part II

. 1821), and _View of the Active and Moral Powers of Man_. He also wrote memoirs of Robertson the historian, Adam Smith, and Reid. The Whig party, which he had always supported, on their accession to power, created for him the office of Gazette-writer for Scotland, in recognition of his services to philosophy. His later years were passed in retirement at Kinneil House on the Forth. His works were ed. by Sir William Hamilton.

STILLINGFLEET, EDWARD (1635-1699).--Theologian, _b._ at Cranbourne, Dorsetshire, _ed._ at Camb., entered the Church, and held many preferments, including a Royal Chaplaincy, the Deanery of St. Paul's (1678), and the Bishopric of Worcester (1689). He was a frequent speaker in the House of Lords, and had considerable influence as a Churchman. A keen controversialist, he wrote many treatises, including _The Irenicum_ (advocating compromise with the Presbyterians), _Antiquities of the British Churches_, and _The Unreasonableness of Separation_. S. was a good and honest man and had the respect of his strongest opponents.

STIRLING, JAMES HUTCHISON (1820-1909).--Philosopher, _b._ in Glasgow, and _ed._ there and at Edin., where he studied medicine, which he practised until the death of his _f._ in 1851, after which he devoted himself to philosophy. His _Secret of Hegel_ (1865) gave a great impulse to the study and understanding of the Hegelian philosophy both at home and in America, and was also accepted as a work of authority in Germany and Italy. Other works, all characterised: by keen philosophical insight and masterly power of exposition are _Complete Text-book to Kant_ (1881), _Philosophy and Theology_ (1890), _What is Thought? or the Problem of Philosophy_ (1900), and _The Categories_ (1903). Less abstruse are _Jerrold, Tennyson, and Macaulay_ (1868), _Burns in Drama_ (1878), and _Philosophy in the Poets_ (1885).

STIRLING, WILLIAM ALEXANDER, EARL of (1567-1640).--Poet, _s._ of A. of Menstrie, and _cr._ Earl of S. by Charles I., 1633, was a courtier, and held many offices of state. He studied at Glasgow and Leyden, and wrote among other poems, partly in Latin, sonnets and four _Monarchicke Tragedies_, _Darius_, _Croesus_, _The Alexandræan Tragedy_, and _Julius Cæsar_ (1603-7), the motive of which is the fall of ambition, and which, though dignified, have little inspiration. He also assisted James I. in his metrical version of the Psalms. He _d._ insolvent in London. The grant of Nova Scotia which he had received became valueless owing to the French conquests in that region.

STIRLING-MAXWELL, SIR WILLIAM (1818-1878).--Historian and writer on art, _s._ of Archibald Stirling of Keir, succeeded to the estates and title of his uncle, Sir John Maxwell of Pollok, as well as to Keir, _ed._ at Camb., afterwards travelled much. He sat in the House of Commons for Perthshire, which he twice represented, 1852-68 and 1874-80, served on various commissions and public bodies, and was Lord Rector successively of the Univ. of St. Andrews and Edin. and Chancellor of that of Glasgow. His works include _Annals of the Artists of Spain_ (1848), _The Cloister Life of the Emperor Charles V._ (1852), and _Don John of Austria_, _pub._ posthumously in 1885. They were all distinguished by research and full information, and the last two are standard authorities He _m._ as his second wife the Hon. Mrs. Norton (_q.v._).

STOCKTON, FRANCIS RICHARD (1834-1902).--_B._ at Philadelphia, was an engraver and journalist. He became well known as a writer of stories for children, and of amusing books of which _Rudder Grange_ (1879) is the best known. _The Lady and the Tiger_ was also highly popular. Others are _Adventures of Captain Horne_, _Mrs. Null_, _Casting Away of Mrs. Leeks and Mrs. Aleshine_, _The Hundredth Man_, _Great Stone of Sardis_, _Captain's Toll-gate_, etc. His work was very unequal in interest.

STODDARD, RICHARD HENRY (1825-1903).--Poet, _b._ at Hingham, Mass., worked in a foundry, and afterwards in New York Custom House, wrote a Life of Washington, but is chiefly known as a poet, his poetical works including _Songs in Summer_ (1857), _The King's Bell_, _The Lions Cub_, etc.

STORER, THOMAS (1571-1604).--Poet, _b._ in London, and _ed._ at Oxf., wrote a long poem, _The Life and Death of Thomas Wolsey, Cardinal_.

STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819-1895).--Sculptor, poet, etc., _b._ at Salem, Mass., was intended for the law, but became a sculptor and an eminent man of letters. His writings include _Roba di Roma_ (1862), _The Tragedy of Nero_ (1875), _The Castle of St. Angelo_ (1877), _He and She_ (1883), _Conversations in a Studio_, _A Poet's Portfolio_ (1894), etc.

STOW, JOHN (1525-1605).--Historian and antiquary, _b._ in London, _s._ of a tailor, and brought up to the same trade. He had, however, an irresistible taste for transcribing and collecting ancient documents, and pursuing antiquarian and historical researches, to which he ultimately entirely devoted himself. This he was enabled to do partly through the munificence of Archbishop Parker. He made large collections of old books and manuscripts, and wrote and ed. several works of importance and authority, including _The Woorkes of Geoffrey Chaucer_, _Summarie of Englyshe Chronicles_ (1561), afterwards called _Annales of England_, ed. of the chronicles of Matthew Paris and others, of Holinshed's _Chronicle_, and _A Survey of London_ (1598). It is sad to think that the only reward of his sacrifices and labours in the public interest was a patent from James I. to collect "among our loving subjects their voluntary contributions and kind gratuities."

STOWE, MRS. HARRIET BEECHER (1811?-1896).--Novelist and miscellaneous writer, _dau._ of Dr. Lyman Beecher, a well-known American clergyman, and sister of Henry Ward B., one of the most popular preachers whom America has produced, was _b._ at Litchfield, Connecticut, in 1811 or 1812. After spending some years as a teacher, she _m._ the Rev. Calvin E. Stowe. Up till 1852 all she had written was a little vol. of stories which failed to attract attention. In that year, at the suggestion of a sister-in-law, she decided to write something against slavery, and produced _Uncle Tom's Cabin_, which originally appeared in serial form in a magazine, _The National Era_. It did not at the time receive much attention, but on its appearance in a separate form it took the world by storm. Its sale soon reached 400,000 copies, and the reprints have probably reached a far greater number. It was translated into numerous foreign languages, and had a powerful effect in hurrying on the events which ultimately resulted in emancipation. Her later works include _Dred_, _The Minister's Wooing_, _Agnes of Sorrento_, _The Pearl of Orr's Island_, and _Old Town Folks_. Some of these, especially the last, are in a literary sense much superior to _Uncle Tom's Cabin_, but none of them had more than an ordinary success. In 1869 an article on Lord Byron involved her in a somewhat unfortunate controversy.

STRICKLAND, AGNES (1796 or 1806-1874).--Historical writer, _dau._ of Thomas S., of Royden Hall, Suffolk, was _ed._ by her _f._, and began her literary career with a poem, _Worcester Field_, followed by _The Seven Ages of Woman_ and _Demetrius_. Abandoning poetry she next produced among others _Historical Tales of Illustrious British Children_ (1833), _The Pilgrims of Walsingham_ (1835), _Tales and Stories from History_ (1836). Her chief works, however, are _Lives of the Queens of England from the Norman Conquest_, and _Lives of the Queens of Scotland_, and _English Princesses, etc._ (8 vols., 1850-59), _Lives of the Bachelor Kings of England_ (1861), and _Letters of Mary Queen of Scots_, in some of which she was assisted by her sister Elizabeth. Though laborious and conscientious she lacked the judicial faculty, and her style does not rise above mediocrity.

STRODE, WILLIAM (1600-1645).--Poet, only _s._ of Philip S., who belonged to an old Devonshire family, he was _b._ at Plympton, Devonshire, and showing studious tendencies, was sent to Westminster School and Oxf. While at the Univ. he began to manifest his poetic talents, and generally distinguished himself, being elected in 1629 Public Orator. He took orders and, on Richard Corbet (_q.v._) becoming Bishop of Oxf., became his chaplain. Later he was Rector of E. Bredenham, Norfolk, and of Badley, Northants, and Canon of Christ Church. On the outbreak of the Civil War he attached himself warmly to the cause of the King. He was a High Churchman, and had a reputation as "a witty and sententious preacher, an exquisite orator, and an eminent poet." It is therefore singular that, until the recovery of his poems by Mr. B. Dobell, he had fallen into absolute oblivion. As a poet he shines most in lyrics and elegies. With much of the artificiality of his age he shows gracefulness, a feeling for the country, and occasional gleams of tenderness. His play, _The Floating Island_, a political allegory, was produced in 1633 and played before the Court then on a visit to Oxf., where it was a subject of complaint that it had more moralising than amusement. Mr. Dobell, who ed. his poems in 1907, claims for S. the poem on "Melancholy" ("Hence all you vain delights"), hitherto attributed to Fletcher.

STRYPE, JOHN (1643-1737).--Ecclesiastical historian, _b._ at Hackney, and _ed._ at St. Paul's School and Camb., took orders and, among other livings, held the Rectory of Low Leyton, Essex, for upwards of 60 years. He made a large collection of original documents, chiefly relating to the Tudor period, and was a voluminous author. Among his works are _Memorials of Archbishop Cranmer_ (1694), _Life of Sir Thomas Smith_, _Secretary of State to Edward VI. and Elizabeth_ (1698), _Annals of the Reformation_ (1709-31), and _Ecclesiastical Memorials_ (1721); besides Lives of Bishop Aylmer and Archbishops Grindal, Parker, and Whitgift. S., who was a painstaking and honest, but dull and unmethodical, writer, remains an authority.

STUART, GILBERT (1742-1786).--Historical writer, _s._ of George S., Prof. of Humanity (Latin) at Edin. Among his publications were _An Historical Dissertation on the English Constitution_ (1768), _Discourse on the Government and Laws of England_ (1772), _A View of Society in Europe_ (1778), and a _History of Scotland_ (1782). He was a man of extremely jealous and implacable temper, and made venomous attacks on the historical works of Robertson and Henry. His own writings, though well-written, are inaccurate.

STUBBS, WILLIAM (1825-1901).--Historian, _s._ of a solicitor, _b._ at Knaresborough, Yorkshire, and _ed._ there and at the Grammar School of Ripon, and Oxf. In 1848 he became a Fellow of Trinity Coll., and in the same year took orders and was appointed to the coll. living of Navestock in Essex, where he remained for 16 years, during which he began his historical researches, and _pub._ his earlier works. His first publication was _Hymnale Secundum Usum Sarum_. In 1858 appeared _Registrum Sacrum Anglicanum_, a calendar of English bishops from Augustine; and then followed ed. of several Chronicles in the Rolls Series. The learning and critical insight displayed in these works commanded the attention and admiration of historical scholars both at home and on the Continent. In 1862 he was appointed librarian of Lambeth Palace, and in 1866 Prof. of Modern History at Oxf. There he _pub._ in 1870 his _Select Charters_, and his chief work, _The Constitutional History of England_ (3 vols., 1874-78), which at once became the standard authority on its subject. It deals with the period preceding that with which the great work of Hallam begins. In 1879 he was appointed a Canon of St. Paul's, and in 1884 Bishop of Chester, whence he was translated five years later to Oxf. As an active prelate he was necessarily largely withdrawn from his historical researches; but at Chester he ed. two vols. of William of Malmesbury. S. was greater as a historian than as a writer, but he brought to his work sound judgment, insight, accuracy, and impartiality. He was a member of the French and Prussian Academies, and had the Prussian Order "Pour le Mérite" conferred upon him. Since his death his prefaces to the Rolls Series have been _pub._ separately.

STUKELEY, WILLIAM (1687-1765).--Antiquary, _ed._ at Camb., and after practising as a physician took orders in 1729 and held benefices at Stamford and in London. He made antiquarian tours through England, and was one of the founders of the Society of Antiquaries, to which he acted as sec. He _pub._ _Itinerarium Curiosum_ (1724) and _Stonehenge_ (1740). He made a special study of Druidism, and was called "the Arch-Druid."

SUCKLING, SIR JOHN (1609-1642).--Poet, _s._ of a knight who had held office as Sec. of State and Comptroller of the Household to James I., was _b._ at Whitton, Middlesex, _ed._ at Camb., and thereafter went to Gray's Inn. On the death of his _f._ in 1627, he inherited large estates. After travelling in France and Italy, he is said to have served for a short time under Gustavus Adolphus. On his return he was knighted, and went to Court, where his wealth, generosity, and wit made him a general favourite. When Charles I. was moving against the Scots S. fitted out a gorgeously appointed troop for his service which, however, were said to have fled at first sight of the Scots army at Duns, an exploit which is ridiculed in the ballad of _Sir John Suckling's Campaign_. He got into trouble in connection with a plot to rescue Strafford from the Tower, and fled to the Continent. He _d._ at Paris, it is now believed by his own hand. He was a noted gambler, and has the distinction of being the inventor of the game of cribbage. He wrote four plays, _Aglaura_ (1637), _Brennoralt_ (1646), _The Goblins_, and _The Sad One_ (unfinished), now forgotten; his fame rests on his songs and ballads, including _The Wedding_, distinguished by a gay and sparkling wit, and a singular grace of expression.

SURREY, HENRY HOWARD, EARL of (1517?-1547).--Poet, _s._ of Thomas H., 3rd Duke of Norfolk, was _ed._ by John Clerke, a learned and travelled scholar, and sec. to his _f._ He became attached to the Court, was cup-bearer to the King (Henry VIII.), ewerer at the Coronation, and Earl Marshall at the trial of Anne Boleyn. In 1542 he was made a Knight of the Garter a few weeks after the execution of his cousin, Queen Catherine Howard. He suffered imprisonment more than once for being implicated in quarrels and brawls, did a good deal of fighting in Scotland and France, and was the last victim of Henry's insensate jealousy, being beheaded on a frivolous charge of conspiring against the succession of Edward VI. The death of Henry saved Norfolk from the same fate. S. shares with Sir Thomas Wyatt (_q.v._) the honour of being the true successor of Chaucer in English poetry, and he has the distinction of being, in his translation of the _Æneid_, the first to introduce blank verse, and, with Wyatt, the sonnet. The poems of S., though well known in courtly circles, were not _pub._ during his life; 40 of them appeared in _Tottel's Miscellany_ in 1557. He also paraphrased part of Ecclesiastes and a few of the Psalms. The Geraldine of his sonnets was Elizabeth Fitzgerald, _dau._ of the Earl of Kildare, then a lonely child at Court, her _f._ being imprisoned in the Tower.

SURTEES, ROBERT SMITH (1802-1864).--Sporting novelist, a country gentleman of Durham, who was in business as a solicitor, but not succeeding, started in 1831 the _Sporting Magazine_. Subsequently he took to writing sporting novels, which were illustrated by John Leech. Among them are _Mr. Sponge's Sporting Tour_, _Ask Mamma_, _Plain or Ringlets_, and _Mr. Facey Romford's Hounds_.

SWIFT, JONATHAN (1667-1745).--Satirist, was _b._ at Dublin of English parents. Dryden was his cousin, and he also claimed kin with Herrick. He was a posthumous child, and was brought up in circumstances of extreme poverty. He was sent to school at Kilkenny, and afterwards went to Trinity Coll., Dublin, where he gave no evidence of ability, but displayed a turbulent and unruly temper, and only obtained a degree by "special grace." After the Revolution he joined his mother, then resident at Leicester, by whose influence he was admitted to the household of Sir William Temple (_q.v._) at Moor Park, Lady T. being her distant kinswoman. Here he acted as sec., and having access to a well-stocked library, made good use of his opportunities, and became a close student. At Moor Park he met many distinguished men, including William III., who offered him a troop of horse; he also met Esther Johnson (Stella), a natural _dau._ of Sir William, who was afterwards to enter so largely into his life. Dissatisfied, apparently, that Temple did not do more for his advancement, he left his service in 1694 and returned to Ireland, where he took orders, and obtained the small living of Kilroot, near Belfast. While there he wrote his _Tale of a Tub_, one of the most consummate pieces of satire in any language, and _The Battle of the Books_, with reference to the "Phalaris" controversy (_see_ Bentley), which were _pub._ together in 1704. In 1698 he threw up his living at the request of Temple, who felt the want of his society and assistance, and returned to Moor Park. On the death of his patron in 1699 he undertook by request the publication of his works, and thereafter returned to Ireland as chaplain to the Lord Deputy, the Earl of Berkeley, from whom he obtained some small preferments, including the vicarage of Laracor, and a prebend in St. Patrick's Cathedral. At this time he made frequent visits to London and became the friend of Addison, Steele, Congreve, and other Whig writers, and wrote various pamphlets, chiefly on ecclesiastical subjects. In 1710, disgusted with the neglect of the Whigs, alike of himself and of the claims of his Church, he abandoned them and attached himself to Harley and Bolingbroke. The next few years were filled with political controversy. He attacked the Whigs in papers in the _Examiner_ in 1710, and in his celebrated pamphlets, _The Conduct of the Allies_ (1712), _The Barrier Treaty_ (1713), and _The Public Spirit of the Whigs_ (1714). In 1713 he was made Dean of St. Patrick's, the last piece of patronage which he received. The steady dislike of Queen Anne had proved an insurmountable obstacle to his further advancement, and her death proved the ruin of the Tories. On the destruction of his hopes S. retired to Ireland, where he remained for the rest of his life a thoroughly embittered man. In 1713 he had begun his _Journal to Stella_, which sheds so strange a light upon his character, and on his return to Ireland his marriage to her is now generally believed to have taken place, though they never lived together. Now also took place also his final rupture with Miss Van Homrigh (Vanessa), who had been in love with him, with whom he had maintained a lengthened correspondence, and to whom he addressed his poem, _Cadenus and Vanessa_ (1726). Though he disliked the Irish and considered residence in Ireland as banishment, he interested himself in Irish affairs, and attained extraordinary popularity by his _Drapier's Letters_, directed against the introduction of "Wood's halfpence." In 1726 he visited England and joined with Pope and Arbuthnot in publishing _Miscellanies_ (1727). In the same year, 1726, he _pub._ _Gulliver's Travels_, his most widely and permanently popular work. His last visit to England was paid in 1727 and in the following year "Stella," the only being, probably, whom he really loved, _d._ Though he had a circle of friends in Dublin, and was, owing to his championing the people in their grievances, a popular idol, the shadows were darkening around him. The fears of insanity by which he had been all his life haunted, and which may account for and perhaps partly excuse some of the least justifiable portions of his conduct, pressed more and more upon him. He became increasingly morose and savage in his misanthropy, and though he had a rally in which he produced some of his most brilliant, work--the _Rhapsody on Poetry_, _Verses on the Death of Dr. Swift_, and; the _Modest Proposal_ (a horrible but masterly piece of irony)--he gradually sank into almost total loss of his facilities, and _d._ on October 19, 1745.

The character of S. is one of the gloomiest and least attractive among English writers. Intensely proud, he suffered bitterly in youth and early manhood from the humiliations of poverty and dependence, which preyed upon a mind in which the seeds of insanity were latent until it became dominated by a ferocious misanthropy. As a writer he is our greatest master of grave irony, and while he presents the most humorous ideas, the severity of his own countenance never relaxes. The _Tale of a Tub_ and _Gulliver's Travels_ are the greatest satires in the English language, although the concluding part of the latter is a savage and almost insane attack upon the whole human race. His history is a tragedy darkening into catastrophe, and as Thackeray has said, "So great a man he seems that thinking of him is like thinking of an Empire falling."

S. was tall and powerfully made. His eyes, blue and flashing under excitement, were the most remarkable part of his appearance.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1667, _ed._ at Trinity Coll., Dublin, entered household of Sir W. Temple at Moor Park 1692, and became his sec., became known to William III., and met E. Johnson (Stella), left T. in 1694 and returned to Ireland, took orders and wrote _Tale of a Tub_ and _Battle of Books_ (_pub._ 1704), returned to Sir W.T. 1698, and on his death in 1699 _pub._ his works, returned to Ireland and obtained some small preferments, visits London and became one of the circle of Addison, etc., deserts the Whigs and joins the Tories 1710, attacking the former in various papers and pamphlets, Dean of St. Patrick's 1713, death of Anne and ruin of Tories destroyed hopes of further preferment, and he returned to Ireland and began his _Journal to Stella_, _Drapier's Letters_ appeared 1724, visits England, and joins with Pope and Arbuthnot in _Miscellanies_ 1726, _pub._ _Gulliver's Travels_ 1727, "Stella" _d._ 1728, gradually lost his faculties and _d._ 1745.

_Lives_ by Craik (1882), Leslie Stephen (1882), Churton Collins (1893), etc. _Works_ ed. by Sir Walter Scott (19 vols., 1814, etc.) Bonn's Standard Library (1897-1908).

SWINBURNE, ALGERNON CHARLES (1837-1909).--Poet, _s._ of Admiral S. and of Lady Jane Ashburnham, _dau._ of the 3rd Earl of A., _b._ in London, received his early education in France, and was at Eton and at Balliol Coll., Oxf., where he attracted the attention of Jowett, and gave himself to the study of Latin, Greek, French, and Italian, with special reference to poetic form. He left Oxf. without graduating in 1860, and in the next year _pub._ two plays, _The Queen Mother_ and _Rosamund_, which made no impression on the public, though a few good judges recognised their promise. The same year he visited Italy, and there made the acquaintance of Walter Savage Landor (_q.v._). On his return he lived for some time in Cheyne Row, Chelsea, with D.G. Rossetti (_q.v._), and G. Meredith (_q.v._). The appearance in 1865 of _Atalanta in Calydon_ led to his immediate recognition as a poet of the first order, and in the same year he _pub._ _Chastelard, a Tragedy_, the first part of a trilogy relating to Mary Queen of Scots, the other two being _Bothwell_ (1874), and _Mary Stuart_ (1881). _Poems and Ballads_, _pub._ in 1866, created a profound sensation alike among the critics and the general body of readers by its daring departure from recognised standards, alike of politics and morality, and gave rise to a prolonged and bitter controversy, S. defending himself against his assailants in _Notes on Poems and Reviews_. His next works were the _Song of Italy_ (1867) and _Songs before Sunrise_ (1871). Returning to the Greek models which he had followed with such brilliant success in _Atalanta_ he produced _Erechtheus_ (1876), the extraordinary metrical power of which won general admiration. _Poems and Ballads_, second series, came out in 1878. _Tristram of Lyonnesse_ in heroic couplets followed in 1882, _A Midsummer Holiday_ (1884), _Marino Faliero_ (1885), _Locrine_ (1887), _Poems and Ballads_, third series (1889), _The Sisters_ (1892), _Astrophel_ (1894), _The Tale of Balen_ (1896), _Rosamund, Queen of the Lombards_ (1899), _A Channel Passage_ (1904), and _The Duke of Gandia_ (1908). Among his prose works are _Love's Cross Currents_ (1905) (fiction), _William Blake, a Critical Essay_ (1867), _Under the Microscope_ (1872), in answer to R. Buchanan's _Fleshly School of Poetry_, _George Chapman, a Critical Essay_ (1875), _A Study of Shakespeare_ (1879), _A Study of Victor Hugo_ (1886), and _A Study of Ben Jonson_ (1889).

S. belongs to the class of "Poets' poets." He never became widely popular. As a master of metre he is hardly excelled by any of our poets, but it has not seldom been questioned whether his marvellous sense of the beauty of words and their arrangement did not exceed the depth and mass of his thought. _The Hymn to Artemis_ in _Atalanta_ beginning "When the hounds of Spring are on Winter's traces" is certainly one of the most splendid examples of metrical power in the language. As a prose writer he occupies a much lower place, and here the contrast between the thought and its expression becomes very marked, the latter often becoming turgid and even violent. In his earlier days in London S. was closely associated with the pre-Raphaelites, the Rossettis, Meredith, and Burne-Jones: he was thus subjected successively to the classical and romantic influence, and showed the traces of both in his work. He was never _m._, and for the last 30 years of his life lived with his friend, Mr. Theodore Watts-Dunton, at the Pines, Putney Hill. For some time before his death he was almost totally deaf.

SYLVESTER, JOSHUA (1563-1618).--Poet and translator, is chiefly remembered by his translation from the French of Du Bartas' _Divine Weeks and Works_, which is said to have influenced Milton and Shakespeare. He seconded the _Counterblast against Tobacco_ of James I. with his _Tobacco Battered and the Pipes Shattered ... by a Volley of Holy Shot thundered from Mount Helicon_ (1620), and also wrote _All not Gold that Glitters_, _Panthea: Divine Wishes and Meditations_ (1630), and many religious, complimentary, and other occasional pieces. S., who was originally engaged in commerce, acted later as a sort of factor to the Earl of Essex.

SYMONDS, JOHN ADDINGTON (1840-1893).--Writer on art and literature, _s._ of a physician in Bristol, was _ed._ at Harrow and Oxf. His delicate health obliged him to live abroad. He _pub._ (1875-86) _History of the Italian Renaissance_, and translated the _Autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini_. He also _pub._ some books of poetry, including _Many Moods_ (1878) and _Animi Figura_ (1882), and among his other publications were _Introduction to the Study of Dante_ (1872), _Studies of the Greek Poets_ (1873 and 1876), _Shakespeare's Predecessors in the English Drama_ (1884), and Lives of various poets, including Ben Jonson, Shelley, and Walt Whitman. He also made remarkable translations of the sonnets of Michelangelo and Campanella, and wrote upon philosophical subjects in various periodicals.

SYNGE, JOHN MILLINGTON (1871-1909).--Miscellaneous writer, _b._ near Dublin, _ed._ privately and at Trinity Coll., Dublin. He wrote _Riders to the Sea_, _In the Shadow of the Glen_ (1905), _The Well of the Saints_ (1905), _The Play Boy of the Western World_ (1907), and _The Aran Islands_ (1907).

TABLEY DE, JOHN BYRON LEICESTER WARREN, 3RD LORD (1835-1895).--Poet, eldest _s._ of the 2nd Lord, _ed._ at Eton and Oxf., was for a time attached to the British Embassy at Constantinople. He wrote poems of a very high order, some of them _pub._ under the _pseudonyms_ of "George F. Preston" and "William Lancaster." They include _Ballads and Metrical Sketches_, _The Threshold of Atrides_, _Glimpses of Antiquity_, etc. These were followed by two dramas, _Philoctetes_ (1866) and _Orestes_ (1868). Later works in his own name were _Rehearsals_ (1870), _Searching the Net_ (1873), _The Soldier's Fortune_, a tragedy. _Poems, Dramatic and Lyrical_ (1893) included selections from former works. After his death appeared _Orpheus in Thrace_ (1901). He was a man of sensitive temperament, and was latterly much of a recluse. He was an accomplished botanist, and _pub._ a work on the _Flora of Cheshire_.

TALFOURD, SIR THOMAS NOON (1795-1854).--Poet and biographer, _s._ of a brewer at Reading, where he was _b._, and which he represented in Parliament, 1835-41, was _ed._ at Mill Hill School. He studied law, was called to the Bar in 1821, and became a Judge in 1849. He _d._ suddenly of apoplexy while charging the Grand Jury at Stafford. He wrote much for reviews, and in 1835 produced _Ion_, a tragedy, followed by _The Athenian Captive_ (1838), and _The Massacre of Glencoe_, all of which were acted with success. T. was the friend and literary executor of Charles Lamb (_q.v._), and _pub._ in two sections his _Memoirs and Letters_. In 1837 he introduced the Copyright Bill, which was passed with modifications in 1842.

TANNAHILL, ROBERT (1774-1810).--Poet, _b._ in Paisley where he was a weaver. In 1807 he _pub._ a small vol. of poems and songs, which met with success, and carried his hitherto local fame over his native country. Always delicate and sensitive, a disappointment in regard to the publication of an enlarged ed. of his poems so wrought upon a lowness of spirits, to which he was subject, that he drowned himself in a canal. His longer pieces are now forgotten, but some of his songs have achieved a popularity only second to that of some of Burns's best. Among these are _The Braes of Balquhidder_, _Gloomy Winter's now awa'_ and _The Bonnie Wood o' Craigielea_.

TATE, NAHUM (1652-1715).--Poet, _s._ of a clergyman in Dublin, was _ed._ at Trinity Coll. there. He _pub._ _Poems on Several Occasions_ (1677), _Panacea, or a Poem on Tea_, and, in collaboration with Dryden, the second part of _Absalom and Achitophel_. He also adapted Shakespeare's _Richard II._ and _Lear_, making what he considered improvements. Thus in _Lear_ Cordelia is made to survive her _f._, and marry Edgar. This desecration, which was defended by Dr. Johnson, kept the stage till well on in the 19th century. He also wrote various miscellaneous poems, now happily forgotten. He is best remembered as the Tate of Tate and Brady's metrical version of the Psalms, _pub._ in 1696. T., who succeeded Shadwell as Poet Laureate in 1690, figures in _The Dunciad_. NICHOLAS BRADY (1659-1726).--Tate's fellow-versifier of the Psalms, _b._ at Bandon, and _ed._ at Westminster and Oxf., was incumbent of Stratford-on-Avon. He wrote a tragedy, _The Rape_, a blank verse translation of the _Æneid_, an _Ode_, and sermons, now all forgotten.

TATHAM, JOHN (_fl._ 1632-1664).--Dramatist. Little is known of him. He produced pageants for the Lord Mayor's show and some dramas, _Love Crowns the End_, _The Distracted State_, _The Scots Figgaries, or a Knot of Knaves_, _The Rump_, etc. He was a Cavalier, who hated the Puritans and the Scotch, and invented a dialect which he believed to be their vernacular tongue.

TAUTPHOEUS, BARONESS (MONTGOMERY) (1807-1893).--_Dau._ of an Irish gentleman, _m._ the Baron T., Chamberlain at the Court of Bavaria. She wrote several novels dealing with German life of which the first, _The Initials_ (1850), is perhaps the best. Others were _Cyrilla_ (1883), _Quits_ (1857), and _At Odds_ (1863).

TAYLOR, BAYARD (1825-1878).--Poet, _b._ in Pennsylvania of Quaker descent, began to write by the time he was 12. Apprenticed to a printer, he found the work uncongenial and, purchasing his indentures, went to Europe on a walking tour, and thereafter he was a constant and enterprising traveller. After his return from Europe he ed. a paper, got on the staff of the _New York Tribune_, and _pub._ several books of travel and poetry, among which are _Views Afoot_ (1846), an account of his travels in Europe, and _El Dorado_ (1850), which described the Californian gold-fields. After some experience and some disappointments in the diplomatic sphere, he settled down to novel-writing, his first venture in which, _Hannah Thurston_ (1863), was very successful, and was followed by _John Godfrey's Fortunes_ (1864), partly autobiographical, and _The Story of Kenneth_ (1866). His poetic works include _Poems of the Orient_ (1854), _Poet's Journal_ (1862), _Masque of the Gods_ (1872), _Lars_ (1873), _The Prophet_ (1874), a tragedy, _Prince Deucalion_, and _Home Pastorals_ (1875). In 1878 he was appointed to the German Embassy, and _d._ in Berlin in the following year. His translation of Goethe's _Faust_ is perhaps his best work. He was a man of untiring energy and great ability and versatility, but tried too many avenues to fame to advance very far in any of them.

TAYLOR, SIR HENRY (1800-1886).--Dramatist, _s._ of a gentleman farmer in the county of Durham. After being at sea for some months and in the Naval Stores Department, he became a clerk in the Colonial Office, and remained there for 48 years, during which he exercised considerable influence on the colonial policy of the Empire. In 1872 he was made K.C.M.G. He wrote four tragedies--_Isaac Comnenus_ (1827), _Philip van Artevelde_ (1834), _Edwin the Fair_ (1842), and _St. Clement's Eve_ (1862); also a romantic comedy, _The Virgin Widow_, which he renamed _A Sicilian Summer_, _The Eve of the Conquest and other Poems_ (1847). In prose he _pub._ _The Statesman_ (1836), _Notes from Life_ (1847), _Notes from Books_ (1849), and an _Autobiography_. Of all these _Philip van Artevelde_ was perhaps the most successful. T. was a man of great ability and distinction, but his dramas, with many of the qualities of good poetry, lack the final touch of genius.

TAYLOR, ISAAC (1787-1865).--Philosophical and historical writer, artist, and inventor, was the most eminent member of a family known as the Taylors of Ongar, which has shown a remarkable persistence of ability in various departments, but especially in art and literature. His grandfather and _f._, who bore the same name, were both eminent engravers, and the latter was the author of various books for children. T. was brought up to the hereditary art of engraving, in which he displayed pre-eminent skill, his work gaining the admiration of D.G. Rossetti. He decided, however, to devote himself to literature, and for 40 years continued to produce works of originality and value, including _Elements of Thought_ (1823), _Natural History of Enthusiasm_ (1829), _Spiritual Despotism_ (1831), _Ancient Christianity_ (1839), _Restoration of Belief_ (1855), _The Physical Theory of Another Life_, _History of Transmission of Ancient Books_, and _Home Education_, besides numerous contributions to reviews and other periodicals. Besides his literary and artistic accomplishments T. was an important inventor, two of his inventions having done much to develop the manufacture of calico. Two of his sisters had considerable literary reputation. ANN T., afterwards MRS. GILBERT (1782-1866), and JANE (1783-1824) were, like their brother, taught the art of engraving. In 1804-5 they jointly wrote _Original Poems for Infant Minds_, followed by _Rhymes for the Nursery_ and _Hymns for Infant Minds_. Among those are the little poems, "My Mother" and "Twinkle, twinkle, little Star," known to all well-conditioned children. Jane was also the author of _Display_, a tale (1815), and other works, including several hymns, of which the best known is "Lord, I would own Thy tender Care." The hereditary talents of the family were represented in the next generation by CANON ISAAC T. (1829-1901), the _s._ of Isaac last mentioned, who, in addition to _The Liturgy and the Dissenters_, _pub._ works in philology and archæology, including _Words and Places_ and _Etruscan Researches_; and by JOSIAH GILBERT, _s._ of Ann T., an accomplished artist, and author of _The Dolomite Mountains_, _Cadore, or Titian's Country_, and ed. of the _Autobiography_ of his mother.

TAYLOR, JEREMY (1613-1667).--Divine, was _b._ at Camb. His _f._, though of gentle descent, followed the trade of a barber, and Jeremy entered Caius Coll. as a sizar. After his graduation in 1634 he was asked to preach in London, where his eloquence attracted the attention of Laud, who sent him to Oxf., caused him to be elected a Fellow of All Souls Coll., and made him his chaplain. He also became a chaplain to the King, and soon attaining a great reputation as a preacher, was presented to the living of Uppingham. In 1639 he _m._ his first wife, and in 1643 he was made Rector of Overstone. On the outbreak of the Civil War T. sided with the King, and was present, probably as a chaplain, at the battle fought in 1645 near Cardigan Castle, when he was taken prisoner. He was soon released, but the Royalist cause being practically lost, he decided to remain in Wales, and with two friends started a school at Newtonhall, Caermarthenshire, which had some success. T. also found a friend in Lord Carbery, whose chaplain he became. During the period of 13 years from 1647-60, which were passed in seeming obscurity, he laid the foundations and raised the structure of his splendid literary fame. The _Liberty of Prophesying_ (that is, of preaching), one of the greatest pleas for toleration in the language, was _pub._ in 1647, _The Life of Christ_ in 1649, _Holy Living_ in 1650, and _Holy Dying_ in 1651. These were followed by various series of sermons, and by _The Golden Grove_ (1655), a manual of devotion which received its title from the name of the seat of his friend Lord Carbery. For some remarks against the existing authorities T. suffered a short imprisonment, and some controversial tracts on _Original Sin_, _Unum Necessarium_ (the one thing needful), and _The Doctrine and Practice of Repentance_ involved him in a controversy of some warmth in which he was attacked by both High Churchmen and Calvinists. While in Wales T. had entered into a second marriage with a lady of some property which, however, was seriously encroached upon by the exactions of the Parliamentarians. In 1657 he ministered privately to an Episcopalian congregation in London, and in 1658 accompanied Lord Conway to Ireland, and served a cure at Lisburn. Two years later he _pub._ _Ductor Dubitantium, or the Rule of Conscience in all her General Measures_, a learned and subtle piece of casuistry which he dedicated to Charles II. The Restoration brought recognition of T.'s unswerving devotion to the Royalist cause; he was made Bishop of Down and Connor, and to this was added the administration of the see of Dromore. In his new position, though, as might have been expected, he showed zeal, diligence, and benevolence, he was not happy. He did not, probably could not, entirely practise his own views of absolute toleration, and found himself in conflict with the Presbyterians, some of whose ministers he had extruded from benefices which they had held, and he longed to escape to a more private and peaceful position. He _d._ at Lisburn of a fever caught while ministering to a parishioner. T. is one of the great classical writers of England. Learned, original, and impassioned, he had an enthusiasm for religion and charity, and his writings glow with an almost unequalled wealth of illustration and imagery, subtle argument, and fullness of thought. With a character of stainless purity and benevolence, and gracious and gentle manners, he was universally beloved by all who came under the spell of his presence.

TAYLOR, JOHN (1580-1653).--Known as the "Water Poet," _b._ at Gloucester of humble parentage, was apprenticed to a London waterman, and pressed for the navy. Thereafter he returned to London and resumed his occupation on the Thames, afterwards keeping inns first at Oxf., then in London. He had a talent for writing rollicking verses, enjoyed the acquaintance of Ben Jonson, and other famous men, superintended the water pageant at the marriage of the Princess Elizabeth 1613, and composed the "triumphs" at the Lord Mayor's shows. He made a journey on foot from London as far as to Braemar, of which he wrote an account, _The Pennyless Pilgrimage ... of John Taylor_, _the King's Majesty's Water Poet_ (1618). He visited the Queen of Bohemia at Prague in 1620, and made other journeys, each of which was commemorated in a book. His writings are of little literary value, but have considerable historical and antiquarian interest.

TAYLOR, PHILIP MEADOWS (1808-1876).--Novelist, _b._ at Liverpool, _s._ of a merchant there. When still a boy went out to a mercantile situation in Calcutta, but in 1826 got a commission in the army of the Nizam of Hyderabad. From this he rose to a high civil position in the service of the Nizam, and entirely reorganised his government. He wrote several striking novels dealing with Indian life, including _Confessions of a Thug_ (1639), _Tara_, and _A Noble Queen_. He left an autobiography, _The Story of my Life_, ed. by his _dau._

TAYLOR, THOMAS (1758-1835).--Translator, _b._ in London and _ed._ at St. Paul's School, devoted himself to the study of the classics and of mathematics. After being a bank clerk he was appointed Assistant Secretary to the Society for the encouragement of Arts, etc., in which capacity he made many influential friends, who furnished the means for publishing his various translations, which include works of Plato, Aristotle, Proclus, Porphyry, Apuleius, etc. His aim indeed was the translation of all the untranslated writings of the ancient Greek philosophers.

TAYLOR, TOM (1817-1880).--Dramatist, _b._ at Sunderland, _ed._ at Glasgow and Camb., and was Prof. of English Literature in London Univ. from 1845-47. In 1846 he was called to the Bar, and from 1854-71 he was Sec. to the Local Government Board. He was the author of about 100 dramatic pieces, original and adapted, including _Still Waters run Deep_, _The Overland Route_, and _Joan of Arc_. He was likewise a large contributor to _Punch_, of which he was ed. 1874-80, and he ed. the autobiographies of Haydon and Leslie, the painters, and wrote _Life and Times of Sir Joshua Reynolds_.

TAYLOR, WILLIAM (1765-1836).--Translator, etc., _s._ of a merchant, travelled on the Continent, learned German, and became an enthusiastic student of German literature, which he was one of the first to introduce to his fellow-countrymen. His articles on the subject were _coll._ and _pub._ as _Historic Survey of German Poetry_ (1828-30). He translated Bürger's _Lenore_, Lessing's _Nathan_, and Goethe's _Iphigenia_. He also wrote _Tales of Yore_ (1810) and _English Synonyms Described_ (1813).

TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM (1628-1699).--Statesman and essayist, _s._ of Sir John T., Master of the Rolls in Ireland, was _b._ in London, and _ed._ at Camb. He travelled on the Continent, was for some time a member of the Irish Parliament, employed on various diplomatic missions, and negotiated the marriage of the Prince of Orange and the Princess Mary. On his return he was much consulted by Charles II., but disapproving of the courses adopted, retired to his house at Sheen, which he afterwards left and purchased Moor Park, where Swift was for a time his sec. He took no part in the Revolution, but acquiesced in the new _régime_, and was offered, but refused, the Secretaryship of State. His works consist for the most part of short essays _coll._ under the title of _Miscellanea_, but longer pieces are _Observations upon the United Provinces_, and _Essay on the Original and Nature of Government_. Apart from their immediate interest they mark a transition to the simpler, more concise, and more carefully arranged sentences of modern composition.

TENNANT, WILLIAM (1784-1848).--Poet and scholar, a cripple from his birth, was _b._ at Anstruther (commonly called Anster) in Fife. As a youth he was clerk to his brother, a corn-merchant, but devoted his leisure to the study of languages, and the literature of various countries. In 1813 he became parish schoolmaster of Lasswade, near Edinburgh, thereafter classical master at Dollar Academy, and in 1835 Prof. of Oriental Languages at St. Andrews. In 1812 he _pub._ _Anster Fair_, a mock-heroic poem, in _ottava rima_, full of fancy and humour, which at once brought him reputation. In later life he produced two tragedies, _Cardinal Beaton_ and _John Baliol_, and two poems, _The Thane of Fife_ and _Papistry Stormed_. He also issued a _Syriac and Chaldee Grammar_.

TENNYSON, ALFRED, 1ST LORD (1809-1892).--Poet, was the fourth _s._ of George T., Rector of Somersby, Lincolnshire, where he was _b._ His _f._ was himself a poet of some skill, and his two elder brothers, Frederick T. (_q.v._) and Charles T. Turner (_q.v._), were poets of a high order. His early education was received from his _f._, after which he went to the Grammar School of Louth, whence in 1828 he proceeded to Trinity Coll., Camb. In the previous year had appeared a small vol., _Poems by Two Brothers_, chiefly the work of his brother Charles and himself, with a few contributions from Frederick, but it attracted little attention. At the Univ. he was one of a group of highly gifted men, including Trench (_q.v._), Monckton Milnes, afterwards Lord Houghton (_q.v._), Alford (_q.v._), Lushington, his future brother-in-law, and above all, Arthur Hallam, whose friendship and early death were to be the inspiration of his greatest poem. In 1829 he won the Chancellor's medal by a poem on _Timbuctoo_, and in the following year he brought out his first independent work, _Poems chiefly Lyrical_. It was not in general very favourably received by the critics, though Wilson in _Blackwood's Magazine_ admitted much promise and even performance. In America it had greater popularity. Part of 1832 was spent in travel with Hallam, and the same year saw the publication of _Poems_, which had not much greater success than its predecessor. In the next year Hallam _d._, and T. began _In Memoriam_ and wrote _The Two Voices_. He also became engaged to Emily Sellwood, his future wife, but owing to various circumstances their marriage did not take place until 1850. The next few years were passed with his family at various places, and, so far as the public were concerned, he remained silent until 1842, when he _pub._ _Poems_ in two volumes, and at last achieved full recognition as a great poet. From this time the life of T. is a record of tranquil triumph in his art and of the conquest of fame; and the publication of his successive works became almost the only events which mark his history. _The Princess_ appearing in 1847 added materially to his reputation: in the lyrics with which it is interspersed, such as "The Splendour Falls" and "Tears, idle Tears" he rises to the full mastery of this branch of his art. The year 1850 was perhaps the most eventful in his life, for in it took place his marriage which, as he said, "brought the peace of God into his life," his succession to the Laureateship on the death of Wordsworth, and the publication of his greatest poem, _In Memoriam_. In 1852 appeared his noble _Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington_; and two years later _The Charge of the Light Brigade_. The publication of _Maud_ in 1855 gave his rapidly growing popularity a perceptible set-back, though it has since risen in favour. But this was far more than made up for by the enthusiasm with which the first set of _The Idylls of the King_ was received on its appearance four years later. _Enoch Arden_, with the _Northern Farmer_, came out in 1864; _The Holy Grail_ and _Gareth and Lynette_, both belonging to the _Idyll_ series, in 1869 and 1872 respectively. Three years later in 1875 T. broke new ground by beginning a series of dramas with _Queen Mary_, followed by _Harold_ (1876), _The Falcon_ (1879), _The Cup_ (1881), _The Promise of May_ (1882), _Becket_ (1884), and _Robin Hood_ (1891). His later poems were _The Lovers' Tale_ (1879) (an early work retouched), _Tiresias_ (1885), _Locksley Hall--60 Years after_ (1886), _Demeter and other Poems_ (1889), including "Crossing the Bar," and _The Death of Oenone_ (1892). T., who cared little for general society, though he had many intimate and devoted friends, lived at Farringford, Isle of Wight, from 1853-69, when he built a house at Aldworth, near Haslemere, which was his home until his death. In 1884 he was raised to the peerage. Until he had passed the threescore years and ten he had, with occasional illnesses, enjoyed good health on the whole. But in 1886 the younger of his two sons _d._, a blow which told heavily upon him; thereafter frequent attacks of illness followed, and he _d._ on October 6, 1892, in his 84th year, and received a public funeral in Westminster Abbey.

The poetry of T. is characterised by a wide outlook, by intense sympathy with the deepest feelings and aspirations of humanity, a profound realisation of the problems of life and thought, a noble patriotism finding utterance in such poems as _The Revenge_, the _Charge of the Light Brigade_, and the _Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington_, an exquisite sense of beauty, marvellous power of vivid and minute description often achieved by a single felicitous phrase, and often heightened by the perfect matching of sense and sound, and a general loftiness and purity of tone. No poet has excelled him in precision and delicacy of language and completeness of expression. As a lyrist he has, perhaps, no superiors, and only two or three equals in English poetry, and even of humour he possessed no small share, as is shown in the _Northern Farmer_ and in other pieces. When the volume, variety, finish, and duration of his work are considered, as well as the influence which he exercised on his time, a unique place must be assigned him among the poets of his country.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1809, _ed._ Camb., _Poems by Two Brothers_ 1827, _Poems chiefly Lyrical_ 1830, his chief works _Poems in two Volumes_ 1842, _Princess_ 1847, _In Memoriam_ 1850, _Maud_ 1855, _Idylls of the King_ 1869-72, Poet Laureate 1850, _d._ 1892.

_Life_ by his _s._ (2 vols., 1897). There are also numerous books, biographical and critical, by, among others, W.E. Wace (1881), A.C. Benson, A. Lang, F. Harrison, Sir A. Lyell, C.F.G. Masterman (T. as a Religious Teacher), Stopford Brooke, Waugh, etc.

TENNYSON, FREDERICK (1807-1898).--Poet, was the eldest _s._ of the Rector of Somersby, Lincolnshire, and brother of Alfred T. (_q.v._). _Ed._ at Eton and Camb., he passed most of his life in Italy and Jersey. He contributed to the _Poems by Two Brothers_, and produced _Days and Hours_ (lyrics) (1854), _The Isles of Greece_ (1890), _Daphne_ (1891), and _Poems of the Day and Night_ (1895). All his works show passages of genuine poetic power.

TENNYSON TURNER, CHARLES (1808-1879).--Poet, elder brother of Alfred T. (_q.v._), _ed._ at Camb., entered the Church, and became Vicar of Grasby, Lincolnshire. The name of Turner he assumed in conformity with the will of a relation. He contributed to _Poems by Two Brothers_, and was the author of 340 sonnets, which were greatly admired by such critics as Coleridge, Palgrave, and his brother Alfred.

THACKERAY, WILLIAM MAKEPEACE (1811-1863).--Novelist, _s._ of Richmond T., who held various important appointments in the service of the East India Company, and who belonged to an old and respectable Yorkshire family, was _b._ at Calcutta, and soon after the death of his _f._, which took place in 1816, sent home to England. After being at a school at Chiswick, he was sent to the Charterhouse School, where he remained from 1822-26, and where he does not appear to have been very happy. Meanwhile in 1818 his mother had _m._ Major H.W.C. Smythe, who is believed to be, in part at any rate, the original of Colonel Newcome. In 1829 he went to Trinity Coll., Camb., where he remained for a year only, and where he did not distinguish himself particularly as a student, but made many life-long friends, including Spedding (_q.v._), Tennyson, Fitzgerald (_q.v._), and Monckton Milnes (_see_ Houghton), and contributed verses and caricatures to two Univ. papers, "The Snob" and "The Gownsman." The following year, 1831, was spent chiefly in travelling on the Continent, especially Germany, when, at Weimar, he visited Goethe. Returning he entered the Middle Temple, but having no liking for legal studies, he soon abandoned them, and turning his attention to journalism, became proprietor, wholly or in part, of two papers successively, both of which failed. These enterprises, together with some unfortunate investments and also, it would seem, play, stripped him of the comfortable fortune, which he had inherited; and he now found himself dependent on his own exertions for a living. He thought at first of art as a profession, and studied for a time at Paris and Rome. In 1836, while acting as Paris correspondent for the second of his journals, he _m._ Isabella, _dau._ of Colonel Shawe, an Irish officer, and the next year he returned to England and became a contributor to _Fraser's Magazine_, in which appeared _The Yellowplush Papers_, _The Great Hoggarty Diamond_, _Catherine_, and _Barry Lyndon_, the history of an Irish sharper, which contains some of his best work. Other works of this period were _The Paris Sketch-book_ (1840) and _The Irish Sketch-book_ (1843). His work in _Fraser_, while it was appreciated at its true worth by a select circle, had not brought him any very wide recognition: it was his contributions to _Punch_--the _Book of Snobs_ and _Jeames's Diary_--which first caught the ear of the wider public. The turning point in his career, however, was the publication in monthly numbers of _Vanity Fair_ (1847-48). This extraordinary work gave him at once a place beside Fielding at the head of English novelists, and left him no living competitor except Dickens. _Pendennis_, largely autobiographical, followed in 1848-50, and fully maintained his reputation. In 1851 he broke new ground, and appeared, with great success, as a lecturer, taking for his subject _The English Humourists of the Eighteenth Century_, following this up in 1855 with the _Four Georges_, first delivered in America. Meanwhile _Esmond_, perhaps his masterpiece, and probably the greatest novel of its kind in existence, had appeared in 1852, and _The Newcomes_ (1853), _The Virginians_, a sequel to _Esmond_, which, though containing much fine work, is generally considered to show a falling off as compared with its two immediate predecessors, came out in 1857-59. In 1860 the _Cornhill Magazine_ was started with T. for its ed., and to it he contributed _Lovell the Widower_ (1860), _The Adventures of Philip_ (1861-62), _The Roundabout Papers_, a series of charming essays, and _Denis Duval_, left a mere fragment by his sudden death, but which gave promise of a return to his highest level of performance. In addition to the works mentioned, T. for some years produced Christmas books and burlesques, of which the best were _The Rose and the Ring_ and _The Kickleburys on the Rhine_. He also wrote graceful verses, some of which, like _Bouillabaisse_, are in a strain of humour shot through with pathos, while others are the purest rollicking fun. For some years T. suffered from spasms of the heart, and he _d._ suddenly during the night of December 23, 1863, in his 53rd year. He was a man of the tenderest heart, and had an intense enjoyment of domestic happiness; and the interruption of this, caused by the permanent breakdown of his wife's health, was a heavy calamity. This, along with his own latterly broken health, and a sensitiveness which made him keenly alive to criticism, doubtless fostered the tendency to what was often superficially called his cynical view of life. He possessed an inimitable irony and a power of sarcasm which could scorch like lightning, but the latter is almost invariably directed against what is base and hateful. To human weakness he is lenient and often tender, and even when weakness passes into wickedness, he is just and compassionate. He saw human nature "steadily and saw it whole," and paints it with a light but sure hand. He was master of a style of great distinction and individuality, and ranks as one of the very greatest of English novelists.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1811, _ed._ at Charterhouse and Camb., after trying law turned to journalism, in which he lost his fortune, studied art at Paris and Rome, wrote for _Fraser's Magazine_ and _Punch_, _Barry Lyndon_, _Book of Snobs_, and _Jeames's Diary_, _pub._ _Vanity Fair_ 1847-8, _Pendennis_ (1848-50), lectured on _Humourists_ 1851, and on _Four Georges_ in America 1855, _pub._ _Esmond_ 1852, _Newcomes_ 1853, _Virginians_ 1857-59, ed. _Cornhill Magazine_ 1860, his last great work, _Denis Duval_, left unfinished, _d._ 1863.

_Lives_ by Merivale and Marzials (Great Writers), A. Trollope (English Men of Letters), Whibley (Modern English Writers). Article in _Dictionary of National Biography_ by Leslie Stephen.

THEOBALD, LEWIS (1688-1744).--Editor of Shakespeare, and translator, originally an attorney, betook himself to literature, translated from Plato, the Greek dramatists, and Homer, and wrote also essays, biographies, and poems. In 1715 he _pub._ _Shakespeare Restored, etc._, in which he severely criticised Pope's ed., and was in consequence rewarded with the first place in _The Dunciad_, and the adoption of most of his corrections in Pope's next ed. Though a poor poet, he was an acute and discriminating critic, made brilliant emendations on some of the classics, and produced in 1734 an ed. of Shakespeare which gave him a high place among his ed.

THIRWALL, CONNOP (1797-1875).--Historian, was _b._ at Stepney, the _s._ of a clergyman, and _ed._ at the Charterhouse and Camb. He studied law, was called to the Bar in 1825, and in the same year _pub._ a translation of Schleiermacher's _Critical Essay on the Gospel of St. Luke_. After this, having changed his mind, he took orders in 1827, and the next year translated, with Julius Hare (_q.v._), the first vol. of Niebuhr's _History of Rome_, and _pub._, also with him, _The Philological Museum_ (1831-33). He was an advocate for the admission of Dissenters to degrees, and in consequence of his action in the matter had to resign his Univ. tutorship. Thereupon Lord Brougham, then Lord Chancellor, presented him to the living of Kirkby Underdale. Between 1835 and 1847 he wrote his great _History of Greece_, which has a place among historical classics. In 1840 he was made Bishop of St. David's, in which capacity he showed unusual energy in administering his see. The eleven charges which he delivered during his tenure of the see were pronouncements of exceptional weight upon the leading questions of the time affecting the Church. As a Broad Churchman T. was regarded with suspicion by both High and Low Churchmen, and in the House of Lords generally supported liberal movements such as the admission of Jews to Parliament. He was the only Bishop who was in favour of the disestablishment of the Irish Church.

THOMS, WILLIAM JOHN (1803-1885).--Antiquary and miscellaneous writer, for many years a clerk in the secretary's office of Chelsea Hospital, was in 1845 appointed Clerk, and subsequently Deputy Librarian to the House of Lords. He was the founder in 1849 of _Notes and Queries_, which for some years he also ed. Among his publications are _Early Prose Romances_ (1827-28), _Lays and Legends_ (1834), _The Book of the Court_ (1838), _Gammer Gurton's Famous Histories_ (1846), _Gammer Gurton's Pleasant Stories_ (1848). He also _ed._ Stow's _London_, and was sec. of the Camden Society. He introduced the word "folk-lore" into the language.

THOMSON, JAMES (1700-1748).--Poet, _s._ of the minister of Ednam, Roxburghshire, spent most of his youth, however, at Southdean, a neighbouring parish, to which his _f._ was translated. He was _ed._ at the parish school there, at Jedburgh, and at Edin., whither he went with the view of studying for the ministry. The style of one of his earliest sermons having been objected to by the Prof. of Divinity as being too flowery and imaginative, he gave up his clerical views and went to London in 1725, taking with him a part of what ultimately became his poem of _Winter_. By the influence of his friend Mallet he became tutor to Lord Binning, _s._ of the Earl of Haddington, and was introduced to Pope, Arbuthnot, Gay, and others. _Winter_ was _pub._ in 1726, and was followed by _Summer_ (1727), _Spring_ (1728), and _Autumn_ (1730), when the whole were brought together as _The Seasons_. Previous to 1730 he had produced one or two minor poems and the tragedy of _Sophonisba_, which, after promising some success, was killed by the unfortunate line, "Oh! Sophonisba, Sophonisba, oh!" being parodied as "Oh! Jemmy Thomson, Jemmy Thomson, oh!" In 1731 T. accompanied Charles Talbot, _s._ of the Lord Chancellor, to the Continent, as tutor, and on his return received the sinecure Secretaryship of Briefs which, however, he lost in 1737, through omitting to apply for its continuance to Talbot's successor. He then returned to the drama and produced _Agamemnon_ in 1738, and _Edward and Eleanora_ in 1739. The same year he received from the Prince of Wales a pension of £100, and was made Surveyor-General of the Leeward Islands which, after providing for a deputy to discharge the duties, left him £300 a year. He was now in comfortable circumstances and settled in a villa near Richmond, where he amused himself with gardening and seeing his friends. In conjunction with Mallet he wrote, in 1740, the masque of _Alfred_, in which appeared _Rule Britannia_, which M. afterwards claimed, or allowed to be claimed, for him, but which there is every reason to believe was contributed by T. In 1745 appeared _Tancred and Sigismunda_, the most successful of his dramas, and in 1748 _Coriolanus_. In May of the latter year he _pub._ _The Castle of Indolence_, an allegorical poem in the Spenserian stanza, generally considered to be his masterpiece. In August following he caught a chill which developed into a fever, and carried him off in his 48th year. Though T. was undoubtedly a poet by nature, his art was developed by constant and fastidious polishing. To _The Seasons_, originally containing about 4000 lines, he added about 1400 in his various revisions. He was the first to give the description of nature the leading place, and in his treatment of his theme he showed much judgment in the selection of the details to be dwelt upon. His blank verse, though not equal to that of a few other English poets, is musical and wielded in a manner suitable to his subject. In all his poems he displays the genial temper and kindly sympathies by which he was characterised as a man. He was never _m._, and lived an easy, indolent life, beloved by his many friends. (_See also_ Lyttelton, Lord)

THOMSON, JAMES (1834-1882).--Poet, _b._ at Port Glasgow and brought up in the Royal Caledonian Asylum, was for some years an army teacher, but was dismissed for a breach of discipline. He became associated with Charles Bradlaugh, the free-thought protagonist, who introduced him to the conductors of various secularist publications. His best known poem is _The City of Dreadful Night_, deeply pessimistic. Others are _Vane's Story_ and _Weddah and Omel-Bonain_. His views resulted in depression, which led to dipsomania, and he _d._ in poverty and misery. His work has a certain gloomy power which renders it distinctly noteworthy.

THOREAU, HENRY DAVID (1817-1862).--Essayist, poet, and naturalist, was _b._ at Concord, Massachusetts. His _f._, of French extraction, from Jersey, was a manufacturer of lead-pencils. He was _ed._ at Harvard, where he became a good classical scholar. Subsequently he was a competent Orientalist, and was deeply versed in the history and manners of the Red Indians. No form of regular remunerative employment commending itself to him, he spent the 10 years after leaving coll. in the study of books and nature, for the latter of which he had exceptional qualifications in the acuteness of his senses and his powers of observation. Though not a misanthropist, he appears in general to have preferred solitary communion with nature to human society. "The man I meet," he said, "is seldom so instructive as the silence which he breaks;" and he described himself as "a mystic, a transcendentalist, and a natural philosopher." He made such money as his extremely simple mode of life called for, by building boats or fences, agricultural or garden work, and surveying, anything almost of an outdoor character which did not involve lengthened engagement. In 1837 he began his diaries, records of observation with which in ten years he filled 30 vols. In 1839 he made the excursion the record of which he in 1845 _pub._ as _A Week on the Concord and Merrimac Rivers_. Two years later, in 1841, he began a residence in the household of Emerson, which lasted for two years, when he assisted in conducting the _Dial_, and in 1845, after some teaching in New York, he retired to a hut near the solitary Walden Pond to write his _Week on the Concord_, etc. Later works were _Walden_ (1854), and _The Maine Woods_ (1864), and _Cape Cod_ (1865), accounts of excursions and observations, both _pub._ after his death. T. was an enthusiast in the anti-slavery cause, the triumph of which, however, he did not live to see, as he _d._ on May 6, 1862, when the war was still in its earlier stages. The deliberate aim of T. was to live a life as nearly approaching naturalness as possible; and to this end he passed his time largely in solitude and in the open air. As he says, "I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life, and see if I could not learn what it had to teach." To his great powers of observation he added great powers of reflection, and two of the most characteristic features of his writings are immediateness and individuality in his descriptions of nature, and a remarkable power of giving permanent and clear form to the most subtle and evanescent mental impressions.

TICKELL, THOMAS (1686-1740).--Poet, _b._ at Bridekirk Vicarage, Cumberland, and _ed._ at Oxf. became the friend of Joseph Addison (_q.v._), contributed to the _Spectator_ and _Guardian_, and accompanied him when he went to Ireland as sec. to the Lord Lieutenant. His translation of the first book of the _Iliad_ came out at the same time as Pope's, and led to a quarrel between the latter and Addison, Pope imagining that the publication was a plot to interfere with the success of his work. On Addison becoming Sec. of State in 1717 he appointed T. Under-Sec. Among the writings of T. are the well-known ballad, _Colin and Lucy_, _Kensington Gardens_, a poem, and an _Elegy_ on the death of Addison, of which Macaulay says that it "would do honour to the greatest name in our literature." In 1725 he became sec. to the Lords Justices of Ireland, and retained the post until his death.

TICKNOR, GEORGE (1791-1871).--Historian and biographer, _s._ of a rich man, was _b._ at Boston, Mass., and _ed._ for the law. He, however, gave himself to study and writing, and also travelled much. After being a Prof. at Harvard, 1819-35, he went in the latter year to Europe, where he spent some years collecting materials for his _magnum opus_, _The History of Spanish Literature_ (1849). He also wrote Lives of Lafayette and Prescott, the historian. His _Letters and Journals_ were _pub._ in 1876, and are the most interesting of his writings.

TIGHE, MARY (BLACKFORD) (1772-1810).--Poet, _dau._ of a clergyman, made an unhappy marriage, though she had beauty and amiable manners, and was highly popular in society. She wrote a good deal of verse; but her chief poem was a translation in Spenserian stanza of the tale of _Cupid and Psyche_, which won the admiration of such men as Sir J. Mackintosh, Moore, and Keats.

TILLOTSON, JOHN (1630-1694).--Divine, _s._ of a Presbyterian clothier, was _b._ near Halifax, and _ed._ at Camb., where his originally Puritan views became somewhat modified. At the Savoy Conference in 1661 he was still a Presbyterian, but submitted to the Act of Uniformity, and became next year Rector of Keddington, and in 1664 preacher at Lincoln's Inn, where he became very popular. In 1672 he was made Dean of Canterbury. He vainly endeavoured to secure the comprehension of the Nonconformists in the Church. After the Revolution he gained the favour of William III., who made him Clerk of the Closet, and Dean of St. Paul's, and in 1691 he succeeded Sancroft as Archbishop of Canterbury. His sermons, which had extraordinary popularity, give him a place in literature, and he was one of those writers who, by greater simplicity and greater attention to clearness of construction, helped to introduce the modern style of composition.

TIMROD, HENRY (1829-1867).--Poet, _b._ at Charleston, S. Carolina, of German descent, was ruined by the Civil War, and _d._ in poverty. He wrote one vol. of poems, _pub._ 1860, which attained wide popularity in the South. He had notable descriptive power.

TOBIN, JOHN (1770-1804).--Dramatist, was for long unsuccessful, but in the year of his death made a hit with _The Honey Moon_, which had great success, and maintained its place for many years. Other plays were _The Curfew_ and _The School for Authors_.

TOLAND, JOHN (1670?-1722).--Deistical writer, _b._ in Ireland of Roman Catholic parentage, completed his education at Glasgow, Edin., and Leyden. Very early in life he had become a Protestant, and at Leyden he studied theology with the view of becoming a Nonconformist minister, but imbibed Rationalistic views. He then resided for some time at Oxf., and in 1696 _pub._ his first work, _Christianity not Mysterious_, which was censured by Convocation and gave rise to much controversy. Next year he returned to Ireland, where, however, he was not more popular than in England, and where his book was burned by the common hangman. Returning to England he took to writing political pamphlets, including one, _Anglia Libera_, in support of the Brunswick succession, which gained him some favour at Hanover, and he was sent on some political business to the German Courts. He then served Harley in Holland and Germany practically as a political spy. His later years were passed in literary drudgery and poverty. Among his numerous writings may be mentioned _Account of Prussia and Hanover_, _Origines Judaicæ_, _History of the Druids_, and a Life of Milton prefixed to an ed. of his prose works.

TOOKE, JOHN HORNE (1736-1812).--Philologist, _s._ of a poulterer called Horne, added the name of Tooke in 1782 in anticipation of inheriting from his friend W. Tooke, of Purley. He was at Camb. and took orders, but disliking the clerical profession, travelled abroad. Returning he became prominent as a radical politician, and espoused the cause of Wilkes, with whom, however, he afterwards quarrelled. He also supported the revolted American colonists, and was fined and imprisoned for endeavouring to raise a subscription for them. An effort to be admitted to the Bar was unsuccessful; and in 1786 he published his _Diversions of Purley_, a work on philology which brought him great reputation, and which, containing muck that has been proved to be erroneous, showed great learning and acuteness. T. twice endeavoured unsuccessfully to enter Parliament for Westminster, but ultimately sat for the rotten burgh of Old Sarum, making, however, no mark in the House. He was the author of numerous effective political pamphlets.

TOPLADY, AUGUSTUS MONTAGUE (1740-1778).--Hymn-writer, _s._ of an officer in the army, was _b._ at Farnham, _ed._ at Westminster and Trinity Coll., Dublin, after which he took orders and became incumbent of Broad Hembury. He was a strong Calvinist and entered into a bitter controversy with Wesley. His controversial works are forgotten; but he will always be remembered as the author of "Rock of Ages," perhaps the most widely known of English hymns.

TOURNEUR, or TURNER, CYRIL (1575?-1626).--Dramatist, perhaps _s._ of Richard T., Lieutenant of the Brill, served in the Low Countries, and was sec. to Sir Edward Cecil in his unsuccessful expedition to Cadiz, returning from which he was disembarked with the sick at Kinsale, where he _d._ He wrote two dramas, _The Revenger's Tragedy_ (_pr._ 1607), and _The Atheist's Tragedy_ (_pr._ 1611), in both of which, especially the former, every kind of guilt and horror is piled up, the author displaying, however, great intensity of tragic power. Of _The Revenger_ Lamb said that it made his ears tingle. Another play of his, _Transformed Metamorphosis_, was discovered in 1872.

TRAHERNE, THOMAS (1636?-1674).--Poet and theological writer, _s._ of a shoemaker at Hereford where, or at Ledbury, he was probably _b._ Very few facts concerning him have been preserved, and indeed his very existence had been forgotten until some of his MS. were discovered on a bookstall in 1896, without, however, anything to identify the author. Their discoverer, Mr. W.T. Brooke, was inclined to attribute them to Henry Vaughan (_q.v._), in which he was supported by Dr. Grosart (_q.v._), and the latter was about to bring out a new ed. of Vaughan's poems in which they were to be included. This was, however, prevented by his death. The credit of identification is due to Mr. Bertram Dobell, who had become the possessor of another vol. of MS., and who rejecting, after due consideration, the claims of Vaughan, followed up the very slender clues available until he had established the authorship of Traherne. All the facts that his diligent investigations were successful in collecting were that T. was "entered as a commoner at Brasenose Coll., Oxf., in 1652, took one degree in arts, left the house for a time, entered into the sacred function, and in 1661 was actually created M.A. About that time he became Rector of Crednell, near Hereford ... and in 1669 Bachelor of Divinity;" and that after remaining there for over 9 years he was appointed private chaplain to the Lord Keeper, Sir Orlando Bridgeman, who on his retirement from office retained him as a member of his household at Teddington until his death in 1674, T. himself dying three months later. T. also appears to have been incumbent of Teddington, or perhaps more probably, curate to a pluralist incumbent. The complete oblivion into which T. had fallen is the more remarkable when the quality of his poetry, which places him on a level with Herbert, Vaughan, and Crashaw, is considered; and that he appears in his own day to have had some reputation as a scholar and controversialist. His _Roman Forgeries_ (1673) achieved some note. His next work, _Christian Ethics_, which was not _pub._ until after his death, appears to have fallen dead, and is extremely rare: it is described by Mr. Dobell as "full of eloquence, persuasiveness, sagacity, and piety." _Centuries of Meditations_ consists of short reflections on religious and moral subjects, etc. The _Poems_ constitute his main claim to remembrance and, as already stated, are of a high order. With occasional roughness of metre they display powerful imagination, a deep and rich vein of original thought, and true poetic force and fire. It has been pointed out that in some of them the author anticipates the essential doctrines of the Berkeleian philosophy, and in them is also revealed a personality of rare purity and fascination.

TRELAWNY, EDWARD JOHN (1792-1881).--Biographer, entered the navy, from which, however, he deserted, after which he wandered about in the East and on the Continent. In Switzerland he met Byron and Shelley, and was living in close friendship with the latter when he was drowned, and was one of the witnesses at the cremation of his remains. He took part in the Greek war of independence, and _m._ the sister of one of the insurgent chiefs. After various adventures in America he settled in London, where he was a distinguished figure in society, and enjoyed the reputation of a picturesque, but somewhat imaginative, conversationalist. He wrote _The Adventures of a Younger Son_ (1831), a work of striking distinction, and the intensely interesting _Records of Shelley, Byron, and the Author_ (1858). The last survivor of that brilliant group, he was buried by the side of Shelley.

TRENCH, RICHARD CHENEVIX (1807-1886).--Poet and theologian, _b._ in Dublin, and _ed._ at Harrow and Camb., took orders, and after serving various country parishes, became in 1847 Prof. of Theology in King's Coll., London, in 1856 Dean of Westminster, and in 1864 Archbishop of Dublin. As Primate of the Irish Church at its disestablishment, he rendered valuable service at that time of trial. In theology his best known works are his _Hulsean Lectures_, _Notes on the Parables_, and _Notes on the Miracles_. His philological writings, _English Past and Present_ and _Select Glossary of English Words_ are extremely interesting and suggestive, though now to some extent superseded. His _Sacred Latin Poetry_ is a valuable collection of mediæval Church hymns. He also wrote sonnets, elegies, and lyrics, in the first of which he was specially successful, besides longer poems, _Justin Martyr_ and _Sabbation_.

TREVISA, JOHN of (1326-1412).--Translator, a Cornishman, _ed._ at Oxf., was Vicar of Berkeley, Gloucestershire, and chaplain to the 4th Lord Berkeley, and Canon of Westbury. He translated for his patron the _Polychronicon_ of Ranulf Higden, adding remarks of his own, and prefacing it with a _Dialogue on Translation between a Lord and a Clerk_. He likewise made various other translations.

TROLLOPE, ANTHONY (1815-1882).--Novelist, _s._ of Thomas Anthony T., a barrister who ruined himself by speculation, and of Frances T. (_q.v._), a well-known writer, was _b._ in London, and _ed._ at Harrow and Winchester. His childhood was an unhappy one, owing to his father's misfortunes. After a short time in Belgium he obtained an appointment in the Post Office, in which he rose to a responsible position. His first three novels had little success; but in 1855 he found his line, and in _The Warden_ produced the first of his Barsetshire series. It was followed by _Barchester Towers_ (1857), _Doctor Thorne_ (1858), _Framley Parsonage_ (1861), _The Small House at Allington_ (1864), and _The Last Chronicle of Barset_ (1867), which deal with the society of a small cathedral city. Other novels are _Orley Farm_, _Can you forgive Her?_, _Ralph the Heir_, _The Claverings_, _Phineas Finn_, _He knew he was Right_, and _The Golden Lion of Grandpré_. In all he wrote about 50 novels, besides books about the West Indies, North America, Australia, and South Africa, a translation of _Cæsar_, and monographs on Cicero and Thackeray. His novels are light of touch, pleasant, amusing, and thoroughly healthy. They make no attempt to sound the depths of character or either to propound or solve problems. Outside of fiction his work was generally superficial and unsatisfactory. But he had the merit of providing a whole generation with wholesome amusement, and enjoyed a great deal of popularity. He is said to have received £70,000 for his writings.

TROLLOPE, MRS. FRANCES (MILTON) (1780-1863).--Novelist and miscellaneous writer, _b._ at Stapleton near Bristol, _m._ in 1809 Thomas A.T., a barrister, who fell into financial misfortune. She then in 1827 went with her family to Cincinnati, where the efforts which she made to support herself were unsuccessful. On her return to England, however, she brought herself into notice by publishing _Domestic Manners of the Americans_ (1832), in which she gave a very unfavourable and grossly exaggerated account of the subject; and a novel, _The Refugee in America_, pursued it on similar lines. Next came _The Abbess_ and _Belgium and Western Germany_, and other works of the same kind on _Paris and the Parisians_, and _Vienna and the Austrians_ followed. Thereafter she continued to pour forth novels and books on miscellaneous subjects, writing in all over 100 vols. Though possessed of considerable powers of observation and a sharp and caustic wit, such an output was fatal to permanent literary success, and none of her books are now read. She spent the last 20 years of her life at Florence, where she _d._ in 1863. Her third _s._ was Anthony T., the well-known novelist (_q.v._). Her eldest _s._, Thomas Adolphus, wrote _The Girlhood of Catherine de Medici_, a _History of Florence_, and _Life of Pius IX._, and some novels.

TRUMBULL, JOHN (1750-1831).--Poet, _b._ at Waterbury, Conn., was a lawyer, and became a judge. He wrote much verse, his principal productions being _The Progress of Dulness_ (1772) and _McFingal_ (1782), written in support of the Revolution in imitation of _Hudibras_.

TUCKER, ABRAHAM (1705-1774).--Philosophic writer, _b._ in London, and _ed._ at Oxf., was a country gentleman, who devoted himself to the study of philosophy, and wrote under the name of Edward Search, a work in 7 vols., _The Light of Nature Followed_ (1768-78). It is rather a miscellany than a systematic treatise, but contains much original and acute thinking.

TUCKER, GEORGE (1775-1861).--Economist, etc., _b._ in Bermuda, became Prof., of Moral Philosophy, etc., in the Univ. of Virginia. He wrote a _Life of Jefferson_, _Political History of the United States_, _Essays Moral and Philosophical_, _The Valley of the Shenandoah_, a novel, _A Voyage to the Moon_ (satire), and various works on economics.

TUCKER, NATHANIEL BEVERLY (1784-1851).--_B._ in Virginia, became a Prof., of Law in William and Mary Coll. He wrote a novel, _The Partisan Leader_ (1836), a prophecy of the future disunion which led to the Civil War. It was _re-pub._ in 1861 as _A Key to the Southern Conspiracy_. Another novel was _George Balcombe_.

TUCKERMAN, HENRY THEODORE (1813-1871).--Essayist, etc., _b._ in Boston, Mass. He was a sympathetic and delicate critic, with a graceful style. He lived much in Italy, which influenced his choice of subjects in his earlier writings. These include _The Italian Sketch-book_, _Isabel, or Sicily_, _Thoughts on the Poets_, _The Book of the Artists_, _Leaves from the Diary of a Dreamer_, etc.

TULLOCH, JOHN (1823-1886).--Theologian and historical writer, _b._ at Bridge of Earn, Perthshire, studied at St. Andrews and Edin. He was ordained to the ministry of the Church of Scotland at Dundee, whence he was translated to Kettins, Forfarshire, and became in 1854 Principal and Prof. of Theology in St. Mary's Coll., St. Andrews. He was a leader of the liberal party in the Church of Scotland, and wrote _Literary and Intellectual Revival of Scotland in the Eighteenth Century_ (1883), _Movements of Religious Thought in the Nineteenth Century_ (1884-85), _Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy in England in the Seventeenth Century_, and a book on Pascal, etc.

TUPPER, MARTIN FARQUHAR (1810-1889).--Versifier, _s._ of a surgeon, was _b._ in London, _ed._ at Charterhouse School and Oxf., and called to the Bar in 1835. He, however, believed that literature was his vocation, and wrote many works in prose and verse, only one of which, _Proverbial Philosophy_, had much success. But the vogue which it had was enormous, especially in America. It is a singular collection of commonplace observations set forth in a form which bears the appearance of verse, but has neither rhyme nor metre, and has long since found its deserved level. He also wrote _War Ballads_, _Rifle Ballads_, and _Protestant Ballads_, various novels, and an autobiography. T. was likewise an inventor, but his ideas in this kind had not much success.

TURBERVILLE, or TURBERVILE, GEORGE (1540?-1610).--Poet, belonging to an ancient Dorsetshire family, was _b._ at Whitchurch, and _ed._ at Winchester and Oxf. He became sec. to Thomas Randolph, Ambassador to Russia, and made translations from the Latin and Italian, and in 1570 _pub._ _Epitaphes, Epigrams, Songs, and Sonets_. He also wrote books on _Falconrie_ and _Hunting_, and was one of the first to use blank verse.

TURNER, SHARON (1768-1847).--Historian, _b._ in London, was a solicitor, and becoming interested in the study of Icelandic and Anglo-Saxon literature, _pub._ the results of his researches in his _History of the Anglo-Saxons_ (1799-1805). Thereafter he continued the narrative in _History of England_ (1814-29), carrying it on to the end of the reign of Elizabeth. These histories, especially the former, though somewhat marred by an attempt to emulate the grandiose style of Gibbon, were works of real research, and opened up, and to a considerable extent developed, a new field of inquiry. T. also wrote a _Sacred History of the World_, and a poem on Richard III.

TUSSER, THOMAS (1524?-1580).--Versifier on agriculture, was an Essex man. Having a good voice he was trained in music, and was a chorister in St. Paul's, and afterwards in Norwich Cathedral, and held the post of musician to Lord Paget. He tried farming at different places, but unsuccessfully, which did not, however, prevent his undertaking to instruct others. This he does with much shrewdness and point in his _Hundreth Goode Pointes of Husbandrie_ (1557), expressed in rude but lively verse; thereafter he added _Hundreth Goode Pointes of Husserie_ (Housewifery). The two joined, and with many additions, were repeatedly reprinted as _Five Hundredth Pointes of Goode Husbandrie united to as many of Goode Huswifery_. Many proverbs may be traced back to the writings of T., who, in spite of all his shrewdness and talent, _d._ in prison as a debtor.

TYNDALE, WILLIAM (1484?-1536).--Translator of the Bible, belonged to a northern family which, migrating to Gloucestershire during the Wars of the Roses, adopted the alternative name of Huchyns or Hychins, which T. himself bore when at Oxf. in 1510. After graduating there, he went to Camb., where the influence of Erasmus, who had been Prof. of Theology, still operated. He took orders, and in 1522 was a tutor in the household of Sir John Walsh of Old Sodbury, and was preaching and disputing in the country round, for which he was called to account by the Chancellor of the diocese. At the same time he translated a treatise by Erasmus, the _Enchiridion Militis Christiani_ (Manual of the Christian Soldier), and in controversy with a local disputant prophesied that he would cause that "a boye that driveth the plough" should know the Scriptures better than his opponent. Having formed the purpose of translating the New Testament T. went in 1523 to London, and used means towards his admission to the household of Tunstal, Bishop of London, but without success; he then lived in the house of a wealthy draper, Humphrey Monmouth, where he probably began his translation. Finding, however, that his work was likely to be interfered with, he proceeded in 1524 to Hamburg, whence he went to visit Luther at Wittenberg. He began printing his translation at Cologne the following year, but had to fly to Worms, where the work was completed. The translation itself is entirely T.'s work, and is that of a thorough scholar, and shows likewise an ear for the harmony of words. The notes and introduction are partly his own, partly literal translations, and partly the gist of the work of Luther. From Germany the translation was introduced into England, and largely circulated until forcible means of prevention were brought to bear in 1528. In this year T. removed to Marburg, where he _pub._ _The Parable of the Wicked Mammon_, a treatise on Justification by Faith, and _The Obedience of a Christian Man_, setting forth that Scripture is the ultimate authority in matters of faith, and the King in matters of civil government. Thereafter, having been at Hamburg and Antwerp, T. returned to Marburg, and in 1530 _pub._ his translation of the _Pentateuch_ and _The Practice of Prelates_, in which he attacked Wolsey and the proposed divorce proceedings of Henry VIII., the latter of whom endeavoured to have him apprehended. Thereafter he was involved in a controversy with Sir Thomas More. In 1533 he returned to Antwerp, Henry's hostility having somewhat cooled, and was occupied in revising his translations, when he was in 1535 betrayed into the hands of the Imperial officers and carried off to the Castle of Vilvorde, where the next year he was strangled and burned. T. was one of the most able and devoted of the reforming leaders, and his, the foundation of all future translations of the Bible, is his enduring monument. He was a small, thin man of abstemious habits and untiring industry.

TYNDALL, JOHN (1820-1893).--Scientific writer, _b._ at Leighlin Bridge, County Carlow, was in early life employed in the ordnance survey and as a railway engineer. He was next teacher of mathematics and surveying at Queenwood Coll., Hampshire, after which he went to Marburg to study science, and while there became joint author of a memoir _On the Magneto-optic Properties of Crystals_ (1850). After being at Berlin he returned in 1851 to Queenwood, and in 1853 was appointed Prof. of Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution, which in 1867 he succeeded Faraday as Superintendent. With Huxley (_q.v._) he made investigations into the Alpine glaciers. Thereafter he did much original work on heat, sound, and light. In addition to his discoveries T. was one of the greatest popularisers of science. His style, remarkable for lucidity and elegance, enabled him to expound such subjects with the minimum of technical terminology. Among his works are _The Glaciers of the Alps_ (1860), _Mountaineering_ (1861), _Fragments of Science_, two vols. (1871), including his address to the British Association at Belfast, which raised a storm of controversy and protest in various quarters, _Hours of Exercise on the Alps_, etc. T. _d._ from an overdose of chloral accidentally administered by his wife.

TYTLER, ALEXANDER FRASER (1747-1813).--Historian, _s._ of William T. (_q.v._), studied at Edin., was called to the Bar in 1770 and raised to the Bench as Lord Woodhouselee in 1802. He was Prof. of History in Edin., and wrote _Elements of General History_ (1801), _An Essay on the Principles of Translation_ (1791), besides various legal treatises.

TYTLER, PATRICK FRASER (1791-1849).--Historian, _s._ of the above, studied at Edin., and was called to the Bar in 1813. Among his many writings are an _Essay on the History of the Moors in Spain_, _The Life of the Admirable Crichton_ (1819), _History of Scotland_ (1828-43), and _England under the Reigns of Edward VI. and Mary_ (1839). His _History of Scotland_, which was the result of 20 years of study and research, is still authoritative.

TYTLER, WILLIAM (1711-1792).--Historical writer, was a lawyer in Edin., and wrote _An Inquiry into the Evidence against Mary Queen of Scots_, in which he combated the views of Robertson. He discovered the _King's Quhair_ of James I., and _pub._ in 1783 _The Poetical Remains of James I., King of Scotland_, with a Life.

UDALL, NICOLAS (1505-1556).--Dramatist and scholar, _b._ in Hampshire, and _ed._ at Oxf. In 1534 he became headmaster of Eton, from which he was dismissed for misconduct, 1541. In 1537 he became Vicar of Braintree, in 1551 of Calborne, Isle of Wight, and in 1554 headmaster of Westminster School. He translated part of the _Apophthegms_ of Erasmus, and assisted in making the English version of his _Paraphrase of the New Testament_. Other translations were Peter Martyr's _Discourse on the Eucharist_ and Thomas Gemini's _Anatomia_, but he is best remembered by _Ralph Roister Doister_ (1553?), the first English comedy, a rude but lively piece.

UNDERDOWN, THOMAS (_fl._ 1566-1587).--Translator. He translated the _Æthiopian History_ of Heliodorus 1566; also from Ovid.

UNDERWOOD, FRANCIS HENRY (1825-1894).--Critic and biographer, _b._ in Massachusetts, was American Consul at Glasgow and Leith. He wrote _Hand-books of English Literature_, _Builders of American Literature_, etc., some novels, _Lord of Himself_, _Man Proposes_, and _Dr. Gray's Quest_, and biographies of Lowell, Longfellow, and Whittier.

URQUHART, SIR THOMAS (1611-1660).--Eccentric writer and translator, was _ed._ at King's Coll., Aberdeen, after leaving which he travelled in France, Spain, and Italy. He was bitterly opposed to the Covenanters, and fought against them at Turriff in 1639. His later life was passed between Scotland, England (where he was for some time a prisoner in the Tower), and the Continent, where he lived, 1642-45. A man of considerable ability and learning, his vanity and eccentricity verged upon insanity, and he is said to have _d._ from the effects of an uncontrollable fit of joyful laughter on hearing news of the Restoration. Among his extravagances was a genealogy of his family traced through his _f._ to Adam, and through his mother to Eve, he himself being the 153rd in descent. He _pub._ _Trissotetras_, a work on trigonometry (1645), an invective against the Presbyterians (1652), a scheme for a universal language, _Logopandecteision_ (1653), and a partial translation of Rabelais (1653), a further portion being _pub._ in 1693. In the last he was assisted by Peter Anthony Motteux, a Frenchman who had established himself in England, who continued the work.

USK, THOMAS (_d._ 1388).--Poet, _b._ in London, was sec. to John of Northampton, the Wyclifite Lord Mayor of London, whom he betrayed to save himself, in which, however, he failed, being executed in 1388. During his imprisonment, which lasted from 1384 until his death, he composed _The Testament of Love_, a didactic poem long attributed to Chaucer.

USSHER, JAMES (1581-1656).--Divine and scholar, _b._ in Dublin, the _s._ of a lawyer there, and _ed._ at Trinity Coll., took orders, and became Chancellor of St. Patrick's, Dublin, 1605, and Prof. of Divinity, 1607-21. On the Irish clergy, in 1715, deciding to assert themselves as an independent church, U. had the main hand in drawing up the constitution, certain features of which led to the suspicion of his being in favour of Puritanism. To defend himself he went in 1619 to England, and had a conference with the King (James I.), in which he so completely succeeded that he was in 1621 made Bishop of Meath, and four years later Archbishop of Armagh. He constantly used his influence in favour of reform, and endeavoured to introduce such modifications of Episcopacy as would conciliate and comprehend the Presbyterians. During the troubles which led to the Civil War U. maintained the unlawfulness of taking up arms against the King. The Rebellion in Ireland in 1641 drove him away, and he settled first at Oxf., but ultimately at the house of Lady Peterborough at Reigate, where he _d._ in 1656. His works dealt chiefly with ecclesiastical antiquities and chronology, his _magnum opus_ being _Annales_, a chronology of the world from the creation to the dispersion of the Jews in the reign of Vespasian, a work which gained him great reputation on the Continent as well as at home. The date of the creation was fixed as 4004 B.C., which was long universally received. It has, of course, been altogether superseded, alike by the discovery of ancient records, and by geology.

VANBRUGH, SIR JOHN (1664-1726).--Dramatist and architect, _b._ in London of Flemish descent, was in France from 1683 to 1685, studying architecture, for which he had early shown a taste. The next year he got a commission in the army, and in 1690 he was a prisoner first at Vincennes and then in the Bastille. In 1696 he began his dramatic career with _The Relapse_, which had great success. _Æsop_ followed in 1697, and _The Provoked Wife_ in the same year. The latter was severely handled by Jeremy Collier (_q.v._) in his _Short View_, etc., which produced a vindication by the author. In addition to these he wrote or collaborated in various other plays. His leading features as a dramatist are the naturalness of his dialogue and his lively humour. Like all his contemporaries he is frequently extremely gross. He obtained great fame as an architect, as well as a dramatist. Among his most famous designs are Castle Howard, Blenheim Palace, and Dalkeith Palace. He was knighted by George I., was controller of the Royal works, and succeeded Wren as architect to Greenwich Hospital. In addition to the plays above mentioned V. wrote _The Confederacy_ and _The Country House_. He was a handsome and jovial person, and highly popular in society.

VAUGHAN, HENRY (1622-1695).--Poet, _b._ in the parish of Llansaintffraed, Brecknock, and as a native of the land of the ancient Silures, called himself "Silurist." He was at Jesus Coll., Oxf., studied law in London, but finally settled as a physician at Brecon and Newton-by-Usk. In his youth he was a decided Royalist and, along with his twin brother Thomas, was imprisoned. His first book was _Poems, with the Tenth Satire of Juvenal Englished_. It appeared in 1646. _Olor Iscanus_ (the Swan of Usk), a collection of poems and translations, was surreptitiously _pub._ in 1651. About this time he had a serious illness which led to deep spiritual impressions, and thereafter his writings were almost entirely religious. _Silex Scintillans_ (Sparks from the Flint), his best known work, consists of short poems full of deep religious feeling, fine fancy, and exquisite felicities of expression, mixed with a good deal that is quaint and artificial. It contains "The Retreat," a poem of about 30 lines which manifestly suggested to Wordsworth his _Ode on the Intimations of Immortality_, and "Beyond the Veil," one of the finest meditative poems in the language. _Flores Solitudinis_ (Flowers of Solitude) and _The Mount of Olives_ are devout meditations in prose. The two brothers were joint authors of _Thalia Rediviva: the Pastimes and Diversions of a Country Muse_ (1678), a collection of translations and original poems.

VAUGHAN, ROBERT (1795-1868).--A minister of the Congregationalist communion, Prof. of History in London Univ., 1830-43, and Pres. of the Independent Coll., Manchester, 1843-57. He founded, and for a time ed. the _British Quarterly_. He wrote, among various other works, _A History of England under the Stuarts_, _Revolutions of History_, and a Life of Wycliffe.

VEITCH, JOHN (1829-1894).--Philosophic and miscellaneous writer, _b._ at Peebles, _ed._ at Univ. and New Coll., Edin., was assistant to Sir Wm. Hamilton (_q.v._), 1856-60, Prof. of Logic at St. Andrews, 1860-64, and Glasgow, 1864-94. He was a voluminous and accomplished writer, his works including Lives of _Dugald Stewart_ (1857) and _Sir W. Hamilton_ (1869), _Tweed and other Poems_ (1875), _History and Poetry of the Scottish Border_ (1877), _Feeling for Nature in Scottish Poetry_ (1887), _Merlin and other Poems_ (1889), _Border Essays_ (1896), and _Dualism and Monism_ (1895).

VERY, JONES (1813-1880).--Essayist and poet, _b._ at Salem, Mass., where he became a clergyman and something of a mystic. He _pub._ one small volume, _Essays and Poems_, the latter chiefly in the form of the Shakespearian sonnet. Though never widely popular, he appealed by his refined, still thoughtfulness to a certain small circle of minds.

WACE (_fl._ 1170).--Chronicler, _b._ in Jersey, and _ed._ at Caen, was influenced by the Chronicle of Geoffrey of Monmouth (_q.v._), and based upon it a French metrical romance, _Brut_. Later, at the command of Henry II., he rewrote with additions a chronicle of the life of William the Conqueror and entitled it _Roman de Rou_.

WADE, THOMAS (1805-1875).--Poet, _b._ at Woodbridge, _pub._ poems, dramas, sonnets, and a translation of Dante's _Inferno_. Among his writings are _Tasso and the Sisters_ (1825), _Mundi et Cordis Carmina_ (1835); _Duke Andrea_ (1828), and _The Jew of Arragon_ (1830), both tragedies, and the _Phrenologists_ (1830), a farce.

WAKEFIELD, GILBERT (1756-1801).--Scholar and controversialist, _b._ at Nottingham, _ed._ at Camb., took orders, but becoming a Unitarian renounced them and acted as classical tutor in various Unitarian academies. He was a strong defender of the French Revolution, and was imprisoned for two years for writing a seditious pamphlet. He _pub._ ed. of various classical writers, and among his theological writings are _Early Christian Writers on the Person of Christ_ (1784), _An Examination of Paine's Age of Reason_ (1794), and _Silva Critica_ (1789-95), illustrations of the Scriptures.

WALLACE, LEWIS (1827-1905).--Novelist, _b._ at Brookville, Indiana, served with distinction in the Mexican and Civil Wars, and rose to the rank of General. He was also a politician of some note, and was Governor of Utah and Minister to Turkey. His novel, _Ben Hur_ (1880), dealing with the times of Christ, had great popularity, and was followed by _The Fair God_, _The Prince of India_, and other novels, and by a work on the _Boyhood of Christ_.

WALLER, EDMUND (1606-1687).--Poet, _b._ at Coleshill, Herts, and _ed._ at Eton and Camb., belonged to an old and wealthy family, and in early childhood inherited the estate of Beaconsfield, Bucks, worth £3500 a year. He was related to John Hampden, and was distantly connected with Oliver Cromwell, his own family, however, being staunch Royalists. He studied law at Lincoln's Inn, and at the age of 16 became a member of Parliament, in which he sat for various constituencies for the greater part of his life, and in which his wit and vivacity, as well as his powers of adapting his principles to the times, enabled him to take a prominent part. In 1631 he added to his fortune by marrying Anne Banks, a London heiress, who _d._ in 1634, and he then paid assiduous but unsuccessful court to Lady Dorothea Sidney, to whom, under the name of Sacharissa, he addressed much of his best poetry. Though probably really a Royalist in his sympathies, W. supported the popular cause in Parliament, and in 1641 conducted the case against Sir Francis Crawley for his opinion in favour of the legality of ship-money. His speech, which was printed, had an enormous circulation and brought him great fame. Two years later, however, he was detected in a plot for seizing London for the King, was expelled from the House, fined £10,000, and banished. On this occasion he showed cowardice and treachery, humiliating himself in the most abject manner, and betraying all his associates. He went to the Continent, living chiefly in France and Switzerland, and showing hospitality to Royalist exiles. Returning by permission in 1652 he addressed some laudatory verses, among the best he wrote, to Cromwell, on whose death nevertheless he wrote a new poem entitled, _On the Death of the late Usurper, O.C._ On the Restoration the accommodating poet was ready with a congratulatory address to Charles II., who, pointing out its inferiority as a poem to that addressed to Cromwell, elicited the famous reply, "Poets, Sire, succeed better in fiction than in truth." The poem, however, whatever its demerits, succeeded in its prime object, and the poet became a favourite at Court, and sat in Parliament until his death. In addition to his lighter pieces, on which his fame chiefly rests, W. wrote an epic, _The Summer Islands_ (Bermudas), and a sacred poem, _Divine Love_. His short poems, such as "On a Girdle," often show fancy and grace of expression, but are frequently frigid and artificial, and exhibit absolute indifference to the charms of Nature. As a man, though agreeable and witty, he was time-serving, selfish, and cowardly. Clarendon has left a very unflattering "character" of him. He _m._ a second time and had five sons and eight daughters.

WALLER, JOHN FRANCIS (1810-1894).--Poet, _b._ at Limerick, and _ed._ at Trinity Coll., Dublin, became a contributor to and ultimately ed. of the _Dublin University Magazine_, usually writing under the pseudonym of "Jonathan Freke Slingsby." His works include _Ravenscroft Hall_ (1852), _The Dead Bridal_ (1856), and _Peter Brown_ (1872).

WALPOLE, HORATIO or HORACE (1717-1797).--Miscellaneous writer, third _s._ of Sir Robert W., the great minister of George II., was _b._ in London, and _ed._ at Eton and Camb., after which he travelled on the Continent with Gray, the poet (_q.v._). His _f._ bestowed several lucrative appointments upon him, and he sat in Parliament for various places, but never took any prominent part in public business. By the death of his nephew, the 3rd Earl, he became in 1791 4th Earl of Orford. In 1747 he purchased the villa of Strawberry Hill, Twickenham, the conversion of which into a small Gothic Castle and the collection of the works of art and curios with which it was decorated was the main interest of his subsequent life. His position in society gave him access to the best information on all contemporary subjects of interest, and he was as successful in collecting gossip as curios. He also erected a private press, from which various important works, including Gray's _Bard_, as well as his own writings, were issued. Among the latter are _Letter from Xo Ho to his Friend Lien Chi at Pekin_ (1757), _The Castle of Otranto_, the forerunner of the romances of terror of Mrs. Radcliffe and "Monk" Lewis, _The Mysterious Mother_ (1768), a tragedy of considerable power, _Catalogue of Royal and Noble Authors_, _Anecdotes of Painting_, _Catalogue of Engravers_ (1763), _Essay on Modern Gardening_, _Memoirs of the Last Ten Years of George II._, _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._, and above all his _Letters_, 2700 in number, vivacious, interesting, and often brilliant. W. never _m._

WALPOLE, SIR SPENCER (1839-1907).--Historian, _s._ of the Right Hon. Spencer W., Home Sec. in the three Derby Cabinets, belonged to the same family as Sir Robert W. _Ed._ at Eton he became a clerk in the War Office, and was thereafter successively Inspector of Fisheries 1867, Lieutenant-Governor of the Isle of Man 1882, and Sec. to the Post Office, where he made a reputation as an efficient administrator, and was made K.C.B. in 1898. He _pub._ _History of England from_ 1815 in 6 vols., bringing the story down to 1858, and followed it up with _The History of Twenty-five Years_. He also wrote Lives of Spencer Percival, Prime Minister 1809-12, who was assassinated in the lobby of the House of Commons in the latter year, and who was his maternal grandfather, and of Earl Russell. His latest book was _Studies in Biography_. He wrote with much knowledge, and in a clear and sober style.

WALTON, IZAAK (1593-1683).--Biographer, and author of _The Compleat Angler_, _s._ of a yeoman, was _b._ at Stafford. Of his earlier years little is known. He carried on business as a hosier in London, in which he made a modest competence, which enabled him to retire at 50, the rest of his long life of 90 years being spent in the simple country pleasures, especially angling, which he so charmingly describes. He was twice _m._, first to Rachel Floud, a descendant of Archbishop Cranmer, and second to Ann Ken, half-sister of the author of the Evening Hymn. His first book was a _Life of Dr. Donne_ (1640), followed by Lives of Sir Henry Wotton (1651), Richard Hooker (1662), George Herbert (1670), and Bishop Sanderson (1678). All of these, classics in their kind, short, but simple and striking, were _coll._ into one vol. His masterpiece, however, was _The Compleat Angler_, the first ed. of which was _pub._ in 1653. Subsequent ed. were greatly enlarged; a second part was added by Charles Cotton (_q.v._). With its dialogues between Piscator (angler), Venator (hunter), and Auceps (falconer), full of wisdom, kindly humour, and charity, its charming pictures of country scenes and pleasures, and its snatches of verse, it is one of the most delightful and care-dispelling books in the language. His long, happy, and innocent life ended in the house of his son-in-law, Dr. Hawkins, Prebendary of Winchester, where in the Cathedral he lies buried.

WARBURTON, BARTHOLOMEW ELIOT GEORGE (1810-1852).--Miscellaneous writer, _b._ in County Galway, travelled in the East, and _pub._ an account of his experiences, _The Crescent and the Cross_, which had remarkable success, brought out an historical work, _Memoirs of Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers_ (1849), and ed. _Memoirs of Horace Walpole and his Contemporaries_. He perished in the burning of the steamer _Amazon_.

WARBURTON, WILLIAM (1698-1779).--Theologian, _b._ at Newark, where his _f._ was an attorney. Intended for the law, he was for a few years engaged in its practice, but his intense love of, and capacity for, study led him to enter the Church, and in 1728 he was presented to the Rectory of Brand-Broughton, where he remained for many years. His first important work was _The Alliance between Church and State_ (1736), which brought him into notice. But it was entirely eclipsed by his _Divine Legation of Moses_, of which the first part appeared in 1737, and the second in 1741. The work, though learned and able, is somewhat paradoxical, and it plunged him into controversies with his numerous critics, and led to his publishing a _Vindication_. It, however, obtained for him the appointment of chaplain to Frederick, Prince of Wales. In 1739 W. gained the friendship of Pope by publishing a defence of _The Essay on Man_. Through Pope he became acquainted with most of the men of letters of the time, and he was made by the poet his literary executor, and had the legacy of half his library, and the profits of his posthumous works. On the strength of this he brought out an ed. of Pope's works. He also _pub._ an ed. of Shakespeare with notes, which was somewhat severely criticised, and his _Doctrine of Grace_, a polemic against Wesley. He became Dean of Bristol in 1757 and Bishop of Gloucester in 1759. W. was a man of powerful intellect, but his temper was overbearing and arrogant.

"WARD, ARTEMUS", (_see_ BROWN, C.F.).

WARD, ROBERT PLUMER (1765-1846).--Novelist and politician, _b._ in London, _ed._ at Oxf., and called to the Bar 1790, held various political offices, and wrote some books on the law of nations; also three novels, _Tremaine, or the Man of Refinement_, full of prolix discussions; _De Vere, or the Man of Independence_, in which Canning is depicted under the character of Wentworth; and _De Clifford, or the Constant Man_.

WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882).--Theologian, _ed._ at Winchester and Oxf., and came under the influence of J.H. Newman, whose famous Tract No. XC. he defended, and whom he followed into the Church of Rome. In 1844 he _pub._ _The Ideal of a Christian Church_ from the Romanist point of view, whence his soubriquet of "Ideal Ward." He was lecturer on Moral Philosophy at St. Edward's Coll., Ware, and wrote various treatises on controversial theology.

WARDLAW, ELIZABETH, LADY (1677-1727).--Poetess, _dau._ of Sir Charles Halkett of Pitfirrane, and wife of Sir Henry Wardlaw of Pitreavie, is believed to have written the pseudo-ancient ballad of "Hardyknute." The ballad of "Sir Patrick Spens" and others have also, but doubtfully, been attributed to her.

WARNER, SUSAN (1819-1885).--Writer of tales, _b._ at New York, and wrote, under the name of "Elizabeth Wetherell," a number of stories, of which _The Wide, Wide World_ (1851) had an extraordinary popularity. Others were _Queechy_ (1852), _The Old Helmet_ (1863), and _Melbourne House_ (1864). They have no particular literary merit or truth to nature, and are rather sentimental and "gushy."

WARNER, WILLIAM (1558-1609).--Poet, _b._ in London or Yorkshire, studied at Oxf., and was an attorney in London. In 1585 he _pub._ a collection of seven tales in prose entitled _Pan his Syrinx_, and in 1595 a translation of the _Menæchmi_ of Plautus. His chief work was _Albion's England_, _pub._ in 1586 in 13 books of fourteen-syllabled verse, and republished with 3 additional books in 1606. The title is thus explained in the dedication, "This our whole island anciently called Britain, but more anciently Albion, presently containing two kingdoms, England and Scotland, is cause ... that to distinguish the former, whose only occurrants I abridge from our history, I entitle this my book _Albion's England_." For about 20 years it was one of the most popular poems of its size--it contains about 10,000 lines--ever written, and he and Spenser were called the Homer and Virgil of their age. They must, however, have appealed to quite different classes. The plain-spoken, jolly humour, homely, lively, direct tales, vigorous patriotic feeling, and rough-and-tumble metre of Warner's muse, and its heterogeneous accumulation of material--history, tales, theology, antiquities--must have appealed to a lower and wider audience than Spenser's charmed verse. The style is clear, spirited, and pointed, but, as has been said, "with all its force and vivacity ... fancy at times, and graphic descriptive power, it is poetry with as little of high imagination in it as any that was ever written." In his narratives W. allowed himself great latitude of expression, which may partly account for the rapidity with which his book fell into oblivion.

WARREN, SAMUEL (1807-1877).--Novelist, _b._ in Denbighshire, _s._ of a Nonconformist minister. After studying medicine at Edin. he took up law, and became a barrister, wrote several legal text-books, and in 1852 was made Recorder of Hull. He sat in the House of Commons for Midhurst 1856-59, and was a Master in Lunacy 1859-77. He was the author of _Passages from the Diary of a late Physician_, which appeared (1832-37) first in _Blackwood's Magazine_, as did also _Ten Thousand a Year_ (1839). Both attracted considerable attention, and were often reprinted and translated. His last novel, _Now and Then_, had little success. W. entertained exaggerated ideas as to the importance of his place in literature.

WARTON, JOSEPH (1722-1800).--Critic, elder _s._ of the Rev. Thomas W., Prof. of Poetry at Oxf., was _ed._ at Basingstoke School, (of which his _f._ was headmaster), Winchester, and Oxf. He took orders, held various benefices, and became headmaster of Winchester Coll., and Prebendary of Winchester and of St. Paul's. He _pub._ miscellaneous verses, 2 vols. of _Odes_ (1744 and 1746), in which he displayed a then unusual feeling for nature, and revolted against the critical rules of Pope and his followers. He was a good classical scholar, and made an approved translation of the _Eclogues_ and _Georgics_ of Virgil. He and his brother Thomas (_q.v._) were friends of Johnson, and members of the Literary Club. His last work of importance was an _Essay on the Writings and Genius of Pope_, of which the first vol. appeared in 1757, and the second in 1782, and which gave an impulse to the romantic movement in English literature. He also ed. Pope's works, and had begun an ed. of Dryden when he _d._

WARTON, THOMAS (1728-1790).--Literary historian and critic, younger _s._ of Thomas W., Prof. of Poetry at Oxf., and brother of the above, was _ed._ under his _f._ at Basingstoke and at Oxf. At the age of 19 he _pub._ a poem of considerable promise, _The Pleasures of Melancholy_, and two years later attracted attention by _The Triumph of Isis_ (1749), in praise of Oxf., and in answer to Mason's _Isis_. After various other poetical excursions he _pub._ _Observations on Spenser's Faery Queen_ (1754), which greatly increased his reputation, and in 1757 he was made Prof. of Poetry at Oxf., which position he held for 10 years. After bringing out one or two ed. of classics and biographies of college benefactors, he issued, from 1774-81, his great _History of English Poetry_, which comes down to the end of the Elizabethan age. The research and judgment, and the stores of learning often curious and recondite, which were brought to bear upon its production render this work, though now in various respects superseded, a vast magazine of information, and it did much to restore our older poetry to the place of which it had been unjustly deprived by the classical school. His ed. of Milton's minor poems has been pronounced by competent critics to be the best ever produced. W. was a clergyman, but if the tradition is to be believed that he had only two sermons, one written by his _f._ and the other printed, and if the love of ease and of ale which he celebrates in some of his verses was other than poetical, he was more in his place as a critic than as a cleric. As a poet he hardly came up to his own standards. He was made Poet Laureate in 1785, and in the same year Camden Prof. of History, and was one of the first to detect the Chatterton forgeries, a task in which his antiquarian lore stood him in good stead.

WATERLAND, DANIEL (1683-1740).--Theologian, _b._ at Waseley Rectory, Lincolnshire, and _ed._ at Camb., took orders, and obtained various preferments, becoming Master of Magdalene Coll., Camb. 1713, Chancellor of York 1722, and Archdeacon of Middlesex 1730. He was an acute and able controversialist on behalf of the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity, on which he wrote several treatises. He was also the author of a _History of the Athanasian Creed_ (1723).

WATERTON, CHARLES (1782-1865).--Naturalist, belonged to an old Roman Catholic family in Yorkshire, and was _ed._ at Stonyhurst Coll. Sent out in 1804 to look after some family estates in Demerara, he wandered through the wildest parts of Guiana and Brazil, in search of plants and animals for his collections. His adventures were related in his highly-spiced and entertaining _Wanderings in South America, etc._ (1825), in which he details certain surprising episodes in connection with the capture of serpents, and specially of a cayman, on the back of which he rode. He also wrote an interesting account of his family.

WATSON, JOHN (1850-1907) "IAN MACLAREN".--Novelist and theological writer, _b._ at Manningtree, where his _f._ was an Inland Revenue official, _ed._ at Stirling and Edin., and the New Coll. there. He came, after serving in a country charge, to Sefton Park Presbyterian Church, Liverpool, where he was a popular preacher, and took a prominent part in the social and religious life of the city. He wrote, under the name of "Ian Maclaren," several novels belonging to the "Kailyard" school, including _Beside the Bonnie Briar Bush_ and _The Days of Auld Lang Syne_, which had great popularity both at home and in America. He also wrote religious works, of which _The Mind of the Master_ is the best known.

WATSON, ROBERT (1730-1781).--Historian, _s._ of an apothecary in St. Andrews, where and at Edin. and Glasgow, he was _ed._ He became Prof. of Logic, and afterwards Principal of St. Salvador's Coll., at St. Andrews, and wrote a History of Philip II. of Spain, and part of a continuation on Philip III., which were long standard works.

WATSON, THOMAS (1557?-1592).--Poet, _b._ in London, was at Oxf., and studied law. He was a scholar, and made translations, one of which was a Latin version of the _Antigone_ of Sophocles. In 1582 he _pub._ _Hecatompathia, or The Passionate Centurie of Love_, consisting of 100 eighteen-line poems, which he called sonnets. It was followed by _Amyntas_ (1585) and _Teares of Fansie_ (1593).

WATTS, ALARIC ALEXANDER (1797-1864).--Poet, _b._ in London, had an active career as a journalist. He founded the _United Service Gazette_, and ed. various newspapers and an annual, the _Literary Souvenir_. His poems were _coll._ as _Lyrics of the Heart_. His numerous journalistic ventures finally resulted in bankruptcy.

WATTS, ISAAC (1674-1748).--Poet and theologian, _b._ at Southampton, where his _f._ kept a school, and _ed._ at a Nonconformist academy at Stoke Newington, became minister of an Independent congregation in Mark Lane; but his health proving insufficient for his pastoral duties, he resigned, and gave himself chiefly to literary work, continuing to preach occasionally. For the last 36 years of his life he resided at Theobald's, the house of his friend, Sir Thomas Abney. Among his writings were various educational treatises, including those on _Logic_ and _The Improvement of the Mind_, and some works on theological subjects. But his fame rests on his sacred poems and his hymns, which number over 500, and with much that is prosaic comprised "There is a Land of Pure Delight," "O God our Help in Ages Past," and "When I survey the Wondrous Cross," which has been called "the most majestic hymn in English speech." His _Horæ Lyricæ_ was _pub._ in 1706, _Hymns_ (1707), _Divine Songs_ (for children) (1715), _Metrical Psalms_ (1719). Some of his poems, such as his exquisite cradle song, "Hush, my dear, lie still and slumber" have a perfect beauty and tenderness.

WAUGH, EDWIN (1817-1890).--Poet, _s._ of a shoemaker, was _b._ at Rochdale and, after a little schooling, apprenticed to a printer. He read eagerly, and became assistant sec. to the Lancashire Public School Association. He first attracted attention by his sketches of Lancashire life and character in the _Manchester Examiner_. He wrote also in prose _Factory Folk_, _Besom Ben Stories_, and _The Chimney Corner_. His best work was, perhaps, his dialect songs, _coll._ as _Poems and Songs_ (1859), which brought him great local fame. He was possessed of considerable literary gift, and has been called "the Lancashire Burns."

WEBBE, WILLIAM (_b._ 1550).--Critic and translator. Almost nothing is known of him except that he was at Camb. and acted as tutor in certain distinguished families, and was a friend of Spenser. He wrote a _Discourse of English Poetrie_ (1586), in which he discusses metre, rhyme (the use of which he reprehends), and reviews English poetry up to his own day. He also translated the first two of the _Eclogues_ of Virgil in singularly unmelodious hexameters.

WEBSTER, MRS. AUGUSTA (DAVIES) (1837-1894).--Poet and translator, _dau._ of Admiral Davies, _m._ Mr. Thomas Webster, a solicitor. She wrote a novel, _Lesley's Guardians_, and several books of poetry of distinguished excellence, including _Blanche Lisle_, _Dramatic Studies_ (1866), _Portraits_ (1870), _A Book of Rhyme_ (1881), and some dramas, including _The Auspicious Day_ (1874), _Disguises_, and _The Sentence_ (1887). She also made translations of _Prometheus Bound_ and _Medea_.

WEBSTER, DANIEL (1782-1852).--Orator, _s._ of a farmer in New Hampshire, was a distinguished advocate in Boston, and afterwards a member of the United States Senate and Sec. of State 1841-43 and 1850-52. He was the greatest orator whom America has produced, and has a place in literature by virtue of his _pub._ speeches.

WEBSTER, JOHN (1580?-1625?).--Dramatist. Though in some respects he came nearest to Shakespeare of any of his contemporaries, almost nothing has come down to us of the life of W. Even the dates of his birth and death are uncertain. He appears to have been the _s._ of a London tailor, to have been a freeman of the Merchant Taylor's Company, and clerk of the parish of St. Andrews, Holborn. Four plays are known to be his, _The White Devil, or the Life and Death of Vittoria Corombona_ (1612), _Appius and Virginia_ (1654), _The Devil's Law Case_ (1623), and _The Duchess of Malfi_ (1623), and he collaborated with Drayton, Middleton, Heywood, Dekker, etc., in the production of others. He does not appear to have been much regarded in his own day, and it was only in the 19th century that his great powers began to be appreciated and expounded by such critics as Lamb and Hazlitt, and in later days Swinburne. The first says, "To move a horror skilfully, to touch a soul to the quick, to lay upon fear as much as it can bear, to wean and weary a life till it is ready to drop, and then step in with mortal instruments to take its last forfeit, this only a Webster can do." W. revels in the horrible, but the touch of genius saves his work from mere brutality, and evokes pity and sorrow where, without it, there would be only horror and disgust. His work is extremely unequal, and he had no power of construction, but his extraordinary insight into motives and feelings redeem all his failings and give him a place second only to Marlowe and Ben Jonson among the contemporaries of Shakespeare.

WEBSTER, NOAH (1758-1843).--Lexicographer, etc., _b._ at Hartford, Conn., and _ed._ at Yale. His long life was spent in unremitting diligence as teacher, lawyer, and man of letters. His great work is his American _Dictionary of the English Language_ (1828), for which he prepared himself by 10 years' study of philology. Many abridgments of it have appeared, and in 1866 a new and enlarged ed. was _pub._ His _Elementary Spelling Book_ is believed to have attained a circulation of 70,000,000 copies. He also _pub._ _A Philosophical and Practical Grammar of the English Language_ (1807), and many other works.

WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (1800?-1879).--Poet, _b._ in London, where he practised as a solicitor, _pub._ in 1822 _Stories after Nature_, written in poetic prose, which attracted no attention, and a biblical drama, _Joseph and his Brethren_ (1824), which had an almost similar fate until D.G. Rossetti called attention to it in 1863, giving it a high meed of praise. In 1874, stung by want of appreciation, he had burned his manuscripts of plays and poems; but on the new interest excited in his _Joseph_ he added some new scenes. In his later years he lived in France. _Joseph and his Brethren_ ed. in the World's Classics, 1909.

WENDOVER, ROGER DE (_d._ 1236).--Chronicler, a monk of St. Albans, became Prior of Belvoir, from which he was deposed for extravagance, but was recalled to St. Albans, where he _d._ He wrote _Flores Historiarum_ (Flowers of History), a history of the world in 2 books, the first from the creation to the incarnation, the second to the reign of Henry III., his own time. The latter is of value as a contemporary authority, and is an impartial and manly account of his own period.

WESLEY, CHARLES (1707-1788).--Hymn-writer, younger brother of John W. (_q.v._), was _b._ at Epworth, and _ed._ at Westminster School and Oxf. He was all his life closely associated with his elder and greater brother, one of whose most loyal helpers he was, though not agreeing with him in all points. His chief fame is founded upon his hymns, of which he is said to have written the almost incredible number of 6500, many of them among the finest in the language. They include "Jesus, Lover of my Soul," "Love Divine all Loves excelling," "Come, oh Thou Traveller Unknown," "Hark the Herald Angels Sing," and "Come, let us join our Friends above."

WESLEY, JOHN (1703-1791).--Theological writer, diarist, and founder of Methodism, was the second surviving _s._ of the Rev. Samuel W., Rector of Epworth, Lincolnshire. The name was also written Westley and Wellesley, and the family appears to be the same as that to which the Duke of Wellington and his brother the Marquis Wellesley belonged. W. was _ed._ at the Charterhouse and at Oxf., and was ordained deacon in 1725, and priest in 1728. After assisting his _f._ for a short time as curate, he returned to Oxf., where he found that his brother Charles, along with G. Whitefield (_q.v._) and others, had begun that association for religious improvement from which sprang the great religious movement known as Methodism. About the same time the two brothers came under the influence of William Law (_q.v._), author of the _Serious Call_, and in 1735 John went on a mission to Georgia to preach to the Indians and colonists, and became closely associated with the Moravian Brethren. Difficulties of a personal character, however, led to his return in 1738 to London, where he continued to associate with the Moravians. It was at this time that, hearing Luther's preface to the Epistle to the Romans read at a meeting, he found his religious and ecclesiastical views revolutionised. Hitherto holding strong High Church views in some directions, he now assumed a position which ultimately led to his abandoning the doctrine of Apostolical succession, and ordaining pastors and bishops, and finally creating a separate ecclesiastical organisation. Consequences soon followed; the pulpits of the Church were closed against him, and he began his marvellous career of itinerant and out-of-door preaching, which was continued to the close of his long life. He soon became a mighty power in the land; vast crowds waited on his ministrations, which were instrumental in producing a great revival of religious interest, and improved morality among the people. At the same time violent opposition was aroused, and W. was often in danger of his life from mobs. In the end, however, he lived down this state of things to a large extent, and in his old age was the object of extraordinary general veneration, while in his own communion he exercised a kind of pontifical sway. During the 50 years of his apostolic journeyings he is said to have travelled 250,000 miles in Britain, Ireland, and the Continent; but notwithstanding this phenomenal activity he was able, by extreme economy of time, to write copiously, his works including educational treatises, translations from the classics, histories of Rome and England, a history of the Church, biblical commentaries, manifold controversial treatises and ed. of religious classics. Most of them had an enormous circulation and brought him in £30,000, all of which he expended on philanthropic and religious objects. The work, however, on which his literary fame chiefly rests is his _Journal_, extending from 1735-90, which is one of the most graphic and interesting records of its kind in existence. He also wrote many hymns, largely translations from the German, and he had a considerable, hand in giving their final form to the almost innumerable hymns of his brother Charles. W. was a man of practical and organising ability of the first order, of intense religious earnestness and sincerity, benevolent feelings, and agreeable manners. At the same time he was of an autocratic temper, and often showed keenness and even intolerance in his controversies, which were largely against the extreme Calvinism of his old friend and fellow-labourer, Whitefield, and Toplady, the author of the hymn "Rock of Ages," himself a bitter polemic. In 1740 he had formally withdrawn from association with the Moravians. W. was _m._ in 1751 to a widow, Mrs. Vazeille, with whom, however, he did not live happily, and who separated from him in 1776.

WESTALL, WILLIAM (1834-1903).--Novelist, was originally in business, but later betook himself to journalism, and also wrote a large number of novels, including _The Old Factory_, _Strange Crimes_, _Her Ladyship's Secret_, etc., which, while healthy in tone and interesting, have no literary distinction.

WHARTON, THOMAS WHARTON, 1ST MARQUIS of (1648-1715).--Statesman and writer of "Lillibullero," _s._ of the 4th Baron W., was one of the most profligate men of his age. He was a supporter of the Exclusion Bill, and consequently obnoxious to James II. His only contribution to literature was the doggerel ballad, "Lillibullero" (1688), which had so powerful a political effect that its author claimed to have sung a King out of three kingdoms. He was generally disliked and distrusted, but held for a short time, from 1708, the Lord Lieutenancy of Ireland, when he had Addison as his chief sec.

WHATELEY, RICHARD (1787-1863).--Theologian and economist, _s._ of the Rev. Dr. Joseph W., _b._ in London, and _ed._ at a school in Bristol, and at Oxf., where he became a coll. tutor. Taking orders he became Rector of Halesworth, Suffolk. In 1822 he delivered his Bampton lectures on _The Use and Abuse of Party Feeling in Religion_. Three years later he was made Principal of St. Alban's Hall, in 1829 Prof. of Political Economy, and in 1831 Archbishop of Dublin. As head of a coll. and as a prelate W. showed great energy and administrative ability. He was a vigorous, clear-headed personality, somewhat largely endowed with contempt for views with which he was not in sympathy, and with a vein of caustic humour, in the use of which he was not sparing. These qualities made him far from universally popular; but his honesty, fairness, and devotion to duty gained for him general respect. He had no sympathy with the Oxf. movement, was strongly anti-Calvinistic, and somewhat Latitudinarian, so that he was exposed to a good deal of theological odium from opposite quarters. He was a voluminous writer, and among his best known works are his treatises on _Logic_ (1826) and _Rhetoric_ (1828), his _Historic Doubts relative to Napoleon Buonaparte_ (1819), intended as a _reductio ad absurdum_ of Hume's contention that no evidence is sufficient to prove a miracle, _Essays on some Peculiarities of the Christian Religion_ (1825), _Christian Evidences_ (1837), and ed. of Bacon's _Essays_ with valuable notes, and of Paley's _Evidences_.

WHETSTONE, GEORGE (1544?-1587?).--Dramatist, one of the early, roistering playwrights who frequented the Court of Elizabeth, later served as a soldier in the Low Countries, accompanied Sir Humphrey Gilbert's expedition to Newfoundland in 1578, and was at the Battle of Zutphen in 1586. He was a trenchant critic of the contemporary drama, contending for greater reality and rationality. His play, _Promos and Cassandra_, translated from Cinthio's _Hecatomithi_, was used by Shakespeare in _Measure for Measure_.

WHEWELL, WILLIAM (1794-1866).--Philosopher, theologian and mathematician, _s._ of a joiner at Lancaster, where he was _b._, _ed._ at Camb., where he had a brilliant career. He became Prof. of Mineralogy at Camb. 1828, of Moral Theology 1838, was Master of Trinity from 1841 until his death, and he held the office of Vice-Chancellor of the Univ. in 1843 and 1856. W. was remarkable as the possessor of an encyclopædic fund of knowledge, perhaps unprecedented, and he was the author of a number of works of great importance on a variety of subjects. Among the chief of these may be mentioned his Bridgewater Treatise on _Astronomy and General Physics considered with Reference to Natural Theology_ (1833), _History of the Inductive Sciences_ (1837), _The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences_ (1840), _Essay on Plurality of Worlds_ (anonymously), _Elements of Morality_ (1845), _History of Moral Philosophy in England_ (1852), and _Platonic Dialogues_. In addition to these he wrote innumerable articles, reviews, and scientific papers. It was as a co-ordinator of knowledge and the researches of others that W. excelled; he was little of an original observer or discoverer. He is described as a large, strong, erect man with a red face and a loud voice, and he was an overwhelming and somewhat arrogant talker.

WHICHCOTE, BENJAMIN (1609-1683).--Divine, belonged to a good Shropshire family, and was at Camb., where he became Provost of King's Coll., of which office he was deprived at the Restoration. He was of liberal views, and is reckoned among the Camb. Platonists, over whom he exercised great influence. His works consist of _Discourses_ and _Moral and Religious Aphorisms_. In 1668 he was presented to the living of St. Lawrence, Jewry, London, which he held until his death.

WHIPPLE, EDWIN PERCY (1819-1886).--Essayist and critic, _b._ in Massachusetts, was a brilliant and discriminating critic. His works include _Character and Characteristic Men_, _Literature and Life_, _Success and its Conditions_, _Literature of the Age of Elizabeth_, _Literature and Politics_, etc.

WHISTON, WILLIAM (1667-1752).--Theologian, and man of science, _b._ at Norton, Leicestershire, and _ed._ at Camb., where he succeeded Newton as Lucasian Prof. of Mathematics, was a prominent advocate of the Newtonian system, and wrote a _Theory of the Earth_ against the views of Thomas Burnet (_q.v._). He also wrote several theological works, _Primitive Christianity Revived_ and the _Primitive New Testament_. The Arian views promulgated in the former led to his expulsion from the Univ. His best known work was his translation of _Josephus_. He was a kindly and honest, but eccentric and impracticable man, and an insatiable controversialist.

WHITE, GILBERT (1720-1793).--Naturalist, _b._ at Selborne, Hants, and _ed._ along with the Wartons (_q.v._) at their father's school at Basingstoke, and thereafter at Oxf., entered the Church, and after holding various curacies settled, in 1755, at Selborne. He became the friend and correspondent of Pennant the naturalist (_q.v._), and other men of science, and _pub._ in the form of letters the work which has made him immortal, _The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne_ (1789). He was never _m._, but was in love with the well-known bluestocking Hester Mulso, afterwards Mrs. Chapone, who rejected him. He had four brothers, all more or less addicted to the study of natural history.

WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806).--Poet, _s._ of a butcher at Nottingham. At first assisting his _f._, next a stocking weaver, he was afterwards placed in the office of an attorney. Some contributions to a newspaper introduced him to the notice of Capel Lofft, a patron of promising youths, by whose help he brought out a vol. of poems, which fell into the hands of Southey, who wrote to him. Thereafter friends raised a fund to send him to Camb., where he gave brilliant promise. Overwork, however, undermined a constitution originally delicate, and he _d._ at 21. Southey wrote a short memoir of him with some additional poems. His chief poem was the _Christiad_, a fragment. His best known production is the hymn, "Much in sorrow, oft in Woe."

WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841).--Poet, _s._ of a merchant, an Irish Roman Catholic resident at Seville, where he was _b._, became a priest, but lost his religious faith and came to England, where he conducted a Spanish newspaper having for its main object the fanning of the flame of Spanish patriotism against the French invasion, which was subsidised by the English Government. He again embraced Christianity, and entered the Church of England, but latterly became a Unitarian. He wrote, among other works, _Internal Evidences against Catholicism_ (1825), and _Second Travels of an Irish Gentleman in search of a Religion_, in answer to T. Moore's work, _Travels, etc._ His most permanent contribution to literature, however, is his single sonnet on "Night", which Coleridge considered "the finest and most grandly conceived" in our language.

WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885).--Shakespearian scholar, _b._ in New York State, was long Chief of the Revenue Marine Bureau, and was one of the most acute students and critics of Shakespeare, of whose works he _pub._ two ed., the first in 1865, and the second (the Riverside) in 1883. He also wrote _Words and their Uses_, _Memoirs of Shakespeare_, _Studies in Shakespeare_, _The New Gospel of Peace_ (a satire), _The Fate of Mansfield Humphreys_ (novel), etc.

WHITEHEAD, CHARLES (1804-1862).--Poet, novelist, and dramatist; is specially remembered for three works, all of which met with popular favour: _The Solitary_ (1831), a poem, _The Autobiography of Jack Ketch_ (1834), a novel, and _The Cavalier_ (1836), a play in blank verse. He recommended Dickens for the writing of the letterpress for R. Seymour's drawings, which ultimately developed into _The Pickwick Papers_.

WHITEHEAD, WILLIAM (1715-1785).--Poet, _s._ of a baker at Camb., and _ed._ at Winchester School and Camb., became tutor in the family of the Earl of Jersey, and retained the favour of the family through life. In 1757 he succeeded Colley Cibber as Poet Laureate. He wrote plays of only moderate quality, including _The Roman Father_ and _Creusa_, tragedies, and _The School for Lovers_, a comedy; also poems, _The Enthusiast_ and _Variety_. His official productions as Laureate were severely attacked, which drew from him in reply _A Charge to the Poets_.

WHITMAN, WALTER or WALT (1819-1892).--Poet, was _b._ at Huntingdon, Long Island, New York. His mother was of Dutch descent, and the farm on which he was _b._ had been in the possession of his father's family since the early settlement. His first education was received at Brooklyn, to which his _f._ had removed while W. was a young child. At 13 he was in a printing office, at 17 he was teaching and writing for the newspapers, and at 21 was editing one. The next dozen years were passed in desultory work as a printer with occasional literary excursions, but apparently mainly in "loafing" and observing his fellow-creatures. It was not till 1855 that his first really characteristic work, _Leaves of Grass_, appeared. This first ed. contained only 12 poems. Notwithstanding its startling departures from conventionality both in form and substance it was well received by the leading literary reviews and, with certain reserves to be expected, it was welcomed by Emerson. It did not, however, achieve general acceptance, and was received with strong and not unnatural protest in many quarters. When a later ed. was called for Emerson unsuccessfully endeavoured to persuade the author to suppress the more objectionable parts. On the outbreak of the Civil War W. volunteered as a nurse for the wounded, and rendered much useful service. The results of his experiences and observations were given in verse in _Drum Taps_ and _The Wound Dresser_, and in prose in _Specimen Days_. From these scenes he was removed by his appointment to a Government clerkship, from which, however, he was soon dismissed on the ground of having written books of an immoral tendency. This action of the authorities led to a somewhat warm controversy, and after a short interval W. received another Government appointment, which he held until 1873, when he had a paralytic seizure, which rendered his retirement necessary. Other works besides those mentioned are _Two Rivulets_ and _Democratic Vistas_. In his later years he retired to Camden, New Jersey, where he _d._ W. is the most unconventional of writers. Revolt against all convention was in fact his self-proclaimed mission. In his versification he discards rhyme almost entirely, and metre as generally understood. And in his treatment of certain passions and appetites, and of unadulterated human nature, he is at war with what he considered the conventions of an effeminate society, in which, however, he adopts a mode of utterance which many people consider equally objectionable, overlooking, as he does, the existence through all the processes of nature of a principle of reserve and concealment. Amid much that is prosaic and rhetorical, however, it remains true that there is real poetic insight and an intense and singularly fresh sense of nature in the best of his writings.

_Works_, 12 vols., with _Life_. _See_ Stedman's _Poets of America_. Monographs by Symonds, Clarke, and Salter.

WHITNEY, WILLIAM DWIGHT (1827-1894).--Philologist, _b._ at Northampton, Mass., was Prof. of Sanskrit, etc., at Yale, and chief ed. of the _Century Dictionary_. Among his books are _Darwinism and Language_ and _The Life and Growth of Language_.

WHITTIER, JOHN GREENLEAF (1807-1892).--Poet, was _b._ at Haverhill, Massachusetts, of a Quaker family. In early life he worked on a farm. His later years were occupied partly in journalism, partly in farming, and he seems also to have done a good deal of local political work. He began to write verse at a very early age, and continued to do so until almost his latest days. He was always a champion of the anti-slavery cause, and by his writings both as journalist and poet, did much to stimulate national feeling in the direction of freedom. Among his poetical works are _Voices of Freedom_ (1836), _Songs of Labour_ (1851), _Home Ballads_ (1859), _In War Time_ (1863), _Snow Bound_ (1866), _The Tent on the Beach_ (1867), _Ballads of New England_ (1870), _The Pennsylvania Pilgrim_ (1874). W. had true feeling and was animated by high ideals. Influenced in early life by the poems of Burns, he became a poet of nature, with which his early upbringing brought him into close and sympathetic contact; he was also a poet of faith and the ideal life and of liberty. He, however, lacked concentration and intensity, and his want of early education made him often loose in expression and faulty in form; and probably a comparatively small portion of what he wrote will live.

WHYTE-MELVILLE, GEORGE JOHN (1821-1878).--Novelist, _s._ of a country gentleman of Fife, _ed._ at Eton, entered the army, and saw service in the Crimea, retiring in 1859 as Major. Thereafter he devoted himself to field sports, in which he was an acknowledged authority, and to literature. He wrote a number of novels, mainly founded on sporting subjects, though a few were historical. They include _Kate Coventry_, _The Queen's Maries_, _The Gladiators_, and _Satanella_. He also wrote _Songs and Verses_ and _The True Cross_, a religious poem. He _d._ from an accident in the hunting-field.

WICLIF, or WYCLIF, JOHN (1320?-1384).--Theologian and translator of the Bible, _b._ near Richmond, Yorkshire, studied at Balliol Coll., Oxf., of which he became in 1361 master, and taking orders, became Vicar of Fillingham, Lincolnshire, when he resigned his mastership, and in 1361 Prebendary of Westbury. By this time he had written a treatise on logic, and had won some position as a man of learning. In 1372 he took the degree of Doctor of Theology, and became Canon of Lincoln, and in 1374 was sent to Bruges as one of a commission to treat with Papal delegates as to certain ecclesiastical matters in dispute, and in the same year he became Rector of Lutterworth, where he remained until his death. His liberal and patriotic views on the questions in dispute between England and the Pope gained for him the favour of John of Gaunt and Lord Percy, who accompanied him when, in 1377, he was summoned before the ecclesiastical authorities at St. Paul's. The Court was broken up by an inroad of the London mob, and no sentence was passed upon him. Another trial at Lambeth in the next year was equally inconclusive. By this time W. had taken up a position definitely antagonistic to the Papal system. He organised his institution of poor preachers, and initiated his great enterprise of translating the Scriptures into English. His own share of the work was the Gospels, probably the whole of the New Testament and possibly part of the Old. The whole work was ed. by John Purvey, an Oxf. friend, who had joined him at Lutterworth, the work being completed by 1400. In 1380 W. openly rejected the doctrine of transubstantiation, and was forbidden to teach at Oxf., where he had obtained great influence. In 1382 a Court was convened by the Archbishop of Canterbury, which passed sentence of condemnation upon his views. It says much for the position which he had attained, and for the power of his supporters, that he was permitted to depart from Oxf. and retire to Lutterworth, where, worn out by his labours and anxieties, he _d._ of a paralytic seizure on the last day of 1384. His enemies, baffled in their designs against him while living, consoled themselves by disinterring his bones in 1428 and throwing them into the river Swift, of which Thomas Fuller (_q.v._) has said, "Thus this brook has conveyed his ashes into Avon, Avon into Severn, Severn into the Narrow Seas, they into the main ocean, and thus the ashes of Wicliffe are the emblem of his doctrine, which now is dispersed all the world over." The works of W. were chiefly controversial or theological and, as literature, have no great importance, but his translation of the Bible had indirectly a great influence not only by tending to fix the language, but in a far greater degree by furthering the moral and intellectual emancipation on which true literature is essentially founded.

WILBERFORCE, WILLIAM (1759-1833).--Philanthropist and religious writer, _s._ of a merchant, was _b._ at Hull, _ed._ at Camb., entered Parliament as member for his native town, became the intimate friend of Pitt, and was the leader of the crusade against the slave-trade and slavery. His chief literary work was his _Practical View of Christianity_, which had remarkable popularity and influence, but he wrote continually and with effect on the religious and philanthropic objects to which he had devoted his life.

WILCOX, CARLES (1794-1827).--Poet, _b._ at Newport, N.H., was a Congregationalist minister. He wrote a poem, _The Age of Benevolence_, which was left unfinished, and which bears manifest traces of the influence of Cowper.

WILDE, OSCAR O'FLAHERTY (1856-1900).--Poet and dramatist, _s._ of Sir William W., the eminent surgeon, was _b._ at Dublin, and _ed._ there at Trinity Coll. and at Oxf. He was one of the founders of the modern cult of the æsthetic. Among his writings are _Poems_ (1881), _The Picture of Dorian Gray_, a novel, and several plays, including _Lady Windermere's Fan_, _A Woman of no Importance_, and _The Importance of being Earnest_. He was convicted of a serious offence, and after his release from prison went abroad and _d._ at Paris. _Coll._ ed. of his works, 12 vols., 1909.

WILKES, JOHN (1727-1797).--Politician, _s._ of a distiller in London, was _ed._ at Leyden. Witty, resourceful, but unprincipled and profligate, he became from circumstances the representative and champion of important political principles, including that of free representation in Parliament. His writings have nothing of the brilliance and point of his social exhibitions, but his paper, _The North Briton_, and especially the famous "No. 45," in which he charged George III. with uttering a falsehood in his speech from the throne, caused so much excitement, and led to such important results that they give him a place in literature. He also wrote a highly offensive _Essay on Woman_. W. was expelled from the House of Commons and outlawed, but such was the strength of the cause which he championed that, notwithstanding the worthlessness of his character, his right to sit in the House was ultimately admitted in 1774, and he continued to sit until 1790. He was also Lord Mayor of London.

WILKIE, WILLIAM (1721-1772).--Poet, _b._. in Linlithgowshire, _s._ of a farmer, and _ed._ at Edin., he entered the Church, and became minister of Ratho, Midlothian, in 1756, and Prof. of Natural Philosophy at St. Andrews in 1759. In 1757 he _pub._ the _Epigoniad_, dealing with the Epigoni, sons of the seven heroes who fought against Thebes. He also wrote _Moral Fables in Verse_.

WILKINS, JOHN (1614-1672).--Mathematician and divine, _s._ of a goldsmith in Oxf., but _b._ at Daventry and _ed._ at Oxf., entered the Church, held many preferments, and became Bishop of Chester. He _m._ a sister of Oliver Cromwell, and being of an easy temper and somewhat accommodating principles, he passed through troublous times and many changes with a minimum of hardship. He was one of the band of learned men whom Charles II. incorporated as the Royal Society. Among his writings are _The Discovery of a World in the Moon_, _Mathematical Magic_, and _An Essay towards ... a Philosophical Language_.

WILKINSON, SIR JOHN GARDNER (1797-1875).--Egyptologist, _s._ of a Westmoreland clergyman, studied at Oxf. In 1821 he went to Egypt, and remained there and in Nubia exploring, surveying, and studying the hieroglyphical inscriptions, on which he made himself one of the great authorities. He _pub._ two important works, of great literary as well as scholarly merit, _Materia Hieroglyphica_ (1828) and _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_ (6 vols., 1837-41). He wrote various books of travel, and was knighted in 1839.

WILLIAM of MALMESBURY (_fl._ 12th cent.).--Historian, was an inmate of the great monastery at Malmesbury. His name is said to have been Somerset, and he was Norman by one parent and English by the other. The date of his birth is unknown, that of his death has sometimes been fixed as 1142 on the ground that his latest work stops abruptly in that year. His history, written in Latin, falls into two parts, _Gesta Regum Anglorum_ (Acts of the Kings of the English), in five books, bringing the narrative down from the arrival of the Saxons to 1120, and _Historia Novella_ (Modern History), carrying it on to 1142. The work is characterised by a love of truth, much more critical faculty in sifting evidence than was then common, and considerable attention to literary form. It is dedicated to Robert, Earl of Gloucester, the champion of Queen Matilda. Other works by W. are _De Gestis Pontificum Anglorum_, Lives of the English Bishops, and a history of the Monastery of Glastonbury.

WILLIAM of NEWBURGH, or NEWBURY (1136-1198?).--Historian, belonged to the monastery of Newburgh in Yorkshire. His own name is said to have been Little. His work, _Historia Rerum Anglicarum_ (History of English affairs), is written in good Latin, and has some of the same qualities as that of William of Malmesbury (_q.v._). He rejects the legend of the Trojan descent of the early Britons, and animadverts severely on what he calls "the impudent and impertinent lies" of Geoffrey of Monmouth (_q.v._). His record of contemporary events is careful.

WILLIAMS, SIR CHARLES HANBURY (1708-1759).--Diplomatist and satirist, _s._ of John Hanbury, a Welsh ironmaster, assumed the name of Williams on succeeding to an estate, entered Parliament as a supporter of Walpole, held many diplomatic posts, and was a brilliant wit with a great contemporary reputation for lively and biting satires and lampoons.

WILLIS, BROWNE (1682-1760).--Antiquary, _ed._ at Westminster and Oxf., entered the Inner Temple 1700, sat in the House of Commons 1705-8. He wrote _History of the Counties, Cities, and Boroughs of England and Wales_ (1715), _Notitia Parliamentaria_, etc.

WILLIS, NATHANIEL PARKER (1806-1867).--Poet, _b._ at Portland, and _ed._ at Yale, was mainly a journalist, and conducted various magazines, including the _American Monthly_; but he also wrote short poems, many of which were popular, of which perhaps the best is "Unseen Spirits," stories, and works of a more or less fugitive character, with such titles as _Pencillings by the Way_ (1835), _Inklings of Adventure_, _Letters from under a Bridge_ (1839), _People I have Met_, _The Rag-Tag_, _The Slingsby Papers_, etc., some of which were originally contributed to his magazines. He travelled a good deal in Europe, and was attached for a time to the American Embassy in Paris. He was a favourite in society, and enjoyed a wide popularity in uncritical circles, but is now distinctly a spent force.

WILLS, JAMES (1790-1868).--Poet and miscellaneous writer, younger _s._ of a Roscommon squire, was _ed._ at Trinity Coll., Dublin, and studied law in the Middle Temple. Deprived, however, of the fortune destined for him and the means of pursuing a legal career by the extravagance of his elder brother, he entered the Church, and also wrote largely in _Blackwood's Magazine_ and other periodicals. In 1831 he _pub._ _The Disembodied and other Poems_; _The Philosophy of Unbelief_ (1835) attracted much attention. His largest work was Lives of _Illustrious and Distinguished Irishmen_, and his latest publication _The Idolatress_ (1868). In all his writings W. gave evidence of a powerful personality. His poems are spirited, and in some cases show considerable dramatic qualities.

WILLS, WILLIAM GORMAN (1828-1891).--Dramatist, _s._ of above, _b._ in Dublin. After writing a novel, _Old Times_, in an Irish magazine, he went to London, and for some time wrote for periodicals without any very marked success. He found his true vein in the drama, and produced over 30 plays, many of which, including _Medea in Corinth_, _Eugene Aram_, _Jane Shore_, _Buckingham_, and _Olivia_, had great success. Besides these he wrote a poem, _Melchior_, in blank verse, and many songs. He was also an accomplished artist.

WILSON, ALEXANDER (1766-1813).--Poet and ornithologist, _b._ at Paisley, where he worked as a weaver, afterwards becoming a pedlar. He _pub._ some poems, of which the best is _Watty and Maggie_, and in 1794 went to America, where he worked as a pedlar and teacher. His skill in depicting birds led to his becoming an enthusiastic ornithologist, and he induced the publisher of _Rees's Cyclopædia_, on which he had been employed, to undertake an American ornithology to be written and illustrated by him. Some vols. of the work were completed when, worn out by the labour and exposure entailed by his journeys in search of specimens, he succumbed to a fever. Two additional vols. appeared posthumously. The work, both from a literary and artistic point of view, is of high merit. He also _pub._ in America another poem, _The Foresters_.

WILSON, SIR DANIEL (1816-1892).--Archæologist and miscellaneous writer, _b._ and _ed._ in Edin., and after acting as sec. of the Society of Antiquaries there, went to Toronto as Prof. of History and English Literature. He was the author of _Memorials of Edinburgh in the Olden Time_, _The Archeology and Pre-historic Annals of Scotland_ (1851), _Civilisation in the Old and the New World_, a study on "Chatterton," and _Caliban, the Missing Link_, etc.

WILSON, JOHN ("CHRISTOPHER NORTH") (1785-1854).--Poet, essayist, and miscellaneous writer, _s._ of a wealthy manufacturer in Paisley, where he was _b._, was _ed._ at Glas. and Oxf. At the latter he not only displayed great intellectual endowments, but distinguished himself as an athlete. Having succeeded to a fortune of £50,000 he purchased the small estate of Elleray in the Lake District, where he enjoyed the friendship of Wordsworth, Southey, Coleridge, and De Quincey. In 1812 he _pub._ _The Isle of Palms_, followed four years later by _The City of the Plague_, which gained for him a recognised place in literature, though they did not show his most characteristic gifts, and are now almost unread. About this time he lost a large portion of his fortune, had to give up continuous residence at Elleray, came to Edinburgh, and was called to the Scottish Bar, but never practised. The starting of _Blackwood's Magazine_ brought him his opportunity, and to the end of his life his connection with it gave him his main employment and chief fame. In 1820 he became Prof. of Moral Philosophy in the Univ. of Edin. where, though not much of a philosopher in the technical sense, he exercised a highly stimulating influence upon his students by his eloquence and the general vigour of his intellect. The peculiar powers of W., his wealth of ideas, felicity of expression, humour, and animal spirits, found their full development in the famous _Noctes Ambrosianæ_, a medley of criticism on literature, politics, philosophy, topics of the day and what not. _Lights and Shadows of Scottish Life_ and _The Trials of Margaret Lyndsay_ are contributions to fiction in which there is an occasional tendency to run pathos into rather mawkish sentimentality. In 1851 W. received a Government pension of £300. The following year a paralytic seizure led to his resignation of his professorial chair, and he _d._ in 1854. He was a man of magnificent physique, of shining rather than profound intellectual powers, and of generous character, though as a critic his strong feelings and prejudices occasionally made him unfair and even savage.

WILSON, JOHN (1804-1875).--Missionary and orientalist, _b._ at Lauder, Berwickshire, and _ed._ at Edin. for the ministry of the Church of Scotland, went in 1828 to India as a missionary, where, besides his immediate duties, he became a leader in all social reform, such as the abolition of the slave-trade and _suttee_, and also one of the greatest authorities on the subject of caste, and a trusted adviser of successive Governors-General in regard to all questions affecting the natives. He was in addition a profound Oriental scholar as to languages, history, and religion. He was D.D., F.R.S., and Vice-Chancellor of Bombay Univ. Among his works are _The Parsi Religion_ (1812), _The Lands of the Bible_ (1847), _India Three Thousand Years Ago_, and _Memoirs of the Cave Temples of India_.

WILSON, THOMAS (1525?-1581).--Scholar and statesman, _b._ in Lincolnshire, was at Camb., and held various high positions under Queen Elizabeth. He was the author of _The Rule of Reason containing the Arte of Logique_ (1551), and _The Arte of Rhetorique_ (1553), and made translations from Demosthenes. He endeavoured to maintain the purity of the language against the importation of foreign words.

WINGATE, DAVID, (1828-1892).--Poet, was employed in the coal-pits near Hamilton from the time he was 9. He _pub._ _Poems and Songs_ (1862), which was favourably received, and followed by _Annie Weir_ (1866). After this he studied at the Glasgow School of Mines, became a colliery manager, and devoted his increased leisure to study and further literary work. _Lily Neil_ appeared in 1879, followed by _Poems and Songs_ (1883), and _Selected Poems_ (1890). W. was a man of independent character. He was twice _m._, his second wife being a descendant of Burns.

WINTHROP, THEODORE (1828-1861).--Novelist, _b._ at New Haven, Conn., descended through his _f._ from Governor W., and through his mother from Jonathan Edwards, _ed._ at Yale, travelled in Great Britain and on the Continent, and far and wide in his own country. After contributing to periodicals short sketches and stories, which attracted little attention, he enlisted in the Federal Army, in 1861, and was killed in the Battle of Great Bethel. His novels, for which he had failed to find a publisher, appeared posthumously--_John Brent_, founded on his experiences in the far West, _Edwin Brothertoft_, a story of the Revolution War, and _Cecil Dreeme_. Other works were _The Canoe and Saddle_, and _Life in the Open Air_. Though somewhat spasmodic and crude, his novels had freshness, originality, and power, and with longer life and greater concentration he might have risen high.

WITHER, GEORGE (1588-1667).--Poet, _b._ near Alton, Hampshire, was at Oxf. for a short time, and then studied law at Lincoln's Inn. In 1613 he _pub._ a bold and pungent satire, _Abuses Stript and Whipt_, with the result that he was imprisoned for some months in the Marshalsea. While there he wrote _The Shepheard's Hunting_, a pastoral. _Wither's Motto_, _Nec Habeo, nec Careo, nec Curo_ (I have not, want not, care not) was written in 1618, and in 1622 he _coll._ his poems as _Juvenilia_. The same year he _pub._ a long poem, _Faire Virtue, the Mistress of Philarete_, in which appears the famous lyric, "Shall I wasting in despair." Though generally acting with the Puritans he took arms with Charles I. against the Scotch in 1639; but on the outbreak of the Civil War he was on the popular side, and raised a troop of horse. He was taken prisoner by the Royalists, and is said to have owed his life to the intercession of a fellow-poet, Sir John Denham. After the establishment of the Commonwealth he was considerably enriched out of sequestrated estates and other spoils of the defeated party; but on the Restoration was obliged to surrender his gains, was impeached, and committed to the Tower. In his later years he wrote many religious poems and hymns, _coll._ as _Hallelujah_. Before his death his poems were already forgotten, and he was referred to by Pope in _The Dunciad_ as "the wretched Withers". He was, however, disinterred by Southey, Lamb, and others, who drew attention to his poetical merits, and he has now an established place among English poets, to which his freshness, fancy, and delicacy of taste well entitle him.

WODROW, ROBERT (1679-1734).--Church historian, _s._ of James W., Prof. of Divinity in Glasgow. Having completed his literary and theological education there, he entered the ministry of the Church of Scotland, and was ordained to the parish of Eastwood, Renfrewshire. Here he carried on the great work of his life, his _History of the Sufferings of the Church of Scotland 1660 to 1688_. W. wrote when the memory of the persecutions was still fresh, and his work is naturally not free from partisan feeling and credulity. It is, however, thoroughly honest in intention, and is a work of genuine research, and of high value for the period with which it deals. It was _pub._ in two folio vols. in 1721 and 1722. W. made large collections for other works which, however, were not _pub._ in his lifetime. _The Lives of the Scottish Reformers and Most Eminent Ministers_ and _Analecta, or a History of Remarkable Providences_, were printed for the Maitland Club, and 3 vols. of his correspondence in 1841 for the Wodrow Society. The _Analecta_ is a most curious miscellany showing a strong appetite for the marvellous combined with a hesitating doubt in regard to some of the more exacting narratives.

WOLCOT, JOHN (1738-1819).--Satirist, _b._ near Kingsbridge, Devonshire, was _ed._ by an uncle, and studied medicine. In 1767 he went as physician to Sir William Trelawny, Governor of Jamaica, and whom he induced to present him to a Church in the island then vacant, and was ordained in 1769. Sir William dying in 1772, W. came home and, abandoning the Church, resumed his medical character, and settled in practice at Truro, where he discovered the talents of Opie the painter, and assisted him. In 1780 he went to London, and commenced writing satires. The first objects of his attentions were the members of the Royal Academy, and these attempts being well received, he soon began to fly at higher game, the King and Queen being the most frequent marks for his satirical shafts. In 1786 appeared _The Lousiad, a Heroi-Comic Poem_, taking its name from a legend that on the King's dinner plate there had appeared a certain insect not usually found in such exalted quarters. Other objects of his attack were Boswell, the biographer of Johnson, and Bruce, the Abyssinian traveller. W., who wrote under the _nom-de-guerre_ of "Peter Pindar," had a remarkable vein of humour and wit, which, while intensely comic to persons not involved, stung its subjects to the quick. He had likewise strong intelligence, and a power of coining effective phrases. In other kinds of composition, as in some ballads which he wrote, an unexpected touch of gentleness and even tenderness appears. Among these are _The Beggar Man_ and _Lord Gregory_. Much that he wrote has now lost all interest owing to the circumstances referred to being forgotten, but enough still retains its peculiar relish to account for his contemporary reputation.

WOLFE, CHARLES (1791-1823).--Poet, _s._ of a landed gentleman in Kildare, was _b._ in Dublin, where he completed his _ed._ at Trinity Coll., having previously been at Winchester. He took orders, and was Rector of Donoughmere, but his health failed, and he _d._ of consumption at 32. He is remembered for one short, but universally known and admired poem, _The Burial of Sir John Moore_, which first appeared anonymously in the _Newry Telegraph_ in 1817.

WOOD, or À WOOD, ANTHONY (1632-1695).--Antiquary, was _b._ at Oxf., where he was _ed._ and spent most of his life. His antiquarian enthusiasm was awakened by the collections of Leland, and he early began to visit and study the antiquities of his native county. This with history, heraldry, genealogies, and music occupied his whole time. By 1669 he had written his _History and Antiquities of the University of Oxford_, which was translated into Latin not to his satisfaction by the Univ. authorities, and he wrote a fresh English copy which was printed in 1786. His great work was _Athenæ Oxonienses; an exact History of all the Writers and Bishops who have had their Education in the University of Oxford, to which are added the Fasti or Annals of the said University_ (1691-92). For an alleged libel on the Earl of Clarendon in that work the author was expelled in 1694. He also wrote _The Ancient and Present State of the City of Oxford_, and _Modius Salium, a Collection of Pieces of Humour_, generally of an ill-natured cast.

WOOD, MRS. ELLEN (PRICE) (1814-1887).--Novelist, writing as "Mrs. Henry Wood," was _b._ at Worcester. She wrote over 30 novels, many of which, especially _East Lynne_, had remarkable popularity. Though the stories are generally interesting, they have no distinction of style. Among the best known are _Danesbury House_, _Oswald Cray_, _Mrs. Halliburton's Troubles_, _The Channings_, _Lord Oakburn's Daughters_, and _The Shadow of Ashlydyat_. Mrs. W. was for some years proprietor and ed. of the _Argosy_.

WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827-1889).--Writer on natural history, _s._ of a surgeon, _b._ in London, and _ed._ at home and at Oxf., where he worked for some time in the anatomical museum. He took orders, and among other benefices which he held was for a time chaplain to St. Bartholomew's Hospital. He was a very prolific writer on natural history, though rather as a populariser than as a scientific investigator, and was in this way very successful. Among his numerous works may be mentioned _Illustrated Natural History_ (1853), _Animal Traits and Characteristics_ (1860), _Common Objects of the Sea Shore_ (1857), _Out of Doors_ (1874), _Field Naturalist's Handbook_ (with T. Wood) (1879-80), books on gymnastics, sport, etc., and an ed. of White's _Selborne_.

WOOLMAN, JOHN (1720-1772).--Quaker diarist, _b._ at Burlington, New Jersey, began life as a farm labourer, and then became a clerk in a store. He underwent deep religious impressions, and the latter part of his life was devoted to itinerant preaching and doing whatever good came to his hand. To support himself he worked as a tailor. He was one of the first to witness against the evils of slavery, on which he wrote a tract, _Some Considerations on the Keeping of Negroes_ (1753). His _Journal_ "reveals his life and character with rare fidelity" and, though little known compared with some similar works, gained the admiration of, among other writers, Charles Lamb, who says, "Get the writings of John Woolman by heart." In 1772 he went to England, where he _d._ of smallpox in the same year.

WOOLNER, THOMAS (1826-1892).--Sculptor and poet, _b._ at Hadleigh, attained a high reputation as a sculptor. He belonged to the pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, and contributed poems to their magazine, the _Germ_. He wrote several vols. of poetry, including _My Beautiful Lady_ (1863), _Pygmalion_, _Silenus_, _Tiresias_, and _Nelly Dale_. He had a true poetic gift, though better known by his portrait busts.

WORDSWORTH, CHRISTOPHER (1774-1846).--Biographer, etc., was a younger brother of the poet, _ed._ at Camb., took orders, and became Chaplain to the House of Commons, and Master of Trinity Coll., Camb. 1820-41. He was also Vice-Chancellor of the Univ. 1820-21 and 1826-27. He _pub._ _Ecclesiastical Biography_ (1810), and _Who wrote Eikon Basiliké?_ in which he argued for the authorship of Charles I.

WORDSWORTH, CHRISTOPHER (1807-1885).--_S._ of above, _ed._ at Camb., took orders and became a Canon of Westminster 1844, and Bishop of Lincoln 1868. He travelled in Greece, and discovered the site of Dodona. His writings include in theology a commentary on the Bible (1856-70), _Church History to A.D. 451_ (1881-83), and in other fields, _Athens and Attica_ (1836), and _Theocritus_ (1844).

WORDSWORTH, DOROTHY (1771-1855).--Diarist, etc., was the only sister of the poet, and his lifelong and sympathetic companion, and endowed in no small degree with the same love of and insight into nature as is evidenced by her _Journals_. Many of her brother's poems were suggested by scenes and incidents recorded by her, of which that on Daffodils beginning "I wandered lonely as a cloud" is a notable example.

WORDSWORTH, WILLIAM (1770-1850).--Poet, _s._ of John W., attorney and agent to the 1st Lord Lonsdale, was _b._ at Cockermouth. His boyhood was full of adventure among the hills, and he says of himself that he showed "a stiff, moody, and violent temper." He lost his mother when he was 8, and his _f._ in 1783 when he was 13. The latter, prematurely cut off, left little for the support of his family of four sons and a _dau._, Dorothy (afterwards the worthy companion of her illustrious brother), except a claim for £5000 against Lord Lonsdale, which his lordship contested, and which was not settled until his death. With the help, however, of uncles, the family were well _ed._ and started in life. William received his earlier education at Penrith and Hawkshead in Lancashire; and in 1787 went to St. John's Coll., Camb., where he graduated B.A. in 1791. In the preceding year, 1790, he had taken a walking tour on the Continent, visiting France in the first flush of the Revolution with which, at that stage, he was, like many of the best younger minds of the time, in enthusiastic sympathy. So much was this the case that he nearly involved himself with the Girondists to an extent which might have cost him his life. His funds, however, gave out, and he returned to England shortly before his friends fell under the guillotine. His uncles were desirous that he should enter the Church, but to this he was unconquerably averse; and indeed his marked indisposition to adopt any regular employment led to their taking not unnatural offence. In 1793 his first publication--_Descriptive Sketches of a Pedestrian Tour in the Alps_, and _The Evening Walk_--appeared, but attracted little attention. The beginning of his friendship with Coleridge in 1795 tended to confirm him in his resolution to devote himself to poetry; and a legacy of £900 from a friend put it in his power to do so by making him for a time independent of other employment. He settled with his sister at Racedown, Dorsetshire, and shortly afterwards removed to Alfoxden, in the Quantock Hills, to be near Coleridge, who was then living at Nether Stowey in the same neighbourhood. One result of the intimacy thus established was the planning of a joint work, _Lyrical Ballads_, to which Coleridge contributed _The Ancient Mariner_, and W., among other pieces, _Tintern Abbey_. The first ed. of the work appeared in 1798. With the profits of this he went, accompanied by his sister and Coleridge, to Germany, where he lived chiefly at Goslar, and where he began the _Prelude_, a poem descriptive of the development of his own mind. After over a year's absence W. returned and settled with Dorothy at Grasmere. In 1800 the second ed. of _Lyrical Ballads_, containing W.'s contributions alone, with several additions, appeared. In the same year Lord Lonsdale _d._, and his successor settled the claims already referred to with interest, and the share of the brother and sister enabled them to live in the frugal and simple manner which suited them. Two years later W.'s circumstances enabled him to marry his cousin, Mary Hutchinson, to whom he had been long attached. In 1804 he made a tour in Scotland, and began his friendship with Scott. The year 1807 saw the publication of _Poems in Two Volumes_, which contains much of his best work, including the "Ode to Duty," "Intimations of Immortality," "Yarrow Unvisited," and the "Solitary Reaper." In 1813 he migrated to Rydal Mount, his home for the rest of his life; and in the same year he received, through the influence of Lord Lonsdale, the appointment of Distributor of Stamps for Westmoreland, with a salary of £400. The next year he made another Scottish tour, when he wrote _Yarrow Visited_, and he also _pub._ _The Excursion_, "being a portion of _The Recluse_, a Poem." W. had now come to his own, and was regarded by the great majority of the lovers of poetry as, notwithstanding certain limitations and flaws, a truly great and original poet. The rest of his life has few events beyond the publication of his remaining works (which, however, did not materially advance his fame), and tokens of the growing honour in which he was held. _The White Doe of Rylstone_ appeared in 1815, in which year also he made a collection of his poems; _Peter Bell_ and _The Waggoner_ in 1819; _The River Duddon_ and _Memorials of a Tour on the Continent_ in 1820; _Ecclesiastical Sonnets_ 1822; and _Yarrow Revisited_ in 1835. In 1831 he paid his last visit to Scott; in 1838 he received the degree of D.C.L. from Durham, and in 1839 the same from Oxf. Three years later he resigned his office of Distributor of Stamps in favour of his _s._, and received a civil list pension of £300. The following year, 1843, he succeeded Southey as Poet Laureate. His long, tranquil, and fruitful life ended in 1850. He lies buried in the churchyard of Grasmere. After his death the _Prelude_, finished in 1805, was _pub._ It had been kept back because the great projected poem of which it was to have been the preface, and of which _The Excursion_ is a part, was never completed.

The work of W. is singularly unequal. When at his best, as in the "Intimations of Immortality," "Laodamia," some passages in _The Excursion_, and some of his short pieces, and especially his sonnets, he rises to heights of noble inspiration and splendour of language rarely equalled by any of our poets. But it required his poetic fire to be at fusing point to enable him to burst through his natural tendency to prolixity and even dulness. His extraordinary lack of humour and the, perhaps consequent, imperfect power of self-criticism by which it was accompanied, together with the theory of poetic theme and diction with which he hampered himself, led him into a frequent choice of trivial subjects and childish language which excited not unjust ridicule, and long delayed the general recognition of his genius. He has a marvellous felicity of phrase, an unrivalled power of describing natural appearances and effects, and the most ennobling views of life and duty. But his great distinguishing characteristic is his sense of the mystic relations between man and nature. His influence on contemporary and succeeding thought and literature has been profound and lasting. It should be added that W., like Milton, with whom he had many points in common, was the master of a noble and expressive prose style.

SUMMARY.--_B._ 1770, _ed._ at Camb., sympathiser with French Revolution in earlier stages, first publication _Tour in the Alps_ and _Evening Walk_ 1793, became acquainted with Coleridge 1795, _pub._ with him _Lyrical Ballads_ 1798, visits Germany and begins _Prelude_, returns to England and settles at Grasmere, _pub._ second ed. of _Lyrical Ballads_, entirely his own, 1800, _m._ Mary Hutchinson 1802, visits Scotland 1804 and becomes acquainted with Scott, _pub._ _Poems in Two Volumes_ 1807, goes to Rydal Mount 1813, appointed Distributor of Stamps, revisits Scotland, writes _Yarrow Visited_ and _pub._ _The Excursion_ 1814, _White Doe_ and _coll._ works 1815, _Waggoner_, _Ecclesiastical Sonnets_, etc., 1819-35, pensioned 1842, Poet Laureate 1843, _d._ 1850.

There are numerous good ed. of the poems, including his own by Moxon (1836, 1845, and 1850), and those by Knight (1882-86), Morley (1888), Dowden (1893), Smith (1908). Another by Knight in 16 vols. includes the prose writings and the _Journal_ by Dorothy (1896-97). _Lives_ by Christopher Wordsworth (1857), Myers (1880), and others. See also criticism by W. Raleign (1903).

WOTTON, SIR HENRY (1568-1639).--Diplomatist and poet, _s._ of a Kentish gentleman, was _b._ at Boughton Park, near Maidstone, and _ed._ at Winchester and Oxf. After spending 7 years on the Continent, he entered the Middle Temple. In 1595 he became sec. to the Earl of Essex, who employed him abroad, and while at Venice he wrote _The State of Christendom or a Most Exact and Curious Discovery of many Secret Passages and Hidden Mysteries of the Times_, which was not, however, printed until 1657. Afterwards he held various diplomatic appointments, but Court favour latterly failed him and he was recalled from Venice and made Provost of Eton in 1624, to qualify himself for which he took deacon's orders. Among his other works were _Elements of Architecture_ (1624) and _A Survey of Education_. His writings in prose and verse were _pub._ in 1651 as _Reliquiæ Wottonianæ_. His poems include two which are familiar to all readers of Elizabethan verse, _The Character of a Happy Life_, "How happy is he born and taught," and _On his Mistress, the Queen of Bohemia_, beginning "Ye meaner Beauties of the Night." He was the originator of many witty sayings, which have come down.

WRAXALL, SIR NATHANIEL WILLIAM (1751-1831).--Historical writer, _b._ at Bristol, was for a few years in the service of the East India Company, and thereafter employed on diplomatic missions, and sat for some years in the House of Commons. In addition to a book of travels and some historical works relating to the French and other foreign Courts, he wrote _Historical Memories of my own Time_ 1772-84, _pub._ in 1815. The work was severely criticised by both political parties, and in particular by Macaulay; but W. made a reply which was considered to be on the whole successful. A continuation bringing the narrative down to 1790 was _pub._ in 1836. The _Memoirs_ are valuable for the light they throw on the period, and especially for the portraits of public men which they give.

WRIGHT, THOMAS (1810-1877).--Antiquary, _b._ near Ludlow, of Quaker parentage, was _ed._ at Camb. His first work was a _History of Essex_ (1831-36). In 1836 he went to London, and adopted literature as a profession, devoting himself specially to archæology, history, and biography. He held office in various societies such as the "Camden," "Percy," and "Shakespeare," and ed. many works for them. In all he was the author of over 80 publications, of which some of the chief are _The Celt, the Roman, and the Saxon_, _Biographia Britannica Literaria_, _Queen Elizabeth and her Times_, and _History of Domestic Manners and Sentiments in England during the Middle Ages_. He was superintendent of the excavation of the Roman city at Wroxeter in 1859.

WYATT, SIR THOMAS (1503-1542).--Poet, _s._ of Sir Henry W., a servant of Henry VII., and _ed._ at St. John's Coll., Camb., came to Court and was frequently employed by Henry VIII. on diplomatic missions. He is said to have been an admirer of Anne Boleyn before her marriage, and on her disgrace was thrown into the Tower for a short time. In 1537 he was knighted, and two years later was against his will sent on a mission to the Emperor Charles V. On the death in 1540 of Thomas Cromwell, to whose party he belonged, W. was accused of misdemeanours during his embassy and again imprisoned in the Tower, where he wrote a defence which resulted in his release. In 1542 he was sent to meet the Spanish Ambassador at Falmouth, and conduct him to London, but on the way caught a chill, of which he _d._ W. shares with the Earl of Surrey (_q.v._) the honour of being the first real successor of Chaucer, and also of introducing the sonnet into England. In addition to his sonnets, which are in a more correct form than those of Surrey, W. wrote many beautiful lyrics; in fact he may be regarded as the reviver of the lyrical spirit in English poetry which, making its appearance in the 13th century, had fallen into abeyance. In the anthology known as _Tottel's Miscellany_, first _pub._ in 1557, 96 pieces by W. appear along with 40 by Surrey, and others by different hands. W. has less smoothness and sweetness than Surrey, but his form of the sonnet was much more difficult as well as more correct than that invented by the latter, and afterwards adopted by Shakespeare, and his lyrical gift is more marked.

WYCHERLEY, WILLIAM (1640?-1716).--Dramatist, was _b._ at Clive, near Shrewsbury, where his _f._ had an estate. He was at the Inner Temple in 1659, and at Oxf. in 1660. Part of his youth had been spent in France, where he became a Roman Catholic, but at the Restoration he returned to Protestantism. He wrote four comedies, _Love in a Wood_, _The Gentleman Dancing Master_, _The Country Wife_, and _The Plain Dealer_, all produced in the reign of Charles II., and nothing of consequence afterwards, a vol. of poems doing little to add to his reputation. About 1679 he _m._ the widowed Countess of Drogheda, who _d._ in 1681, and he entered into a second marriage eleven days before his death. In his later years he formed a friendship with Pope, then a boy of 16. W. was one of the founders of the Comedy of Manners. The merit of his plays lies in smart and witty dialogue rather than in construction. _The Plain Dealer_, his best, is founded upon Molière's _Misanthrope_. His plays are notoriously coarse.

WYNTOUN, ANDREW of (1350?-1420?).--Chronicler, was a canon of St. Andrews, who became Prior of St. Serf's island in Loch Leven. His work, entitled _The Orygynale Cronykil_, begins with the creation of angels and men and comes down to 1406. It is poetic in form though rarely so in substance, and is of considerable historical value in its later parts and as regards the see of St. Andrews.

YALDEN, THOMAS (1670-1736).--Poet, _s._ of an exciseman at Oxf., and _ed._ at Magdalen Coll., entered the Church, in which he obtained various preferments. He was the author of a considerable number of poems, including a _Hymn to Darkness_, Pindaric Odes, and translations from the classics.

YATES, EDMUND (1831-1894).--Novelist and dramatist, _b._ at Edin., held for some years an appointment in the General Post Office. He did much journalistic work, mainly as a dramatic writer, and wrote many dramatic pieces and some novels, including _Running the Gauntlet_ and _The Black Sheep_. He was perhaps best known as ed. of _The World_ society journal.

YONGE, CHARLOTTE MARY (1823-1901).--Novelist, only _dau._ of a landed gentleman of Hampshire, was _b._ near Winchester, and in her girlhood came under the influence of Keble, who was a near neighbour. She began writing in 1848, and _pub._ during her long life about 100 works, chiefly novels, interesting and well-written, with a High Church tendency. Among the best known are _The Heir of Redclyffe_, _Heartsease_, and _The Daisy Chain_. She also wrote _Cameos from English History_, and Lives of Bishop Patteson and Hannah More. The profits of her works were devoted to religious objects.

YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820).--Writer on agriculture, was _b._ in London, the _s._ of a Suffolk clergyman. In his early years he farmed, making many experiments, which though they did not bring him financial success, gave him knowledge and experience, afterwards turned to useful account. Various publications had made his name known, and in 1777 he became agent to Lord Kingsborough on his Irish estates. In 1780 he _pub._ his _Tour in Ireland_, and four years later started the _Annals of Agriculture_, 47 vols. of which appeared. His famous tours in France were made 1787-90, the results of his observations being _pub._ in _Travels in France_ (1792). He was in 1793 appointed sec. to the newly founded Board of Agriculture, and _pub._ many additional works on the subject. He is justly regarded as the father of modern agriculture, in which, as in all subjects affecting the public welfare, he maintained an active interest until his death. In his later years he was blind.

YOUNG, EDWARD (1683-1765).--Poet, _s._ of the Rector of Upham, Hampshire, where he was _b._ After being at Winchester School and Oxf. he accompanied the Duke of Wharton to Ireland. Y., who had always a keen eye towards preferment, and the cult of those who had the dispensing of it, began his poetical career in 1713 with _An Epistle to Lord Lansdowne_. Equally characteristic was the publication in the same year of two poems, _The Last Day_ and _The Force of Religion_. The following year he produced an elegy _On the Death of Queen Anne_, which brought him into notice. Turning next to the drama he produced _Busiris_ in 1719, and _The Revenge_ in 1721. His next work was a collection of 7 satires, _The Love of Fame, the Universal Passion_. In 1727 he entered the Church, and was appointed one of the Royal Chaplains, and Rector of Welwyn, Herts, in 1730. Next year he _m._ Lady Elizabeth Lee, the widowed _dau._ of the Earl of Lichfield, to whom, as well as to her _dau._ by her former marriage, he was warmly attached. Both _d._, and sad and lonely the poet began his masterpiece, _The Complaint, or Night Thoughts_ (1742-44), which had immediate and great popularity, and which still maintains its place as a classic. In 1753 he brought out his last drama, _The Brothers_, and in 1761 he received his last piece of preferment, that of Clerk to the Closet to the Princess Dowager of Wales. Four years later, in 1765, he _d._ The poems of Y., though in style artificial and sometimes forced, abound in passages of passion and power which sometimes reach the sublime. But the feelings and sentiments which he expresses with so much force as a poet form an unpleasantly harsh contrast with the worldliness and tuft-hunting of his life.

APPENDIX OF LIVING WRITERS

_The number of writers included in this Appendix, and their bibliographies, are necessarily limited, but it is hoped that despite the difficulties of selection the list will be found fairly representative_.

ABBOTT, REV. EDWIN ABBOTT, D.D. (1838).--Writer on Biblical and literary subjects. _Shakespearian Grammar_ (1870), ed. of _Bacon's Essays_ (1876), _Bacon and Essex_ (1877), _Francis Bacon ... his Life and Works_ (1885), _Flatland, a Romance of Many Dimensions_ (1884), _St. Thomas of Canterbury_ (1898), _Paradosis_ (1904), _Johannine Vocabulary_ (1905), _Silanus the Christian_ (1906), etc.

ALLEN, JAMES LANE (1849).--American novelist. _A Kentucky Cardinal_, _The Choir Invisible_, _A Summer in Arcady_, _Blue Grass Region of Kentucky_, _The Increasing Purpose_, _Aftermath_,