Chapter III

.

[40] Upon this question W. J. Sollas’ _Ancient Hunters_ is very full and suggestive.

[41] From the cave of Mas d’Azil.

[42] But our domestic cattle are derived from some form of aurochs--probably from some lesser Central Asiatic variety.--H. H. J.

[43] “The various finds of human remains in North America for which the geological antiquity has been claimed have been thus briefly passed under review. In every instance where enough of the bones is preserved for comparison, the evidence bears witness against the geological antiquity of the remains and for their close affinity to or identity with the modern Indians.” (Smithsonian Institute, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 33. Dr. Hrdlicka.)

But J. Deniker quotes evidence to show that eoliths and early palæoliths have been found in America. See his compact but full summary of the evidence and views for and against in his _Races of Man_, pp. 510, 511.

[44] “Questioned by some authorities,” says J. Deniker in _The Races of Man_.

[45] A good account of Palæolithic and Neolithic man is to be found in Rice Holmes’ _Ancient Britain_, 1907. Otis T. Mason’s _Origins of Invention_ also illuminates this period.

[46] The deposits at Susa show neolithic remains perhaps more than 20,000 years old. See Montelius _Congrès Internat. d’Anthrop. Prehist._, 1906, p. 32. Sir Arthur Evans says the neolithic age began in Crete more than 14,000 years ago.--G. Wh.

[47] See Peisker, _Cambridge Medieval History_, Vol. I, for some interesting views upon domestication.--E. B.

[48] Native copper is still found to-day in Italy, Hungary, Cornwall, and many other places.

[49] This view of the origin of bronze is that of Dr. Gowland, _The Metals Antiquity_ (Huxley Lecture, 1912). But Lord Avebury quotes the verbal opinion of the late Lord Swansea against this view, and sets it aside without further argument.

[50] Ridgeway (_Early Age of Greece_) says a lump of tin has been found in the Swiss pile-dwelling deposits.

[51] Tin was known as a foreign import in Egypt under the XVIIIth Dynasty; there is (rare) Mycenæan tin, and there are (probably later, but not clearly dated) tin objects in the Caucasus. But it is very difficult to distinguish tin from antimony. There is a good deal of Cyprus bronze which contains antimony; a good deal which seems to be tin is antimony--the ancients trying to get tin, but actually getting antimony and thinking it was tin.--J. L. M.

[52] In connection with iron, note the distinction of ornamental and useful iron. Ornamental iron, a rarity, perhaps meteoric, as jewellery or magical stuff, occurs in east Europe sporadically in the time of the XVIIIth Dynasty. This must be distinguished from the copious useful iron which appears in Greece much later from the North.--J. L. M.

[53] People were probably healthier and longer lived in the Bronze than in the Neolithic age. The disparity of stature between male and female was much less.--G. Wh.

[54] Lord Avebury. For a good account of Avebury, Stonehenge, and the traces of a well-developed social system in England before the coming of the Keltic peoples, see Hippesley Cox, _The Green Roads of England_.

[55] Caesar _de Bello Gallico_ says the Britons tabooed hare, fowl and goose.--G. Wh.

[56] All Old World peoples who had entered upon the Neolithic stage grew and ate wheat, but the American Indians must have developed agriculture independently in America after their separation from the Old World populations. They never had wheat. Their cultivation was maize, Indian corn, a new-world grain.

[57] Poultry and hens’ eggs were late additions to the human cuisine, in spite of the large part they now play in our dietary. The hen is not mentioned in the Old Testament (but note the allusion to an egg, Job vi, 6) nor by Homer. Up to about 1300 B.C. the only fowls in the world were jungle denizens in India and Burmah. The crowing of jungle cocks is noted by Glasfurd in his admirable accounts of tiger shooting as the invariable preliminary of dawn in the Indian jungle. Probably poultry were first domesticated in Burmah. They got to China, according to the records, only about 1100 B.C. They reached Greece via Persia before the time of Socrates. In the New Testament the crowing of the cock reproaches Peter for his desertion of the Master.

[58] Later Palæolithic bone whistles are known. One may guess that reed pipes were an early invention.

[59] In addition to authorities already cited, we have used for this and the following chapters Lord Avebury’s _Prehistoric Times_, Schrader and Jevons’ _Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples_, and A. H. Keane’s _Man Past and Present_.

[60] Among other books we have used Jukes Browne’s _Building of the British Isles_.

[61] _The Quaternary Ice Age._

[62] Our treatment of this chapter is written for the general reader and is broad and general. But the student who wishes to go more thoroughly into the development of the civilized mentality out of the elements of the primitive human mind should read and study very carefully that very illuminating book, Jung’s _Psychology of the Unconscious_ (English translation by Beatrice M. Hinckle), and especially the opening two chapters. That book is a most important contribution to the mental history of mankind.

[63] J. J. Atkinson’s _Primal Law_.

[64] See Sir J. G. Frazer, _Belief in Immortality_.

[65] Glasfurd’s _Rifle and Romance in the Indian Jungle_, 1915.

[66] For some interesting suggestions here see Sigismund Freud, _Totem and Taboo, Resemblances between the Psychic Life of Savages and Neurotics_.

[67] Ludwig Hopf, in _The Human Species_, calls the later Palæolithic art “masculine” and the Neolithic “feminine.” The pottery was made by women, he says, and that accounts for it. But the arrowheads were made by men, and there was nothing to prevent Neolithic men from taking scraps of bone or slabs of rock and carving them--had they dared. We suggest they did not dare to do so.

[68] But Cicero says relegere, “_to read over_,” and the “binding” by those who accept _religare_ is often written of as being merely the binding of a vow.

[69] Bateman, _Ten Years’ Digging in Celtic and Saxon Gravehills_, quoted by Lord Avebury in _Prehistoric Times_, p. 176.

[70] Cabot in _Labrador_, by Grenfell and others. Macmillan, New York.

[71] Quoted in _Ency. Brit._, vol. ix, p. 850.

[72] This is not a good name, and may perhaps drop out of use later. Blumenbach chose a particular skull as the “type” of this race and it happened to be a skull from the Caucasus.--G. S.

[73] The skull shape of the Lombards, says Flinders Petrie, changed from dolichocephalic to brachycephalic in a few hundred years. See his Huxley Lecture for 1906, _Migrations_, published by the _Anthropological Institute_. Ripley is the great authority on the other side.

[74] _My Diaries_, under date of July 25, 1894.

[75] “Sunstone” culture because of the sun worship and the megaliths. This is not a very happily chosen term. It suggests a division equivalent to palæolithic (old stone) and neolithic (new stone), whereas it is a development of the Neolithic culture.

[76] Megalithic monuments have been made quite recently by primitive Indian peoples.

[77] For some interesting suggestions in this matter, see W. H. R. Rivers, “_Sun Cult and Megaliths in Oceana_” (_American Anthropologist_ (N.S.), vol. xvii). Hose and MacDougall, _The Pagan Tribes of Borneo_, contains some very interesting parallelisms between the culture of modern Borneo and the prehistoric culture of southern Europe. See also Dr. W. Warde Fowler’s “Ancient Italy and Modern Borneo” in the _Journal of Roman Studies_ (1916).

[78] Sir Arthur Evans suggests that in America sign-language arose before speech, because the sign-language is common to all Indians in North America, whereas the languages are different. See his _Anthropology and the Classics_.--G. M.

Samuel Butler (_Note Books_) suggests that language was “originally confined to a few scholars.”--G. Wh.

[79] See article “Grammar” in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_.

[80] Sir H. H. Johnston gives this estimate in his _Comparative Study of the Bantu and Semi-Bantu Languages_.

[81] Greek--ox-ford.

[82] Ratsel (quoted in the _Ency. Brit._, art. “Caspian”).

[83] _Encyclopædia Britannica_, article “Japan.”

[84] The four characters indicating “Affairs, query, imperative, old,” placed in that order, for example, represent “Why walk in the ancient ways?” The Chinaman gives the bare cores of his meaning; the Englishman gets to it by a bold metaphor. He may be talking of conservatism in cooking or in bookbinding, but he will say: “Why walk in the ancient ways?” Mr. Arthur Waley, in the interesting essay on Chinese thought and poetry which precedes his book, _170 Chinese Poems_ (Constable, 1918), makes it clear how in these fields Chinese thought is kept practical and restricted by the limitations upon metaphor the linguistic structure of Chinese imposes. See also Hirst, _Ancient History of China_, ch. vii.

[85] See Farrand, _The American Nation_, and E. S. Payne, _History of the New World called America_, and note footnote to § 1 of this chapter.

[86] These are discussed compactly, but with very special knowledge, by Sir Harry Johnston in his little book on _The Opening up of Africa_, in the Home University Library. The student who finds this subject of philological history interesting, should read the introduction to the same writer’s _Comparative Study of the Bantu and Semi-Bantu Languages_.

[87] The Polynesians appear to be a later eastward extension of the dark whites or brown peoples. See again § 4 of chap. xiii.

[88] “The Keltic group of languages, of which it has been said that they combined an Aryan vocabulary with a Berber (or Iberian) grammar.” Sir Harry Johnston. See also Sir John Rhys, The Welsh People, Mac Neilh’s _Phases in Irish History_, and various articles by Prof. Stewart Macalister in the _Irish Monthly_ (1917-1919).

[89] See Schrader (translated by Jevons), _Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples_, p. 404. But though the word Aryan was undoubtedly in its original application the name only of the Indo-Iranian people, it has been used in modern discussion for more than half a century in the wider sense. A word was badly wanted for that purpose, and “Aryan” was taken; failing “Aryan” we should be obliged to fall back on “Indo-Germanic” or “Indo-European,” terms equally open to objection and ugly and clumsy to employ.

[90] But these may have been an originally Semitic people who learnt an Aryan speech.

[91] On this point see Perry, _An Ethnological Study of Warfare_, vol. lxi., Mem. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., and also published separately 1917.--G. Wh.

[92] Fools, I think, were not wits, but deformed idiots, whom the company teased and laughed at. Certainly so in Roman and mediæval times. They do not occur in the Hellenic Age, except at courts in Asia Minor; but they must have been present in pre-Hellenic kingdoms; cf. end of _Iliad I._, where the gods laugh consumedly not at Hephaestus’ wit, but at his lameness. The idealized Fool of Shakespeare is, like the idealized Hermit of the romances, the invention of later days.--G. M

[93] The Aryans developed their languages and their ballads and epics between 10,000 B.C. and the historical period. Very much later in time, probably within the last 3,000 years, the nomadic Mongolian peoples of Asia began to develop their Ural-Altaic speech, under similar conditions, by similar poetic uses. Later we shall note the presence of bards at the court of Attila the Hun.

[94] It is suggested in the text that blind men became bards: Myres says that bards were (artificially) blinded to stop them from going elsewhere--the tribe wanted to keep them. The poetic touch is that “the Muses” blind the poet. Not a bit of it. (Homer, being a blind bard, describes things by sound--the twanging arrow, the far-thundering sea, the noise of the chariot going through the gate. He is audile, not visual.)--E. B.

But in this matter note the adjectives in the passage quoted here from the _Iliad_; they are all visual.--G. H. M.

Mr. L. Lloyd, of the experimental station at Cheshunt, tells me he has seen in Rhodesia the musician and singer of a troupe of native dancers who had been blinded by his chief to prevent him leaving the village.--H. G. W.

[95] G.M.

[96] The _Iliad_ describes what Chadwick calls a Heroic Age: _i.e._ a time when the barbarians or nomads are breaking up an old civilization. Men are led by chiefs who live by plunder and conquest and make themselves kingdoms. The tribe is broken up; instead comes the comitatus of casual men who attach themselves to a particular chief, as Phœnix or Patroclus to Achilles. Religion is broken up, being by origin local. Hence there is almost no religion in the _Iliad_ or the _Nibelungenlied_. Almost no magic. No family life. Tremendous booty, and _la carrière ouverte aux talents_ with a vengeance.--G. M.

[97] _Some Aspects of Hindu Life in India._ Paper read to the Royal Society of Arts, Nov. 28, 1918.

[98] No Greek heroes, in Homer or the heroic tradition, ever get drunk. In the comic tradition they do, and of course centaurs and barbarians do.--G. M.

[99] Babylonian expedition of the University of Pennsylvania.

[100] H. R. Hall, _Ancient History of the Near East_, says it has been found in Palestine.--S. H.

The late Mr. Aaron Aaronson found a real wild wheat upon the slopes of Mt. Hermon. See Bulletin 274, Plant Indus. Bureau, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture; and Stapf in Suppl. to the _Jour. of the Board of Agri., Lond._, vol. xvii, No. 3.--E. J. R.

[101] We shall use “Mesopotamia” here loosely for the Euphrates-Tigris country generally. Strictly, of course, as its name indicates, Mesopotamia (mid rivers) means only the country _between_ those two great rivers. That country in the fork was probably very marshy and unhealthy in early times (Sayce), until it was drained by man, and the early cities grew up west of the Euphrates and east of the Tigris. Probably these rivers then flowed separately into the Persian Gulf.

[102] My friend Colonel Lawrence tells me that the movement among the Arabs is somewhat as follows: (1) the sessile village cultivators are pushed out by over-population into the desert--very reluctantly; (2) they wander in the desert for a thousand years or so--as a stick pushed into the water gets carried about for a long way; (3) they are pushed again out of the desert, back again into sessile life by starvation--very reluctantly (they have learned to love the desert); and when they come back into sessile life they are on the other side--_i.e._ having started in west Arabia, they land in Mesopotamia. Thus they wander a thousand years or so, and end up thousands of miles from where they started.--E. B.

[103] Sir H. H. Johnston is inclined to believe that a common late Neolithic and early bronze culture spread widely in this primitive world. He links the Dravidian languages of India--some of which group are to be found in Beluchistan and the eastern fringe of Persia--with certain languages in the Caucasian Mountains, and these again with Basque. He would bring the Sumerians, the early Cretans, and the early peoples of Asia Minor into this early “brown” or dark white culture before the Aryans, Semites, or Hamites developed their language cultures and thrust across this band of primordial civilization. He connects these “class and prefix” languages with the creation of the African Bantu, but that is a speculation beyond the scope of this present work. A series of articles on this subject by the Rev. W. Crabtree will be found in the _Journal of the African Society_. The connection of Sumerian and Bantu was first suggested by Sir Richard Burton in 1885. These views are in complete accordance with Elliot Smith’s suggestion of a widespread heliolithic culture already dealt with in chap. xiii, § 4, p. 146

[104] Excavations conducted at Eridu by Capt. R. Campbell Thompson during the recent war have revealed an early Neolithic agricultural stage, before the invention of writing or the use of bronze, beneath the earliest Sumerian foundations. The crops were cut by sickles of earthenware. Capt. Thompson thinks that these pre-Sumerian people were not of Sumerian race, but proto-Elamites. Entirely similar Neolithic remains have been found at Susa, once the chief city of Elam.

[105] Sayce, in _Babylonian and Assyrian Life_, estimates that in 6500 B.C. Eridu was on the seacoast.

[106] Authorities vary upon this date. Some put back Sargon I to 3750 B.C. This latter was his traditional date based on Babylonian records.

[107] Of unknown language and race, “neither Sumerians nor Semites,” says Sayce. Their central city was Susa. Their archæology is still largely an unworked mine. They are believed by some, says Sir H. H. Johnston, to have been negroid in type. There is a strong negroid strain in the modern people of Elam.

[108] For most of these dates here Winckler in _Helmolt’s World History_ has been followed.

[109] II. Kings xv. 29, and xvi. 7 _et seq._

[110] II. Kings xvii. 3.

[111] To be murdered by his sons.

[112] Winckler (Craig), _History of Babylonia and Assyria_.

[113] “The original home or centre of development of this ‘Dynastic’ Egyptian type seems to have been in southern or south-western Arabia. This region of south-western and southern Arabia, ten to fifteen thousand years ago, was probably an even better favoured province than it is at the present day, when it still bears the Roman designation of Arabia Felix--so much of the rest of this gaunt, lava-covered, sand-strewn peninsula being decidedly ‘infelix.’ It has high mountains--a certain degree of rainfall on them, and was anciently clothed in rich forests before the camels, goats, and sheep of Neolithic and Bronze Age man nibbled away much of this verdure. Above all there grew trees oozing with delicious-scented resins or gums. These, when civilization dawned on the world, became very precious and an offering of sweet savour to the civilized man’s gods, because so grateful to his own nostrils.” _Africa_, by Sir H. H. Johnston.

[114] 3733 B.C., Wallis Budge.

[115] But compare the citation of _Beowulf_ in Chap. XV, § 2.--R. L. C.

[116] The great pyramid is 450 feet high and its side 700 feet long. It is calculated (says Wallis Budge) to weigh 4,883,000 tons. All this stone was lugged into place chiefly by human muscle.

[117] There are variants to these names, and to most Egyptian names, for few self-respecting Egyptologists will tolerate the spelling of their colleagues. One may find, for instance, Thethmosis, Thoutmosis, Tahutmes, Thutmose, or Thethmosis; Amunothph, Amenhotep or Amenothes. A pleasing variation is to break up the name, as, for instance, Amen Hetep. This particular little constellation of variants is given here not only because it is amusing, but because it is desirable that the reader should know such variations exist. For most names the rule of this book has been to follow whatever usage has established itself in English literature, regardless of the possible contemporary pronunciation. Amenophis, for example, has been so written in English books for two centuries. It came into the language by indirect routes, but it is now as fairly established as is Damascus as the English name of a Syrian town. Nevertheless, there are limits to this classicism. The writer, after some vacillation, has abandoned Oliver Goldsmith and Dr. Johnson in the case of “Peisistratus” and “Keltic,” which were formerly spelt “Pisistratus” and “Celtic.”

[118] _China and the League of Nations_, a pamphlet by Mr. Liang-Chi-Chao. (_Pekin Leader_ Office.)

[119] Here we touch on highly controversial matters. The reader interested in the question of the separate origin of the American civilization should consult _Nature_, Jan. 27, 1916, Spinden and Elliot Smith in discussion.

[120] F. Ratzel, _History of Mankind_.

[121] Sayce.

[122] Mosso, _The Dawn of Mediterranean Civilization_.--R. L. G.

[123] Cecil Torr, _Ancient Ships_.

[124] See Evans’ _Prehistoric Tombs of Cnossos_.

[125] This is, I think, too dogmatic about Helen. True, raids on women were a real cause of war, but they were also a very favourite _ficelle_ of fiction. A war with Troy might easily arise by the carrying off of a woman. But why was Troy destroyed six several times? It looks to me as if there was some strong motive for building just there, and an equally strong motive for great confederacies destroying the city when built.--G. M.

Walter Leaf in his _Homer and History_ is in agreement with G. M. on this point.--G. Wh.

[126] There were no domesticated camels in Africa until after the Persian conquest of Egypt. This must have greatly restricted the desert routes. (See Bunbury, _History of Ancient Geography_, note to Chap. VIII.) But the Sahara desert of 3000 or 2000 years ago was less parched and sterile than it is to-day. From rock engravings we may deduce the theory that the desert was crossed from oasis to oasis by riding oxen and by ox-carts: perhaps, also, on horses and asses. The camel as a beast of transport was seemingly not introduced into North Africa till the Arab invasions of the seventh century A.D. The fossil remains of camels are found in Algeria, and wild camels may have lingered in the wastes of the Sahara and Somaliland till the domesticated camel was introduced. The Nubian wild ass also seems to have extended its range to the Sahara.--H. H. J.

[127] There was Sumerian trade organized round the temples before the Semites got into Babylonia. See Hall and King, _Archæological Discoveries in Western Asia_.--E. B.

[128] Iron bars of fixed weight were used for coin in Britain. Cæsar, _De Bello Gallico_.--G. Wh.

[129] The earliest coinage of the west coast of Asia Minor was in electrum, a mixture of gold and silver, and there is an interesting controversy as to whether the first issues were stamped by cities, temples, or private bankers.--P. G.

[130] Small change was in existence before the time of Alexander. The Athenians had a range of exceedingly small silver coins running almost down to the size of a pinhead, which were generally carried in the mouth; a character in Aristophanes was suddenly assaulted, and swallowed his change in consequence.--P. G.

[131] There is an inn-keeper in Aristophanes, but it may be inferred from the circumstance that she is represented as letting lodgings in hell that the early inn left much to be desired.--P. G.

[132] See the _Encyclopædia Brit._, Article _China_, p. 218.

[133] The writer’s friend, Mr. L. Y. Chen, thinks that this is only

## partially true. He thinks that the emperors insisted upon a minute and

rigorous study of the set classics in order to check intellectual innovation. This was especially the case with the Ming emperors, the first of whom, when reorganizing the examination system on a narrower basis, said definitely, “This will bring all the intellectuals of the world into my trap.” The Five Classics and the Four Books have imprisoned the mind of China.

[134] The Libyan alphabet survived in North Africa until a century ago, and was still used then for correspondence. It was supposed to be extinct, but in 1897 Sir Arthur Evans and Mr. J. L. Myres saw what looked like ancient Cretan lettering on some dyed skins from the Sahara in the bazaar at Tripoli. It was the ancient alphabet still in use for commercial signs.--E. B.

[135] The Sumerians allowed much more freedom and authority to women than the Semites. They had priestess-queens, and one of their great divinities was a goddess, Ishtar.

[136] See Johnson’s _Byeways of British Archæology_.

[137] Many Christian churches, almost all, indeed, built between the fifth century and the Renaissance, are oriented to the east. St. Peter’s at Rome is oriented east and west.

[138] In his _Dawn of Astronomy_.

[139] Legrain’s _Le Temps des Rois d’Ur_ (Bibliothèque de l’Ecole des Hautes Etudes) was useful here.

[140] Cp. Moses and the Egyptian Magicians.

[141] According to Winckler, Sargon II, unlike his son, was pro-priest, and his usurpation of the throne was the result of an intrigue of the Babylonian priests against the feudal Assyrian military system of Tiglath Pileser III.

[142] See the last two verses of the Second Book of Chronicles, and Ezra, ch. i.

[143] A book of the utmost interest and value here is Breasted’s _Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_.

[144] See S. Sharpe’s _Egyptian Mythology and Egyptian Christianity_.

[145] Akhnaton lost some or all his father’s Syrian conquests.--G. W. B.

[146] Many authorities regard Alexander as a man with the ideas of a pushful nineteenth-century (A.D.) monarch, and consider this visit to Jupiter Ammon as a master-stroke of policy. He was, we are asked to believe, deliberately and cynically acquiring divinity as a “unifying idea.” The writer is totally unable to accept anything of the sort. For a discussion of the question, see Ferguson’s _Greek Imperialism_.

[147] “His reforming zeal made him unpopular with the upper classes. Schoolmen and pedants held up to the admiration of the people the heroes of the feudal times and the advantages of the system they administered. Seeing in this propaganda danger to the state, Shi Hwang-ti determined to break once and for all with the past. To this end he ordered the destruction of all books having reference to the past history of the empire, and many scholars were put to death for failing in obedience to it.”--The late Sir R. K. Douglas in the _Encyclopædia Brit._, article _China_.

Mr. L. Y. Chen does not agree with Sir R. K. Douglas here. He thinks that the motives of Shi Hwang-ti were obscurantist. His object was the intellectual slavery of the people. He collected a library for his own use.

[148] There were literary expressions of social discontent in Egypt before 2000 B.C. See “Social Forces and Religion” in Breasted’s _Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_ for some of the earliest complaints of the common man under the ancient civilizations.

[149] The student should compare with this J. J. Atkinson’s account (in his _Primal Law_) of the significance of marriage by capture and his theory of the origin of marriage.

[150] See also his shorter _Social Life of the Babylonians and Assyrians_.

[151] See Mary Austin, _The Flock_.

[152] J. L. M. says this is the view of a Londoner. In a village or small town where everyone knows everyone, long credits are possible with barter. In Asia Minor there is much reckoning with quite imaginary money of account.

[153] From _casta_, a word of Portuguese origin; the Indian word is _varna_, colour.

[154] In the time of Confucius classes were much more fixed than later. Under the Han Dynasty the competitive examination system was not yet established. Scholars were recommended for appointments by local dignitaries, etc.--L. Y. C.

[155] The Grand Canal of China, the longer portion of which was made in the sixth century A.D., has a total length of nearly 900 miles. It was begun in the fifth century B.C. “Between Su-chow and Chin-kiang the canal is often 100 feet wide and its sides are, in many places, faced with stone. It is spanned by fine stone bridges, and near its banks are many memorial arches and lofty pagodas.” The Great Wall of China, which was begun in the third century B.C., was built originally to defend China against the Huns. It is about 1500 miles long; its average height is between 20 and 30 feet, and every 200 yards there are towers 40 feet high.

[156] Damascus was already making Damask, and “Damascening” steel.

[157] _The Encyclopædia Biblica_ has been of great use here.

[158] This is probably much too early an estimate. The Book of Daniel was not written until 167-5 B.C. Ecclesiastes and several Psalms are later than Alexander.--G. W. B.

[159] See also G. B. Gray, _A Critical Introduction to the Old Testament_.

[160] This may seem to contradict Genesis xx. 15, and xxi. and xxvi. various verses, but compare with this the _Encyclopædia Biblica_ article _Philistines_.

[161] So this name should be spelt in English. It is now the fashion among the learned and among the sceptical to spell it Yahwe or Jahveh or Jahve, or in some such fashion. There is a justification for this in the fact that at first only the consonants were written in Hebrew, and then, for reasons into which we will not enter here, the wrong vowels were inserted in this name. But ever since the days of Tyndale’s Bible, Jehovah has been established in English literature as the name of the God of Israel, and it is not to be lightly altered. There is at present a deplorable tendency to strange spelling among historians. Attention has already been called to the confusion that is being accumulated in people’s minds by the variable spelling of Egyptologists, but the tendency is now almost universal among historical writers. In an otherwise admirable little book, _The Opening-up of Africa_, by Sir H. H. Johnston, for example, one finds him spelling Saul as Sha’ul and Solomon as Shelomoh; Jerusalem becomes Yerusalim and the Hebrews, Habiru or Ibrim. Historians do not realize how the mind of the general reader is distressed and discouraged by these constantly fluctuating attempts to achieve phonetic exactitude. This treatment of old forms has much the same effect as the dazzle-painting of ships that went on during the submarine warfare. It is dazzle-spelling. The ordinary educated man is so confused that he fails altogether to recognize even his oldest friends under their modern disguises. He loses his way in the story hopelessly. The old events occur to novel names in unfamiliar places. He conceives a disgust for history in which no record seems to tally with any other record. Still more maddening and confusing is the variable spelling of Chinese names. A large part of the popular indifference to Chinese history may be due to the impossibility of holding on to the thread of a story in which one narrator talks of T’sin and another of Sin, and both forms mix themselves with Chin and T’chin. A boldly Europeanized name, such as Confucius, is far more readily grasped. Modern writers in their zeal for phonetics seem to have lost their sense of proportion. It is of far more importance not merely to civilization, but to the welfare, respect, and endowment of historians, that the general community should form clear and sound ideas of historical processes, than that it should pronounce the name Jehovah exactly as this or that learned gentleman believes it was pronounced by the Hebrews of the days of Ezra. A day may come in the future for one final, conclusive reform in the spelling of historical names. Meanwhile, it will probably save school teachers of history from endless confusion and muddle if they adhere firmly to the time-established spelling. Yet we have attempted no pedantic classicalism. The reader will find Peisistratus for Goldsmith’s Pisistratus, the Arabic spelling of Muhammad, Kelt for Celt, and Habsburg taking the place of the older Hapsburg.

[162] Figures certainly exaggerated.--G. M.

[163] That is, where is the glory?

[164] But upon the question whether its “Centralization” was the work of Solomon or a much later idea, cp. S. R. Driver, _Deuteronomy_ (Int. Crit. Commentary).--G. W. B.

[165] Estimates of the cubit vary. The greatest is 44 inches. This would extend the width to seventy-odd feet.

[166] But one version of the Creation story and the Eden story, though originally from Babylon, seem to have been known to the Hebrews before the Exile.--G. W. B.

[167] For early Egyptian anticipations of the idea of a Messiah and of the prophetic style, see Breasted’s _Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_. A very good book on the Hebrew prophets is W. A. C. Allen’s _Old Testament Prophets_.

[168] Fletcher H. Swift’s _Education in Ancient Israel from Earliest Times to A.D. 70_ is an interesting account of the way in which the Jewish religion, because it was a literature-sustained religion, led to the first efforts to provide elementary education for all the children in the community.

[169] Ridgeway’s _Early History of Greece_ has been used here, and Gilbert Murray’s _Rise of the Greek Epic_.

[170] Roger Pocock’s _Horses_ is a good and readable book on these questions.

[171] This is a little misleading. I may quote from C. D. Buch, _Introduction to the Study of Greek Dialects_ (_a_) “The great majority of the dialects play no rôle whatever in literature” (p. 14); (_b_) “In the course of literary development the dialects” (in a mixed and artificial form, _e.g._ the “epic” dialect) “came to be characteristic of certain classes of literature; and their rôle once established, the choice usually depended upon this factor, rather than upon the native dialect of the author.” (p. 12.) Speaking generally, each class of literature preserved the dialect of the region where it was first cultivated.

The following work is a most illuminating one on this subject: A. Meillet, _Aperçu d’une Histoire de la Langue Grecque_ (Paris, 1913).--H. L. J.

[172] Vowels were less necessary for the expression of a Semitic language. In the early Semitic alphabets only A, I, and U were provided with symbols, but for such a language as Greek, in which many of the inflectional endings are vowels, a variety of vowel signs was indispensable.

[173] See Zimmern’s _Greek Commonwealth_, Bury’s _History of Greece_, and Barker’s _Greek Political Theory_.

[174] “For them the state did not exist.” This needs qualification. Cephalus, at whose house the conversation of Plato’s _Republic_ is placed, was a resident alien. He was a wealthy man in the best society, and taken as a type of the “happy man.” His son, Lysias, was a leading orator. Even in the matter of the slaves: the Old Oligarch, in the “Constitution of Athens,” complains that the Athenian slaves had no distinctive dress or manners, and so a gentleman could not even push one of them! In the _Republic_ itself there is a description of the Democratic State, in which the slaves push you off the pavement. Moreover, even during the Peloponnesian War, there was no persecution of aliens and no expulsion of aliens from Athens. They were evidently a loyal and contented class. True, in time of food shortage, the claims of everybody to true citizenship were scrutinized more and more closely; but that was unavoidable.--G. M.

[175] I do not agree with “hereditary barristers” or “fee-hunting.” The Athenian dicasts were not barristers, but judges: they sat in panels (sometimes a panel of some hundreds) and judged. They had to be paid for attendance as judges (don’t we pay jurymen?) because it took them away from their work as potters, dyers, and stone-masons. Pay was a genuine and good democratic institution; it was just what made possible the ordinary citizen’s co-operation in the life of the state, and stopped its business from being the perquisite of the rich. I feel strongly that the text is unjust to Athens.--E. B.

See Zimmern’s _Greek Commonwealth_, and Barker’s _Greek Political Theory_, pp. 29-30.

[176] From ostrakon, a tile; the voter wrote the name on a tile or shell.

[177] 776 B.C. is the year of the First Olympiad, a valuable starting-point in Greek chronology.

[178] It is, at least, doubtful whether any change of climate expelled either lion or elephant from southeast Europe and Asia Minor; the cause of their gradual disappearance was--I think--nothing but Man, increasingly well armed for the chase. Lions lingered in the Balkan peninsula till about the fourth century B.C., if not later. Elephants had perhaps disappeared from western Asia by the eighth century B.C. The lion (much bigger than the existing form) stayed on in southern Germany till the Neolithic period. The panther inhabited Greece, southern Italy, and southern Spain likewise till the beginning of the historical period (say 1000 B.C.).--H. H. J.

[179] But a thousand years earlier the Hittites seem to have had paved high roads running across their country.

[180] But cp. Bury’s _History of Greece_, ch. vi., § 5.

[181] Winckler, in Helmolt’s _Universal History_.

[182] See in relation to this chapter, Zimmern’s _Greek Commonwealth_. A very handy book for the student in this section is Abbott’s _Skeleton Outline of Greek History_.

[183] _Ancient Greek Literature_, by Gilbert Murray (Heinemann, 1911).

[184] _Plutarch._

[185] For an account of his views, see Burnet’s _Early Greek Philosophy_. Gomperz, _Greek Thinkers_ is also a good book for this section.

[186] “But it was not only against the lives, properties, and liberties of Athenian citizens that the Thirty made war. They were not less solicitous to extinguish the intellectual force and education of the city, a project so perfectly in harmony both with the sentiment and practice of Sparta, that they counted on the support of their foreign allies. Among the ordinances which they promulgated was one, expressly forbidding any one ‘to teach the art of words.’ The edict of the Thirty was, in fact, a general suppression of the higher class of teachers or professors, above the rank of the elementary (teacher of letters or) grammatist. If such an edict could have been maintained in force for a generation, combined with the other mandates of the Thirty--the city out of which Sophocles and Euripides had just died, and in which Plato and Isocrates were in vigorous age, would have been degraded to the intellectual level of the meanest community in Greece. It was not uncommon for a Grecian despot to suppress all those assemblies wherein youths came together for the purpose of common training, either intellectual or gymnastic, as well as the public banquets and clubs or associations, as being dangerous to his authority, tending to elevation of courage, and to a consciousness of political rights among the citizens.”--Grote’s _History of Greece_.

[187] A very good and useful account of this great literature for the reader who is not a classical student is Norwood’s _Greek Tragedy_.

[188] Mahaffy.

[189] There is not a single sentence in praise of Alexander, no dedication, no compliments, in all Aristotle. On the other hand, he never mentions Demosthenes nor quotes him in the Rhetoric.--G. M.

[190] Wheeler.

[191] Bauer, in _Vom Griechentum zum Christentum_, says that Alexander sent a mission of exploration to Abyssinia to enable Aristotle to settle the question of the cause of the Nile inundations (melting of mountain snows), and that he also had tropical flora and other material collected for him--E. B.

[192] _Ancient Greek Literature._

[193] Jung in his _Psychology of the Unconscious_ is very good in his

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