrison, etc.

RUSSELL, LORD JOHN, 1ST EARL RUSSELL (1792-1878).--Statesman, biographer, and historical writer, third _s._ of the 6th Duke of Bedford, was _ed._ at Westminster School and the Univ. of Edin. He entered Parliament in 1813, and became one of the most eminent English statesmen of the 19th century. He uniformly acted with the Whig and afterwards with the Liberal party, advocated all measures of progress, especially the removal of tests, the extension of education, and Parliamentary reform. He was the leader of his party in the House of Commons from 1834-55, represented the City of London from 1841 until his elevation to the peerage in 1861, and held the offices of Paymaster of the Forces, Home Sec., Colonial Sec., Foreign Sec., and Prime Minister, which last he held twice, 1846-52, and 1865-66. His contributions to literature were considerable, both in number and importance, and include _Essay on the English Constitution_ (1821), _Memoirs of the Affairs of Europe from the Peace of Utrecht_ (1824), _Correspondence of the 4th Duke of Bedford_, _Life, Diary, and Letters of Thomas Moore_, _Correspondence of Charles James Fox_, and a _Life_ of the same statesman, _Essays on the Rise and Progress of the Christian Religion in the West of Europe_ (1873), and _Recollections and Suggestions_ (1875).

RUSSELL, WILLIAM (1741-1793).--Historian, _b._ in Selkirkshire, and apprenticed to a bookseller in Edin., he was patronised by Lord Elibank, and went to London, where he followed literature as a profession. He wrote poems and fables, a _History of America_ (1779), and a _History of Modern Europe_, which he left unfinished.

RUSSELL, SIR WILLIAM HOWARD (1821-1907).--War correspondent, _b._ in Co. Dublin, was called to the Bar in 1850. Having joined the staff of the _Times_, he was sent as war correspondent to the Crimea, his letters from which caused a profound sensation, and led to an improved condition of things in regard to the army. He was also correspondent in India during the Mutiny, in America during the Civil War, and during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, and the Franco-German War of 1870-71, in South Africa in 1879, and in Egypt in 1883. Among his books are _The Adventures of Dr. Brady_ (1868), _Hesperothen_ (1882), _A Visit to Chili_ (1890), and _The Great War with Russia_ (1895). He was knighted in 1895, and also received various foreign decorations.

RUTHERFORD, SAMUEL (1600?-1661).--Theologian and controversialist, _b._ at Nisbet, Roxburghshire, _ed._ at Edin. Univ., where he became in 1623 Regent of Humanity (Prof. of Latin). In 1627 he was settled as minister of Anwoth in Galloway, whence he was banished to Aberdeen for nonconformity. On the re-establishment of Presbytery in 1638 he was made Prof. of Divinity at St. Andrews, and in 1651 Principal of St. Mary's Coll. there, and he was one of the Scottish Commissioners to the Westminster Assembly. At the Restoration he was deprived of all his offices. He was a formidable controversialist, and a strenuous upholder of the divine right of Presbytery. Among his polemical works are _Due Right of Presbyteries_ (1644), _Lex Rex_ (1644), and _Free Disputation against Pretended Liberty of Conscience_. _Lex Rex_ was, after the Restoration, burned by the common hangman, and led to the citation of the author for high treason, which his death prevented from taking effect. His chief fame, however, rests upon his spiritual and devotional works, such as _Christ Dying and drawing Sinners to Himself_, but especially upon his _Letters_, which display a fervour of feeling and a rich imagery which, while highly relished by some, repel others.

RYCAUT, or RICAUT, SIR PAUL (1628-1700).--Historian, was at Camb., and held various diplomatic positions. He wrote _Present State of the Ottoman Empire_ (1668), and a continuation of _Knolles's General Historie of the Turks_, and translated Platina's _Latin History of the Popes_.

RYMER, THOMAS (1641-1713).--Archæologist and critic, _ed._ at Camb., became a barrister at Gray's Inn. He _pub._ in 1678 _Tragedies of the last Age Considered_, in which he passed judgments, very unfavourable, upon their authors, including Shakespeare. He was of much more use as the collector of English treaties, which he _pub._ under the title of _Fædera_, in 20 vols., the last 5 of which were ed. after his death by R. Sanderson (_q.v._). R. also _pub._ poems and a play, _Edgar_. He held the office of historiographer to William III. His learning and industry have received the recognition of many subsequent historians.

ST. JOHN, H., (_see_ BOLINGBROKE).

SALA, GEORGE AUGUSTUS HENRY (1828-1895).--Journalist and novelist, _b._ in London of Italian ancestry, began life as an illustrator of books and scene-painter, afterwards taking to literature. He contributed to many periodicals, including _Household Words_, and the _Illustrated London News_, and was the founder and first ed. of _Temple Bar_. Among his novels were _The Buddington Peerage_ and _Quite Alone_. He also wrote books of travel, and an autobiographical work, his _Life and Adventures_ (1895).

SALE, GEORGE (1697?-1736).--Orientalist, a Kentish man, and practising solicitor. In 1734 he _pub._ a translation of the _Koran_. He also assisted in the _Universal History_, and was one of the correctors of the Arabic New Testament issued by the S.P.C.K.

SANDERSON, ROBERT (1587-1663).--Theologian and casuist, _b._ of good family at Rotherham in Yorkshire, was at Oxf. Entering the Church he rose to be Bishop of Lincoln. His work on logic, _Logicæ Artis Compendium_ (1615), was long a standard treatise on the subject. His sermons also were admired; but he is perhaps best remembered by his _Nine Cases of Conscience Resolved_ (1678), in consideration of which he has been placed at the head of English casuists. He left large collections of historical and heraldic matter in MS.

SANDS, ROBERT CHARLES (1799-1832).--Miscellaneous writer, _b._ at New York, was a scholarly and versatile writer, but without much originality. His best work is in his short stories. His chief poem was _Yamoyden_, an Indian story written in collaboration with a friend.

SANDYS, GEORGE (1578-1644).--Traveller and translator, _s._ of an Archbishop of York, _b._ at Bishopsthorpe, and _ed._ at Oxf., is one of the best of the earlier travellers, learned, observant, and truth-loving. He _pub._ in 1615 an account of his journeys in the East which was highly popular. He also translated when in America the _Metamorphoses_ of Ovid, produced a metrical _Paraphrase on the Psalms_, with music by Henry Lawes, and another on the Canticles, and wrote _Christ's Passion_, a tragedy. He held various public offices, chiefly in connection with the colony of Virginia.

SAVAGE, RICHARD (1697?-1743).--Poet, was probably of humble birth, but claimed to be the illegitimate _s._ of the Countess of Macclesfield. He was the friend of Johnson in the early and miserable days of the latter in London; and in _The Lives of the Poets_ J. has given his story as set forth by himself, which is, if true, a singular record of maternal cruelty. There are strong reasons, however, for doubting whether it was anything but a tissue of falsehoods mingled with gross exaggerations of fact. He led a wildly irregular life, killed a gentleman in a tavern brawl, for which he was sentenced to death, but pardoned; and by his waywardness alienated nearly all who wished to befriend him. For a time he had a pension of £50 from Queen Caroline on condition of his writing an ode yearly on her birthday. He wrote _Love in a Veil_ (1718) (comedy) and _Sir Thomas Overbury_ (1723) (tragedy), and two poems, _The Bastard_ (1728) and _The Wanderer_ (1729). He _d._ in prison at Bristol.

SAVILE, SIR HENRY (1549-1622).--Scholar, _ed._ at Oxf., where he lectured on mathematics. He was afterwards Warden of Merton Coll. and Provost of Eton, and made a translation from Tacitus entitled, _The Ende of Nero and Beginning of Galba, etc._ (1581), and in the same year _pub._ _Rerum Anglicarum Scriptores post Bedam Præcipui_, a collection of some of the chronicles subsequent to Bede, William of Malmesbury, Roger of Hoveden, etc. He founded the Savilian Professorship of Astronomy and Geometry at Oxf.

SAXBY, EDWARD (_d._ 1658).--_B._ in Suffolk, and was in Cromwell's Horse. His extreme republican views, however, led him into the bitterest antagonism when C. assumed the Protectorship. This received expression in his extraordinary pamphlet, _Killing no Murder_, in which the assassination of C. is advocated, and which displays in a remarkable degree perverted ingenuity of argument combined with considerable literary power. S. _d._ demented in the Tower in 1658.

SCOTT, ALEXANDER (1525?-1584?).--Scottish poet. Almost nothing is known of his life, but he is believed to have spent most of his time in or near Edin. Thirty-six short poems are attributed to him, including _Ane New Yeir Gift to Quene Mary_, _The Rondel of Love_, and a satire, _Justing at the Drum_. He has great variety of metre, and is graceful and musical, but his satirical pieces are often extremely coarse.

SCOTT, HUGH STOWELL (1863?-1903).--Novelist (under the name of Henry Seton Merriman). He was an underwriter in Lloyd's, but having a strong literary bent, latterly devoted himself to writing novels, many of which had great popularity. They include _The Slave of the Lamp_ (1892), _The Sowers_ (generally considered his best) (1896), _In Kedar's Tents_ (1897), _Roden's Corner_ (1898), _Isle of Unrest_ (1900), _The Velvet Glove_ (1901), _The Vultures_ (1902), and _Barlasch of the Guard_ (1903). He worked with great care, and his best books hold a high place in modern fiction. He was unusually modest and retiring in character.

SCOTT, JOHN (1730-1783).--Poet, _s._ of a Quaker draper who in his later years lived at Amwell, a village in Herts, which the poet celebrates in his descriptive poem, _Amwell_. He wrote much other verse now forgotten.

SCOTT, LADY JOHN (ALICIA ANN SPOTTISWOODE) (1801-1900).--_M._ Lord John Scott. She was the writer of a number of Scottish songs characterised by true poetic feeling. Among them may be mentioned _Annie Laurie_, _Douglas_, and _Durrisdeer_. She also composed the music for them.

SCOTT, MICHAEL (1789-1835).--Novelist, _b._ near and _ed._ at Glasgow, and settled in business at Kingston, Jamaica, which led to his making frequent sea voyages, and thus yielded him experiences which he turned to account in two vivacious novels, _Tom Cringle's Log_ and _The Cruise of the Midge_, both of which first appeared in _Blackwood's Magazine_, where they attained deserved popularity. They have frequently been reprinted. The author, however, maintained a strict _incognito_ during his life.

SCOTT, SIR WALTER (1771-1832).--Poet, novelist, and biographer, _s._ of Walter S., a Writer to the Signet in Edinburgh, and Margaret Rutherford, _dau._ of one of the Prof. of Medicine in the Univ. there. Through both parents he was connected with several old Border families; his _f._ was a scion of the Scotts of Harden, well known in Border history. In early childhood he suffered from a severe fever, one of the effects of which was a permanent lameness, and for some time he was delicate. The native vigour of his constitution, however, soon asserted itself, and he became a man of exceptional strength. Much of his childhood was spent at his grandfather's farm at Sandyknowe, Roxburghshire, and almost from the dawn of intelligence he began to show an interest in the traditionary lore which was to have so powerful an influence on his future life, an interest which was nourished and stimulated by several of the older members of his family, especially one of his aunts. At this stage he was a quick-witted, excitable child, who required rather to be restrained than pressed forward. At the age of 7 he was strong enough to be sent to the High School of Edinburgh, where he was more remarkable for miscellaneous and out-of-the-way knowledge and his powers of story-telling than for proficiency in the ordinary course of study; and notwithstanding his lameness, he was to be found in the forefront wherever adventure or fighting were to be had. Thereafter he was for three sessions at the Univ., where he bore much the same character as at school. He was, however, far from idle, and was all the time following the irresistible bent, which ultimately led to such brilliant results, in a course of insatiable reading of ballads and romances, to enlarge which he had by the time he was 15 acquired a working knowledge of French and Italian, and had made the acquaintance of Dante and Ariosto in the original. Percy's _Reliques of Ancient Poetry_, _pub._ in 1765, came into his hands in 1784, and proved one of the most formative influences of this period. At 15 he was apprenticed to his _f._, but preferring the higher branch of the profession, he studied for the Bar, to which he was called in 1792. He did not, however, forego his favourite studies, but ransacked the Advocates' Library for old manuscripts, in the deciphering of which he became so expert that his assistance soon came to be invoked by antiquarians of much longer standing. Although he worked hard at law his ideal was not the attainment of an extensive practice, but rather of a fairly paid post which should leave him leisure for his favourite pursuits, and this he succeeded in reaching, being appointed first in 1799 Sheriff of Selkirk, and next in 1812 one of the Principal Clerks to the Court of Session, which together brought him an income of £1600. Meanwhile in 1795 he had translated Bürger's ballad of _Lenore_, and in the following year he made his first appearance in print by publishing it along with a translation of _The Wild Huntsman_ by the same author. About the same time he made the acquaintance of "Monk" Lewis, to whose collection of _Tales of Wonder_ he contributed the ballads of _Glenfinlas_, _The Eve of St. John_, and _The Grey Brother_; and he _pub._ in 1799 a translation of Goethe's _Goetz von Berlichingen_. In 1797 he was _m._ to Miss Charlotte Margaret Charpentier, the _dau._ of a French gentleman of good position. The year 1802 saw the publication of Scott's first work of real importance, _The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border_, of which 2 vols. appeared, the third following in the next year. In 1804 he went to reside at Ashestiel on the Tweed, where he ed. the old romance, _Sir Tristrem_, and in 1805 he produced his first great original work, _The Lay of the Last Minstrel_, which was received with great favour, and decided that literature was thenceforth to be the main work of his life. In the same year the first few chapters of _Waverley_ were written; but the unfavourable opinion of a friend led to the MS. being laid aside for nearly 10 years. In 1806 S. began, by a secret partnership, that association with the Ballantynes which resulted so unfortunately for him 20 years later. _Marmion_ was _pub._ in 1808: it was even more popular than the _Lay_, and raised his reputation proportionately. The same year saw the publication of his elaborate ed. of Dryden with a Life, and was also marked by a rupture with Jeffrey, with whom he had been associated as a contributor to the _Edinburgh Review_, and by the establishment of the new firm of J. Ballantyne and Co., of which the first important publication was _The Lady of the Lake_, which appeared in 1810, _The Vision of Don Roderick_ following in 1811. In 1812 S. purchased land on the Tweed near Melrose, and built his famous house, Abbotsford, the adornment of which became one of the chief pleasures of his life, and which he made the scene of a noble and kindly hospitality. In the same year he _pub._ _Rokeby_, and in 1813 _The Bridal of Triermain_, while 1814 saw _The Life and Works of Swift_ in 19 vols., and was made illustrious by the appearance of _Waverley_, the two coming out in the same week, the latter, of course, like its successors, anonymously. The next year, _The Lord of the Isles_, _Guy Mannering_, and _The Field of Waterloo_ appeared, and the next again, 1816, _Paul's Letters to his Kinsfolk_, _The Antiquary_, _The Black Dwarf_, and _Old Mortality_, while 1817 saw _Harold the Dauntless_ and _Rob Roy_. The enormous strain which S. had been undergoing as official, man of letters, and man of business, began at length to tell upon him, and in this same year, 1817, he had the first of a series of severe seizures of cramp in the stomach, to which, however, his indomitable spirit refused to yield, and several of his next works, _The Heart of Midlothian_ (1818), by many considered his masterpiece, _The Bride of Lammermoor_, _The Legend of Montrose_, and _Ivanhoe_, all of 1819, were dictated to amanuenses, while he was too ill to hold a pen. In 1820 _The Monastery_, in which the public began to detect a falling off in the powers of the still generally unknown author, appeared. The immediately following _Abbot_, however, showed a recovery. _Kenilworth_ and _The Pirate_ followed in 1821, _The Fortunes of Nigel_ in 1822; _Peveril of the Peak_, _Quentin Durward_, and _St. Ronan's Well_ in 1823; _Redgauntlet_ in 1824, and _Tales of the Crusaders_ (_The Betrothed_ and _The Talisman_) in 1825. By this time S. had long reached a pinnacle of fame such as perhaps no British man of letters has ever attained during his lifetime. He had for a time been the most admired poet of his day, and though latterly somewhat eclipsed by Byron, he still retained great fame as a poet. He also possessed a great reputation as an antiquary, one of the chief revivers of interest in our ancient literature, and as the biographer and ed. of several of our great writers; while the incognito which he maintained in regard to his novels was to many a very partial veil. The unprecedented profits of his writings had made him, as he believed, a man of wealth; his social prestige was immense; he had in 1820 been made a baronet, when that was still a real distinction, and he had been the acknowledged representative of his country when the King visited it in 1822. All this was now to change, and the fabric of prosperity which he had raised by his genius and labour, and which had never spoiled the simplicity and generosity of his character, was suddenly to crumble into ruin with, however, the result of revealing him as the possessor of qualities even greater and nobler than any he had shown in his happier days. The publishing and printing firms with which he had been connected fell in the commercial crisis of 1826, and S. found himself at 55, and with failing health, involved in liabilities amounting to £130,000. Never was adversity more manfully and gallantly met. Notwithstanding the crushing magnitude of the disaster and the concurrent sorrow of his wife's illness, which soon issued in her death, he deliberately set himself to the herculean task of working off his debts, asking only that time might be given him. The secret of his authorship was now, of course, revealed, and his efforts were crowned with a marvellous measure of success. _Woodstock_, his first publication after the crash, appeared in the same year and brought £8000; by 1828 he had earned £40,000. In 1827 _The Two Drovers_, _The Highland Widow_, and _The Surgeon's Daughter_, forming the first series of _Chronicles of the Canongate_, appeared together with _The Life of Napoleon_ in 9 vols., and the first series of _Tales of a Grandfather_; in 1828 _The Fair Maid of Perth_ and the second series of _Tales of a Grandfather_, _Anne of Geierstein_, a third series of the _Tales_, and the commencement of a complete ed. of the novels in 1829; a fourth and last series of _Tales_, _History of Scotland_, and other work in 1830. Then at last the overworked brain gave way, and during this year he had more than one paralytic seizure. He was sent abroad for change and rest, and a Government frigate was placed at his disposal. But all was in vain; he never recovered, and though in temporary rallies he produced two more novels, _Count Robert of Paris_ and _Castle Dangerous_, both in 1831, which only showed that the spell was broken, he gradually sank, and _d._ at Abbotsford on September 21, 1832.

The work which S. accomplished, whether looked at as regards its mass or its quality, is alike marvellous. In mere amount his output in each of the four departments of poetry, prose fiction, history and biography, and miscellaneous literature is sufficient to fill an ordinary literary life. Indeed the quantity of his acknowledged work in other departments was held to be the strongest argument against the possibility of his being the author of the novels. The achievement of such a result demanded a power of steady, methodical, and rapid work almost unparalleled in the history of literature. When we turn to its quality we are struck by the range of subject and the variableness of the treatment. In general there is the same fulness of mind directed by strong practical sense and judgment, but the style is often heavy, loose, and even slipshod, and in most of his works there are "patches" in which he falls far below his best. His poetry, though as a whole belonging to the second class, is full of broad and bold effects, picturesqueness, and an irresistible rush and freshness. As a lyrist, however, he stands much higher, and in such gems as "Proud Maisie" and "A weary lot is thine, Fair Maid," he takes his place among our greatest singers. His chief fame rests, of course, upon the novels. Here also, however, there is the same inequality and irregularity, but there is a singular command over his genius in virtue of which the fusing, creating imagination responds to his call, and is at its greatest just where it is most needed. For the variety, truth, and aliveness of his characters he has probably no equal since Shakespeare, and though, of course, coming far behind, he resembles him alike in his range and in his insight. The most remarkable feature in his character is the union of an imagination of the first order with practical sagacity and manly sanity, in this also resembling his great predecessor.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1771, _ed._ Edin., called to Bar 1792, Sheriff of Selkirk 1799, Principal Clerk of Session 1812, first _pub._ translation of _Lenore_, etc., wrote ballads and made translation from German, _pub. Minstrelsy of Scottish Border_ 1802-3, _Lay of Last Minstrel_ 1805, began _Waverley_ 1805, partner with Ballantynes 1806, _pub._ _Marmion_ 1808, _Lady of Lake_ 1810, began to build Abbotsford 1812, Waverley novels began and continued 1814-31, health began to fail 1817, made Baronet 1820, ruined by failure of Ballantynes 1826, devotes rest of his life to clearing off debt by novels and historical works, _Tales of a Grandfather_, _Life of Napoleon_, etc., health finally gave way 1830, _d._ 1832.

The great authority is the _Life_ by Lockhart, but it has been supplemented by the _Journal_ (1890) and _Letters_ (1893). Short _Lives_ by C. Gilfillan, R.H. Hutton, etc., etc.

SCOTT, WILLIAM BELL (1811-1890).--Poet and painter, _s._ of Robert S., an engraver, and brother of David S., painter, _b._ in Edin., settled in London, and painted chiefly historical subjects. He _pub._ five vols. of poetry, including _Hades_ and _The Year of the World_, and many fine sonnets, a form of poetry in which he excelled, and in prose _Half-hour Lectures on Art_ and _The Little Masters_ in the Great Artists Series. He also ed. a series of "English Poets," and wrote a Life of his brother and one of Albrecht Dürer, etc.

SEDLEY, SIR CHARLES (1639?-1701).--Poet, _s._ and heir of a Kentish baronet, was at Oxf. and, coming to the Court of Charles II., became one of the most popular and brilliant members of its dissipated circles. He was the author of two tragedies and three comedies, now forgotten, though extravagantly lauded in their day, and of some poems and songs, of which the best known are _Phyllis_ and _Chloris_. His only child was the witty and profligate Catherine S., mistress of James II., who created her Countess of Dorset. _Bellamira_ and _The Mulberry Garden_, founded respectively on Terence and Molière, are his best plays. His prose in pamphlets and essays is better than his verse.

SEELEY, SIR JOHN ROBERT (1834-1895).--Historian and essayist, _s._ of a publisher in London, _ed._ at City of London School and Camb. In 1863 he became Prof. of Latin at Univ. Coll., London, and was Prof. of Modern History at Camb. from 1869 until his death. In 1865 appeared anonymously _Ecce Homo_, a work which created intense excitement and keen controversy in the theological and religious world. Other works were _The Life and Times of Stein_, the Prussian statesman (1879), _Natural Religion_ (1882), _The Expansion of England_ (1883), _Life of Napoleon_ (1885), and a work on Goethe. _The Growth of British Policy_ (1895) was left finished but unrevised at his death. In recognition of his services to the empire in his political writings he was, in 1894, made K.C.M.G.

SELDEN, JOHN (1584-1654).--Jurist and scholar, _b._ near Worthing, Sussex, the _s._ of a farmer who was also a musician, _ed._ at Chichester and Oxf., and studied law at Clifford's Inn and the Inner Temple. His learning soon attracted attention and, though practising little, he was consulted on points involving legal erudition. His first work, _Analecton Anglo-Britannicon_, a chronological collection of English records down to the Norman invasion, was written in 1606, though not _pub._ till 1615. In 1610 appeared a treatise on the _Duello, or Single Combat_; and in 1614 his largest English work on _Titles of Honour_, full of profound learning, and still a high authority. Three years later, 1617, he wrote in Latin his treatise, _De Deis Syris_ (on the Gods of Syria), an inquiry into polytheism, specially with reference to the false deities mentioned in Scripture. His reputation as a scholar had now become European. In 1618 he incurred the indignation of the King and the clergy by his _History of Tithes_, in which he denied their claim to be a divine institution. Called before the High Commission he made a statement regretting the publication of the book though not withdrawing any of its statements. In 1621 he suffered a brief imprisonment for withstanding some of James's doctrines as to the privileges of Parliament. Two years later he was elected member for Lancaster. As a politician his views were moderate, and all along he endeavoured to repress the zeal of the extremists on both sides. He was imprisoned in the Tower for four years, 1630-34. During the final struggle of King and Parliament he was much employed; but like most men of moderate views, was frequently under suspicion, and after the execution of the King, to which he was strongly opposed, he took little to do with public matters. He was a lay member of the Westminster Assembly, 1643, where his profound knowledge of the original tongues made him somewhat of a terror to certain extremists among the divines. He had at an early age been appointed steward to the Earl of Kent, and at the house of his widow, with whom he had long lived in such close friendship as to give rise to the belief that they were _m._, he _d._ Among other works may be mentioned a description of the Arundel Marbles (1629), a treatise concerning the Jewish calendar (1646), and, specially, his _Table Talk_, _pub._ 1689, of which Coleridge said "there is more weighty bullion sense in this book than I can find in the same number of pages of any uninspired writer." He was likewise the author of various treatises on constitutional matters and the law of nations, including _Mare Clausum_ (a Closed Sea), in defence of the property of England in its circumfluent seas. Most of these were written in Latin.

_Coll. Works_ with _Life_, Dr. Wilkins (3 vols., folio, 1726), Aikin's _Lives_ of Selden and Ussher.

SELLAR, WILLIAM YOUNG (1825-1890).--Scholar, _b._ in Sutherlandshire, his _f._ being factor to the Duke of Sutherland, _ed._ at Glasgow Univ. and Oxf., became in 1859 Prof. of Greek at St. Andrews and, in 1863, of Latin at Edin. He _pub._ a work on the _Roman Poets of the Republic_ (1863), followed by _The Roman Poets of the Augustan Age_. Both of these hold a high place among modern works of scholarship.

SEMPILL, ROBERT (1530?-1595), SEMPILL, ROBERT (1595?-1659?), SEMPILL, FRANCIS (1616?-1682).--Scottish poets, all belonging to the same family, the last two being _f._ and _s._ The first was mainly a satirist, was in Paris at the massacre of St. Bartholomew, and belonged to the extremist division of the Reforming party, _The Regente's Tragedy_ laments the death of Murray, _Ane Complaint upon Fortoun_, the fall of Morton. The second Robert wrote _The Life and Death of Habbie Simson, the Piper_, a humorous description of old Scottish life. Francis wrote occasional pieces. The song _She Rose and let me in_, formerly attributed to him, is now known to be by Tom D'Urfey (_q.v._).

SENIOR, NASSAU WILLIAM (1790-1864).--Economist and essayist, _s._ of a clergyman, was _b._ at Compton Beauchamp, Berks, _ed._ at Eton and Oxf., studied law, and was called to the Bar in 1819. He twice held the Professorship of Political Economy at Oxf., 1825-30 and 1847-52, rendered important service as a member of the Poor Law Commission of 1833, and wrote its Report. S. holds a high position among English economists, and made many contributions to the literature of the science, including _Outline of the Science of Political Economy_ (1836). He was, moreover, a writer of considerable versatility, his works in general literature including _Essays on Fiction_ (1864), _Historical and Philosophical Essays_ (1865), and specially his notes of conversations with many eminent persons, chiefly political, _e.g._, De Tocqueville, Thiers, and Guizot, which combine fulness of information with discretion; he also _pub._ journals of his travels in Turkey, Greece, Egypt, etc.

SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648-1724).--Poet and dramatist, _ed._ at Oxf., was the author of a number of turgid dramas, now unreadable and unread, but which in their day were held to rival Dryden, who pilloried S. as Doeg in the second part of _Absalom and Achitophel_. S. essayed a reply in _Absalom Senior_. He wrote against the Papists, but recanted, and made amends by a _Narrative of the Popish Plot_, in which he exposed the perjuries of Titus Oates. He was appointed City Poet. Latterly he had a booth in Bartholomew Fair. He _d._ in the Charterhouse. His plays include _Cambyses_ (1666), _Empress of Morocco_ (1671), _Love and Revenge_ (1675), _The Female Prelate_, _Distressed Innocence_ (1691), and the _Ladies' Triumph_ (1718).

SHADWELL, THOMAS (1640 or 1642-1692).--Dramatist and poet, belonged to a good Staffordshire family, was _b._ in Norfolk, _ed._ at Camb., and after studying law travelled, and on his return became a popular dramatist. Among his comedies, in which he displayed considerable comic power and truth to nature, may be mentioned _The Sullen Lovers_ (1668), _Royal Shepherdess_ (1668), _The Humourists_ (1671), and _The Miser_ (1672). He attached himself to the Whigs, and when Dryden attacked them in _Absalom and Achitophel_ and _The Medal_, had the temerity to assail him scurrilously in _The Medal of John Bayes_ (1682). The castigation which this evoked in _MacFlecknoe_ and in the second part of _Absalom and Achitophel_, in which S. figures as "Og," has conferred upon him an unenviable immortality. He may have found some consolation in his succession to Dryden as Poet Laureate when, at the Revolution, the latter was deprived of the office.

Other plays are _Epsom Wells_ (1673), _The Virtuoso_ (1676), _Lancashire Witches_ (1681), _The Volunteers_ (1693), etc.

SHAFTESBURY, ANTHONY ASHLEY COOPER, 3RD EARL OF (1671-1713).--Philosopher, _b._ in London, grandson of the 1st Earl, the eminent statesman, the "Achitophel" of Dryden. After a private education under the supervision of Locke, and a short experience of Winchester School, he travelled much on the Continent. On succeeding to the earldom in 1699 he took a prominent part in the debates of the House of Lords, but devoted himself mainly to philosophical and literary pursuits. His _coll._ writings were _pub._ in 1711 under the title of _Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, and Times_. In his philosophy he maintains, as against Hobbes, the existence of a moral sense, a view subsequently developed by the Scottish school of philosophy. The style of S. is stately and sonorous but laboured. He _d._ at Naples, whither he had gone in search of health, at the early age of 42. Though his writings are directed strongly against Atheism, they have been held to be hostile to a belief in revelation.

SHAIRP, JOHN CAMPBELL (1819-1885).--Poet and critic, _ed._ at Glasgow and Oxf., became Prof. of Latin at St. Andrews 1861. Principal of the United Coll. there 1868, and Prof. of Poetry at Oxf. 1877-87. Among his writings are _Kilmahoe and other Poems_ (1864), _Studies in Poetry and Philosophy_ (1868), _Culture and Religion_ (1870), and a Life of Burns in the English Men of Letters Series. He also collaborated with Prof. Tait in writing the Life of Principal Forbes (_q.v._), and ed. the Journal of Dorothy Wordsworth.

SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM (1564-1616).--Dramatist and poet, _b._ at Stratford-on-Avon, Warwickshire, on 22nd or 23rd, and baptised on 26th April, 1564. On his father's side he belonged to a good yeoman stock, though his descent cannot be certainly traced beyond his grandfather, a Richard S., settled at Snitterfield, near Stratford. His _f._, John S., appears to have been a man of intelligence and energy, who set up in Stratford as a dealer in all kinds of agricultural produce, to which he added the trade of a glover. He became prosperous, and gained the respect of his neighbours, as is evidenced by his election in succession to all the municipal honours of his community, including those of chief alderman and high bailiff. He _m._ Mary, youngest _dau._ of Robert Arden, a wealthy farmer at Wilmcote, and a younger branch of a family of considerable distinction, and whose tenant Richard S. had been. On her father's death Mary inherited Asbies, a house with 50 acres of land attached to it. The first children of the marriage were two _dau._, who _d._ in infancy. William was the third, and others followed, of whom three sons, Gilbert, Richard, and Edmund, and a _dau._ Joan, reached maturity. He was _ed._ with his brother Gilbert at Stratford Grammar School, where he learned Latin from Lilly's Grammar, English, writing, and arithmetic. He probably read some of the Latin classics and may have got a little Greek, and though his learned friend Ben Jonson credits him with "little Latin and less Greek," Aubrey says he "knew Latin pretty well." This happy state of matters continued until he was about 13, when his _f._ fell into misfortune, which appears to have gone on deepening until the success and prosperity of the poet in later years enabled him to reinstate the family in its former position. Meanwhile, however, he was taken from school, and appears to have been made to assist his _f._ in his business. The next certain fact in his history is his marriage in November, 1582, when he was 18, to Ann Hathaway, _dau._ of a yeoman at the neighbouring hamlet of Shottery, and 8 years his senior. Various circumstances point to the marriage having been against the wishes of his own family, and pressed on by that of his wife, and that it was so urged in defence of the reputation of the lady, and as perhaps might be expected, they indicate, though not conclusively, that it did not prove altogether happy. The birth, in May, 1583, of his eldest child Susannah (who is said to have inherited something of his wit and practical ability, and who _m._ a Dr. John Hall), followed in the next year by that of twins, Hamnet and Judith, and the necessity of increased means, led to his departure from Stratford, whence he travelled on foot to London, where the next 23 years of his life were mainly spent. The tradition that his departure was also caused by trouble into which he had got by killing the deer of Sir Thomas Lucy, of Charlcote, is credible. Leaving Stratford in 1585 or the beginning of 1586, he seems at once to have turned to the theatres, where he soon found work, although, as Rowe, his first biographer, says, "in a very mean rank." It was not long, however, before he had opportunities of showing his capacities as an actor, with the result that he shortly became a member of one of the chief acting companies of the day, which was then under the patronage of the Earl of Leicester, and after being associated with the names of various other noblemen, at last on the accession of James I. became known as the King's Company. It played originally in "The Theatre" in Shoreditch, the first playhouse to be erected in England, and afterwards in the "Rose" on the Bankside, Southwark, the scene of the earliest successes of S. as an actor and playwright. Subsequently to 1594, he acted occasionally in a playhouse in Newington Butts, and between 1595 and 1599 in the "Curtain." In the latter year the "Globe" was built on the Bankside, and 10 years later the "Blackfriars:" and with these two, but especially with the former, the remainder of his professional life was associated. It is not unlikely that he visited various provincial towns; but that he was ever in Scotland or on the Continent is improbable. Among the plays in which he appeared were Jonson's _Every Man in his Humour_ and _Sejanus_, and in _Hamlet_ he played "The Ghost;" and it is said that his brother Gilbert as an old man remembered his appearing as "Adam" in _As You Like It_. By 1595 S. was famous and prosperous; his earlier plays had been written and acted, and his poems _Venus and Adonis_, and _Lucrece_, and probably most of the sonnets, had been _pub._ and received with extraordinary favour. He had also powerful friends and patrons, including the Earl of Southampton, and was known at Court. By the end of the century he is mentioned by Francis Meres (_q.v._) as the greatest man of letters of the day, and his name had become so valuable that it was affixed by unscrupulous publishers to works, _e.g._ _Locrine_, _Oldcastle_, and _The Yorkshire Tragedy_, by other and often very inferior hands. He had also resumed a close connection with Stratford, and was making the restoration of the family position there the object of his ambition. In accordance with this he induced his _f._ to apply for a grant of arms, which was given, and he purchased New Place, the largest house in the village. With the income derived from his profession as an actor and dramatist, and his share of the profits of the Globe and Blackfriars theatres, and in view of the business capacity with which he managed his affairs, he may be regarded as almost a wealthy man, and he went on adding to his influence in Stratford by buying land. He had enjoyed the favour of Elizabeth, and her death in 1603 did nothing to disturb his fortunes, as he stood quite as well with her successor. His company received the title of the "King's Servants," and his plays were frequently performed before the Court. But notwithstanding this, the clouds had gathered over his life. The conspiracy of Essex in 1601 had involved several of his friends and patrons in disaster; he had himself been entangled in the unhappy love affair which is supposed to be referred to in some of his sonnets, and he had suffered unkindness at the hands of a friend. For a few years his dramas breathe the darkness and bitterness of a heart which has been sounding the depths of sad experience. He soon, however, emerged from this and, passing through the period of the great tragedies, reached the serene triumph and peace of his later dramas. In 1611 S. severed his long connection with the stage, and retired to Stratford, where the remaining five years of his life were spent in honour and prosperity. Early in 1616 his health began to give way, and he made his will. In the spring he received a visit from his friends, Jonson and Drayton, and the festivity with which it was celebrated seems to have brought on a fever, of which he _d._ on April 23. He was survived by his wife and his two _dau._, both of whom were married. His descendants _d._ out with his grand-daughter, Elizabeth Hall.

Immense research has been spent upon the writings of S., with the result of substantial agreement as to the order of their production and the sources from which their subjects were drawn; for S. rarely troubled himself with the construction of a story, but adopting one already existing reared upon it as a foundation one of those marvellous superstructures which make him the greatest painter and interpreter of human character the world has ever seen. His period of literary production extends from about 1588 to 1613, and falls naturally into four divisions, which Prof. Dowden has named, "In the Workshop" ending in 1596; "In the World" 1596-1601; "Out of the Depths" 1601-1608; and "On the Heights" 1608-1613. Of the 37 plays usually attributed to him, 16 only were _pub._ during his lifetime, so that the exact order in which they were produced cannot always be determined with certainty. Recent authorities are agreed to the extent that while they do not invariably place the individual plays in the same order, they are almost entirely at one as to which belong to the four periods respectively. The following list shows in a condensed form the order according to Mr. Sidney Lee (_Dictionary of National Biography_) with the most probable dates and the original sources on which the plays are founded.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF SHAKESPEARE'S PLAYS

FIRST PERIOD--1588?-1596 LOVE'S LABOUR LOST (1591)--Plot probably original. TWO GENTLEMEN OF VERONA (1591)--_The Shepherdess Felismena_ in George of Montmayor's _Diana_. COMEDY OF ERRORS (1591)--_Menæchmi_ of Plautus and earlier play. ROMEO AND JULIET (1591)--Italian romance in Painter's _Palace of Pleasure_ and Broke's _Romeus and Juliet_. HENRY VI. 1, 2, and 3 (1592)--Retouched old plays, probably with Marlowe. RICHARD III. (1592-3)--Holinshed's _Chronicle_. RICHARD II. (1593-4?)-- do. TITUS ANDRONICUS (1594)--Probably chiefly by Kyd, retouched. KING JOHN (1594)--Old play retouched.

SECOND PERIOD--1596-1601-2 MERCHANT OF VENICE (1594)--Italian novels, _Gesta Romanorum_, and earlier plays. MIDSUMMER NIGHT'S DREAM (1595)--North's _Plutarch_, Chaucer, Ovid. ALL'S WELL THAT ENDS WELL (1595)--Painter's _Palace of Pleasure_. TAMING OF THE SHREW (1596?)--Old play retouched, and _Supposes_ of G. Gascoigne, Shakespeare's in part only. HENRY IV. 1 and 2 (1597?)--Holinshed and earlier play. MERRY WIVES OF WINDSOR (1597-8)--Italian novels (?). HENRY V. (1599). MUCH ADO ABOUT NOTHING (1599)--Partly from Italian. AS YOU LIKE IT (1599)--Lodge's _Rosalynde, Euphues' Golden Legacie_. TWELFTH NIGHT (1599)--B. Riche's _Apolonius and Silla_.

THIRD PERIOD--1602-1608 JULIUS CÆSAR (1601)--North's _Plutarch_. HAMLET (1601-2)--Belleforest's _Histoires Tragiques_. TROILUS AND CRESSIDA (1603?)--Probably Chaucer's _Troilus and Cresseide_ and Chapman's _Homer_. OTHELLO (1604)--Cinthio's _Hecatommithi_. MEASURE FOR MEASURE (1604?)--Cinthio's _Epithia_. MACBETH (1605-6?)--Holinshed. LEAR (1606)-- do. TIMON OF ATHENS (1607?)--_Palace of Pleasure_ and Plutarch written with G. Wilkins (?) and W. Rowley (?). PERICLES (1607-8)--Gower's _Confessio Amantis_, with G. Wilkins (?). ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA (1608)--North's _Plutarch_. CORIOLANUS (1608)-- do.

FOURTH PERIOD--1608-1613 CYMBELINE (1610-11?)--Holinshed and _Ginevra_ in Boccaccio's _Decamerone_. WINTER'S TALE (1610-11)--Green's _Dorastus and Fawnia_. TEMPEST (1611?)--S. Jourdain's _Discovery of the Bermudas_. HENRY VIII. (1612-13)--Draft by S. completed by Fletcher and perhaps Massinger.

POEMS VENUS AND ADONIS (1593). RAPE OF LUCRECE (1594). SONNETS (1591-94?).

The evidence as to chronology is three-fold--(1) External, such as entries in registers of Stationers' Company, contemporary references, or details as to the companies of actors; (2) External and internal combined, such as references in the plays to events or books, etc.; (3) Internal, content and treatment, progressive changes in versification, presence of frequency of rhyme, etc. The genius of S. was so intensely dramatic that it is impossible to say confidently when he speaks in his own character. The sonnets, written probably 1591-94 have, however, been thought to be of a more personal nature, and to contain indications as to his character and history, and much labour and ingenuity have been expended to make them yield their secrets. It is generally agreed that they fall into two sections, the first consisting of sonnets 1 to 126 addressed to a young man, probably Henry Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton, the friend and patron of S., and 9 years his junior; and the second from 127 to 154 addressed or referring to a woman in whose snares the writer had become entangled, and by whom he was betrayed. Some, however, have held that they are allegorical, or partly written on behalf of others, or that the emotion they express is dramatic and not personal.

There are contemporary references to S. which show him to have been generally held in high regard. Thus Ben Jonson says, "I loved the man, and do honour to his memory, on this side idolatry, as much as any," and Chettle refers to "His demeanour no lesse civil than exelent in the qualities he professes." The only exception is a reference to him in Greene's _Groat's-worth of Wit_, as "an upstart crow beautified with our feathers, that with his tyger's heart wrapt in a player's hide supposes he is as well able to bumbast out a blanke verse as the best of you ... and is in his own conceit the only Shake-scene in a countrie." He is said to have written rapidly and with facility, rarely requiring to alter what he had set down. In addition to his generally received works, others have been attributed to him, some of which have been already mentioned: the only two which appear to have serious claims to consideration are _The Two Noble Kinsmen_, partly by Fletcher, and _Edward III._, of which part of Act I. and the whole of Act II. have been thought to be Shakespeare's. On the other hand a theory has been propounded that none of the plays bearing his name were really his, but that they were written by Bacon (_q.v._). This extraordinary view has been widely supported, chiefly in America, and has been sometimes maintained; with considerable ability and misplaced ingenuity.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1564, _ed._ at Stratford School, _f._ falls into difficulties _c._ 1577, _m._ Ann Hathaway 1582, goes to London end of 1585, finds employment in theatres and acts in chief companies of the time, first in "The Theatre" afterwards the "Rose," the "Curtain," the "Globe" and "Blackfriars," appearing in Jonson's _Every Man in his Humour_ and _Sejanus_. _Venus and Adonis_, _Lucrece_, earlier plays, and perhaps most of sonnets _pub._ by 1595, when he was friend of Southampton and known at Court, purchases New Place at Stratford, falls into trouble _c._ 1600, having lost friends in Essex's conspiracy, and has unfortunate love affair; emerges from this into honour and peace, retires to Stratford and _d._ 1616. Productive period _c._ 1588-1613, 4 divisions, first (1588-96), second (1596-1601), third (1601-1608), fourth (1608-1613). Of 37 plays usually attributed, only 16 _pub._ in his life.

As might have been expected, there is a copious literature devoted to Shakespeare and his works. Among those dealing with biography may be mentioned Halliwell Phillipps's _Outline of the Life of Shakespeare_ (7th ed., 1887), Fleay's _Shakespeare Manual_ (1876), and _Life of Shakespeare_ (1886). _Life_ by S. Lee (1898), Dowden's _Shakespeare, his Mind and Art_ (1875), Drake's _Shakespeare and his Times_ (1817), Thornberry's _Shakespeare's England_ (1856), Knight's _Shakespeare_ (1843). _See_ also Works by Guizot, De Quincey, Fullom, Elze, and others. Criticisms by Coleridge, Hazlitt, Swinburne, T.S. Baynes, and others. Concordance by Mrs. Cowden Clarke. Ed., Rowe (1709), Pope (1725), Theobald (1733), Johnson (1765), Capell (1768), Steevens's improved re-issue of Johnson (1773), Malone (1790), Reed's _1st Variorum_ (1803), _2nd Variorum_ (1813), _3rd Variorum_ by Jas. Boswell the younger (1821), Dyce (1857), Staunton (1868-70), Camb. by W.G. Clark and Dr. Aldis Wright (1863-66), Temple (ed. I. Gollancz, 1894-96), _Eversley Shakespeare_ (ed. Herford, 1899).

SHARP, WILLIAM ("FIONA MACLEOD") (1856-1905).--Wrote under this pseudonym a remarkable series of Celtic tales, novels, and poems, including _Pharais, a Romance of the Isles_, _The Mountain Lovers_, _The Sin-Eater_ (1895), _The Washer of the Ford_, and _Green Fire_ (1896), _The Laughter of Peterkin_ (1897), _The Dominion of Dreams_ (1899), _The Divine Adventure_ (1900), _Drostan and Iseult_ (1902). He was one of the earliest and most gifted promoters of the Celtic revival. In verse are _From the Hills of Dream_, _Through the Ivory Gate_, and _The Immortal Hour_ (drama). Under his own name he wrote _Earth's Voices_, _Sospiri di Roma_, _Sospiri d'Italia_, poems, and books on Rossetti, Shelley, Browning, and Heine; also a few novels.

SHAW, HENRY WHEELER ("JOSH BILLINGS") (1818-1885).--Humorist, _b._ in Massachusetts. After working on steam-boats and farming, he became an auctioneer, and settled at Poughkeepsie. Stripped of the fantastic spelling by which he first succeeded in catching the public attention, the shrewd and droll maxims of his _Farmers' Allminax_ have something in common with Franklin's _Poor Richard_. Other books with the same features are _Josh Billings' Sayings_, _Everybody's Friend_, _Josh Billings' Trump Kards_, etc.

SHELLEY, MRS. MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT (GODWIN) (1797-1851).--Novelist, _b._ in London, the only child of William Godwin (_q.v._) and Mary Wollstonecraft, his wife (_q.v._). In 1814 she went to the Continent with P.B. Shelley (_q.v._), and _m._ him two years later. When abroad she saw much of Byron, and it was at his villa on the Lake of Geneva that she conceived the idea of her famous novel of _Frankenstein_ (1818), a ghastly but powerful work. None of her other novels, including _The Last Man_ and _Lodore_, had the same success. She contributed biographies of foreign artists and authors to Lardner's _Cabinet Cyclopædia_, and ed. her husband's poems.

SHELLEY, PERCY BYSSHE (1792-1822).--Poet, _s._ of Sir Timothy S., was _b._ at Field Place, near Horsham, Sussex, and _ed._ at Brentford, Eton, and Univ. Coll., Oxf., whence for writing and circulating a pamphlet, _The Necessity of Atheism_, he was expelled. One immediate result of this was a difference with his _f._, which was deepened into a permanent breach by his marriage in the following year to Harriet Westbrook, the pretty and lively _dau._ of a retired innkeeper. The next three years were passed in wandering about from place to place in Ireland, Wales, the Lake District, and other parts of the kingdom, and in the composition of _Queen Mab_ (1813), the poet's first serious work. Before the end of that period he had separated from his wife, for which various reasons have been assigned, one being her previous desertion of him, and the discovery on his part of imperfect sympathy between them; the principal one, however, being that he had conceived a violent passion for Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin (_see_ Shelley, Mrs. M.W.), _dau._ of William Godwin (_q.v._), with whom he eloped to Italy in 1814, and whom he _m._ in 1816, his first wife having drowned herself. The custody of his two children, whom he had left with their mother, was refused him by the Court of Chancery. In Switzerland he had made the acquaintance of Byron, with whom he afterwards lived in intimacy in Italy. Returning to England in 1815 he wrote his first really great poem, _Alastor_ (1816), followed by the _Hymn to Intellectual Beauty_, _Prince Athanase_, _Rosalind and Helen_, and _Laon and Cythna_, afterwards called the _Revolt of Islam_ (1817). In 1818 he left England never to return, and went to Italy, and in the next two years--while at Rome--produced his two greatest works, the tragedy of _The Cenci_ (1819) and _Prometheus Unbound_ (1820). He removed to Venice in 1820 in the company of Byron, and there wrote _Julian and Maddalo_, a poetic record of discussions between them. _Epipsychidion_, _Hellas_, and _Adonais_, a lament for Keats, were all produced in 1821. After a short residence at Pisa he went to Lerici on the Gulf of Spezzia, where he indulged in his favourite recreation of boating, and here on July 8, 1823, he went, in company with a friend, Mr. Williams, on that fatal expedition which cost him his life. His body was cast ashore about a fortnight later, and burnt, in accordance with the quarantine law of the country, on a pyre in the presence of Byron, Leigh Hunt, and Trelawny. His ashes were carefully preserved and buried in the Protestant cemetery at Rome near those of Keats. The character of S. is a singularly compounded one. By the unanimous testimony of his friends, it was remarkable for gentleness, purity, generosity, and strong affection: on the other hand he appears to have had very inadequate conceptions of duty and responsibility, and from his childhood seems to have been in revolt against authority of every kind. The charge of Atheism rests chiefly on _Mab_, the work of a boy, printed by him for private circulation, and to some extent repudiated as personal opinion. As a poet he stands in the front rank: in lyrical gift, shown in _Prometheus_, _Hellas_, and some of his shorter poems, such as "The Skylark," he is probably unsurpassed, and in his _Cenci_ he exhibits dramatic power of a high order. Among his shorter poems are some which reach perfection, such as the sonnet on "Ozymandias," "Music when soft voices die," "I arise from dreams of thee," "When the lamp is shattered," the "Ode to the West Wind," and "O world! O life! O time!" During his short life of 30 years he was, not unnaturally, the object of much severe judgment, and his poetic power even was recognised by only a few. Posterity has taken a more lenient view of his serious errors of conduct, while according to his genius a shining place among the immortals.

The best ed. of the _Works_ is that of Buxton Forman (4 vols.). There are ed. of the Poems by W.M. Rossetti (1894), Dowden (1891), etc. _Lives_ by Medwin (1847), J.A. Symonds (1887), W.M. Rossetti, Prof. Dowden, T. Jefferson Hogg, and others.

SHENSTONE, WILLIAM (1714-1763).--Poet, _s._ of Thomas S., owner of a small estate at Hales Owen, Shropshire. At this place, called the Leasowes, the poet was _b._ In 1732 he went to Oxf. On his father's death he retired to the Leasowes where he passed his time, and ran through his means in transforming it into a marvel of landscape gardening, visited by strangers from all parts of the kingdom. The works of S. consist of poems and prose essays. Of the former two, _The Schoolmistress_, a humorous imitation of Spenser, with many quaint and tender touches, and the _Pastoral Ballad_ in four parts, perhaps the best of its kind in the language, survive. The essays also display good sense and a pointed and graceful style. The last years of S. were clouded by financial embarrassments and perhaps also by disappointed affections. After his death his works, were _coll._ and _pub._ by Dodsley.

SHERIDAN, RICHARD BRINSLEY (1751-1816).--Dramatist and orator, _b._ in Dublin, the _s._ of an actor, was _ed._ at Harrow. In 1772 he eloped with Miss Linley, a famous singer, went with her to France, fought two duels, and _m._ her in 1773. S. has a reputation of the highest in two distinct walks, those of the dramatist and the Parliamentary orator. By his three great comedies, _The Rivals_ (1775), _The School for Scandal_ (1777), and _The Critic_ (1779), he raised himself to the first place among the writers of the comedy of manners; and by his speeches, specially those in support of the impeachment of Warren Hastings, he has a position among the greatest of Parliamentary orators. Unfortunately he had little turn for business, and too great a love of pleasure and conviviality, which led to lifelong pecuniary embarrassment, completed by the destruction by fire of Drury Lane Theatre, of which he had become proprietor. As a politician S. supported the Whig party, and held the offices of Under-Sec. for Foreign Affairs, Sec. to the Treasury, and Treasurer of the Navy. He was also confidential adviser to George IV. when Prince of Wales, but like everybody else who had to do with him suffered from the ingratitude of "the first gentleman in Europe." The accounts long prevalent of the poverty and misery of his last years have been shown to be greatly exaggerated, though he was in reduced circumstances. As a dramatist S. shines in the construction of amusing situations, and in a sparkling flow of witty dialogue which never flags. His only other play was _Pizarro_ (1799), a patriotic melodrama.

_Lives_ by Walkins (1817), T. Moore (1825), and Mrs. Oliphant (1883).

SHERLOCK, WILLIAM (1641?-1707).--Divine and controversialist, _b._ at Southwark, _ed._ at Eton and Camb., took orders, and became in 1684 Master of the Temple, and in 1691 Dean of St. Paul's. He exercised a powerful influence in the Church. His most popular work was his _Discourse concerning Death_, and his principal controversial effort was his _Vindication of the Doctrine of the Trinity_. Other works were on _Future Judgment_ and on _The Divine Providence_. His son, THOMAS SHERLOCK (1678-1761), who was also Master of the Temple, became Bishop successively of Bangor, Salisbury, and London, and was, like his _f._, a noted controversialist. His best known work is his _Tryal of the Witnesses of the Resurrection of Jesus_ (1729).

SHERWOOD, MRS. MARY MARTHA (BUTT) (1775-1851).--Writer of children's books, _m._ in 1803 Captain H. Sherwood, and went to India, where she took much interest in soldiers' children. Among her books, many of which attained great popularity, are _Susan Gray_, _Little Henry and his Bearer_, and _The Fairchild Family_.

SHIRLEY, JAMES (1596-1666).--Dramatist, _b._ in London, _ed._ at Merchant Taylor's School, London, and at Oxf. and Camb., became a master of St. Alban's Grammar School, and afterwards joined the Roman Catholic Church, and going to London wrote for the stage, producing 39 plays. His talents and his religion recommended him to Queen Henrietta Maria, and he appears to have led a fairly prosperous life until the interdict of plays by Parliament in 1642. In the Civil War he bore arms on the Royalist side, and during the Commonwealth he returned to his occupation of schoolmaster. The Restoration does not appear to have improved his fortunes much; he was burnt out in the great fire of 1666, and very soon afterwards he and his wife _d._ on the same day. The plays of S. include _The Traitor_ (1631), _The Cardinal_ (1641), _The Gamester_ (1633), _Hyde Park_ (1632), and _The Lady of Pleasure_ (1635). He also wrote poems, including the well-known lines beginning "The Glories of our mortal State." S. has fancy, liveliness, and the style of a gentleman, but he lacks depth and interest. He is less gross than most of his contemporaries.

Other plays are _The Ball_ (1632), _The Maid's Revenge_ (1626), _The Grateful Servant_ (1629), _Bird in a Cage_ (1633), _The Example_ (1634). _The Constant Maid_ (_c._ 1640), _Doubtful Heir, or Rosania_ (1640), _Court Secret_ (1653), _Contention of Ajax and Ulysses_ (1659), etc.

SHORTHOUSE, JOSEPH HENRY (1834-1903).--Novelist, _b._ at Birmingham, where he was a chemical manufacturer. Originally a Quaker, he joined the Church of England. His first, and by far his best book, _John Inglesant_, appeared in 1881, and at once made him famous. Though deficient in its structure as a story, and not appealing to the populace, it fascinates by the charm of its style and the "dim religious light" by which it is suffused, as well as by the striking scenes occasionally depicted. His other novels, _The Little Schoolmaster Mark_, _Sir Percival_, _The Countess Eve_, and _A Teacher of the Violin_, though with some of the same characteristics, had no success comparable to his first. S. also wrote an essay, _The Platonism of Wordsworth_.

SIBBES, RICHARD (1577-1635).--Divine, was at Camb., where he held various academic posts, of which he was deprived by the High Commission on account of his Puritanism. He was the author of several devotional works expressing intense religious feeling--_The Saint's Cordial_ (1629), _The Bruised Reed and Smoking Flax_, etc. He was a man of great learning.

SIDNEY, or SYDNEY, ALGERNON (1622-1683).--Political writer, _s._ of the 2nd Earl of Leicester, and grand-nephew of Sir Philip S., in his youth travelled on the Continent, served against the Irish Rebels, and on the outbreak of the Civil War, on the side of the Parliament. He was one of the judges on the trial of Charles I., and though he did not attend, he thoroughly approved of the sentence. He opposed the assumption of the supreme power by Cromwell. After the Restoration he lived on the Continent, but receiving a pardon, returned in 1677 to England. He, however, retained the republican principles which he had all his life advocated, fell under the suspicion of the Court, and was in 1683, on the discovery of the Rye House Plot, condemned to death on entirely insufficient evidence, and beheaded on Tower Hill, December 7, 1683. Though no charge of personal venality has been substantiated, yet it appears to be certain that he received money from the French King for using his influence against war between the two countries, his object being to prevent Charles II. from obtaining command of the war supplies. S. was deeply versed in political theory, and wrote _Discourses concerning Government_, _pub._ in 1698.

SIDNEY, SIR PHILIP (1554-1586).--Poet and romancist, _s._ of Sir Henry S., Deputy of Ireland, and Pres. of Wales, _b._ at the family seat of Penshurst, and _ed._ at Shrewsbury School and Oxf. He was at the French Court on the fateful August 24, 1572--the massacre of St. Bartholomew--but left Paris soon thereafter and went to Germany and Italy. In 1576 he was with his _f._ in Ireland, and the next year went on missions to the Elector Palatine and the Emperor Rudolf II. When his father's Irish policy was called in question, he wrote an able defence of it. He became the friend of Spenser, who dedicated to him his _Shepherd's Calendar_. In 1580 he lost the favour of the Queen by remonstrating against her proposed marriage with the Duke of Anjou. His own marriage with a _dau._ of Sir Francis Walsingham took place in 1583. In 1585 he was engaged in the war in the Low Countries, and met his death at Zutphen from a wound in the thigh. His death was commemorated by Spenser in his _Astrophel_. S. has always been considered as the type of English chivalry; and his extraordinary contemporary reputation rested on his personal qualities of nobility and generosity. His writings consist of his famous pastoral romance of _Arcadia_, his sonnets _Astrophel and Stella_, and his _Apologie for Poetrie_, afterwards called _Defence of Poesie_. The _Arcadia_ was originally written for the amusement of his sister, afterwards Countess of Pembroke, the "Sidney's sister, Pembroke's mother," of Ben Jonson. Though its interest now is chiefly historical, it enjoyed an extraordinary popularity for a century after its appearance, and had a marked influence on the immediately succeeding literature. It was written in 1580-81 but not _pub._ until 1590, and is a medley of poetical prose, full of conceits, with occasional verse interspersed. His _Defence of Poesie_, written in reply to Gosson (_q.v._), is in simple and vigorous English. S. also made a translation of the Psalms.

_Poems_ ed. by Grosart, _Apologie_ by Arber and others, _Astrophel_ by Gray, Arber, and others. _Life_ by Fulke Greville (1652), ed. by Sir E. Brydges (1816). _Arcadia_ (_facsimile_), by Somner. Lives by J.A. Symonds, Fox Bourne, and others.

SIGOURNEY, MRS. LYDIA (HUNTLEY) (1791-1865).--American verse writer, was an extraordinarily copious writer of smooth, sentimental verse, which had great popularity in its day. Her most ambitious effort was a blank verse poem, _Traits of the Aborigines of America_ (1822). Other books were _Connecticut Forty Years Since_, _Pocahontas_, etc.

SIMMS, WILLIAM GILMORE (1806-1870).--Novelist, etc., _b._ at Charleston, South Carolina, began his literary life with journalism. He then for some time tried poetry, but without any distinct success except occasionally in _Southern Passages and Pictures_ (1839). But in fiction, which he began in 1833 with _Martin Faber_, he was more successful, though rather an imitator of Cooper. _The Yemassee_ (1835) is generally considered his best novel. He was less happy in his attempts at historical romance, such as _Count Julian_ and _The Damsel of Darien_. During the war, in which he was naturally a strong partisan of the South, he was ruined, and his library was burned; and from these disasters he never recovered. He had a high repute as a journalist, orator, and lecturer. He was the first Southerner to achieve any name in literature.

SKELTON, JOHN (1460?-1529).--Poet, _b._ in Norfolk, and _ed._ at Oxf. and Camb., of both of which he was _cr._ Poet Laureate, and perhaps held the same office under the King. He was appointed tutor to Henry VIII., and notwithstanding his sharp tongue, enjoyed some favour at Court. In 1498 he entered the Church, and became Rector of Diss in his native county. Hitherto he seems to have produced some translations only, but about this time he appears to have struck upon the vein which he was to work with such vigour and popularity. He turned his attention to abuses in Church and State, which he lashed with caustic satire, conveyed in short doggerel rhyming lines peculiar to himself, in which jokes, slang, invectives, and Latin quotations rush out pell-mell. His best works in this line are _Why come ye not to Court?_ and _Colin Clout_, both directed against the clergy, and the former against Wolsey in particular. Piqued at his inconstancy (for S. had previously courted him) the Cardinal would have imprisoned him, had he not taken sanctuary in Westminster, where he remained until his death. Other works of his are _The Tunning_ (brewing) _of Elynor Rummynge_, a coarsely humorous picture of low life, and the tender and fanciful _Death of Philip Sparrow_, the lament of a young lady over her pet bird killed by a cat.

SKELTON, SIR JOHN (1831-1897).--Miscellaneous writer. _B._ in Edinburgh, _ed._ at the Univ. there, and called to the Scottish Bar 1854, he was Sec. and ultimately Chairman of the Local Government Board for Scotland. He wrote _Maitland of Lethington and the Scotland of Mary Stuart_ (1887), _The Crookit Meg_ (1880), and _The Table Talk of Shirley_. He contributed to _Fraser's_ and _Blackwood's Magazines_. He received the degree of LL.D. from Edin. 1878, and was made K.C.B. 1897.

SKENE, WILLIAM FORBES (1807-1892).--Historian, 2nd _s._ of James S. of Rubislaw, friend of Sir Walter Scott, was a Writer to the Signet in Edinburgh, and Clerk of the Bills in the Court of Session. He wrote and ed. historical works of considerable authority, _The Highlanders of Scotland_ (1837), and his most important work, _Celtic Scotland_ (1876-80), and ed. of _The Four Ancient Books of Wales_ (1868), and other Celtic writings.

SKINNER, JOHN (1721-1807).--Historian and song-writer, _s._ of a schoolmaster at Birse, Aberdeenshire, was _ed._ at Marischal Coll. Brought up as a Presbyterian, he became an Episcopalian and ministered to a congregation at Longside, near Peterhead, for 65 years. He wrote _The Ecclesiastical History of Scotland_ from the Episcopalian point of view, and several songs of which _The Reel of Tullochgorum_ and _The Ewie wi' the Crookit Horn_ are the best known, and he also rendered some of the Psalms into Latin. He kept up a rhyming correspondence with Burns.

SKIPSEY, JOSEPH (1832-1903).--Poet, _b._ near North Shields, and from childhood worked in the mines. He _pub._ a few pieces of poetry in 1859, and soon after left working underground and became caretaker of Shakespeare's house at Stratford-on-Avon. During the last 30 years of his life he _pub._ several vols. of poetry, including _The Collier Lad_ and _Carols from the Coal Fields_; and he ed. some vols. for the "Canterbury Poets." _Memoir_ by R.S. Watson (1908).

SMART, CHRISTOPHER (1722-1771).--Poet, _s._ of the steward to Lord Vane, was _b._ at Shipbourne, Kent, and by the bounty of the Duchess of Cleveland sent to Camb. Here his ill-balanced mind showed itself in wild folly. Leaving the Univ. he came to London and maintained himself by conducting and writing for periodicals. His _Poems on Several Occasions_, which contained "The Hop Garden," was issued in 1752, and _The Hilliad_ in 1753 against "Sir" John Hill, a notoriety of the day who had attacked him. His mind ultimately gave way, and it was in confinement that he produced by far his most remarkable work, the _Song to David_, a most original and powerful poem. Unfortunate to the last, he _d._ in the King's Bench prison, to which he had been committed for debt. He also translated Horace.

SMEDLEY, FRANK (1818-1864).--Novelist, was the author of several novels which had considerable popularity, including _Frank Fairleigh_ (1850), _Lewis Arundel_ (1852), and _Harry Coverdale's Courtship_ (1855). S. was a life-long cripple.

SMILES, SAMUEL (1812-1904).--Biographer and miscellaneous writer, _b._ at Haddington, _ed._ at the Grammar School there, studied medicine at Edin., and settled in practice in his native town. Subsequently he betook himself to journalism, and ed. a paper in Leeds. Afterwards he was sec. to various railways. His leisure was devoted to reading and writing, and his first publication was _The Life of George Stephenson_ (1857). _Self-Help_, his most popular work, followed in 1859; it had an immense circulation, and was translated into 17 languages. It was followed up by _Character_ (1871), _Thrift_ (1875), and _Duty_ (1880). _The Lives of the Engineers_ and _Industrial Biography_ appeared in 1863, _The Huguenots, their Settlements, Churches, and Industries in England and Ireland_ (1867), and _The Huguenots in France_ a little later. He also wrote biographies of Telford and James Watt, and of the Scottish naturalists, Edwards the shoemaker and Dick the baker. He received the degree of LL.D. from Edin. in 1878.

SMITH, ADAM (1723-1790).--Philosopher and economist, _b._ at Kirkcaldy, Fife, the _s._ of the Controller of Customs there. His _f._ _d._ shortly before his birth. The first and only adventure in his tranquil life was his being kidnapped by gipsies. After being at the Grammar School of Kirkcaldy, he went to the Univ. of Glasgow, whence he proceeded to Oxf. On the conclusion of his Univ. course he returned to Kirkcaldy, going subsequently to Edinburgh, where he was soon recognised as a man of unusual intellect. In 1751 he was appointed to the Chair of Logic at Glasgow, which he next year exchanged for that of Moral Philosophy, and in 1759 he _pub._ his _Theory of the Moral Sentiments_. He received in 1762 the degree of LL.D. from his Univ., and two years later resigned his chair and became travelling tutor to the young Duke of Buccleuch, accompanying him to the Continent. He remained for nearly a year in Paris, and made the acquaintance of the brilliant circle of _savans_ in that city. Returning to Kirkcaldy in 1766 he lived there with his mother for nearly ten years in retirement and close study, the results of which were given to the world in 1776 in the publication of his epoch-making work, _Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations_ (1776). This book may be said to have founded the science of political economy, and to have created a new department of literature; and very few works have, to the same extent, influenced the practical history of the world. In 1778 S. was made a Commissioner of Customs, and settled in Edinburgh; and in 1787 he was elected Lord Rector of the Univ. of Glasgow. In addition to the works above mentioned, he wrote various essays on philosophical subjects, and an account of the last days of David Hume. The style of his works was plain and lucid, and he had a remarkable faculty of apt illustration.

SMITH, ALBERT (1816-1860).--Humorous writer, studied medicine, and for a short time assisted his _f._ in practice. He was one of the original contributors to _Punch_, and among his books are _The Adventures of Mr. Ledbury_ and _The Scattergood Family_. He also lectured and gave entertainments, including _The Ascent of Mont Blanc_, which were highly popular.

SMITH, ALEXANDER (1830-1867).--Poet and essayist, _s._ of a Paisley pattern-designer, at first followed the same occupation in Glasgow, but having become known as a poet of promise was, in 1854, appointed Sec. of Edin. Univ. After contributing to the _Glasgow Citizen_ he _pub._ _A Life Drama_ (1853), which received much admiration. Thereafter appeared _War Sonnets_ (in conjunction, with S. Dobell, _q.v._), _City Poems_ (1857), and _Edwin of Deira_ (1861). In prose he wrote _Dreamthorpe_ (essays), _A Summer in Skye_, and two novels, _Alfred Hagart's Household_ and _Miss Dona M'Quarrie_. His poems were in a rich and glowing style, but by some good judges were held to show fancy rather than imagination. He belonged to what was called the "spasmodic" school of poetry.

SMITH, MRS. CHARLOTTE (TURNER) (1749-1806).--Was _m._ at 15 to a West Indian merchant, who by a series of misfortunes and imprudences was reduced from affluence to poverty. She had in her youth shown considerable promise as a poetess, and in her misfortunes she was able to maintain herself and her family by her pen. In addition to a poem, _Beachy Head_, and sonnets, she wrote several novels of more than usual merit, including _Emmeline_ (1788), and, her best work, _The Old English Manor House_.

SMITH, HORACE (1779-1849), SMITH, JAMES (1775-1839).--Humorists, _s._ of a London lawyer who was solicitor to the Board of Ordnance. James succeeded his _f._; Horace became a successful stockbroker. Both brothers were distinguished for brilliant wit and humour. Their first great hit was _Rejected Addresses_ (1812), extremely clever parodies on leading contemporary poets. To this _jeu d'esprit_ James contributed among others imitations of Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Crabbe, while Horace's share included Scott and Moore. James _pub._ little more, but anonymously gave Charles Matthews assistance in his entertainments. Horace _pub._ several novels which, with perhaps the exception of _Brambletye House_, are now forgotten. He also wrote _The Address to a Mummy_, a remarkable poem in which wit and true sentiment are admirably combined. Both brothers were highly esteemed not only for their social qualities, but for their benevolence and goodness of heart.

SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845).--Miscellaneous writer, _b._ at Woodford, Essex, the _s._ of a gentleman of independent means, and _ed._ at Winchester and Oxf., took orders 1794, becoming curate of Amesbury. He came to Edinburgh as tutor to a gentleman's _s._, was introduced to the circle of brilliant young Whigs there, and assisted in founding the _Edinburgh Review_. He then went to London, where he was for a time preacher at the Foundling Hospital, and lectured on moral philosophy at the Royal Institution. His brilliant wit and general ability made him a favourite in society, while by his power of clear and cogent argument he exercised a strong influence on the course of politics. His _Plymley Letters_ did much to advance the cause of Catholic emancipation. He received various preferments, and became a canon of St. Paul's. In politics he was a Whig, in his Church views an Erastian; and in the defence of his principles he was honest and courageous. Though not remarkable for religious devotion he was a hard-working and, according to his lights, useful country parson. By the death of a younger brother he in his later years came into a considerable fortune.

SMITH, WALTER CHALMERS (1824-1908).--_B._ in Aberdeen and _ed._ there and at Edin., was a minister of the Free Church of Scotland at Orwell, Glasgow, and Edinburgh successively, a distinguished preacher and a man of kindly nature and catholic sympathies. He attained considerable reputation as a poet. Among his works are _The Bishop's Walk_ (1861), _Olrig Grange_ (1872), _Hilda among the Broken Gods_ (1878), _Raban_ (1880), _Kildrostan_ (1884), and _A Heretic_ (1890). Some of these were written under the names of "Orwell" and Hermann Kunst. He received the degrees of D.D. and LL.D.

SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893).--Lexicographer, _ed._ at Univ. Coll., London, was a contributor to the _Penny Magazine_ and compiled or ed. many useful works of reference, including _Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities_ (1842), and dictionaries of the Bible, of Christian Antiquities, and Christian Biography, etc., also various school series and educational handbooks, including _The Classical Dictionary_. He held various academical degrees, including Ph.D. of Leipsic, and was knighted in 1892.

SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-1894).--Theologian and Semitic scholar, _s._ of the Free Church minister of Keig, Aberdeenshire, studied for the ministry of that Church. In 1870 he was appointed Prof. of Hebrew, etc., in its coll. at Aberdeen, a position which he had to resign on account of his advanced critical views. He became joint ed. of _The Encyclopædia Britannica_, and in 1883 Prof. of Arabic at Camb. S. was a man of brilliant and versatile talents, a mathematician as well as a scholar, somewhat uncompromising and aggressive in the exposition and defence of his views. His works include _The Old Testament in the Jewish Church_ (1881), and _The Religion of the Semites_ (1889).

SMOLLETT, TOBIAS GEORGE (1721-1771).--Novelist, 2nd _s._ of Archibald S., of Dalquhurn, Dumbartonshire, and _ed._ at Glasgow, proceeded to London in 1739 with the view of having a tragedy, _The Regicide_, put on the stage, in which, however, he failed. In this disappointment he took service as surgeon's mate on one of the vessels of the Carthagena expedition, 1741, an experience which he turned to account in his novels. On his return he settled in London, and endeavoured to acquire practice as a physician, but was not very successful, and having discovered where his talent lay, he thenceforth devoted himself to literature. _Roderick Random_ appeared in 1748, _The History of an Atom_ (1749), _Peregrine Pickle_ in 1751, _Ferdinand, Count Fathom_ in 1753, _Sir Lancelot Greaves_ in 1766, and _Humphrey Clinker_, generally considered his best novel, in 1770. Besides these works, however, he translated Voltaire, wrote a _History of England_ in continuation of Hume's, an _Ode to Independence_, travels and satires, and contributed to various periodicals. He was repeatedly involved in acrimonious controversy, and on one occasion fined and imprisoned for a libel, which, with various private misfortunes, embittered his life, and he _d._ disappointed and worn out near Leghorn. Had he lived four years longer he would have succeeded to his grandfather's estate of Bonhill. The novels of S. display great narrative power, and he has a remarkable comic vein of a broad type, which enables him to present ludicrous scenes and circumstances with great effect. There is, however, a strong infusion of coarseness in his treatment of his subjects.

SOMERVILLE, MRS. MARY (FAIRFAX) (1780-1872).--Mathematician and writer on science, _dau._ of Admiral Sir William G. Fairfax, _b._ at Jedburgh, was twice _m._, first to Mr. Greig, an officer in the Russian Navy, and second to her cousin Dr. William S. Although she had early manifested a taste for study, and specially for science, she had, until after the death of her first husband, little opportunity of following out her favourite subjects. With Dr. S., who was in full sympathy with her scientific tastes, she went to reside in London, and there her talents made her known in scientific circles. In 1823 she was requested by Lord Brougham to popularise the _Mechanique Celeste_ of La Place. This she did with great success, publishing her work as _The Celestial Mechanism of the Heavens_ (1830). She also _pub._ _The Connection of the Physical Sciences_ (1834), and other works. She received a pension from Government, and _d._ aged 92 at Naples, where she had resided for the last ten or twelve years of her life.

SOMERVILLE, WILLIAM (1675-1742).--Poet, a Warwickshire squire of literary tastes, wrote among others a poem, _The Chase_, in 4 books, which has some passages of considerable descriptive power.

SOTHEBY, WILLIAM (1757-1833).--Poet and translator, belonged to a good family, and was _ed._ at Harrow. In early life he was in the army. He _pub._ a few dramas and books of poems, which had no great popularity, and are now forgotten; his reputation rests upon his admirable translations of the _Oberon_ of Wieland, the _Georgics_ of Virgil, and the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_. The last two were begun when he was upwards of 70, but he lived to complete them. His _Georgics_ is considered one of the best translations from the classics in the language.

SOUTH, ROBERT (1634-1716).--Divine, _s._ of a London merchant, was _b._ at Hackney, and _ed._ at Westminster School and Oxf., where in 1660 he was appointed Univ. Orator. He became domestic chaplain to the Lord Chancellor Clarendon, and in 1663 the degree of D.D. was conferred upon him. After accompanying an embassy to Poland he became Rector of Islip, and a chaplain to Charles II. Thereafter he steadily declined higher preferment, including the bishopric of Rochester. He was opposed to the Romanising measures of James II., but owing to his views as to the duty of passive obedience he declined to associate himself in any way with the Revolution, to which nevertheless he submitted. He was an expert controversialist, but it is chiefly by his sermons, which are among the classics of English divinity, that he is remembered. He has the reputation of being the wittiest of English preachers, and this characteristic is sometimes present to a degree not quite suitable to the subjects treated.

SOUTHERNE, THOMAS (1660-1746).--Dramatist, _b._ in Dublin, and _ed._ at Trinity Coll. there, came to London and studied law at the Middle Temple. Afterwards he entered the army and saw service. He wrote ten plays, of which two were long acted and are still remembered, _The Fatal Marriage_ (1694) and _Oroonoko_ (1696), in the latter of which he appeals passionately against the slave-trade. Unlike most preceding dramatists he was a practical man, succeeded in his theatrical management, and retired on a fortune. Other plays are _The Loyal Brother_ (1682), _The Disappointment_ (1684), _The Wives' Excuse_ (1692), _The Spartan Dame_ (1719), etc.

SOUTHEY, MRS. CAROLINE ANNE (BOWLES) (1786-1854).--Poetess, _dau._ of a captain in the navy, submitted a poem, _Ellen Fitzarthur_ to Southey (_q.v._), which led to a friendship, and to a proposed joint poem on Robin Hood, not, however, carried out, and eventually to her becoming the poet's second wife. She wrote various other works, including _Chapters on Churchyards_ and _Tales of the Factories_.

SOUTHEY, ROBERT (1774-1843).--Poet, biographer, etc., _s._ of an unsuccessful linen-draper in Bristol, where he was _b._, was sent to Westminster School, and in 1792 went to Oxf. His friendship with Coleridge began in 1794, and with him he joined in the scheme of a "pantisocracy" (_see_ Coleridge). In 1795 he _m._ his first wife, Edith Fricker, and thus became the brother-in-law of Coleridge. Shortly afterwards he visited Spain, and in 1800 Portugal, and laid the foundations of his thorough knowledge of the history and literature of the Peninsula. Between these two periods of foreign travel he had attempted the study of law, which proved entirely uncongenial; and in 1803 he settled at Greta Hall, Keswick, to which neighbourhood the Coleridges had also come. Here he set himself to a course of indefatigable literary toil which only ended with his life. _Thalaba_ had appeared in 1801, and there followed _Madoc_ (1805), _The Curse of Kehama_ (1810), _Roderic, the Last of the Goths_ (1814), and _A Vision of Judgment_ (1821); and in prose a _History of Brazil_, Lives of Nelson (1813), Wesley (1820), and Bunyan (1830), _The Book of the Church_ (1824), _History of the Peninsular War_ (1823-32), _Naval History_, and _The Doctor_ (1834-37). In addition to this vast amount of work he had been from 1808 a constant contributor to the _Quarterly Review_. In 1839 when he was failing both in body and mind he _m._, as his second wife, Miss Caroline Ann Bowles, who had for 20 years been his intimate friend, and by whom his few remaining years were soothed. Though the name of S. still bulks somewhat largely in the history of our literature, his works, with a few exceptions, are now little read, and those of them (his longer poems, _Thalaba_ and _Kehama_) on which he himself based his hopes of lasting fame, least of all. To this result their length, remoteness from living interests, and the impression that their often splendid diction is rather eloquence than true poetry, have contributed. Some of his shorter poems, _e.g._, "The Holly Tree," and "The Battle of Blenheim" still live, but his fame now rests on his vigorous prose and especially on his classic _Life of Nelson_. Like Wordsworth and Coleridge, S. began life as a democratic visionary, and was strongly influenced by the French Revolution, but gradually cooled down into a pronounced Tory. He was himself greater and better than any of his works, his life being a noble record of devotion to duty and unselfish benevolence. He held the office of Poet Laureate from 1813, and had a pension from Government. He declined a baronetcy.

_Life and Correspondence_ (6 vols., 1849-50) by his younger son, Rev. C. Southey. _Life_ by Dowden in Men of Letters (1880).

SOUTHWELL, ROBERT (1561?-1595).--Poet, _b._ at Horsham St. Faith's, Norfolk, of good Roman Catholic family, and _ed._ at Douay, Paris, and Rome, he became a Jesuit, and showed such learning and ability as to be appointed Prefect of the English Coll. In 1586 he came to England with Garnett, the superior of the English province, and became chaplain to the Countess of Arundel. His being in England for more than 40 days then rendered him liable to the punishment of death and disembowelment, and in 1592 he was apprehended and imprisoned in the Tower for three years, during which he was tortured 13 times. He was then put on trial and executed, February 22, 1595. He was the author of _St. Peter's Complaint_ and _The Burning Babe_, a short poem of great imaginative power, and of several prose religious works, including _St. Mary Magdalene's Teares_, _A Short Rule of Good Life_, _The Triumphs over Death_, etc.

SPEDDING, JAMES (1808-1881).--Editor of Bacon's works, _s._ of a Cumberland squire, and _ed._ at Bury St. Edmunds and Camb., was for some years in the Colonial Office. He devoted himself to the ed. of Bacon's works, and the endeavour to clear his character against the aspersions of Macaulay and others. The former was done in conjunction with Ellis and Heath, his own being much the largest share in their great ed. (1861-74); and the latter, so far as possible, in _The Life and Letters_, entirely his own. In 1878 he brought out an abridged _Life and Times of Francis Bacon_. He strongly combated the theory that B. was the author of Shakespeare's plays. His death was caused by his being run over by a cab. He enjoyed the friendship of many of his greatest contemporaries, including Carlyle, Tennyson, and Fitzgerald.

SPEED, JOHN (1552?-1629).--Historian, _b._ at Farington, Cheshire, and brought up to the trade of a tailor, had a strong taste for history and antiquities, and wrote a _History of Great Britain_ (1611), which was long the best in existence, in collecting material for which he had assistance from Cotton, Spelman, and other investigators. He also _pub._ useful maps of Great Britain and Ireland, and of various counties, etc. In 1616 appeared his _Cloud of Witnesses confirming ... the truth of God's most holie Word_. His maps were _coll._ and with descriptions _pub._ in 1611 as _Theatre of the Empire of Great Britain_.

SPEKE, J.H., (_see under_ GRANT, J.A.)

SPELMAN, SIR HENRY (1564?-1641).--Historian and antiquary, _b._ at Congham, Norfolk, studied at Camb., and entered Lincoln's Inn. He wrote valuable works on legal and ecclesiastical antiquities, including _History of Sacrilege_ (_pub._ 1698), _Glossarium Archæologicum_ (1626 and 1664), a glossary of obsolete law-terms, _A History of the English Councils_ (1639), and _Tenures by Knight-service_ (1641). His writings have furnished valuable material for subsequent historians. He sat in Parliament and on various commissions, and in recompense of his labours was voted a grant of £300.

SPENCE, JOSEPH (1699-1768).--Anecdotist, _b._ at Kingsclere, Hants, and _ed._ at Winchester and Oxf., he entered the Church, and held various preferments, including a prebend at Durham, and was Prof. of Poetry at Oxf. He wrote an _Essay on Pope's Odyssey_, which gained for him the friendship of the poet, of whose conversation he made notes, collecting likewise anecdotes of him and of other celebrities which were _pub._ in 1820, and are of great value, inasmuch as they preserve much matter illustrative of the literary history of the 18th century which would otherwise have been lost.

SPENCER, HERBERT (1820-1903).--Philosopher, _b._ at Derby, the _s._ of a teacher, from whom, and from his uncle, mentioned below, he received most of his education. His immediate family circle was strongly Dissenting in its theological atmosphere, his _f._, originally a Methodist, having become a Quaker, while his mother remained a Wesleyan. At 13 he was sent to the care of his uncle, Thomas S., a clergyman, near Bath, but a Radical and anti-corn-law agitator. Declining a Univ. career he became a school assistant, but shortly after accepted a situation under the engineer of the London and Birmingham railway, in which he remained until the great railway crisis of 1846 threw him out of employment. Previous to this he had begun to write political articles in the _Nonconformist_; he now resolved to devote himself to journalism, and in 1848 was appointed sub-ed. of the _Economist_. Thereafter he became more and more absorbed in the consideration of the problems of sociology and the development of the doctrine of evolution as applied thereto, gradually leading up to the completion of a system of philosophy which was the work of his life. His fundamental proposition is that society, like the individual, is an organism subject to evolution, and the scope of this idea is gradually expanded so as to embrace in its sweep the whole range of cognisible phenomena. Among the books which he _pub._ in exposition of his views may be mentioned _Social Statics_ (1850), _Principles of Psychology_ (1855), _First Principles_ (1862), _Principles of Biology_ (1867), _Data of Ethics_ (1879), _Principles of Sociology_ (1877), _Political Institutions_ (1882), and _Man versus the State_ (1884). His works have been translated into most European languages--some of them into Chinese and Japanese. The most characteristic qualities of S. as a thinker are his powers of generalisation and analysis. He left an autobiography, in which he subjects his own personality to analysis with singular detachment of mind.

_Life_ by David Duncan, LL.D., _Life_ by A.J. Thompson. _See_ also _Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy_, Fishe (1874), and books on S. and his philosophy by Hudson (1894), White (1897), and Macpherson (1890).

SPENCER, WILLIAM ROBERT (1769-1834).--Poet, _ed._ at Harrow and Oxf., belonged to the Whig set of Fox and Sheridan. He wrote graceful _vers de societé_, made translations from Bürger, and is best remembered by his well-known ballad of _Gelert_. After a life of extravagance he _d._ in poverty in Paris.

SPENSER, EDMUND (1552?-1599).--Poet, was _b._ in East Smithfield, London, the _s._ of John S., described as gentleman and journeyman in the art of cloth-making, who had come to London from Lancashire. In 1561 the poet was sent to Merchant Taylor's School, then newly opened, and in 1569 he proceeded to Pembroke Hall, Camb., as a sizar, taking his degree in 1576. Among his friends there were Edward Kirke, who ed. the _Shepheard's Calendar_, and Gabriel Harvey, the critic. While still at school he had contributed 14 sonnet-visions to Van de Noot's _Theatre for Worldlings_ (1569). On leaving the Univ. S. went to the north, probably to visit his relations in Lancashire, and in 1578, through his friend Harvey, he became known to Leicester and his brother-in-law, Philip Sidney. The next year, 1579, saw the publication of _The Shepheard's Calendar_ in 12 eclogues. It was dedicated to Sidney, who had become his friend and patron, and was received with acclamation, all who had ears for poetry perceiving that a new and great singer had arisen. The following year S. was appointed sec. to Lord Grey of Wilton, Deputy for Ireland, a strict Puritan, and accompanied him to Ireland. At the same time he appears to have begun the _Faerie Queen_. In 1581 he was appointed Registrar of Chancery, and received a grant of the Abbey and Castle of Enniscorthy, which was followed in 1586 by a grant of the Castle of Kilcolman in County Cork, a former possession of the Earls of Desmond with 3000 acres attached. Simultaneously, however, a heavy blow fell upon him in the death of Sidney at the Battle of Zutphen. The loss of this dear friend he commemorated in his lament of _Astrophel_. In 1590 he was visited by Sir Walter Raleigh, who persuaded him to come to England, and presented him to the Queen, from whom he received a pension of £50, which does not, however, appear to have been regularly paid, and on the whole his experiences of the Court did not yield him much satisfaction. In the same year his reputation as a poet was vastly augmented by the publication of the first three books of the _Faerie Queen_, dedicated to Elizabeth. The enthusiasm with which they were received led the publisher to bring out a collection of other writings of S. under the general title of _Complaints_, and including _Mother Hubbard's Tale_ (a satire on the Court and on the conflict then being waged between the old faith and the new), _Teares of the Muses_, and _The Ruins of Time_. Having seen these ventures launched, S. returned to Kilcolman and wrote _Colin Clout's come Home Again_, one of the brightest and most vigorous of his poems, not, however, _pub._ until 1595. In the following year appeared his _Four Hymns_, two on _Love and Beauty_ and two on _Heavenly Love and Beauty_, and the _Prothalamion_ on the marriage of two daughters of the Earl of Worcester. He also _pub._ in prose his _View of Ireland_, a work full of shrewd observation and practical statesmanship. In 1594 he was _m._ to Elizabeth Boyle, whom he had courted in _Amoretti_, and his union with whom he now celebrated in the magnificent _Epithalamion_, by many regarded as his most perfect poem. In 1595 he returned to England, taking with him the second part of the _Faerie Queen_, _pub._ in 1596. In 1598 he was made Sheriff of Cork, and in the same year his fortunes suffered a final eclipse. The rebellion of Tyrone broke out, his castle was burned, and in the conflagration his youngest child, an infant, perished, he himself with his wife and remaining children escaping with difficulty. He joined the President, Sir T. Norris, who sent him with despatches to London, where he suddenly _d._ on January 16, 1599, as was long believed in extreme destitution. This, however, happily appears to be at least doubtful. He was buried in Westminster Abbey near Chaucer, and a monument was erected to his memory in 1620 by the Countess of Dorset.

The position of S. in English poetry is below Chaucer, Shakespeare, and Milton only. The first far excels him in narrative and constructive power and in humour, and the last in austere grandeur of conception; but for richness and beauty of imagination and exquisite sweetness of music he is unsurpassed except by Shakespeare. He has been called the poets' poet, a title which he well merits, not only by virtue of the homage which all the more imaginative poets have yielded him, but because of the almost unequalled influence he has exercised upon the whole subsequent course and expression of English poetry, which he enriched with the stanza which bears his name, and which none since him have used with more perfect mastery. His faults are prolixity, indirectness, and want of constructive power, and consequently the sustained sweetness and sumptuousness of his verse are apt to cloy. His great work, the _Faerie Queen_, is but a gorgeous fragment, six books out of a projected twelve; but probably few or none of its readers have regretted its incompleteness. In it Protestantism and Puritanism receive their most poetic and imaginative presentation and vindication.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1552, _ed._ Merchant Taylor's School and Camb., became known to Leicester and Sir P. Sidney 1578, _pub._ _Shepheard's Calendar_ 1579, appointed sec. to Lord Deputy of Ireland 1580, and began _Faerie Queen_, receives various appointments and grants 1581-6, _pub._ _Astrophel_ in memory of Sidney 1586, visited by Raleigh and by him presented to Queen Elizabeth, who pensioned him 1590, and in same year _pub._ first three books of _Faerie Queen_, _Teares of Muses_, etc., writes _Colin Clout_, _pub._ 1595, and in 1596 _pub._ _Four Hymns_ and _Prothalamion_, _m._ E. Boyle 1594, whom he had courted in _Amoretti_, and now celebrated in the _Epithalamion_, returned to England 1595, Sheriff of Cork 1598, in which year the rebellion broke out and ruined his fortunes, returned to London and _d._ 1599.

There have been very numerous ed. of the works, among which may be mentioned the Globe (1899), and Dr. Grosart's (10 vols., 1882-84). There is an excellent biography by Dean Church (1879).

SPOTTISWOOD, JOHN (1565-1639).--Historian, _s._ of John S., minister of Midcalder and Superintendent of Lothian. Entering the Church he gained the favour of James VI., and was his chief instrument in his endeavours to restore Episcopal church-government in Scotland. He became Archbishop successively of Glasgow and St. Andrews, and in 1635 Lord Chancellor of Scotland. On the rising caused by the introduction of the service-book, he had to flee from Scotland, and was excommunicated by the General Assembly (1638). He wrote a _History of the Church and State of Scotland_, _pub._ 1655. It is, of course, written from the Episcopalian standpoint, as Calderwood's is from the Presbyterian.

SPRAGUE, CHARLES (1791-1875).--Poet, _b._ at Boston, Mass., had some reputation as a writer of prize poems, odes, and domestic poems. To the first class belong _Curiosity_ and _Shakespeare Ode_, and to the latter, _The Family Meeting_ and _I see Thee Still_, an elegy on his sister.

SPRAT, THOMAS (1635-1713).--Divine and writer of memoirs, _b._ at Beaminster, Dorset, _ed._ at Oxf., was a mathematician, and one of the group of scientific men among whom the Royal Society, of which he was one of the first members and the historian, had its origin. He wrote a Life of his friend Cowley the poet, and an account of Young's plot for the restoration of James II. His _History of the Royal Society_ is his principal work, but he also wrote poems, and had a high reputation as a preacher. His literary style gives him a distinguished place among English writers. He held various, high preferments, and _d._ Bishop of Rochester.

SPURGEON, CHARLES HADDON (1834-1892).--_B._ at Kelvedon, Essex, left the Independents and joined the Baptist communion and became, at the age of 20, pastor of New Park Street Chapel, London, where he attained an unprecedented popularity. In 1859 the Metropolitan Tabernacle was erected for him. He was a decided Calvinist in his theological views, and was strongly opposed to modern critical movements. He possessed in an eminent degree two of the great requisites of effective oratory, a magnificent voice and a command of pure idiomatic Saxon English. His sermons, composed and _pub._ weekly, had an enormous circulation, and were regularly translated into several languages. In addition to his pastoral labours he superintended an almshouse, a pastor's coll., and an orphanage; and he was likewise a voluminous author, publishing, in addition to his sermons, numerous works, including _The Treasury of David_ (a commentary on the Psalms).

STANHOPE, PHILIP HENRY, 5TH EARL STANHOPE (1805-1875).--Historian, was _b._ at Walmer, and _ed._ at Oxf. He sat in the House of Commons for Wootton Bassett and Hertford, held some minor official appointments under Peel, and identified himself with many useful measures, specially in regard to literature and art. His writings, which are all remarkable for industrious collection of facts, careful and impartial sifting and weighing of evidence, and a clear, sober, and agreeable style, include _History of England from the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of Versailles_ (1836-63), and histories of the _War of the Spanish Succession_ (1832), and of the _Reign of Queen Anne_ (1870), besides Lives of the younger Pitt (1861) and of Lord 'Chesterfield. As an author he is best known as Viscount Mahon.

STANLEY, ARTHUR PENRHYN (1815-1881).--Historian, biographer, and theologian, _s._ of Edward S., Bishop of Norwich, _b._ at Alderley, Cheshire, of which his _f._ was then rector, _ed._ at Rugby and Oxf., became a Fellow of Univ. Coll. Taking orders in 1839 he became Canon of Canterbury 1851, and of Christ Church 1858, and Dean of Westminster 1864. He was also Prof. of Ecclesiastical History at Oxf. 1856. His ecclesiastical position was Erastian and latitudinarian, and his practical aim in Church politics comprehension. He gave great offence to the High Church party by his championing of Colenso, W.G. Ward, Jowett, and others, by his preaching in the pulpits of the Church of Scotland and in other ways, and his latitudinarianism made him equally obnoxious to many others. On the other hand, his singular personal charm and the fascination of his literary style secured for him a very wide popularity. He was a prolific author, his works including _Life of Dr. Arnold_ (of Rugby) (1844), whose favourite pupil he was, and _Memorials of Canterbury_ (1854), _Sinai and Palestine_ (1855), _Lectures on the Eastern Church_ (1861), _History of the Jewish Church_ (1863, etc.), _Historical Memorials of Westminster Abbey_ (1867), _Lectures on the History of the Church of Scotland_ (1872), besides various commentaries. In his historical writings he aimed rather at conveying a vivid and picturesque general effect than at minute accuracy of detail or philosophical views. His masterpiece is his _Life of Dr. Arnold_, which is one of the great biographies in the language. His wife was Lady Augusta Bruce, to whom he was _m._ in 1868.

STANLEY, SIR HENRY MORTON (1841-1904).--Traveller in Africa, _b._ in America, went to find, and found, Livingstone, and wrote an account of his adventures in the quest, _How I found Livingstone_. Other works were _In Darkest Africa_ and _Through the Dark Continent_.

STANLEY, THOMAS (1625-1678).--Philosopher and scholar, connected with the Derby family, _ed._ at Camb., was the author of some poems and of a biographical _History of Philosophy_ (4 vols., 1655-62). He was learned in the classics, and translated from the Latin and late Greek as well as from the Italian and Portuguese, and ed. Æschylus. His poetry is thoughtful and gracefully expressed.

STANYHURST, RICHARD (1547-1618).--Translator, was at Oxf., and studied law at Furnivall's Inn and Lincoln's Inn. He collaborated with Holinshed (_q.v._). His principal literary achievement was a grotesquely stiff, clumsy, and prosaic translation of the first four books of the _Æneid_ into English hexameters. He also translated some of the Psalms.

STEDMAN, EDMUND CLARENCE, L.H.D., LL.D., (1833-1908).--American poet and critic. _Poems Lyric and Idyllic_ (1860), _Alice of Monmouth_ (1864), _The Blameless Prince_ (1869), _Victorian Poets_ (1875-87), _Lyrics and Idylls_ (1879), _Poets of America_ (1885), _Victorian Anthology_ (1896), _American Anthology_ (1896), etc.

STEELE, SIR RICHARD (1672-1729).--Essayist and dramatist, _s._ of a Dublin attorney, who _d._ when his _s._ was 5 years old, was on the nomination of the Duke of Ormond, sent to the Charterhouse School, where his friendship with Addison began, and thence went to Oxf., but left without taking a degree, and enlisted in the Horse Guards, for which he was disinherited by a rich relation. He, however, gained the favour of his colonel, Lord Cutts, himself a poet, and rose to the rank of captain. With the view of setting before himself a high ideal of conduct (to which unhappily he was never able to attain), he at this time wrote a treatise on morals entitled _The Christian Hero_ (1701). Abandoning this vein, he next produced three comedies, _The Funeral, or Grief à la Mode_ (1702), _The Tender Husband_ (1703), and _The Lying Lover_ (1704). Two years later he was appointed Gentleman Waiter to Prince George of Denmark, and in 1707 he was made Gazetteer; and in the same year he _m._ as his second wife Mary Scurlock, his "dear Prue," who seems, however, to have been something of a termagant. She had considerable means, but the incorrigible extravagance of S. soon brought on embarrassment. In 1709 he laid the foundations of his fame by starting the _Tatler_, the first of those periodicals which are so characteristic a literary feature of that age. In this he had the invaluable assistance of Addison, who contributed 42 papers out of a total of 271, and helped with others. The _Tatler_ was followed by the _Spectator_, in which Addison co-operated to a still greater extent. It was even a greater success, and ran to 555 numbers, exclusive of a brief revival by Addison in which S. had no part, and in its turn was followed by the _Guardian_. It is on his essays in these that the literary fame of S. rests. With less refinement and delicacy of wit than Addison, he had perhaps more knowledge of life, and a wider sympathy, and like him he had a sincere desire for the reformation of morals and manners. In the keen political strife of the times he fought stoutly and honestly on the Whig side, one result of which was that he lost his office of Gazetteer, and was in 1714 expelled from the House of Commons to which he had just been elected. The next year gave a favourable turn to his fortunes. The accession of George I. brought back the Whigs, and S. was appointed to various offices, including a commissionership on forfeited estates in Scotland, which took him to Edinburgh, where he was welcomed by all the _literati_ there. Nothing, however, could keep him out of financial embarrassments, and other troubles followed: his wife _d._; differences, arose with Addison, who _d._ before a reconciliation could be effected. The remaining years were clouded by financial troubles and ill-health. His last work was a play, _The Conscious Lovers_ (1722). He left London and lived at Hereford and at Carmarthen, where he _d._ after a partial loss of his faculties from paralysis.

_Lives_ by Austin Dobson (1886) and G.A. Aitken (1889). Ed., _Plays_ by Aitken (1893), Essays (selected) Clarendon Press (1885), _Tatler_, Aitken (1898), _Spectator_, H. Morley (1868), Gregory Smith (1897-8), Aitken (1898).

STEEVENS, GEORGE (1736-1800).--Shakespearian commentator, _ed._ at Eton and Camb. He issued various reprints of quarto ed. of Shakespeare, and assisted Dr. Johnson in his ed., and also in his _Lives of the Poets_. In 1793 he himself brought out a new ed. of Shakespeare, in which he dealt somewhat freely with the text. He was in constant controversy with Ritson and other literary antiquaries, and was also an acute detector of literary forgeries, including those of Chatterton and Ireland.

STEEVENS, GEORGE WARRINGTON (1869-1900).--Journalist and miscellaneous writer, _b._ at Sydenham, and _ed._ at City of London School and Oxf., took to journalism, in which he distinguished himself by his clearness of vision and vivid style. Connected successively with the _National Observer_, the _Pall Mall Gazette_, and the _Daily Mail_, he utilised the articles which appeared in these and other publications in various books, such as _The Land of the Dollar_ (America) (1897), _With Kitchener to Kartoum_, and _The Tragedy of Dreyfus_. His most striking work, however, was _Monologues of the Dead_ (1895). He went as war correspondent to South Africa in 1900, and _d._ of enteric fever at Ladysmith.

STEPHEN, SIR JAMES (1789-1859).--Statesman and historical writer, _s._ of James S., Master in Chancery, _ed._ at Camb., and called to the Bar at Lincoln's Inn 1811. After practising with success, accepted appointment of permanent counsel to Colonial Office and Board of Trade 1825, and was subsequently, 1826-47, permanent Under-Sec. for the Colonies, in which capacity he exercised an immense influence on the colonial policy of the empire, and did much to bring about the abolition of the slave trade. Impaired health led to his resignation, when he was made K.C.B. and a Privy Councillor. He was afterwards Prof. of Modern History at Camb. 1849-59, and of the same subject at the East India Coll. at Haileybury 1855-57. He wrote _Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography_ (1849) and _Lectures on the History of France_ (1852).

STEPHEN, SIR LESLIE (1832-1904).--Biographer and critic, _s._ of the above, was _b._ in London, and _ed._ at Eton, King's Coll., London, and Camb., where he obtained a tutorial Fellowship, and took orders. He came under the influence of Mill, Darwin, and H. Spencer, and devoted himself largely to the study of economics. His religious views having undergone a change, he gave up the clerical character and his Fellowship, and became a pronounced Agnostic. In 1865 he definitely adopted a literary career, and contributed to the _Saturday Review_, _Fraser's Magazine_, and other periodicals. In 1873 he _pub._ a collection of his essays as _Free Thinking and Plain Speaking_, which he followed up with _An Agnostic's Apology_ (1893). He became ed. in 1871 of the _Cornhill Magazine_, in which appeared the essays afterwards _coll._ as _Hours in a Library_ (3 series, 1874-79). His chief work was _The History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century_ (1876-81). He also wrote _Science of Ethics_ (1882), and biographies of _Dr. Johnson_ (1878), _Pope_ (1880). _Swift_ (1882), and _George Eliot_ (English Men of Letters Series). In 1882 he became ed. of the _Dictionary of National Biography_, to which he devoted much labour, besides contributing many of the principal articles. _The English Utilitarians_ appeared in 1900. As a biographical and critical writer he holds a very high place. His first wife was a _dau._ of Thackeray. In recognition of his literary eminence he was made a K.C.B.

_Life and Letters_ by F.W. Maitland (1906).

STEPHENS, THOMAS (1821-1875).--Welsh historian and critic, _b._ at Pont Nedd Fechan, Glamorganshire, _s._ of a shoemaker. His works include _The Literature of the Kymry_ (1849), _The History of Trial by Jury in Wales_, and an essay in which he demolished the claim of the Welsh under Madoc to the discovery of America. He also wrote on the life and works of the bard Aneurin. The critical methods which he adopted in his works often made him unpopular with the less discriminating enthusiasts for the glory of Wales, but he earned the respect of serious scholars.

STERLING, JOHN (1806-1844).--Essayist and miscellaneous writer, _s._ of Edward S., a well-known writer in the _Times_, was _b._ in Bute, and _ed._ at Glasgow and Camb. At the latter he became acquainted with a group of brilliant men, including F.D. Maurice, Trench, and Monckton Milnes. He took orders and became curate to Julius Hare (_q.v._); but intellectual difficulties and indifferent health led to his resignation within a year, and the rest of his life was passed in alternating between England and warmer climes. He wrote for _Blackwood's Magazine_, the _London and Westminster_, and _Quarterly Reviews_, and _pub._ _Essays and Tales_, _The Election_, a humorous poem, _Strafford_, a tragedy, and _Richard Coeur de Lion_, a serio-comic poem of which three books out of eight were _pub._ His memory, perpetuated in a remarkable memoir by Carlyle, lives rather by what he was than by anything he did. His character and intellect appear to have exercised a singular influence on the eminent men he numbered among his friends.

STERNE, LAURENCE (1713-1768).--Novelist, _s._ of an officer in the army, and the great-grandson of an Archbishop of York, was _b._ at Clonmel, where his father's regiment happened to be stationed, and passed part of his boyhood in Ireland. At the age of 10 he was handed over to a relation, Mr. Sterne of Elvington in Yorkshire, who put him to school at Halifax, and thereafter sent him to Camb. He entered the Church, a profession for which he was very indifferently fitted, and through family influence procured the living of Sutton, Yorkshire. In 1741 he _m._ a lady--Miss Lumley--whose influence obtained for him in addition an adjacent benefice, and he also became a prebendary of York. It was not until 1760 that the first two vols. of his famous novel, _Tristram Shandy_, appeared. Its peculiar and original style of humour, its whimsicality, and perhaps also its defiance of conventionality, and even its frequent lapses into indecorum, achieved for it an immediate and immense popularity. S. went up to London and became the lion of the day. The third and fourth vols. appeared in 1761, the fifth and sixth in 1762, the seventh and eighth in 1765, and the last in 1767. Meanwhile he had _pub._ the _Sermons of Mr. Yorick_ (1760), and his remaining work, _The Sentimental Journey_ appeared in 1768. From the time of his finding himself a celebrity his parishioners saw but little of him, his time being passed either in the gaieties of London or in travelling on the Continent. Latterly he was practically separated from his wife and only _dau._, to the former of whom his behaviour had been anything but exemplary. His health, which had begun to give way soon after his literary career had commenced, finally broke down, and he fell into a consumption, of which he _d._ in London on March 18, 1768, utterly alone and unattended. His body was followed to the grave by one coach containing his publisher and another gentleman; and it was exhumed and appeared in a few days upon the table of the anatomical professor at Camb. He _d._ in debt, but a subscription was raised for his wife and _dau._, the latter of whom _m._ a Frenchman, and is said to have perished under the guillotine. Worthless as a man, S. possessed undoubted genius. He had wit, originality, and pathos, though the last not seldom runs into mawkishness, and an exquisitely delicate and glancing style. He has contributed some immortal characters to English fiction, including Uncle Toby and Corporal Trim. His great faults as a writer are affectation and a peculiarly deliberate kind of indecency, which his profession renders all the more offensive; and he was by no means scrupulous in adopting, without acknowledgment, the good things of previous writers.

_Works_ ed. by Prof. Saintsbury (6 vols., 1894). _See_ also Macmillan's Library of English classics. _Lives_ by P. Fitzgerald (1896); and H.D. Traill in English Men of Letters Series.

STERNHOLD, THOMAS (1500-1549), HOPKINS JOHN (_d._ 1570).--Were associated in making the metrical version of the Psalms, which was attached to the Prayer-book, and was for 200 years the chief hymn-book of the Church of England. It is a commonplace and tame rendering. The collection was not completed until 1562. It was gradually superseded by the version of Tate and Brady.

STEVENSON, ROBERT LOUIS (1850-1894).--Novelist and essayist, was _b._ at Edin., the _s._ of Thomas S., a distinguished civil engineer. His health was extremely delicate. He was destined for the engineering profession, in which his family had for two generations been eminent, but having neither inclination nor physical strength for it, he in 1871 exchanged it for law, and was called to the Bar in 1875, but never practised. From childhood his interests had been literary, and in 1871 he began to contribute to the _Edinburgh University Magazine_ and the _Portfolio_. A tour in a canoe in 1876 led to the publication in 1878 of his first book, _An Inland Voyage_. In the same year, _The New Arabian Nights_, afterwards separately _pub._ appeared in magazines, and in 1879 he brought out _Travels with a Donkey in the Cevennes_. In that year he went to California and _m._ Mrs. Osbourne. Returning to Europe in 1880 he entered upon a period of productiveness which, in view of his wretched health, was, both as regards quantity and worth, highly remarkable. The year 1881 was marked by his unsuccessful candidature for the Chair of Constitutional Law and History at Edin., and by the publication of _Virginibus Puerisque_. Other works followed in rapid succession. _Treasure Island_ (1882), _Prince Otto_ and _The Child's Garden of Verse_ (1885), _Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde_ and _Kidnapped_ (1886), _Underwoods_ (poetry), _Memories and Portraits_ (essays), and _The Merry Men_, a collection of short stories (1887), and in 1888 _The Black Arrow_. In 1887 he went to America, and in the following year visited the South Sea Islands where, in Samoa, he settled in 1890, and where he _d._ and is buried. In 1889 _The Master of Ballantrae_ appeared, in 1892 _Across the Plains_ and _The Wrecker_, in 1893 _Island Nights Entertainments_ and _Catriona_, and in 1894 _The Ebb Tide_ in collaboration with his step-son, Mr. Lloyd Osbourne. By this time his health was completely broken, but to the last he continued the struggle, and left the fragments _St. Ives_ and _Weir of Hermiston_, the latter containing some of his best work. They were _pub._ in 1897. Though the originality and power of S.'s writings was recognised from the first by a select few, it was only slowly that he caught the ear of the general public. The tide may be said to have turned with the publication of _Treasure Island_ in 1882, which at once gave him an assured place among the foremost imaginative writers of the day. His greatest power is, however, shown in those works which deal with Scotland in the 18th century, such as _Kidnapped_, _Catriona_, and _Weir of Hermiston_, and in those, _e.g._, _The Child's Garden of Verse_, which exhibit his extraordinary insight into the psychology of child-life; _Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde_ is a marvellously powerful and subtle psychological story, and some of his short tales also are masterpieces. Of these _Thrawn Janet_ and _Will of the Mill_ may be mentioned as examples in widely different kinds. His excursions into the drama in collaboration with W.E. Henley--_Deacon Brodie_, _Macaire_, _Admiral Guinea_, _Beau Austin_,--added nothing to his reputation. His style is singularly fascinating, graceful, various, subtle, and with a charm all its own.

_Works_, Edinburgh ed. (28 vols., 1894-98). _Life_ by Grahame Balfour (1901), _Letters_, S. Colvin (1899).

STEWART, DUGALD (1753-1828).--Philosopher, _s._ of Matthew S., Prof. of Mathematics at Edin., was _b._ in the Coll. buildings, and at the age of 19 began to assist his _f._ in his classes, receiving the appointment of regular assistant two years later. In 1785 he became Prof. of Moral Philosophy, and rendered the chair illustrious by his learning and eloquence, his pupils including Lords Palmerston, Russell, and Lansdowne. S. was, however, rather a brilliant expositor than an original thinker, and in the main followed Reid (_q.v._). His works include _Philosophy of the Human Mind_, in three vols., _pub._ respectively in 1792, 1813, and 1827, _Outlines of Moral Philosophy_ (1793), _Philosophical Essays_ (1810), _Dissertation on the Progress of Metaphysical and Ethical Philosophy_ (1815,