Part 21

29. _Reign of Mostarshid._--_Al-Mostarshid billah_ ("he who asks guidance from God"), who succeeded his father in Rabia II. 512 (August 1118), distinguished himself by a vain attempt to reestablish the power of the caliph. Towards the end of the year 529 (October 1134) he was compelled to promise that he would confine himself to his palace and never again take the field. Not long after he was assassinated. About the same time Dobais was killed, a prince of the family of the Banu Mazyad, who had founded the Arabian state of Hillah in the vicinity of the ruins of Babel in 1102.

30. _Reign of Rashid._--_Al-Rashid billah_ ("the just through God") tried to follow the steps of his father, with the aid of Zengi, the prince of Mosul. But the sultan Mas'ud beat the army of the allies, took Bagdad and had Rashid deposed (August 1136). Rashid escaped, but was murdered two years later.

31. _Reign of Moqtafi._--His successor _Al-Moqtafi li-amri'llah_ ("he who follows the orders of God"), son of Mostazhir, had better success. He was real ruler not only of the district of Bagdad, but also of the rest of Irak, which he subdued by force. He died in the month of Rabia II. 555 (March 1160). Under his reign the central power of the Seljuks was rapidly sinking. In the west of Atabeg (prince's guardian) Zengi, the prince of Mosul, had extended his dominion over Mesopotamia and the north of Syria, where he had been the greatest defender of Islam against the Franks. At his death in the year 541 (A.D. 1146), his noble son, the well-known Nureddin, who was called "the just king," continued his father's glorious career. Transoxiana was conquered by the heathen hordes of Khata, who towards the end of 535 (A.D. 1141) under the king Ghurkhan defeated the great army of the Seljuk prince and compelled the Turkish tribes of the Ghuzz to cross the Oxus and to occupy Khorasan.

32. _Reign of Mostanjid._--_Al-Mostanjid billah_ ("he who invokes help from God"), the son of Moqtafi, enlarged the dominion of the Caliphate by making an end to the state of the Mazyadites in Hillah. His allies were the Arabic tribe of the Montafiq, who thenceforth were powerful in southern Irak. The greatest event towards the end of his Caliphate was the conquest of Egypt by the army of Nureddin, the overthrow of the Fatimite dynasty, and the rise of Saladin. He was killed by his majordomo in Rabia II. 566 (December 1170).

33. _Reign of Mostadi._--His son and successor _al-Mostadi' bi-amri'llah_ ("he who seeks enlightenment by the orders of God "), though in Egypt his name was now substituted in public prayers for that of the Fatimite caliph, was unable to obtain any real authority. By the death of Nureddin in 569 (A.D. 1174) Saladin's power became firmly rooted. The dynasty founded by him is called that of the Ayyubites, after the name of his father Ayyub. Mostadi died in the month of Dhu'l-qa'da 575 (March 1180).

34. _Reign of Nasir._--Quite a different man from his father was his successor _al-Nasir li-dini'llah_ ("he who helps the religion of God"). During his reign Jerusalem was reconquered by Saladin, 27 Rajab 583 (October 2nd, 1187). Not long before that event the well-known Spanish traveller Ibn Jubair visited the empire of Saladin, and came to Bagdad in 580, where he saw the caliph himself. Nasir was very ambitious; he had added Khuzistan to his dominions, and desired to become also master of Media (Jabal, or Persian Irak, as it was called in the time of the Seljuks). Here, however, he came into conflict with the then mighty prince of Khwarizm (Khiva), who, already exasperated because the caliph refused to grant him the honours he asked for, resolved to overthrow the Caliphate of the Abbasids, and to place a descendant of Ali on the throne of Bagdad. In his anxiety, Nasir took a step which brought the greatest misery upon western Asia, or at least accelerated its arrival.

In the depths of Asia a great conglomeration of east Turkish tribes (Tatars or Mongols), formed by a terrible warrior, known under his honorific title Jenghiz Khan, had conquered the northern provinces of China, and extended its power to the frontiers of the Transoxianian regions. To this heathen chief the Imam of the Moslems sent a messenger, inducing him to attack the prince of Khwarizm, who already had provoked the Mongolian by a disrespectful treatment of his envoys. Neither he nor the caliph had the slightest notion of the imminent danger they conjured up. When Nasir died, Ramadan 622 (October 1225), the eastern provinces of the empire had been trampled down by the wild hordes, the towns burned, and the inhabitants killed without mercy.

35. _Reign of Zahir_.--_Al-Zahir bi-amri'llah_ ("the victorious through the orders of God") died within a year after his father's death, in Rajab 623 (July 1226). He and his son and successor are praised as beneficent and just princes.

36. _Reign of Mostansir_.--_Al-Mostansir billah_ ("he who asks help from God") was caliph till his death in Jornada II. 640 (December 1242). In the year 624 (1227) Jenghiz Khan died, but the Mongol invasion continued to advance with immense strides. The only man who dared, and sometimes with success, to combat them was Jelaleddin, the ex-king of Khwarizm, but after his death in 628 (A.D. 1231) all resistance was paralysed.

37. _Reign of Mostasim_.--_Al-Mosta'sim billah_ ("he who clings to God for protection"), son of Mostansir, the last caliph of Bagdad, was a narrow-minded, irresolute man, guided moreover by bad counsellors. In the last month of the year 653 (January 1256) Hulaku or Hulagu, the brother of the gteat khan of the Mongols, crossed the Oxus, and began by destroying all the strongholds of the Isma'ilis. Then the turn of Bagdad came. On the 11th of Muharram 656 (January 1258) Hulaku arrived under the walls of the capital. In vain did Mostasim sue for peace. Totally devoid of dignity and heroism, he ended by surrendering and imploring mercy from the barbarian victor. On the 4th of Saphar (February 10th) he came with his retinue into the camp. The city was then given up to plunder and slaughter; many public buildings were burnt; the caliph, after having been compelled to bring forth all the hidden treasures of the family, was killed with two of his sons and many relations. With him expired the eastern Caliphate of the Abbasids, which had lasted 524 years, from the entry of Abu'I-Abbas into Kufa.

In vain, three years later, did Abu'I-Qasim Ahmad, a scion of the race of the Abbasids, who had taken refuge in Egypt with Bibars the Mameluke sultan, and who had been proclaimed caliph under the title _al-Mostansir billah_ ("he who seeks help from God"), make an effort to restore a dynasty which was now for ever extinct. At the head of an army he marched against Bagdad, but was defeated and killed before he reached that city. Then another descendant of the Abbasids, who also had found an asylum in Egypt, was proclaimed caliph at Cairo under the name of _al-Hakim bi-amrillah_ ("he who decides according to the orders of God"). His sons inherited his title, but, like their father, remained in Egypt without power or influence (see EGYPT: _History_, "Mahommedan period"). This shadow of sovereignty continued to exist till the conquest of Egypt by the Turkish sultan Selim I., who compelled the last of them, Motawakkil, to abdicate in his favour (see TURKEY: _History_). He died at Cairo, a pensionary of the Ottoman government, in 1538.

Another scion of the Abbasid family, Mahommed, a great-grandson of the caliph Mostansir, found at a later period a refuge in India, where the sultan of Delhi received him with the greatest respect, named him Makhdumzadeh, "the Master's son," and treated him as a prince. Ibn Batuta saw him when he visited India, and says that he was very avaricious. On his return to Bagdad the traveller found there a young man, son of this prince, who gained a single dirhem daily for serving as imam in a mosque, and did not get the least relief from his rich father. It seems that this Mahommed, or his son, emigrated later to Sumatra, where in the old Samutra the graves of their descendants have been lately discovered. (M. J. de G.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Throughout this article, well-known names of persons and places appear in their most familiar forms, generally without accents or other diacritical signs. For the sake of homogeneity the articles on these persons or places are also given under these forms, but in such cases, the exact forms, according to the system of transliteration adopted, are there given in addition.

[2] See Noldeke, _Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Poesie der alten Araber_ (1864), pp. 89 seq.

[3] De Goeje, _Mémoires d'hist. et de géog. orient._ No. 2 (2nd ed., Leiden, 1864); Nöldeke, _D.M.Z._, 1875, p. 76 sqq.; Baladhuri 137.

[4] The accounts differ; see Baladhuri 305. The chronology of the conquests is in many points uncertain.

[5] Baladhuri 315 sq.; Tabari. i. 1068.

[6] He sought to make the whole nation a great host of God; the Arabs were to be soldiers and nothing else. They were forbidden to acquire landed estates in the conquered countries; all land was either made state property or was restored to the old owners subject to a perpetual tribute which provided pay on a splendid scale for the army.

[7] Nöldeke, _Tabari_, 246. To Omar is due also the establishment of the Era of the Flight (Hegira).

[8] Even in the list of the slain at the battle of Honain the Emigrants are enumerated along with the Meccans and Koreish, and distinguished from the men of Medina.

[9] It was the same opposition of the spiritual to the secular nobility that afterwards showed itself in the revolt of the sacred cities against the Omayyads. The movement triumphed with the elevation of the Abbasids to the throne. But, that the spiritual nobility was fighting not for principle but for personal advantage was as apparent in Ali's hostilities against Zobair and Talha, as in that of the Abbasids against the followers af Ali.

[10] Or, at least, so they thought. The history of the letter to 'Abdallah b. abi Sarh seems to have been a trick played on the caliph, who suspected Ali of having had a hand in it.

[11] Ma'ad is in the genealogical system the father of the Modar and the Rab'ia tribes. Qais is the principal branch of the Modar.

[12] The Arabs always call them Rum, i.e. Romans.

[13] A single genealogist, Abu Yaqazan, says that he was a legitimate son of Abu Sofian, and that his mother was Asma, daughter of A'war. But all others call his mother Somayya, who is said to have been a slave-girl of Hind, the wife of Abu Sofian, and who became later also the mother of Abu Bakra. We cannot make out whether Abu Sofian acknowledged him as his son or not. At a later period, the Abbasid caliph Mahdi had the names of Ziyad and his descendants struck off the rolls of the Koreish; but, after his death, the persons concerned gained over the chief of the rolls office, and had their names replaced in the lists (see Tabari iii. 479).

[14] Aghani xx. p. 13, Ibn abi Osaibia i. p. 118.

[15] Tabari ii. p. 82.

[16] See Chodzko, _Théâtre persan_ (Paris, 1878).

[17] Dozy took _communis_ for a gloss to _civiliter_

[18] Formerly the capital of the homonymous province of Syria; it lies a day's march west from Haleb (Aleppo).

[19] This account of the conquest is based partly on the researches of Dozy, but mainly on those of Saavedra in his _Estudio sobre la Invasion de los Arabes en España_ (Madrid, 1892). Some of the details, however, e.g. the battle near Tamames and the part played by the sons of Witiza, are based, not on documentary evidence, but on probable inferences. For other accounts of the deaths of Musa and Abdalaziz see Sir Wm. Muir, _Caliphate_ (London, 1891), pp. 368-9.

[20] Solaiman is the Arabic form of Solomon. The prophecy is to be found in the _Kitab al-Oyun_, p. 24; cf. Tabari ii. p. 1138.

[21] Seyid Ameer Ali, _A Critical Examination of the Life and Teachings of Mahomet_, pp. 341-343.

[22] Cf. Van Vloten, _Recherches sur la domination arabe, le Chiitisme et les croyances messianiques sous le Khalifat des Omayades_ (Amsterdam, 1894), p. 63 seq.

[23] Cf. Wellhausen, _Die Kampfe der Araber mit den Rom. in der Zeit der Umaijiden_ (Göttingen, 1901), p. 31.

[24] Bayan i. p. 42; Dozy, _Histoire des musulmans d'Espagne_, i. p. 246, names the place Bacdoura or Nafdoura, the Spanish chronist Nauam.

[25] Dozy i. p. 268.

[26] Merwan has been nicknamed _al-Ja'di_ and _al-Himar_ (the Ass). As more than one false interpretation of these names has been given, it is not superfluous to cite here Qaisarani (ed. de Jong, p. 31), who says on good authority that a certain al-Ja'd b. Durham, killed under the reign of Hisham for heretical opinions, had followers in Mesopotamia, and that, when Merwan became caliph, the Khorasanians called him a Ja'd, pretending that all'Ja'd had been his teacher. As to al-Himar this was substituted also by the Khorasanians for his usual title, al-Faras, "the race-horse."

[27] The Arabic word for "shedder of blood," _as-Saffah_, which by that speech became a name of the caliph, designates the liberal host who slaughters his camels for his guests. European scholars have taken it unjustly in the sense of the bloodthirsty, and found in it an allusion to the slaughter of the Omayyads and many others. At the same time, it was not without much bloodshed that Abu'l-Abbas finally established his power.

[28] The rule of the caliphs in Morocco, which had never been firmly established, had already, in 740, given place to that of independent princes (see MOROCCO, _History_).

[29] This Hashimiya near Kufa is not to be confused with that founded by Abu'l-Abbas near Anbar.

[30] Cf. G. le Strange, _Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate_ (Oxford, 1900).

[31] Tabari iii. p. 443 seq.

[32] The first citizens of Medina who embraced Islam were called Ansar ("helpers").

[33] On this event, see a remarkable essay by Barbier de Meynard in the _Journal Asiatique_ for March-April, 1869.

[34] Cf. W.M. Patton, _Ahmed ibn Hanbal and the Mihna_ (Leiden, 1897); and article MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION.

[35] See M.J. de Goeje, _Memoire sur les migrations des Ziganes travers l'Asie_ (Leiden, 1903); also GIPSIES.

[36] See M.J. de Goeje, "De legende der Zevenslapers van Efeze," _Versl. en Meded. der K. Akad. v. Wetensch. Afd. Letterk._ 4^e Reeks, iii., 1900.

[37] See M.J. de Goeje, "De muur van Gog en Magog," _Versl. en Meded._ 3^e Reeks, v., 1888.

[38] "Dinars" in the text of Tabari iii. 1685, must be an error for "dirhems."

[39] This Bogha was called al-Kabir, or major; the ally of Wasif, a man of much inferior consideration, al-Saghir, or minor.

[40] See Nöldeke, _Orientalische Skizzen_, pp. 155 seq.

[41] For the connexion between Carmathians and Fatimites see under FATIMITES.

[42] M.J. de Goeje, _Mémoire sur les Carmathes du Bahraïn et les Fatimides_ (Leiden, 1886).

[43] See Defrémery, _Mémoire sur les Emirs al-Omara_ (Paris, 1848).

[44] Henceforward the history of the Caliphate is largely that of the Seljuk princes (see SELJUKS).

CALIVER, a firearm used in the 16th century. The word is an English corruption of "calibre," and arises from the "arquebus of calibre," that is, of standard bore, which replaced the older arquebus. "Caliver," therefore, is practically synonymous with "arquebus." The heavier musket, fired from a rest, replaced the caliver or arquebus towards the close of the century.

CALIXTUS, or CALLISTUS, the name of three popes.

CALIXTUS I., pope from 217 to 222, was little known before the discovery of the book of the _Philosophumena_. From this work, which is in part a pamphlet directed against him, we learn that Calixtus was originally a slave and engaged in banking. Falling on evil times, he was brought into collision with the Jews, who denounced him as a Christian and procured his exile to Sardinia. On his return from exile he was pensioned by Pope Victor, and, later, was associated by Pope Zephyrinus in the government of the Roman church. On the death of Zephyrinus (217) he was elected in his place and occupied the papal chair for five years. His theological adversary Hippolytus, the author of the _Philosophumena_, accused him of having favoured the medalist or Patripassian doctrines both before and after his election. Calixtus, however, condemned Sabellius, the most prominent champion of that system. Hippolytus accused him also of certain relaxations of discipline. It appears that Calixtus reduced the penitential severities applied until his time to those guilty of adultery and other analogous sins. Under Calixtus and his two immediate successors, Hippolytus was the leader of a schismatic group, organized by way of protest against the election of Calixtus. Calixtus died in 222, in circumstances obscured by legends. In the time of Constantine the Roman church reckoned him officially among the martyr popes. (L. D.*)

CALIXTUS II. (d. 1124), pope from 1119 to 1124, was Guido, a member of a noble Burgundian family, who became archbishop of Vienne about 1088, and belonged to the party which favoured reform in the Church. In September 1112, after Pope Paschal II. had made a surrender to the emperor Henry V., Guido called a council at Vienne, which declared against lay investiture, and excommunicated Henry. In February 1119 he was chosen pope at Cluny in succession to Gelasius II., and in opposition to the anti-pope Gregory VIII., who was in Rome. Soon after his consecration he opened negotiations with the emperor with a view to settling the dispute over investiture. Terms of peace were arranged, but at the last moment difficulties arose and the treaty was abandoned; and in October 1119 both emperor and anti-pope were excommunicated at a synod held at Reims. The journey of Calixtus to Rome early in 1120 was a triumphal march. He was received with great enthusiasm in the city, while Gregory, having fled to Sutri, was delivered into his hands and treated with great ignominy. Through the efforts of some German princes negotiations between pope and emperor were renewed, and the important Concordat of Worms made in September 1122 was the result. This treaty, made possible by concessions on either side, settled the investiture controversy, and was confirmed by the Lateran council of March 1123. During his short reign Calixtus strengthened the authority of the papacy in southern Italy by military expeditions, and restored several buildings within the city of Rome. During preparations for a crusade he died in Rome on the 13th or 14th of December 1124.

See M. Maurer, _Pabst Calixt II._ (Munich, 1889); U. Robert, _Hisloire du pape Calixte II._ (Paris, 1891); and A. Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_, Band iii. (Leipzig, 1897).

CALIXTUS III. (_c._1378-1458), pope from 1455 to 1458, was a Spaniard named Alphonso de Borgia, or Borja. A native of Xativa, he gained a great reputation as a jurist, becoming professor at Lerida; in 1429 he was made bishop of Valencia, and in 1444 a cardinal, owing his promotion mainly to his close friendship with Alphonso V., king of Aragon and Sicily. Chosen pope in April 1455, he was very anxious to organize a crusade against the Turks, and having sold many of his possessions, succeeded in equipping a fleet. Neither the princes nor the people of Europe, however, were enthusiastic in this cause, and very little result came from the pope's exertions. During his papacy Calixtus became involved in a quarrel with his former friend, Alphonso of Aragon, now also king of Naples, and after the king's death in June 1458 he refused to recognize his illegitimate son, Ferdinand, as king of Naples, asserting that this kingdom was a fief of the Holy See. This pope was notorious for nepotism, and was responsible for introducing his nephew, Rodrigo Borgia, afterwards Pope Alexander VI., to Rome. He died on the 6th of August 1458.

See A. Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_, Band iii. (Leipzig, 1897).

CALIXTUS, GEORG (1586-1656), Lutheran divine, was born at Medelby, a village of Schleswig, in 1586. After studying philology, philosophy and theology at Helmstädt, Jena, Giessen, Tübingen and Heidelberg, he travelled through Holland, France and England, where he became acquainted with the leading Reformers. On his return in 1614 he was appointed professor of theology at Helmstädt by the duke of Brunswick, who had admired the ability he displayed when a young man in a dispute with the Jesuit Augustine Turrianus. In 1613 he published a book, _Disputationes de Praecipuis Religionis Christianae Capitibus_, which provoked the hostile criticism of orthodox scholars; in 1619 he published his _Epitome theologiae_, and some years later his _Theologia Moralis_ (1634) and _De Arte Nova Nihusii_. Roman Catholics felt them to be aimed at their own system, but they gave so great offence to Lutherans as to induce Statius Buscher to charge the author with a secret leaning to Romanism. Scarcely had he refuted the accusation of Buscher, when, on account of his intimacy with the Reformed divines at the conference of Thorn (1645), and his desire to effect a reconciliation between them and the Lutherans, a new charge was preferred against him, principally at the instance of Abraham Calovius (1612-1686), of a secret attachment to Calvinism. In fact, the great aim of his life was to reconcile Christendom by removing all unimportant differences. The disputes to which this attitude gave rise, known in the Church as the Syncretistic controversy, lasted during the whole lifetime of Calixtus, and distracted the Lutheran church, till a new controversy arose with P.J. Spener and the Pietists of Halle. Calixtus died in 1656.

There is a monograph on Calixtus by E.L.T. Henke (2 vols., 1853-1856); see also Isaak Dorner, _Gesch. d. protest. Theol._ pp. 606-624; and especially Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_.

CALL (from Anglo-Saxon _ceallian_, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch _kallen_, to talk or chatter), to speak in a loud voice, and

## particularly to attract some one's attention by a loud utterance. Hence