D.

=Dacia.= The land of the Daci or Getæ. It comprised the various countries now known as Eastern Hungary, Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia. The Getæ came originally from Thrace, and were divided into various tribes, and seem to have been the most valiant of the Thracian barbarians. Curio, the first Roman general who ever penetrated as far north as the Danube, did not venture to assail them. Julius Cæsar, however, is said to have intended their subjugation. In 10 B.C., Augustus sent an army up the valley of the Maros. From this time a continual war was waged by the Dacians against the Romans, who actually compelled the latter, in the reign of Domitian, to pay a tribute. In 101 A.D. the Emperor Trajan crossed the Theiss, and marched into Transylvania, where he fought a great battle near Thorda. The Daci, who were commanded by their famous chief Decebalus, were defeated. A second expedition of the emperor’s (104 A.D.) resulted in the destruction of their capital, the death of Decebalus, and the loss of their freedom. In 270 and 275 A.D. the Romans abandoned the country to the Goths, and the colonists were transferred to Mœsia. After a series of vicissitudes, Dacia fell into the possession of the Magyars in the 9th century.

=Dacota.= See DAKOTA.

=Dadur.= A town of Beloochistan, 5 miles to the east of the Bolan Pass. It is said to be one of the hottest places in the world, and is celebrated as the place where, in November, 1840, the British troops routed a Kelat force.

=Dag.= A thick, clumsy pistol, used in the 15th and 16th centuries.

=Dagen.= A peculiar kind of poniard.

=Dagger.= A weapon resembling a sword, but considerably smaller, being used for stabbing at close quarters. Daggers are generally two-edged, and very sharp towards the point.

=Daghestan.= A province of Russia, on the west coast of the Caspian Sea. It was conquered by the czar Peter in 1723; restored to Persia, 1735; but re-annexed to Russia by Alexander I. in 1813.

=Dague= (_Fr._). Dagger, a short thick poniard which was formerly used when individuals engaged in single combat.

=Dahlgren Gun.= So named from Admiral Dahlgren, its inventor. An improved form of ordnance used for howitzers, heavy artillery, and especially in naval gunnery. It having been demonstrated that in ordinary cast guns the weight of the metal forward is greater than is needed, and that by far the greatest strain in firing is at the breech, Dahlgren greatly increased the relative size and weight of the breech, with the best results. These guns are chiefly used by the U. S. forces. See ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF.

=Dahme.= A town of Prussia, on the river of the same name. It is defended by a strong citadel, and inclosed by walls. Here, in 1713, the French were defeated by the Prussians.

=Dahomey.= An independent state of Guinea, Western Africa, extending along the coast from Fort Badagry on the east, to the river Volta, which separates it from Ashantee on the west. The Dahomans, who came into possession of this tract of country about the beginning of the 18th century, are for the most part tall, well formed, and intelligent, and, for an African race, singularly honest and far advanced in agriculture. With the exception of a few Mohammedans, whose religious belief is in no way interfered with, they are all pagans, and practice fetish-worship. The king is the most absolute of despots, having entire control over the lives and property of his subjects. Wholesale murder is one of the chief features in religious and state ceremonies, and the most valued ornaments of the royal residence are human skulls. As many as 2000 human victims are sometimes sacrificed at one “grand custom.” Of the regular army of 12,000, about one-half are Amazons (devoted to celibacy), who are described as much more effective soldiers than their male companions in arms; but at the same time as blood-thirsty and ferocious as tigresses.

=Dahra.= In Algeria; on June 18, 1845, above 500 Kabyles at war with the French, were suffocated in a cave by smoke, the fire having been kindled by order of Gen. Pelissier, afterwards Duke of Malakoff. They had fired on a messenger bearing an offer of truce. The massacre was condemned by Soult, the minister of war, but justified by Marshal Bugeaud.

=Dakota.= A Territory in the north central part of the United States. It was organized under a territorial form of government March 2, 1861, but very extensive alterations have since been made in its boundaries. The Territory has been greatly disturbed by marauding bands of Sioux Indians, or Dakotas, who were in 1862 and 1863 especially daring and aggressive, and though they have frequently been defeated by U. S. troops, notably under Gens. Sully and Sibley in 1863, they are still very troublesome, necessitating the frequent intervention of troops for the protection of the settlers.

=Dakota Indians.= A numerous and powerful tribe or collection of tribes of Indians of common stock, often called Sioux, who formerly roamed over the territory between the Missouri and Mississippi, but have moved farther west since 1851, and are settled on agencies in Dakota, Montana, Nebraska, etc. A great proportion of them still preserve their nomadic habits and are still frequently troublesome. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Dalecarlians.= Natives of Dalecarlia, Sweden, who revolted against Christian of Denmark, 1521, and placed Gustavus Vasa on the throne of Sweden.

=Dalmatia.= A narrow strip of territory extending along the Adriatic Sea; bounded north by Istria and Croatia, and east by Bosnia and Herzegovina. In ancient times Dalmatia was a considerable kingdom, and, after many unsuccessful attempts, was first subjugated by the Romans in the time of Augustus. After the fall of the Western empire, Dalmatia, which had formed the most southern part of the province of Illyricum, was captured by the Goths, from whom it was taken by the Avari (490), who in their turn yielded it to the Slavonians about 620. It continued under the rule of the Slavonians until the beginning of the 11th century, when King Ladislaus of Hungary incorporated a part of it with Croatia, while the other part, with the title of duchy, placed itself under the protection of the Venetian republic. The Turks afterwards made themselves masters of a small portion, and by the peace of Campo-Formio (1797), the Venetian part, with Venice itself, became subject to Austrian rule, and when Austria, in 1805, had ceded this part to Napoleon, it was annexed to the kingdom of Italy; afterwards (1810) to Illyria. Since 1814, excepting the Turkish portion, it has been reunited with Austria.

=Damages, Barrack.= In the British service, is the term applied to the injuries done to barracks, barrack furniture, etc., by soldiers, when the actual perpetrator cannot be discovered. The term is also applied to the sum levied from the company or regiment generally, to make good the injury. Damages to arms, clothing, etc. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 17.

=Damascus.= A city of Syria, in Asiatic Turkey. During the time of the Hebrew monarchy, it was the capital of Syria, but afterwards passed successively under the rule of the Assyrians, Persians, Macedonians, Romans, and Saracens; and finally, in 1516, it was captured by the Turks (under Sultan Selim I.), in whose hands it has remained ever since. Damascus was at one time celebrated for the manufacture of sword-blades of the finest temper and most exquisite workmanship, but the process by which such unequaled specimens of art were perfected appears no longer to exist.

=Damaskin.= A certain kind of sabre; so called from the manufacture of Damascus.

=Dame= (_Fr._). Among miners any portion of earth which may remain after the explosion of a mine has taken place. It likewise means a piece of wood with two handles used to press down turf or dirt in a mortar.

=Damietta.= A city of Lower Egypt, on the east branch of the Nile. It was taken by the Crusaders, 1219; lost, 1229; retaken by Louis IX., June 5, 1249; surrendered as his ransom when a prisoner, May 6, 1250.

=Damnonii=, =Dumnonii=, or =Dumnunii=. A powerful people who inhabited the southwest of Britain, comprising Cornwall, Devonshire, and the western part of Somersetshire, from whom was called the promontory Damnonium (now Cape Lizard), in Cornwall.

=Danai.= An ancient name of the Greeks, derived from Danaus, king of Argos, 1474 B.C.

=Danala.= A city in the territory of the Trocmi, in the northeast of Galatia, notable in the history of the Mithridatic war as the place where Lucullus resigned the command to Pompey.

=Dancetté.= One of the lines of partition in heraldry, differing from indented only in the greater size of the notches. See INDENTED.

=Danes=, or =Northmen=. Natives of Denmark; during their attacks upon Britain and Ireland they made a descent on France, where, in 895, under Rollo, they received presents under the walls of Paris. They returned and ravaged the French territories as far as Ostend in 896. They attacked Italy in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of France to Rollo and his Normans (Northmen), hence Normandy, in 911. The Danes invaded England, Scotland, and Ireland with varying successes from 783 to 1084.

=Dangerous Space.= That zone, partly before and partly beyond the object fired at (the sights having been correctly elevated), which is _covered_ by the trajectory; the object may be displaced to the front or rear of its correct range-point, a distance equal, in the aggregate, to the depth of this zone, and still be struck by the projectile. “Dangerous space” is calculated under the assumption that the gun when fired is 56 inches from the ground, that it is aimed at a point 34 inches from the ground, and that the stature of a man is 68 inches; and that the head of a man on horseback is 8 feet above the ground. The “dangerous space” will, of course, be increased by the firer lying down and aiming at his adversary’s feet. A part of the “dangerous space” is near the muzzle of the gun in the rising branch of the trajectory; the rest of it is in the falling branch; these two parts being continuous up to and including the “battle-range” (which see). The “dangerous space” varies with the weapon used and the object fired at; and for the same arm diminishes as the range increases beyond “battle-range”; up to this point it increases with the range. A perfect understanding of this subject is essential to effective infantry fire upon the field of battle. Valuable tables will be found upon it in Laidley’s “Rifle Firing.”

=Dannebrog.= The ancient battle-standard of Denmark, bearing the figures of a cross and crown. It was fabled to have fallen from heaven at the battle of Volmar, in Esthonia (1219), during a crusade against the heathens. It was twice taken in battle and twice recaptured. In 1500 a mere fragment remained.

=Dannebrog, Order of the.= Is the second of the Danish orders of knighthood. It is said to have been founded in 1219, but fell into decay, and was restored in 1671.

=Dannevirke=, or =Dannewerke=. A series of earthworks considered almost impregnable, stretching across the long narrow peninsula of Sleswick, Holstein, and Jutland,--said to have been built during the “stone age.” It was rebuilt in 937 by Thyra, queen of Gormo the Old, for which she was named _Dannabod_, “the pride of the Danes.” It was again repaired between 995 and 1000. Near here the Prussians, aiding the duchies, defeated the Danes, April 23, 1848.

=Dantzic=, or =Danzig=. A city of Prussia; is surrounded with ramparts, mounted with cannon, and the town may be considered as being one of the strongest fortresses in Prussia. In the 10th century it was known as the capital of Pomerali; it passed with that province, in 1295, under the authority of Poland; but in 1308, Ladislaus IV. ceded the whole to the Teutonic knights, who held it till 1454. In that year it was again seized by the Poles; and in 1575, having refused to acknowledge Stephen Bathory, it had to sustain a siege by that monarch, and was taken in 1577. From 1360 to 1641 it was one of the principal towns in the Hanseatic League. When this league was dissolved, Dantzic joined Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen; and these four cities, down to a very late period, retained their name of Hanse Towns. In 1734 it was forced to surrender to the Russians and Saxons, who were then besieging Stanislaus of Poland. In 1793 it was occupied by the Prussians. It was taken by the French in May, 1807, after a long siege, by Marshal Lefevre, who thence acquired his title of duke of Dantzic. After Bonaparte’s disastrous campaign in Russia, it was blockaded and obliged to surrender, after a long and able defense by Gen. Rapp. At the peace of Paris, in 1814, it reverted to Prussia.

=Dardanelles=, or =Hellespont= (anc. _Hellespontus_). A narrow strait between Europe and Asiatic Turkey, connecting the Sea of Marmora and the Ægean Sea. As it is the key to Constantinople, there are on both shores of this narrow channel numerous forts and batteries, there being 8 on the European and 7 on the Asiatic side. It was here the invading armies of Xerxes crossed on a bridge of boats to enter Europe. The passage of the strait was achieved by the British under Sir John Duckworth, February 9, 1807; but he repassed with great loss, March 2, two castles occupying the sites of the ancient Sestos and Abydos, hurling down stones of many tons weight upon the British. The allied English and French passed the Dardanelles at the sultan’s request, October, 1853.

=Dart.= A pointed, missile weapon, intended to be thrown by the hand; a short lance; a javelin; hence, any missile weapon.

=Dartmouth.= A seaport town of England, in Devonshire; it was burnt by the French in the reigns of Richard I. and Henry IV. In a third attempt (1404) the invaders were defeated by the inhabitants, assisted by the valor of the women. In the war of the Parliament, Dartmouth was taken, after a siege of four weeks, by Prince Maurice, who garrisoned the place for the king (1643); but it was retaken by Gen. Fairfax by storm in 1646.

=Dauphin= (_Dolphin_), _Fr._ An ornamental handle on brass guns over the trunnions, so called from its resemblance to that fish.

=Dauphiné.= An old province of Southeast France, successively held by the Allobroges, Burgundians, and Lombards; was, about 723-24, delivered from the invading Saracens by Charles Martel. Its counts were called dauphins; and when it was ceded to Philip of Valois, in 1349, the title of dauphin was given to the eldest son of the king of France, to whom it continued to be applied till the revolution of 1830.

=David’s Day, St.= The 1st day of March is annually commemorated by the Welsh, in honor of St. David. Tradition states that on St. David’s birthday, 540, a great victory was obtained by the Welsh over their Saxon invaders, and that the Welsh soldiers were distinguished by order of St. David by a leek in their caps.

=Dax.= A well-built town of France, department of Landes. It is surrounded by an old wall, flanked with towers, and is also protected by a castle. Dax was taken by the English in the 12th century, and remained in their possession till the middle of the 15th century.

=Day-book.= In the British service, is a sort of private memorandum-book, in which the pay-sergeant enters all details of expenditure other than pay under each man’s head. These entries are made at the moment, and afterwards transferred to the ledger.

=Day’s March.= See MARCH.

=Dead Angle.= In fortification, is any angle or piece of ground which cannot be seen, and which therefore cannot be defended from behind the parapet of the fortification.

=Dead-head.= In casting a cannon, is the surplus metal in the top of the mold; called also the _sprue_.

=Dead March.= A piece of solemn music intended to be played as an accompaniment to a funeral procession.

=Dead Pay.= Was the pay formerly drawn for soldiers really dead, whose names were kept on the rolls; and whose pay was appropriated by dishonest officers.

=Dead-shot.= An unerring marksman.

=Debark.= To leave a ship or boat and pass to the land; to go on shore; as, the troops debarked at 4 o’clock; disembark.

=Deblai.= The hollow space or excavation formed by removing earth for the construction of parapets in fortification. Thus the ditch or fosse whence the earth has been taken represents the _deblai_, while the earth itself, so removed, constitutes the _remblai_.

=Deblayer un Camp= (_Fr._). To evacuate a camp for the purpose of cleaning and purifying the ground.

=Debouch.= A military term, signifying to march out from a wood, defile, or other confined place into open ground; also an outlet or available issue by which an army can march out.

=Débris= (_Fr._). Remains, ruins of a building or town which has been sacked; broken remains of an army after defeat.

=Debruised.= A term in English heraldry used to indicate the restrained position of an animal in a coat of arms, by having any of the ordinaries laid over it.

=Decagon.= In fortification, is a polygon figure, having 10 sides, and as many angles; and if all the sides and angles be equal, it is called a regular decagon, and may be inscribed in a circle. The sides of a regular decagon are in power and length equal to the greatest segment of a hexagon, inscribed in the same circle and cut in extreme and mean proportion.

=Decamp, To.= To march an army or body of men from the ground where it before lay encamped. It also signifies to quit any place or position in an unexpected manner.

=Decanus.= In Roman military history, a petty officer who presided over the 10 soldiers of his contubernium, or those living in the same ten.

=Deccan.= An extensive region of India; invaded by the Mohammedans in 1294. About 1686-90, Aurungzebe I. recovered the Deccan, but soon lost great part of it to the Mahrattas. A large part of the Deccan was ceded to the English in 1818.

=Deceased Officers and Soldiers.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 125, 126.

=Dechargeurs= (_Fr._). Are men appointed to attend the park of artillery, and to assist the non-commissioned officers, etc., who are employed on that service. It is the duty of the former to keep a specific account of articles received and consumed, in order to enable the latter to furnish their officers with accurate statements.

=Decimation.= A military punishment inflicted among the Romans on cowardly or mutinous troops. It consisted in selecting by lot one-tenth of the whole body of troops who misbehaved, and putting them to death. There have been a few instances of this species of punishment in modern times. In 1642 the Archduke Leopold employed it against a regiment of cavalry; Marshal Créqui also had recourse to it against the mutinous garrison of Trèves, and before the battle of Waterloo Blücher is said to have punished in this manner a body of mutinous troops.

=Decisions.= In courts-martial, the majority of votes decides all questions as to the admission or rejection of evidence, and on other points involving law or custom. If equally divided, the doubt is in favor of the prisoner.

=Declaration of Independence.= This celebrated document by which the thirteen United Colonies of America announced their intention of taking their affairs into their own hands, renouncing their allegiance to Great Britain, and asserting their freedom, was drawn up by Thomas Jefferson, and received the unanimous approval of the delegates in the Congress of the Colonies, July 4, 1776.

=Declaration of War.= The formal announcement by a government of its intention to wage war against another, is a proceeding which is observed among all civilized nations. In the United States the declaration of war is a power exercised by Congress alone. During the age of chivalry, a herald made declaration of war at the enemy’s court, his tabard on his arm.

=Decompte= (_Fr._). Signifies a liquidation or balance, which from time to time was made in the old French service, between the captain of a company and each private soldier for money advanced or in hand.

=Decoration Day.= The anniversary, in the United States, on which flowers are placed on soldiers’ graves, and which is observed on May 30. This day was set apart for the purpose mentioned soon after the war of the Rebellion, 1861-65.

=Decoration, Military.= A medal, cross of honor, etc., bestowed for distinguished services.

=Decorations.= In pyrotechny, are the compositions which are placed in the heads of rockets, in paper shells, etc., to make a brilliant display when the receptacle is burst.

=Decouplé.= In heraldry, signifies severed or disjoined, so that the ends stand at a distance from one another, as a _chevron decouplé_.

=Decoy.= To lead or to entice into a snare; to lead into danger by artifice; to entrap. An enemy is said to be decoyed when a small body of troops draws them in to action, whilst the main body lies in ambush ready to act with the greatest effect.

=Decrement.= Is a heraldic term by which the wane of the moon is indicated. _Decrescent_ and _decours_ are also used in the same sense. A moon _decrescent_ is a half-moon with her horns turned to the sinister.

=Decurion.= An officer in the Roman cavalry, who commanded a decuria, which was a body consisting of 10 men.

=Deeg.= A strong fortress of Hindostan, in the province of Agra, which was captured by the British arms under Gen. Lake in 1804.

=Deep.= A term used in the disposition or arrangements of soldiers placed in ranks before each other; hence, two deep, three deep, etc. _Deep line of operations_, a long line.

=Default.= A military offense, in the British service, is so called.

=Defaulter.= A soldier who has been guilty of a military offense. It is generally applied to men sentenced to confinement to barracks, and attaches to them until the completion of their punishment.

=Defaulter Book.= The book in which the defaulter sheets are contained. The regimental defaulter book containing regimental, and the company defaulter book company, defaults.

=Defaulters’ Sheet.= For every soldier there are two sheets of foolscap paper, in one of which, called his company defaulter sheet, are entered all offenses and the punishments awarded. The other, called the regimental defaulter sheet, contains only offenses for which a man has been punished by more than seven days confined to barracks, or other awards considered of equal gravity.

=Defeat.= This word expresses the complete want of success of an army; a repulse signifying less, and a rout more, than defeat.

=Defeat.= To resist with success; as, to defeat an assault.

=Defection.= The act of abandoning a person or cause to which one is bound by allegiance or duty, or to which one has attached himself.

=Defend.= To secure against attack; to maintain; as, to defend a town; to defend a cause.

=Defender.= One who defends; one who maintains, supports, protects, etc.

=Defense.= In military law, is the defendant’s answer to the plea; an opposing or denial of the truth or validity of the plaintiff’s case; the method of proceeding adopted by the defendant to protect himself against the plaintiff’s action.

=Defense.= In fortification, consists of all sorts of works that cover and defend the opposite posts; as flanks, parapets, casements, etc.

=Defense, Active.= Comprehends every species of offensive operation which is resorted to by the besieged to annoy the besiegers.

=Defense, Distant.= Consists in being able to interrupt the enemy’s movements by circuitous inundations; to inundate, for instance, a bridge, when a convoy is passing, or to insulate batteries, the heads of saps or lodgments which have been made in the covert way. By this species of defense an enemy’s communications may be perpetually intercepted, and his approaches so obstructed as to force him to leave dangerous intervals.

=Defense, Line of.= Represents the flight of a rifle-ball from the place where the soldiers stand, to scour the face of the bastion. The line of defense should never exceed the range of a rifle. It is either _fichant_ or _rayant_. The first is when it is drawn from the angle; the last, when it is drawn from a point in the curtain, ranging the face of the bastion in fortification.

=Defense, Lines of.= Are the distances between the salient angle of the bastion and the opposite flank; that is, the faces produced to the flanks.

=Defense, Passing.= Is chiefly confined to inundations, and is effected by letting out water in such a manner that the level ground which lies round a fortified town or place may be entirely overflowed, and become an inert stagnant pool.

=Defensive.= A force is said to be on the defensive, or to assume a defensive attitude, when it takes up a position to receive an attack.

=Defensive War.= See WAR, DEFENSIVE.

=Defilading=, or =Defilement=. The art of arranging the plan and profile of works, so that their lines shall not be liable to enfilade, nor their interior to plunging or reverse fire.

=Defile.= A narrow passage, or road, through which troops cannot march otherwise than by making a small front and filing off.

=Defile, To.= To reduce a body of troops into a small front, in order to march through a defile; also, to defilade.

=Deformer= (_Fr._). In a military sense, signifies to break; as, _deformer une colonne_, to break a column.

=Dégat= (_Fr._). The laying waste an enemy’s country, particularly in the neighborhood of a town which an army attempts to reduce by famine, or which refuses to pay military exactions.

=Degorgeoir= (_Fr._). A sort of steel pricker used in examining the vent of a cannon; a priming wire.

=Degradation.= In military life, the act of depriving an officer forever of his commission, rank, dignity, or degree of honor, and taking away at the same time every title, badge, or privilege he may possess.

=Degraded.= In heraldry, means placed upon steps or degrees.

=Degsestan, Battle of.= See SCOTLAND.

=Dehors.= In the military art, all sorts of outworks in general, placed at some distance from the walls of a fortification, the better to secure the main places, and to protect the siege, etc.

=Delaware.= One of the Middle States of the United States, and one of the original thirteen. It derives its name (as do the Delaware River and Bay and Delaware Indians) from Thomas West, lord de la Warr, who visited the bay in 1610, and died on his vessel at its mouth. It was first settled by the Swedes and Dutch, but came into possession of the English in 1664, and formed part of the grant to William Penn in 1682. In 1701 it was separated from Pennsylvania, though subject to the same governor down to the period of the Revolution, to the success of which it contributed its full share, and for the maintenance of the results of which it has ever been a zealous advocate.

=Delaware Indians.= A tribe of aborigines, called by themselves _Lenni-Lenape_, who formerly lived on the Delaware River, but are now settled in Indian Territory, on the Wichita Agency, with the Caddos. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Delf.= A heraldic charge representing a square sod or turf, the term being probably derived from the word _delve_, to dig. A _delf tenné_ is the appropriate abatement for him who revokes his challenge, or otherwise goes from his word.

=Delhi.= A celebrated city of Northern India, situated on an offset of the river Jumna. The city was taken by a British army under Lord Lake, September 8, 1803, and has ever since continued under British rule. In 1857 it was held by the Sepoys, who murdered several English subjects, but was retaken, after a successful assault, September, 1857.

=Deliver Battle.= A term taken from the French _livrer bataille_, meaning to enter practically upon a contest; the opposing armies being in sight of each other.

=Dellamcotta.= A fortress of Northern Hindostan, in the province of Bootan, commanding the principal pass into that province. It was stormed by the British troops in 1773, which so alarmed the Booteans that they petitioned for peace. The fortress was then restored to them.

=Dellis.= Were Bosnian and Albanian horsemen, who served without pay in the Turkish armies.

=Delphi= (now _Castri_). An ancient town of Phocis, Greece, celebrated on account of its oracle of Apollo. Its temple was burnt by the Pisistratidæ, 548 B.C. A new temple was raised by the Alcmæonidæ. The Persians (480 B.C.) and the Gauls (279 B.C.) were deterred from plundering the temple by awful portents. It was, however, robbed and seized by the Phocians, 357 B.C., which led to the Sacred War, and Nero carried from it 300 costly statues in 67 A.D.

=Demembré=, or =Dismembered=. A heraldic term signifying that the members of an animal are cut from its body.

=Demerara and Essequibo.= Colonies in Guiana, South America, founded by the Dutch in 1580, were taken by the British, under Maj.-Gen. Whyte, April 22, 1796, but were restored at the peace of Amiens, 1802. They again surrendered to the British under Gen. Grinfield and Commodore Hood, September, 1803, and became English colonies in 1814.

=Demi=, or =Demy=. In heraldry, an animal is said to be demi when only the upper or fore half of it is represented.

=Demi-bastion.= A piece in fortification, which generally terminates the branches of crown-works or horn-works towards their head.

=Demi-brigade.= A half brigade.

=Demi-cannon.= A kind of ordnance, anciently used, carrying a ball of from 30 to 36 pounds in weight.

=Demi-culverin.= A kind of ordnance anciently used, carrying a ball of 9 or 10 pounds in weight.

=Demi-distances= (_Fr._). Half distances; as, _serrez la colonne à demi-distances_, close to the column at half distances.

=Demi-file= (_Fr._). Is that rank in a French battalion which immediately succeeds to the _serre-demi-file_, and is at the head of the remaining half of its depth.

=Demi-gorge.= In fortification, is half the gorge or entrance into the bastion, not taken directly from angle to angle, where the bastion joins the curtain, but from the angle of the flank to the centre of the bastion, or the angle which the two curtains would make by their prolongation.

=Demihag.= A long pistol, much used in the 16th century.

=Demi-lance.= A light lance; half-pike. Also a light horseman who carried a lance.

=Demi-lune.= In fortification, is a work constructed beyond the main ditch of a fortress, and in front of the curtain between two bastions, intended to defend the curtain; a ravelin.

=Demi-parallel.= In fortification, is a place of arms formed between the second and third parallels to protect the head of the sap.

=Demi-pike.= A kind of spontoon, 7 feet long, used by infantry or for boarding.

=Demi-place d’Armes.= In fortification, a circular trench constructed upon the prolongation of the lines of the covered way, to the right and left of the zigzags, to cover the troops employed in their defense.

=Demi-revetment.= A revetment of the scarf only to the height protected by the glacis.

=Demmin.= A town of Prussia, on the river Peene, on the borders of Pomerania and Mecklenburg. It is a town of considerable antiquity, having been a place of importance in the time of Charlemagne, and is noted for the number of sieges it has sustained. Its fortifications were destroyed in 1759. In 1807 several engagements took place here between the French and Russians.

=Demonstration.= In military operations, is an apparent movement, the chief object of which is to deceive the enemy, and induce him to divide his force, as if to meet dangers from various quarters. When thus divided and weakened, he may be attacked with greater chance of success.

=Denain.= A village of France, department of the North. It is celebrated in history as the scene of the decisive victory gained in 1712 by Marshal Villars over the allies commanded by Prince Eugène.

=Denbigh.= The capital town of the county of the same name, North Wales. In ancient times it was a place of great military importance. The castle was gallantly held by Col. William Salisbury for the king during the civil wars of the revolution, but finally surrendered to the Parliamentary forces under Gen. Mytton.

=Dendermonde.= A town of Belgium, in the province of East Flanders. It is fortified, and has a citadel dating from 1584, and possessing the means of laying the surrounding country under water in case of an attack. Louis XIV. besieged it in vain in 1667, but Marlborough, aided by a long drought, succeeded in taking it in 1706.

=Denmark.= A kingdom of Northern Europe, which, with Sweden and Norway, was originally called Scandinavia. In ancient times it was occupied by a fierce and warlike people, whose principal occupation was piracy. In 832 the Danes landed in England, and there established two kingdoms, and two centuries afterwards the conquest of England was completed by Canute, king of Denmark. In the 15th century Christian I. connected Norway, Sleswick, and Holstein with the crown of Denmark, but in consequence of siding with Napoleon, Denmark was obliged to cede Norway to Sweden in 1814. In 1848 Sleswick and Holstein revolted, the duchies being aided by Prussia and other powers of the Germanic Confederation, who, however, concluded a peace on their own account, July 2, 1850. The duchies continued the war, were defeated at Idstet, July 25, 1850, and peace was restored by the intervention of the powers in January, 1851. Hostilities again commenced in 1863, and were terminated by the peace of Vienna in 1864, Denmark renouncing all claim on Sleswick-Holstein.

=Dennewitz.= A small village in the province of Brandenburg, Prussia. Here was fought, on the 6th of September, 1813, a battle between 70,000 French, Saxons, and Poles, commanded by Marshal Ney, and 45,000 Prussians, under Gen. Tauentzien. Both armies more than once drove each other from their positions, but the Prussians finally prevailed, and Ney gave orders to retreat. At this moment Bernadotte, crown-prince of Sweden, appeared at the head of a large army, and turned the retreat of the French army into a complete rout.

=Denonciateur= (_Fr._). In a general sense, may not improperly be called a military informer. So rigid indeed were the regulations (even in the most corrupt state of the French government) against every species of misapplication and embezzlement, that if a private dragoon gave information to the commissary of musters of a troop horse that had passed muster, having been used in the private service of an officer, he was not only entitled to his discharge, but received, moreover, 100 livres in cash, and became master of the horse and equipage, with which he retired unmolested. The officer was summarily dealt with.

=Densimeter.= An apparatus for obtaining the specific gravity of gunpowder by immersing it in mercury. It consists of an open vessel containing mercury, a frame supporting a glass globe communicating by a tube with the mercury in the open vessel, and joined at top to a graduated glass tube, which communicates by a flexible tube with an ordinary air-pump. Stop-cocks are inserted in the tubes above and below the glass globe, and a diaphragm of chamois-skin is placed over the bottom orifice and one of wire cloth over the top orifice of the globe. The arrangement allows the globe to be filled with mercury to any mark on the graduated tube, or with gunpowder and mercury. The globe can be taken off and weighed in both cases. The specific gravity is obtained from the relation between the weights in the two cases.

=Density.= The density or specific gravity of gunpowder is one of its most important properties. In the form of dust, the velocity of combustion increases rapidly with the density up to about 1.60, when it decreases. In grained powder the velocity of combustion decreases as the density increases. For English or American powder this velocity is about four-tenths of an inch per second. For French and most of the continental powders, which are less dense than the English, it is about forty-eight-hundredths of an inch. The excellent preservative qualities of English and American powders are largely due to their high densities,--the standard being about 1.75. A certain degree of density is absolutely essential to grain powder to prevent the inflamed gases from penetrating the pores of the powder and flashing off the whole mass to the destruction of the gun. In the manufacture of powder the density depends, first, upon the amount of trituration to which the ingredients are subjected in the incorporating mill; second, upon the pressure employed to form the cake; and, third, upon the degree of moisture it contains when subjected to these operations, particularly the last. The pressure-gauge is not a reliable measure of the _density_ given to a powder, though a good indication of the _hardness_, with which density must not be confounded. Dry powder meal offers a great resistance to compression, but becomes very hard,--the work being consumed in consolidating the surface particles. To obtain uniform density a certain amount of moisture is necessary to assist the particles in their movement. As much as 6 per cent. of moisture is used in making prismatic powder.

=Department Commander.= See GEOGRAPHICAL DEPARTMENT, COMMANDER OF.

=Department, Military.= A military subdivision of a country. The whole territory of the United States is divided into military departments, each under a general officer. See GEOGRAPHICAL DEPARTMENT, COMMANDER OF.

=Department of War.= That department of a government which takes charge of all matters relating to war. See SECRETARY OF WAR.

=Depenses= (_Fr._). In a military sense, implies secret service money.

=Deploy.= Signifies a military movement, in which a body of troops is spread out in such a way that they shall display a wider front and a smaller depth than before deploying. To _ploy_ is to execute the reverse of this movement.

=Deployment.= The act of unfolding or expanding any given body of men, in order to extend their front.

=Deposits, Soldiers’.= Soldiers in the U. S. service may deposit with the paymaster any portion of their savings, in sums not less than $5, the same to remain so deposited until final payment on discharge. Interest on deposits at the rate of 4 per cent. per annum will be paid on final settlement upon each deposit from the date thereof to date of discharge. No interest is payable, however, upon any deposit of less than $50, or upon any sum, whatever its amount, which has been on deposit for a less period than six months prior to date of discharge. Deposits are forfeited by desertion.

=Depot.= Any place at which military stores are deposited for the use of an army. It also signifies a fort or other suitable place appropriated for the reception of recruits, or detached parties belonging to different regiments. In fortification, the term is likewise used to denote a particular place at the trail of the trenches out of the reach of the cannon of a besieged place. It is here that besiegers generally assemble when ordered to attack the outworks, or support the troops in the trenches when there is reason to imagine the besieged intend making a sally.

=Depredate.= To take plunder or prey; to commit waste; as, the troops depredated on the country; also, in an active sense, to plunder or pillage; to spoil; to lay waste.

=Depressed Gun.= Any piece of ordnance having its mouth depressed below the horizontal line.

=Depression.= The pointing of any piece of ordnance so that its shot may be projected short of the point-blank.

=Depth.= A technical word, peculiarly applicable to bodies of men drawn up in line or column. The depth of a battalion or squadron is the number of men in rank and file from front to rear.

=Deputy-Marshal.= In the British service, is the senior sergeant-major of each regiment of Foot Guards, who sees after and makes out the routes of deserters, and receives an allowance for so doing.

=Deraser= (_Fr._). To cut off the superfluous clay from a gun-mold previous to its being placed in the pit.

=Derayeh, El.= A town of Arabia, nearly in the centre of the district called El Nedjed. It is tolerably well fortified, but after a siege of seven months, in 1819, it was nearly destroyed by the troops of Ibrahim Pasha.

=Derbend=, or =Derbent=. A town of Russia, the capital of the province of Daghestan. It is surrounded by strong walls and flanked and strengthened by massive bastions. It was taken from Persia by Russia in 1722, restored to the former power in 1735, and retaken by the Muscovites in 1795.

=Derivation= (_Fr._). Drift of rifle projectiles. See PROJECTILES.

=Descend.= In a military sense, means to make an attack or incursion as if from a vantage-ground.

=Descents.= In fortification, are the holes, vaults, and hollow places made by undermining the ground.

=Descents into the Ditch.= Cuts and excavations made by means of saps in the counterscarp, beneath the covert way. They are covered with thick boards and hurdles; and a certain quantity of earth is thrown upon the top in order to obviate the bad effects which might arise from shells, etc.

=Descriptive Book.= A book in which descriptive lists of the soldiers belonging to a company are kept.

=Descriptive List of Soldier.= A paper giving a short history of the soldier, a description of his person, and the statement of his account. It accompanies him wherever he goes, being intrusted to his detachment or company commander.

=Descriptive Memoir.= This memoir, which should always accompany a sketch of a topographical reconnoissance, is intended to convey that information relating to the natural features of the ground not expressed upon the sketch; to express that information for which there are no conventional signs, and to present those facts relative to the ground which become important by being considered in connection with the probable military operations to be undertaken.

=Desenzano.= A town of Lombardy, in the province of Brescia. Garibaldi, in command of the Italian volunteers, defeated an Austrian force near this place in 1859.

=Desert.= To quit a service without permission; to run away; as, to desert from the army; to forsake in violation of duty; as, to desert one’s colors.

=Deserter.= A soldier who absconds, during the period for which he is enlisted, from the service of the army or navy. In England this crime was by certain old statutes made punishable with death, but now the punishment is left to the discretion of a court-martial. In the United States, deserters in the time of war may be sentenced to death, but in time of peace the penalty for this offense is lighter.

=Desertion.= The act of absence from duty without intention to return. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 47.

=Despatch=, or =Dispatch=. An official military letter sent by the commander of an army in the field to the authorities at home. The term is also applied to the military letters giving an account of military operations sent by subordinate officers holding detached commands to the general of an army in the field. See DISPATCHES.

=Detach.= To separate for a special object or use; as, to send out a body of men on some particular service, separate from that of the main body.

=Detached Bastion.= In fortification, is that basis which is separated from the enceinte by a ditch.

=Detached Works.= In fortification, are such outworks as are detached, or at a distance from the body of the place; such as half-moons, ravelins, bastions, etc.

=Detachment.= In military affairs, an uncertain number of men drawn out from several regiments or camps equally, to march or be employed as the general may think proper, whether on an attack, at a siege, or in

## parties to scour the country. A detachment of 2000 or 3000 men is a

command for a general officer, 800 for a colonel, 500 for lieutenant-colonel, 200 or 300 for a major, 80 or 100 for a captain, 40 for a lieutenant, 12 for a sergeant, and 6 for a corporal.

=Detachment, Gun.= The men required for the service of a piece of artillery.

=Detachment, Manœuvring.= The men required for mechanical manœuvres of a siege or sea-coast gun.

=Detail for Duty.= Is a roster, or table, for the regular performance of duty either in camp or garrison. The general detail is regulated by the adjutant-general, according to the strength of the several corps. The adjutant of each regiment superintends the detail of officers and non-commissioned officers for duty, and orderly sergeants detail the privates.

=Detmold.= A town of Northwestern Germany, capital of the principality of Lippe-Detmold, on the Werra. In the vicinity is the battle-field on which the army of Varus was destroyed by the Germans under Arminius, in 9 A.D.

=Detonating Powder.= A term applied in chemistry to fulminating mercury and silver, and to other compounds which suddenly explode when struck or heated. Some of these compounds have been much used for the ignition of gunpowder in percussion locks.

=Detonation.= The instantaneous conversion of an explosive into gas; a term applied to the phenomena attending the explosion of certain substances, such as _nitro-glycerine_, _chloride of nitrogen_, _iodide of nitrogen_, _gun-cotton_, the _picrates_, etc. Detonation, or explosion of the first order, is distinguished from ordinary explosion, or explosion of the second order, by the different way in which the explosion is propagated. Ordinary explosion proceeds by inflammation, being nothing more than a rapid combustion. Detonation is propagated by vibration. A detonating agent is a substance used to produce the _initial vibration_, or “impulse of explosion.” The exploder, or cap, used for this purpose is usually primed with fulminate of mercury, a substance having a wide range in bringing about detonation in the high explosives.

=Dettingen.= A village of Bavaria, on the Maine. It is noted for a victory gained by the English, under George II., over the French, commanded by Marshal Noailles, in 1743.

=Devastation.= In warfare, is the act of destroying, laying waste, demolishing, or unpeopling towns, etc.

=Deviation of Projectiles.= See PROJECTILES.

=Device.= The emblem on a shield or standard.

=Devicotta.= A fort and seaport town in the south of India, and district of Tanjore. It was taken in 1749 from the rajah of Tanjore.

=Devonshire.= A maritime county in the southwest peninsula of England, between the Bristol and English Channels. The Saxons failed to conquer Devonshire till the 9th century. It was ravaged by the Danes in the 9th and 10th centuries, and by the Irish in the 11th century. In 1688 the Prince of Orange landed at Tor Bay, in this county.

=Deyrah=, or =Dehra=. A town of Northern Hindostan, and the principal place of the British province designated the Deyrah Doon. During the Nepaul war in 1815, the Deyrah Doon became the scene of military operations, and acquired a mournful celebrity by the obstinate defense made by the Goorkhas at Kalunga, or Nalapani, in the siege of which the British lost a considerable number of men, including their gallant commander, Gen. Gillespie.

=Diable= (_Devil-carriage_), _Fr._ A truck-carriage on four trucks, for carrying mortars, etc., to short distances; it is provided with draught-hooks at each end, so as to be drawn to front or rear.

=Diameter.= In both a military and geometrical sense, implies a right line passing through the centre of a circle, and terminated at each end by the circumference thereof.

=Diaphragm Shell.= An obsolete spherical shell formerly used in the English service, so named from the arrangement of the interior.

=Diapré.= A term applied in heraldry to fields and charges relieved by arabesque and geometrical patterns. This ornamentation, not affecting the heraldic value of the objects to which it was applied, was generally left to the fancy of the painter.

=Diarbekir.= A city of Asiatic Turkey, and capital of the pashalic of Diarbekir. This place was successively taken, retaken, and destroyed, in the ancient wars between the Persians and Romans. It was pillaged by Tamerlane in the year 1393; and was successively taken and retaken by the Persian kings, until it was conquered by Selim, the first sultan of the Osmanli Turks, in the year 1515. In 1605 it again fell into the power of Persia; but it was afterwards retaken by the Turks, under whose dominion it has since continued.

=Dictator.= In the earliest times, was the name of the highest magistrate of the Latin Confederation, and in some of the Latin towns the title was continued long after these towns were subjected to the dominion of Rome. In the Roman republic the dictator was an extraordinary magistrate, irresponsible and endowed with absolute authority. The dictatorship could not lawfully be held longer than six months. Dictators were only appointed so long as the Romans had to carry on wars in and out of Italy, or when any vigorous measure had to be acted upon. The limits of his power were as follows: he could not touch the treasury; he could not leave Italy; and he could not ride through Rome on horseback without previously obtaining the permission of the people.

=Dideon’s Formulas.= Certain equations relating to the trajectory of a projectile in the air, obtained by Capt. Dideon of Metz by integrating the differential equations of the trajectory under certain assumptions as to the law of the resistance, etc. See PROJECTILES, TRAJECTORY, IN AIR.

=Diego.= A very strong and heavy sword.

=Diest.= A town of Belgium, in Southern Brabant, on the Demer. This town was taken by the Duke of Marlborough in 1705, but retaken by the French, and dismantled, in the same year. Since 1830 it has been surrounded with fortifications and made a place of great strength.

=Dietary, Military.= See SUBSISTENCE OF ARMIES and FOOD.

=Dieu et Mon Droit= (_Fr._). “God and my Right.” The motto of the royal arms of England, first assumed by Richard I., to intimate that he did not hold his empire in vassalage of any mortal. It was afterwards assumed by Edward III., and was continued without interruption to the time of William, who used the motto _Je maintiendray_, though the former was still retained upon the great seal. After him Anne used the motto _Semper eadem_; but ever since her time _Dieu et mon droit_ has continued to be the royal motto.

=Differences.= In heraldry, are marks introduced into a coat of arms to distinguish brothers and their descendants from the father or head of the house, while he is alive; marks of cadency being used for a similar purpose after his death.

=Differential Pulley.= A hoisting apparatus consisting of an endless chain and two pulleys of slightly different diameters. The chain winds upon one while unwinding from the other. It is attached to a crane, and used to hoist heavy shot to the muzzle of large cannon.

=Dijon.= An ancient walled city of France, chief town of the department of Côte-d’Or. It has been several times captured in war. It was attacked by the Germans under Gen. Beyer, October 30, 1870. The heights and suburbs were taken by Prince William of Baden, and the town surrendered October 31.

=Dike=, or =Dyke=. A channel to receive water; also a dam or mound, to prevent inundation. Dikes differ from sluices; the former being intended only to oppose the flowing of other water into a river, or to confine the stream by means of strong walls, pieces of timber, or a double row of hurdles, the intervals of which are filled with earth, stones, or pebbles.

=Dimachæ.= In ancient military affairs, were a kind of horsemen, answering to the dragoons of the moderns.

=Dimidiation.= In heraldry, a mode of marshaling arms, adopted chiefly before quartering and impaling according to the modern practice came into use, and subsequently retained to some extent in continental, though not in English heraldry. It consists in cutting two coats of arms in halves by a vertical line, and uniting the dexter half of one to the sinister half of the other. Coats of husband and wife were often so marshaled in England in the 13th and 14th centuries.

=Diminish.= In a military sense, means to decrease the front of a battalion; to adopt the columns of march, or manœuvre according to the obstructions and difficulties which it meets in advancing.

=Diminished Angle.= Is that formed by the exterior side and line of defense in fortification.

=Diminutions.= A word sometimes used in heraldry for differences, marks of cadency, and brisures, indifferently.

=Dinan.= A town of France, in the department of Côtes-du-Nord, situated on the Rance. This place was often besieged during the Middle Ages; in 1373 was taken by Du Guesclin, and in 1379 by De Clisson.

=Dinant.= A town of Belgium, on the Meuse, 14 miles south from Namur. It was taken by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in 1466, when 800 of its inhabitants were taken by twos, tied back to back, and thrown into the Meuse. The town was also razed to the ground; but in 1493 it was rebuilt. In 1554 and 1675 it was again taken by the French.

=Dinapore=, or =Dinapoor=. A town of British India, in the presidency of Bengal, on the Ganges. It is an important military station, containing extensive barracks and cantonments for English and native troops.

=Dindigul.= Capital of a district in the south of India, in the presidency of Madras. It was captured by the British troops, under Col. Stuart, in 1790.

=Dipping of the Muzzle.= A piece of artillery when fired has been explained by the action of the vent in bringing increased pressure on the elevating screw or quoin, the reaction from which throws down the muzzle.

=Direct Fire.= See FIRE, DIRECT.

=Directing Sergeant.= When a company is being drilled in marching, a sergeant distinguished for precision in marching is selected, who is called a directing sergeant, and placed in front of the guide on the line established. This sergeant is charged with the direction and step, and marches on points selected by himself directly in front of him. The right guide of the company marches straight in the trace of the directing sergeant.

=Direction.= In military mechanics, signifies the line or path of a body in motion, along which it endeavors to force its way, according to the propelling power that is given to it.

=Direction.= In gunnery, is that element of pointing which relates to the movement of the piece around an imaginary vertical axis. The direction is given when the plane of sight passes through the object. Elevation is a movement about a horizontal axis.

=Directory.= In the history of France, the name given by the constitution of 1795, to an executive body composed of five members of the French republic. They assumed authority in a moment of immense peril. France was environed with gigantic adversaries, while distrust, discontent, and the malice of rival factions made her internal administration almost hopeless. The frantic heroism of her soldiers saved her from spoliation by the foreigner; but, on the contrary, the home policy of the Directory was deplorable. In 1799 the Directory was overthrown by the _coup d’état_ of the 18th Brumaire, November 9, 1799, and was succeeded by the Consulate.

=Dirk.= Is a short dagger which at various times and in various countries has been much used as a weapon of defense. It is still worn by Highland regiments in the British service.

=Dirk-knife.= A clasp-knife, having a large, dirk-like blade.

=Disability.= State of being disabled; want of competent physical or intellectual power. When a soldier becomes disabled from exposure, accidents, or other causes, he is discharged from the service on a surgeon’s certificate of disability, which enables him to draw a pension.

=Disarm.= To deprive of arms; to take away the weapons of; to deprive of the means of attack or defense.

=Disarmament.= The act of disarming.

=Disarmed.= Soldiers divested of their arms, either by conquest, or in consequence of some defection.

=Disarmer.= One who disarms.

=Disarray.= To throw into disorder; to break the array of.

=Disarray.= Want of array or regular order; disorder.

=Disbanding.= Is the breaking up of a military organization and the discharge of soldiers from military duty.

=Disbursing Officer.= An officer whose special function is to make disbursements of money.

=Discharge.= From military service, is obtained by non-commissioned officers and privates by expiration of term of service, which varies in different countries; on surgeon’s certificate of disability, and by special authority for various reasons, when recommended by the commanding officer. Soldiers are also discharged with ignominy for great offenses, being in some cases stripped of their decorations and drummed out of the service.

=Disciplinarian.= An officer who pays particular regard to the discipline or the soldiers under his command.

=Discipline.= In military and naval affairs, is a general name for the rules and regulations prescribed and enforced for the proper conduct and subordination of the soldiers, etc. This is the technical meaning. In a higher sense discipline is the _habit of obedience_. The soldier acquires the habit of subordinating his own will, pleasure, and inclinations to those of his superior. When the habit has become so strong that it is second nature, the soldier is disciplined.

=Discomfit.= Defeat, rout, overthrow.

=Discretion.= _Se rendre à discrétion_, surrendering unconditionally to a victorious enemy.

=Disembarkation.= The act of landing troops from a boat or ship. The term has lately been applied to the act of quitting a railway train.

=Disembody.= To disarm a military body, and to dispense with its services.

=Disengage.= To separate the wings of a battalion or regiment, which is necessary when the battalion countermarches from its centre and on its centre by files. It likewise means to clear a column or line which may have lost its proper front by the overlapping of any particular division. It also signifies to extricate oneself and the troops commanded from a critical situation. It likewise means to break suddenly from any particular order in line or column, and to repair to some rallying-point.

=Disengage.= In fencing, means to quit that side of an adversary’s blade on which one is opposed by his guard, in order to effect a cut or thrust where an opportunity may present.

=Disgarnish.= To take guns from a fortress.

=Disgarrison.= To deprive of a garrison.

=Dishelm.= To deprive of the helmet; to take the helmet from.

=Dish of a Wheel.= Is the inclination outward of the spokes when fastened in the nave.

=Dislodge.= To drive an enemy from a position.

=Dismantle.= To render fortifications incapable of defense, or cannon unserviceable.

=Dismiss.= To discard, or deprive an officer of his commission or warrant. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OR WAR.

=Dismount.= To dismount the cavalry is to use them as infantry. Guards, when relieved, are said to dismount. They are to be marched with the utmost regularity to the parade-ground where they were formed, and from thence to their regimental or company parades, previously to being dismissed to their quarters. To dismount cannon, is to break their carriages, wheels, etc., so as to render them unfit for service. It also implies dismounting by the gin, etc.

=Disobedience of Orders.= Any infraction, by neglect or willful omission, of orders. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 21.

=Dispart.= In gunnery, half the difference between the diameter of the base-ring at the breech of a gun and that of the swell of the muzzle. In guns which have no front sights, it is therefore the tangent of the natural angle of sight to a radius equal to the distance from the rear of the base-ring, or base-line, to the highest point of the swell of the muzzle, measured parallel to the axis. For convenience the muzzle sight is usually made equal in height to the dispart in modern guns,--giving a natural line of sight parallel to the axis of the piece.

=Dispatches.= Official messages. In war, important dispatches which have to pass through the enemy’s country, or in the vicinity of his forces, are only intrusted to officers to whom their contents can be confided. Dispatches are frequently in cipher, especially when telegraphed or signaled with a liability to interception. See DESPATCH.

=Disperse.= To scatter any body of men, armed or unarmed, who may have assembled in an illegal or hostile manner. The cavalry are generally employed on these occasions.

=Displaced.= Officers in the British service are sometimes displaced from a particular regiment in consequence of misconduct, but they are at liberty to serve in any other corps.

=Display, To.= In a military sense, is to extend the front of a column, and thereby bring it into line.

=Displayed.= In heraldic usage, means expanded; as, an eagle displaced, or what is commonly known as a spread eagle.

=Displume.= To deprive of decoration or ornament; to degrade.

=Dispose.= To dispose cannon, is to place it in such a manner that its discharge may do the greatest mischief.

=Disposition.= In a general sense, is the just placing of an army or body of men upon the most advantageous ground, and in the strongest situation, for a vigorous attack or defense.

=Disposition de Guerre= (_Fr._). Warlike arrangement or disposition. Under this head may be considered the mode of establishing, combining, conducting, and finally terminating a war, so as to produce success and victory.

=Disrespect to a Commanding Officer.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 20.

=Disrespectful Words.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 19.

=Distance.= In military formation, signifies the relative space which is left between men standing under arms in rank, or the interval which appears between those ranks.

=Distance of the Bastion.= In fortification, is the term applied to the exterior polygon.

=Distances of Objects.= See POINTING.

=Distribution.= Means, generally, any division or allotment made for the purposes of war; also minor arrangements made for the supply of corps.

=District, Military.= One of those portions into which a country is divided, for the convenience of command, and to insure a co-operation between distant bodies of troops.

=Disvelloped=, or =Developed=. Are heraldic terms applied to the colors of a regiment, or army, when they are flying.

=Ditch.= In fortification, is an excavation made round the works, from which the earth required for the construction of the rampart and parapet is obtained. Ditches are of two kinds, wet and dry; but in modern fortification the dry ditch is considered preferable to the wet one. When the excavation is on the side farthest from the enemy it is called a trench.

=Diu.= A once celebrated island and fortress of Hindostan, in the peninsula of Kattywar. In 1515 the Portuguese gained possession of it; they fortified it, and in ten years rendered it impregnable against all the powers of India. With the decline of Portuguese power it fell into decay, and was plundered by the Arabs of Muscat in 1670.

=Diversion.= An attack upon an enemy in a place where he is weak and unprovided, in order to draw off his forces from making an irruption elsewhere; or a manœuvre, where an enemy is strong, which obliges him to detach part of his forces to resist any feint or menacing attempt of his opponent.

=Divest.= To strip of clothes, arms, or equipage.

=Divine Service.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 52.

=Division.= In military matters, is one section of an army, comprising 2 or more brigades, commanded by a general officer. In regimental formation, 2 companies of a regiment or battalion constitute a division, when in column.

=Dizier, St.= A town of France, on the Marne. The emperor Charles V. besieged and took this place in 1544; and in its neighborhood Napoleon defeated the allies in two battles fought January 27 and March 26, 1814.

=Djokjokarta.= A Dutch residency of Java, near the middle of the south coast of that island. The town of the same name is the seat of a Dutch resident and a native sultan, who has a body-guard of young females, completely armed and equipped, some of whom do duty on horseback. It was taken by the British in 1812.

=Dobrudscha= (anc. _Scythia Minor_). A name used to denote the northeastern portion of Bulgaria. The Dobrudscha has long been a famous battle-ground. Some of the earliest incidents of the Russian war of 1854-56 took place here.

=Dolabra.= A rude ancient hatchet. They are represented on the columns of Trajan and Antoninus, and abound in all museums. When made of flint, which was their earliest and rudest form, they are usually called _celts_.

=Dôle.= A town of France, in the department of Jura, on the right bank of the Doubs. In 1479 it was taken by Louis XI., when the greater part of the town was destroyed, and many of its inhabitants were put to the sword. It subsequently came into the hands of the Spaniards, and was fortified by Charles V. in 1530. In 1636 it was ineffectually besieged by the Prince of Condé. In 1668 it was taken by the French; and again in 1674, when its fortifications were destroyed.

=Dolphins.= Two handles placed upon a piece of ordnance with their centres over the centre of gravity, by which it was mounted or dismounted. They are no longer in use in the U. S. service.

=Domingo, San.= The capital of the Spanish part of the island of Hayti, in the West Indies. About the year 1586 the city was sacked by Sir Francis Drake.

=Dominica.= An island in the West Indies, belonging to the Leeward group, lying about 20 miles to the north of Martinique. This island was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and was claimed alternately by England, France, and Spain: it was finally ceded to Great Britain in 1763.

=Dommage= (_Fr._). In a general acceptation of the term, signified in the old French service, the compensation which every captain of a troop, or company, was obliged to make in consequence of any damage that their men might have done in a town, or on a march.

=Donabue.= A town in India, in the British province of Pegu. In 1825, during the Burmese war, it maintained a successful resistance against the assault of a British force under the command of Brigadier Cotton; and here in 1853, during the last war with the same nation, the British troops suffered a repulse in an encounter with a Burmese force, losing several officers.

=Donauwörth.= A town of Bavaria, situated at the confluence of the Wernitz and the Danube. Here Marlborough stormed and carried the intrenched camp of the Bavarians in 1704, and on October 6, 1805, the French under Soult obtained a victory over the Austrians under Mack.

=Donelson, Fort.= A position on a slight bend of the Cumberland River, in Tennessee, which was strongly fortified by the Confederates during the civil war. On the afternoon of February 14, 1862, Commodore Foote commenced with his gunboats an attack on this place, but met with a decided reverse. Meantime, Gen. Grant’s army, advancing from the capture of Fort Henry, gradually approached, and surrounded the fort, with occasional skirmishing on the line. Next day the Confederates attacked them, but were repulsed with loss, and finding all hope of reinforcements unavailing, they surrendered the fort on the 16th. About 10,000 prisoners, 40 pieces of artillery, and a large quantity of stores of all kinds fell into Gen. Grant’s hands.

=Dongola, New=, or =Maraka=. A town on the Nile, and capital of a province of the same name, in Nubia. Ibrahim Pasha took it from the Mamelukes in 1820.

=Donjon=, or =Dungeon=. The principal tower or keep of a castle or fortress. It was so called either from being placed on a _dun_ or elevation, natural or artificial, or because, from its position, it dominated or commanded the other parts of the fortress. From the circumstance that the lower or under-ground story of the donjon was used as a prison, has come the modern meaning of the word dungeon.

=Doolee.= A palanquin litter, used in Indian armies, to carry sick and wounded men.

=Dormans.= In Northeast France. The Huguenots and their allies under Montmorency were here defeated by the Duke of Guise, October 10, 1575.

=Dormant.= (_Fr._). Sleeping. In heraldic representation, an animal _dormant_ has its head resting on its fore-paws, whereas an animal _couchant_ has its head erect.

=Dornach.= A village of Switzerland, 20 miles northeast from Soleure, remarkable for the victory obtained by the Swiss over the Austrians, July 22, 1499, and which gave Switzerland her independence.

=Dorogoboozh=, =Dorogobush=, or =Dorogobouge=. A town of Russia, in the government of Smolensk. At this place the French were defeated by the Russians, October 12, 1812.

=Dosser.= In military matters, is a sort of basket, carried on the shoulders of men, used in carrying the earth from one part of a fortification to another, where it is required.

=Dossière= (_Fr._). Back-piece of a cuirass.

=Douai=, or =Douay=. A fortified town of France, on the small river Scarpe, 18 miles south from Lille. This place was taken from the Flemings by Philip the Fair in 1297; restored by Charles V. in 1368. It reverted to Spain, from whom it was taken by Louis XIV. in 1667. It was captured by the allies, under the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugène, in 1710, but was retaken by the French, September 8, 1712.

=Double.= To unite, as ranks or files, so as to form one. _To double upon_, to inclose between two fires.

=Double-quick.= Performed in the time called double-quick; as, a double-quick step or march.

=Double-quick.= To move, or cause to move, in double-quick time.

=Double-rank.= A line formed of double files.

=Double-shell.= A shell used in the 7-inch English rifles. It is 27 inches long, and has a large cavity. To strengthen it against outside pressure it has three internal longitudinal ribs projecting about an inch into the cavity.

=Double-shotting.= Is an increase of the destructive power of ordnance by doubling the shot fired off at one time from a gun. Sometimes three shots are fired at once, in which case the piece is said to be _treble-shotted_.

=Double-time.= The fastest time or step in marching, next to the run, requiring 165 steps, each 33 inches in length, to be taken in one minute. The degree of swiftness may vary in urgent cases, and the number of steps be thus increased up to 180 per minute.

=Doubling.= The putting of two ranks of soldiers into one.

=Doublings.= The heraldic term for the linings of robes or mantles, or of the mantlings of achievements.

=Doullens.= A town of France, 15 miles northeast of Amiens. This place was taken by the allies in 1814.

=Doune.= A village of Perthshire, Scotland. The ruins of Doune Castle, a large and massive fortress built about the 14th century, are situated on the point of a steep and narrow elevation. Doune was held for Prince Charles in 1745, and here he confined his prisoners taken at Falkirk, among the rest the author of the tragedy of “Douglas.”

=Douro.= A large river in Spain and Portugal, which was crossed in 1809 by the British army under the Duke of Wellington, when he surprised the French under Marshal Soult, and won the battle of Oporto.

=Dover= (anc. _Dubris_). A city and seaport of England, in the county of Kent, on Dover Strait. The city is defended by Dover Castle, which is built on chalk-cliffs 320 feet high, and is a fortress of great strength and extent. The castle is said to have been founded by the ancient Romans. Near here Julius Cæsar is said to have first landed in England, August 26, 55 B.C., and here King John resigned his kingdom to Pandolf, the pope’s legate, May 13, 1213.

=Dowletabad.= A celebrated city and fortress of Hindostan, province of Hyderabad, deemed impregnable by the natives; but notwithstanding its strength, it has been frequently taken.

=Drabants.= A company of 200 picked men, of which Charles IX. of Sweden was captain.

=Draft.= A selecting or detaching of soldiers from an army, or any part of it, or from a military post; also from any company or collection of persons, or from the people at large for military service.

=Draft.= See DRAUGHT.

=Draft, To.= To draw from a military band or post, or from any company, collection, society, or from the people at large; to detach; to select. Written also _draught_.

=Dragon.= An old name for a musketoon.

=Dragon et Dragon Volant= (_Fr._). Some old pieces of artillery were anciently so called. The Dragon was a 40-pounder; the Dragon Volant a 32-pounder. But neither the name nor the size of the caliber of either piece is now in use.

=Dragonner= (_Fr._). According to the French acceptation of the term, is to attack any person in a rude and violent manner; to take anything by force; to adopt prompt and vigorous means; and to bring those people to reason by hard blows, who could not be persuaded by fair words.

=Dragoon.= From the old fable that the dragon spouts fire, the head of the monster was worked upon the muzzle of a peculiar kind of short muskets which were first carried by the horsemen raised by Marshal Brissac in 1600. This circumstance led to their being called dragoons; and from the general adoption of the same weapon, though without the emblem in question, the term gradually extended itself till it became almost synonymous with horse-soldier. Dragoons were at one time a kind of mounted infantry, drilled to perform the services both of horse and foot. At present, dragoon is simply one among many designations for cavalry, not very precise in its application. This term is not now used in the U. S. service.

=Dragoon, To.= Is to persecute by abandoning a place to the rage of the soldiers.

=Dragoon Guards.= In the British service, seven regiments of heavy cavalry bear this title.

=Drag-rope.= This is a 4-inch hemp rope, 28 feet long, with a thimble worked into each end, one of the thimbles carrying a hook. Six handles, made of oak or ash, are put in between the strands of the rope, and lashed with a marline. It is used to assist in extricating carriages from different positions by the men, for dragging pieces, etc.

=Drag-rope Men.= The men attached to light or heavy ordnance, for the purpose of expediting movements in action. The French _servans à la prolonge_ are of this description.

=Drain=, or =Drein=. In the military art, is a trench made to draw water out of a ditch, which is afterwards filled with hurdles and earth, or with fascines or bundles of rushes, and planks, to facilitate the passage over the mud.

=Drake.= A small piece of artillery, no longer used.

=Draught.= The act of drawing men from a military band, army, or post, or from any company or society; draft; detachment; also, formerly, a sudden attack or drawing upon an enemy.

=Draughted.= The soldiers of any regiment allotted to complete other regiments are said to be draughted, or drafted.

=Draught-hook.= Either of two large hooks of iron fixed on the cheeks of a gun-carriage, two on each side, used in drawing the gun backward and forward.

=Drawbridge.= A bridge of which the whole or part is made to be let down, or drawn or turned aside, to admit or hinder communication at pleasure, as before the gate of a town or castle. It is called _bascule_, _swivel_, or _rolling_ bridge according as it turns on a hinge vertically, on a pivot horizontally, or is pushed lengthwise on rollers.

=Drawing.= In a military sense, is the art of representing the appearances of all kinds of military objects by imitation or copying, both with and without the assistance of mathematical rules.

=Drawn Battle.= A fight from which the combatants withdraw without either side claiming the victory.

=Draw off, To.= In a military sense, means to retire; also to abstract or take away; as, to draw off your forces. To _draw on_ is to advance; also to occasion; as, to draw on an enemy’s fire. To _draw over_ is to persuade to revolt; to entice from a party. To _draw out_ is to call the soldiers forth in array for action. To _draw up_ is to form in battle array. To _draw out a party_ is to assemble any particular number of armed men for military duty. The French say, _faire un detachement_.

=Drayton-in-Hales=, or =Market Drayton=. A town of England, in Shropshire. Here the partisans of the house of York defeated the Lancastrians in 1459.

=Dresden.= The capital of the kingdom of Saxony, and one of the best built towns of Europe. Taken by Frederick of Prussia in 1756; by the Austrians in 1759; bombarded in vain by Frederick, July, 1760. On August 26-27, 1813, the allies were defeated in a terrible battle by the French under the walls of this city; and about a mile from it is a granite block, surmounted by a helmet, marking the spot where Moreau fell in the conflict, while conversing with the emperor Alexander.

=Dress.= A word of command for alignment of troops; also of the alignment itself.

=Dressers.= See GUIDES.

=Dress, Full.= Dress uniform. The French is _grande tenue_, or _grande uniforme_.

=Dress Parade.= Parade in full uniform; one of the ceremonies prescribed in tactics.

=Dress, To.= To cause a company or battalion to take such a position or order as will preserve an exact continuity of line in the whole front, or in whatever shape the command is to be formed. Soldiers dress by one another in ranks, and the body collectively by some given object. To _dress the line_ is to arrange any given number of soldiers, so as to stand perfectly correct with regard to the several points of an alignment that have been taken up.

=Dress Uniform.= The dress prescribed for occasions of ceremony.

=Dreux.= An old town of France, in the department of the Eure and Loire, on the Blaise. In 1188 this town was burned by the English; and in 1562 the Prince of Condé was taken prisoner in a severe action fought between the Huguenots and Roman Catholics in its neighborhood.

=Drift.= A tool used in driving down compactly the composition contained in a rocket, or like firework.

=Drift.= A deviation peculiar to oblong rifle projectiles. See PROJECTILES.

=Drill.= Is a general name for the exercises through which soldiers and sailors are passed, to qualify them for their duties. There are many varieties of drill,--that of the cavalry, infantry, and artillery,--all have different drills conformable to their different organizations.

=Drill-Sergeant.= A non-commissioned officer, whose office it is to instruct soldiers as to their duties, and to train them to military evolutions.

=Drogheda.= A seaport town of Ireland, in the counties of Meath and Louth, built on both sides of the Boyne. From the 14th to the 17th century, Drogheda was the chief military station in Ulster. In 1641 the town was besieged by O’Neal and the northern Irish forces, but was gallantly defended by Sir Henry Tichbourne, and after a long blockade relieved by the Marquis of Ormond, who also relieved it a second time when invested by the Parliamentary army under Col. Jones. In 1649, Cromwell was twice repulsed in besieging this town; but in the third attempt he was successful, when most of the garrison were slaughtered. This place surrendered to William III. the day after the battle of the Boyne, which was fought in 1690 at Oldbridge, 4 miles west of Drogheda.

=Drum.= A musical instrument of percussion, formed by stretching a piece of parchment over each end of a cylinder formed of thin wood, or over the top of a caldron-shaped vessel of brass; the latter is hence called a kettle-drum. The large drums which are beaten at each end are called _double drums_, or _bass drums_, and are used chiefly in military bands. Kettle-drums are always used in pairs; one of which is tuned to the key-note, the other to the fifth of the key. The drum is principally used for military purposes, especially for inspiring the soldiers under the fatigue of march or in battle. It is supposed to be an Eastern invention, and to have been brought into Europe by the Arabians, or perhaps the Moors. In the French army the drum is now, to some extent, abolished.

=Drum.= To execute on a drum, as a tune;--with _out_, to expel with beat of drum; as, to drum out a deserter, etc.; with _up_, to assemble by beat of drum; to gather; to collect; as, to drum up recruits, etc.

=Drumclog.= In Western Scotland; here the Covenanters defeated Graham of Claverhouse, June 1, 1679. An account of the conflict is given by Walter Scott, in “Old Mortality.”

=Drum-head.= The head or upper part of a drum.

=Drum-head Court-martial.= A court-martial called suddenly by the commanding officer to try offenses committed on the line of march, and which demand an immediate example. This method is not resorted to in time of peace.

=Drum-Major.= Is that person in a regiment of infantry who has command of the drummers and teaches them their duty. He also directs the movements of the regimental band, while on parade.

=Drummer.= The soldier who plays a drum. The majority of drummers are boys, generally the sons of soldiers. In former times it was the part of a drummer’s duty to flog men sentenced to corporal punishment.

=Drumming Out.= The ceremony of ignominiously discharging a soldier from the service. The culprit is marched out of the garrison at the point of the bayonet, the drummers or musicians playing the “Rogue’s March.”

=Drum-stick.= A stick with which a drum is beaten, or shaped for the purpose of beating a drum.

=Drunk on Duty.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 38.

=Druses.= A warlike people dwelling among the mountains of Lebanon, derive their origin from a fanatical Mohammedan sect which arose in Egypt about 996, and fled to Palestine to avoid persecution. They now retain hardly any of the religion of their ancestors. In 1860, in consequence of disputes, the Druses attacked their neighbors, the Maronites, whom they massacred, it was said, without regard to age or sex. This led to a general massacre of Christians soon after. But the Turkish troops, with French auxiliaries, interfering on behalf of the Christians, invaded Lebanon in August and September, when the Druses surrendered, giving up their chiefs, January, 1861.

=Dry Camp, To Make a.= Troops on the march are said _to make a dry camp_ when they are compelled by exhaustion, or other causes, to camp at a place where there is no water. For such camps water is usually transported with the troops.

=Dualin.= See EXPLOSIVES.

=Dubicza=, or =Dubitza=. A town and fort of European Turkey, in Bosnia, on the Unna. The Austrians took this town in 1738.

=Dublin.= The capital city of Ireland, on the Liffey, close to its entrance into Dublin Bay. It is alleged that this city has been in existence since the time of Ptolemy. In the earlier part of the 9th century, Dublin was taken by the Danes, who infested it for several centuries thereafter. In 1169 it was taken by storm by the English under Strongbow. From about this period the history of Dublin is that of Ireland.

=Ducenarius.= An officer in the Roman armies who commanded two centuries.

=Dudgeon.= A small dagger (rare).

=Duel.= Was the old form of a combat between two persons, at a time and place indicated in the challenge, cartel, or defiance borne by one party to the other. A duel generally takes place in the presence of witnesses, called seconds, who regulate the mode of fighting, place the weapons in the hands of the combatants, and enforce compliance with the rules which they have laid down. In the United States the practice of fighting duels, being declared illegal by statutes, is very seldom resorted to.

=Dueling.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 26, 27.

=Duffadar.= A rank in the East Indian Native Cavalry, corresponding with that of sergeant.

=Duffadar, Kot.= A non-commissioned officer in the East Indian Native Cavalry, corresponding with a troop sergeant-major.

=Duffadar Major.= A rank in the East Indian Native Cavalry, corresponding with that of regimental sergeant-major.

=Duke.= From the Latin _dux_, a “leader,” a title that first came into use when Constantine separated the civil and military commands in the provinces. This title was successively borrowed by the Goths and Franks, and since the time of the Black Prince, who was created first duke in England (Duke of Cornwall) in 1335, it has been a title of the nobility, ranking next below the blood royal.

=Dukigi-Bachi.= Second officer in the Turkish artillery, who commands the Topelas, or gunners and founders.

=Duledge.= A peg of wood which joins the ends of the felloes, forming the circle of the wheel of a gun-carriage; and the joint is strengthened on the outside of the wheel by a strong plate of iron, called the _duledge plate_.

=Dumdum.= The name of a town and of a valley in India, well known in the military history of the country; it is 8 miles to the northeast of Calcutta, having extensive accommodations for troops, and a cannon-foundry. The place is famous in connection with the mutiny of 1857, as the scene of the first open manifestation on the part of the Sepoys against the greased cartridges.

=Dumfries.= A royal burgh and parish of Scotland, the capital of Dumfriesshire, on the Nith. This town was exposed to repeated calamities from the invasions of the English during the border wars. In this town John Comyn, the competitor for the Scottish throne, was stabbed by Robert Bruce in 1305.

=Dünaburg.= A strongly fortified town of Western Russia, on the Düna. It is of great military importance, owing to the strength of its fortifications. It was founded by the Knights of the Sword in 1277.

=Dunbar.= A seaport town of Scotland, in Haddingtonshire, at the mouth of the Frith of Forth. On the high rocks at the entrance to the new harbor are a few fragments of the ruins of an old castle, which was once very strong, and an important security against English invasions. Edward I. took it, and Edward II. fled thither after the battle of Bannockburn; it was demolished in 1333, and rebuilt in 1336; it was successfully defended in a siege of six weeks against the Earl of Salisbury by Black Agnes, countess of Dunbar, in 1338; it sheltered Queen Mary and Bothwell in 1567; and in the same year it was destroyed by the regent Murray. In 1650, Cromwell, at the “Race of Dunbar,” defeated the Scottish army under Leslie.

=Dunblane=, or =Dumblane=. A town and parish of Scotland, in Perthshire, on the Allan. Not far from this place is Sheriffmuir, where, in 1715, a battle was fought between the royal troops and the followers of the Pretender.

=Dungan Hill= (Ireland). Here the English army, commanded by Col. Jones, signally defeated the Irish, of whom 6000 are said to have been slain, August 8, 1647.

=Dungeon= (originally _Donjon_, which see). A prison; a dark and subterraneous cell or place of confinement.

=Dunkirk.= A fortified seaport town in the extreme northern part of France, in the department of the North. In 1558 the English, who had for some time held possession of the town, were expelled from it by the French, who, in the ensuing year, surrendered it to the Spaniards. In the middle of the 17th century it once more passed into the hands of the French, who, after a few years’ occupation of it, again restored it to Spain. In 1658 it was retaken by the French and made over to the English. It was sold to the French king by Charles II. in 1662. In 1793 it was attacked by the English under the Duke of York, who, however, was compelled to retire from before its walls with severe loss.

=Dunnottar.= A parish of Scotland, in Kincardineshire. It contains the castle of Dunnottar, now in ruins. In the time of the civil wars, this was the fortress in which the Scottish regalia were deposited. After being besieged by Cromwell’s forces for six months, it capitulated; but, before this, the regalia were secretly conveyed from it.

=Dunsinane.= In Perthshire, Scotland. On the hill was fought the battle between Macbeth, the thane of Glammis, and Siward, earl of Northumberland, July 27, 1054. Macbeth was defeated, and it was said pursued to Lumphanan in Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 1056 or 1057.

=Durazzo= (anc. _Epidamnus_). A town of Albania, European Turkey. It is fortified, and is a place of considerable antiquity. Durazzo was founded about 627 B.C. by a conjoined band of Corcyræans and Corinthians under one Phaleus, a Heracleidan. It became a great and populous city, but was much harassed by the internal strifes of party, which ultimately led to the Peloponnesian war. Under the Romans it was called _Dyrrachium_ (whence its modern name). Here Pompey was for some time beleaguered by Cæsar. In the 5th century it was besieged by Theodoric, the Ostro-Goth; in the 10th and 11th centuries by the Bulgarians; and in 1081 it was captured, after a severe battle, by the Norman, Robert Guiseard of Apulia.

=Düren.= A town of Prussia, on the Roer. This was a Roman town, and is mentioned by Tacitus by the name of _Marcodurum_. Charlemagne held two diets here in 775 and 779, when on his way to attack the Saxons. It was taken by assault and burned by Charles V., after an obstinate resistance, in 1543. In 1794 it fell into the hands of the French, but was ceded to Prussia in 1814.

=Dürkeim.= A town of Rhenish Bavaria, 20 miles north from Landau. The summit of a height near this town is crowned by a rampart of loose stones 6 to 10 feet high, 60 to 70 feet wide at the base, and inclosing a space of about two square miles called the _Heidenmauer_ (“heathens’ wall”), which the Romans are said to have built to keep the barbarians in check, and where Attila is said to have passed a winter, after having wrested the fortress from the Romans, when passing on his way to Rome.

=Durrenstein.= A town of Austria, on the Danube. In the neighborhood, on a rock, are the ruins of the castle in which Richard Cœur de Lion was imprisoned in 1192. In 1805 the Russian and Austrian armies were defeated here by the French.

=Duties.= This word is used in military parlance to express the men paraded for any particular duty, such as guards, etc.

=Duty.= There is no word oftener used in military parlance than this. In the technical sense it refers to the various services necessary for the maintenance, discipline, and regulation of armies,--as _signal duty_, _staff duty_, _the duties of a sentinel_, etc. To be _on duty_ is to be in the active exercise of military functions; to be _off duty_ is to have these functions temporarily suspended; to be _put on duty_ is to be assigned to duty by order of a superior. Military duties are variously classed as _duties of detail_, which are recurring and governed by a roster, such as guard, fatigue, etc.; _special duties_ which are determined by appointment, selection, or order; _extra duty_, continuous special duty of enlisted men, entitling them to pay; _daily duty_, short terms of special service for enlisted men. In a higher and broader sense _duty_ is that which is due one’s country. It covers all the soldier’s obligations, and forms his simplest and sublimest rule of action.

=Dyer Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.

=Dynamite=, called in the United States “giant powder,” is formed by mixing nitro-glycerine with certain porous substances, and especially with certain varieties of silica or alumina, these substances absorbing the nitro-glycerine. It was invented in 1867 by the Swedish engineer Nobel, who proposed to prevent the frequent and unexpected explosions of nitro-glycerine, at the same time without sacrificing any of its power. This he effected by the use of certain silicious earths as a base for the absorption of the nitro-glycerine, the experiment resulting in the new compound which he called dynamite, its transportation and handling being no more dangerous than that of ordinary gunpowder. It is not liable to spontaneous explosion like pure nitro-glycerine, nor can it be exploded by moderate concussion; when unconfined, if set fire to, it will burn without explosion; it may be safely kept at any moderate temperature; is inexplosive when frozen, and acts effectively under water. Its effects are proportional to the quantity of nitro-glycerine held in absorption; but under circumstances where a sustained bursting pressure is required, not being as instantaneous in its action as nitro-glycerine, its effects are more powerful than those of an equal weight of the pure material. The best absorbent of nitro-glycerine for the formation of dynamite is a silicious earth found at Oberlohe, Hanover. During the siege of Paris, a scientific committee of investigation, engaged in experimenting on different substances as a substitute for this earth, selected as the best silica, alumina, and boghead cinders. Any of these, they declared, when combined with nitro-glycerine, formed a substance which possessed all the remarkable qualities attributed to the dynamite of Nobel. During the siege of Paris dynamite was used successfully by the French engineers to free a flotilla of gunboats caught in the ice on the Seine, below Charenton, by simply placing a quantity of it on the surface of the ice. The explosion dislodged the ice for a great distance, and the masses thus loosened, being directed into the current by the aid of a small steamer, floated down the stream, and left the river open. There are various other compounds of nitro-glycerine, such as dualin, glyoxiline, etc., all differing in the matter used as a base, they being generally some explosive substances; but none of them appears to have come into such general use or to be as reliable as dynamite. Many preparations of chlorate and picrate of potassium have also been used from time to time as explosive agents; but their great sensibility to friction or percussion renders them extremely dangerous; they are, therefore, not liable to come into general use. A preparation of potassium chlorate and sulphur, not liable to explode by concussion, but very sensitive to friction, is used with great effect as a charge for explosive bullets.

=Dynamometer.= An instrument for measuring the force of recoil in a small-arm, consisting usually of a spiral spring so arranged as to be compressed by the butt of the gun in firing. An index shows the number of pounds required to produce a similar compression. The instruments now used by the U. S. Ordnance Department are graduated to show the effect of the recoil in _foot-pounds_ or _units of work_. This sensible change was made at the suggestion of Lieut. Henry Metcalfe of that department.

E.

=Eagle.= In heraldry, is used as an emblem of magnanimity and fortitude. In the Roman armies the eagle was used as a military standard, and even previous to that time the Persians under Cyrus the Younger used the same military emblem. In modern times, France, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and the United States have adopted the eagle as a national military symbol. The Austrian eagle is represented as double-headed.

=Eagle, Black.= A Prussian order of knighthood, founded in 1701; united with the order of the Red Eagle, or order of Sincerity, instituted by the margraves of Bayreuth.

=Earl Marshal.= Of England, is one of the officers of state; is the head of the college of arms, which has jurisdiction in descents and pedigrees; determines all rival claims to arms; and he grants armorial-bearings, through the medium of the kings-of-arms, to parties not possessed of hereditary arms.

=Early Cannon.= See ORDNANCE, HISTORY OF.

=Earth-bag.= See BAGS.

=Earth-house=, or =Eird-house=. The name generally given throughout Ireland and Scotland to the underground buildings (which in some places are called also “Picts’ houses”) which served to hide a few people and their goods in time of war. The earth-house is a single irregularly-shaped chamber, from 4 to 10 feet in width, from 20 to 60 feet in length, and from 4 to 7 feet in height, built of unhewn and uncemented stones roofed by unhewn flags, and entered from near the top by a rude doorway, so low and narrow that only one man can slide down through it at a time. Implements of various kinds have been found in them,--such as bronze swords, gold rings, etc.

=Earthworks.= In fortification, is a general name for all military constructions, whether for attack or defense, in which the material employed is chiefly earth.

=East Indian Army.= In 1861 the British Secretary of State for India brought forward a measure for reorganizing the Indian army, which has been passed into a law. The British portion of the Indian army is to form part of the queen’s army generally, with certain honorary distinctions, and is to take its turn at home and in the colonies like the rest; but the expenses are to be paid out of Indian, not Imperial revenues. The native portion is to be wholly in India; in its reconstruction many improvements are made to lessen the chances of future revolt.

=Ebersberg=, or =Ebelsberg=. A town of Upper Austria, on the Traun, 8 miles northwest from Ens, remarkable for being the scene of the defeat of the Austrians by the French in 1809.

=Eboulement= (_Fr._). The crumbling or falling of the walls of a fortification.

=Ebro.= A river in Spain, the scene of a signal defeat of the Spaniards by the French under Lannes, near Tudela, November 23, 1808; and also of several important movements of the allied British and Spanish armies during the Peninsular war (1809-13).

=Eccentric.= A device applied to the truck wheels of top carriages and beds of mortars in sea-coast artillery to give either rolling or sliding friction at will. The wheels turn on axle-arms which project eccentrically from the ends of an axle passing through both cheeks; when the axle is turned the axle-arms carry the wheels up or down; when at the lowest point the weight of the carriage is borne by the wheels, and the system moves on rolling friction; the wheels are then said to be _in gear_; when _out of gear_, or at their highest points, the wheels do not touch the rails or platform plates, but the cheeks rest on them, and the carriage moves upon sliding friction. A similar device is attached to the chassis near the pintle to enable it to be readily traversed when _in gear_, and give it stability when _out of gear_.

=Eccentric Projectiles.= A spherical projectile in which the centre of inertia does not coincide with the centre of figure. Such projectiles are subject to great deviations, which can be predicted as to direction by knowing the position of the centre of inertia of the shot in the bore of the gun. (See PROJECTILES, DEVIATION OF.) The side of the ball upon which the centre of inertia lies can be found by floating it in a bath of mercury, and marking the highest point where it comes to a state of rest; the centre of inertia lies nearest the opposite side; its exact position is determined by a kind of balance called the _eccentrometer_; the ball is placed in the balance with the marked point nearest the fulcrum; the distance of the centre of inertia or gravity from the fulcrum is obtained by dividing the product of the counterbalancing weight and its distance from the fulcrum by the weight of the projectile.

=Echarge, Feu=, or =Feu d’Echarge=. Is employed to signify that a column of troops is struck at a very oblique angle.

=Echaugette.= In military history, signifies a watch-tower, or kind of sentry-box.

=Echelon.= A military term applied to a certain arrangement of troops when several divisions are drawn up in parallel lines, each to the right or the left of the one preceding it, like “steps,” or the rounds of a ladder, so that no two are on the same alignment. Each division by marching directly forward can form a line with that which is in advance of it. There are two sorts of echelon, _direct_ and _oblique_, the former of which is used in an attack or retreat.

=Eckmühl=, or =Eggmühl=. A small village of Bavaria, on the Great Laber. This place is celebrated for the important victory gained by the French over the Austrians on April 22, 1809, and which obtained for Davoust the title of Prince of Eckmühl.

=Eclaireurs= (_Fr._). A corps of grenadiers raised by Bonaparte in France, who from their celerity of movements were compared to lightning.

=Eclopes= (_Fr._). A military term to express those soldiers who, though invalids, are well enough to follow the army. Among these may be classed dragoons or horsemen whose horses become lame and cannot keep up with the troop or squadron. They always march in the rear of a column.

=Ecole Polytechnique.= A celebrated military school in Paris, established in 1794, chiefly for the artillery service. The examinations for the schools are public to all France. It not only furnishes officers of artillery, but also civil and military engineers of every description. The pupils of this school defended Paris in 1814 and 1830.

=Economy.= In a military sense, implies the minutiæ or interior regulations of a regiment, troop, or company. Hence regimental economy.

=Ecorcheurs= (_Flayers_). A name given to bands of armed adventurers who desolated France and Belgium during the 15th century, beginning about 1435, and they at one time numbered 100,000. They are said to have stripped their victims to their shirts, and flayed the cattle. They were favored by the English invasion and the civil wars.

=Ecoutes.= Small galleries made at equal distances in front of the glacis of the fortifications of a place. They serve to annoy the enemy’s miners, and to interrupt them in their work.

=Ecreter= (_Fr._). To batter or fire at the top of a wall, redoubt, epaulement, etc., so as to dislodge or drive away the men that may be stationed behind it, in order to render the approach more easy. _Ecreter les pointes des palissades_ is to blunt the sharp ends of the palisades. This ought always to be done before you attack the covert way, which is generally fenced by them.

=Ecu= (_Fr._). A large shield which was used by the ancients, and carried on their left arm, to ward off the blows of sword or sabre. This instrument of defense was originally invented by the Samnites. The Moors had _ecus_, or shields, sufficiently large to cover the whole of their bodies. The _clipei_ of the Romans only differed from the _ecu_ in shape; the former being entirely round, and the latter oval.

=Ecuador=, or =Equator=. A South American republic, founded in 1831, when the Colombian republic was divided into three; the other two being Venezuela and New Granada. Gen. Franco was here defeated in battle by Gen. Flores, August, 1860. Several insurrections have taken place in Ecuador since 1860.

=Edessa=, or =Callinhoe=. An ancient city of Mesopotamia. In 1144 the Edessenes were defeated by the Saracen chief Nur-ed-deen, and all who were not massacred were sold as slaves. After many vicissitudes, it fell successively into the hands of the sultans of Egypt, the Byzantines, the Mongols, Turkomans, and Persians; the city was finally conquered by the Turks, and has ever since formed a portion of the Turkish dominion. Its modern name is Oorfa.

=Edge.= The thin or cutting part of a sword or sabre.

=Edgehill.= An elevated ridge in Warwickshire, England, 7 miles northeast from Banbury. Here was fought, on Sunday, October 23, 1642, the first great battle of the civil war, between the royalist forces under Charles I. and the Parliamentarians under the Earl of Essex. Prince Rupert, who led the right wing, charged with his cavalry the left wing of the Parliamentarians, broke it, and pursued it madly to Keinton. Essex with his force defeated the right wing of the royalists.

=Edinburgh.= The metropolis of Scotland, situated about 1¹⁄₂ miles from the Firth of Forth. It was taken by the Anglo-Saxons in 482; retaken by the Picts in 695; city fortified and castle rebuilt, 1074; besieged by Donald Bane, 1093. The city was taken by the English in 1296; surrendered to Edward III. in 1356. It was burnt by Richard II., 1385, and by Henry IV., 1401. A British force landed from a fleet of 200 ships, in 1544, and burned Edinburgh. The castle surrendered to Cromwell in 1650. The young Pretender occupied Holyrood September 17, 1745, and the battle of Preston Pans took place September 21, 1745.

=Effective.= Fit for service; as, an army of 30,000 effective (fighting) men.

=Efficient.= A thoroughly trained and capable soldier. It is also a term used in connection with the volunteers. A volunteer is said to be efficient when he has performed the appointed number of drills and fired the regular number of rounds at the target, in the course of the year.

=Egham.= A village in the northwest of Surrey, 18 miles west of London. In the vicinity is Runnymede, a meadow on the Thames, where King John conferred with his barons before signing the Magna Charta in 1215.

=Egypt.= A country in Northeast Africa. On the division of the Roman empire (395 A.D.) Egypt became a part of the dominions of Arcadius, ruler of the Eastern empire. But, owing to religious feuds of the Jacobites and Melchites, it became a province of Persia (616) for twelve years. In 640 the governor, Makaukas, endeavored to make himself independent, and invited the arms of the Arabs, and Amrou easily conquered Egypt. Although Alexandria was retaken by Constantine III., the Arabs drove him out and maintained their conquest, and Egypt remained an appendage of the caliphate. It afterwards passed into the dynasty of the Turks, and was administered by pashas. Constant rebellions of the Mamelukes, and the violence of contending factions, distracted the country for more than two centuries. The most remarkable event of this period was the French invasion by Bonaparte in 1798, which, by the conquest of Alexandria and the battle of the Pyramids against the Mamelukes, led to the entire subjection of the country, from which the French were finally expelled by the Turks and British in 1801, and the country restored to the Ottoman Porte. The rise of Mohammed Ali in 1806 imparted a galvanic prosperity to Egypt by the destruction of the Mamelukes, the formation of a regular army, and the introduction of European civilization. He considerably extended its boundaries, even into Asia; but in 1840 he was dispossessed of his Asiatic conquests. The treaty of London, however, in 1841, confirmed the viceroyalty of Egypt as a fief of the Ottoman empire to him and his descendants.

=Ehrenbreitstein.= A town and fortress of Rhenish Prussia, situated on the right bank of the Rhine, directly opposite Coblentz, with which it is connected by a bridge of boats. The fortress of Ehrenbreitstein occupies the summit of a precipitous rock 490 feet high, and has been called the Gibraltar of the Rhine, on account of its great natural strength and its superior works. It is capable of accommodating a garrison of 14,000 men, and provisions for 8000 men for ten years can be stowed in its vast magazines. Ehrenbreitstein was besieged in vain by the French in 1688, but fell into their hands in 1799, after a siege of fourteen months. Two years after, the French, on leaving, at the peace of Lunéville, blew up the works. It was assigned, however, to Prussia by the Congress of Vienna in 1814, and under that country was restored and thoroughly fortified. It is now one of the strongest forts in Europe.

=Eighty-ton Gun.= A large Woolwich gun designed as an armament for the “Inflexible.” Its construction was authorized in March, 1874, and the gun was ready for proof in October, 1875. When first made it weighed 81 tons, having a caliber of 14¹⁄₂ inches. It was bored during the progress of the experiments to 16 inches, and was given an enlarged chamber. The experiments were conducted by the celebrated “Committee on Explosion.” See ORDNANCE, RECENT HISTORY OF.

=Eilau-Preussisch.= A town of Prussia, government of Königsberg. It is chiefly celebrated for the victory gained there by the French over the united Prussian and Russian armies, February 8, 1807.

=Einsiedeln.= A small town of Switzerland, in the canton of Schwytz. It contains a fine abbey, which was rifled by the French in 1798.

=Ejector.= The device used in breech-loading small-arms to throw out the metallic cartridge-case after it is fired.

=Ejector Spring.= The spring which operates an ejector.

=El Arish.= A village of Lower Egypt on the Mediterranean, on the route from Egypt to Syria. It is but little more than a fort and a few houses, and was taken by the French in 1799; and here the French general Kleber signed, in 1800, a convention with Sir Sydney Smith, engaging to leave Egypt with his troops.

=Elath=, or =Eloth=. A seaport situated at the head of that gulf of the Red Sea, to which it gave its name. It was a fortified port in the time of Solomon; revolted against Joram; was retaken by Azariah; and was eventually conquered by Rezui, and held by the Syrians till it became a Roman frontier town. Under the Mohammedan rule it rose for a while to some importance, but has now sunk into insignificance.

=Elba.= An island belonging to the kingdom of Italy, in the Mediterranean Sea, between Corsica and the coast of Tuscany, from the latter of which it is separated by a channel 5 miles in breadth. Elba has been rendered famous in history from having been Napoleon’s place of exile from May, 1814, till February, 1815.

=El Boden.= A mountain-range, near Ciudad Rodrigo, in Spain, where the British troops distinguished themselves against an overwhelming French force in 1811.

=Elbow-gauntlet.= An ancient piece of armor, a gauntlet of plate reaching to the elbow, adopted from the Asiatics in the 16th century.

=Elbow-piece.= An ancient piece of armor, a metal plate used to cover the junction of the rere-brace and rant-brace, by which the upper and lower half of the arm were covered.

=Elchingen.= A village of Bavaria, on the Danube, 7 miles northeast from Ulm. Here the Austrians were defeated by the French in 1805. For this victory Marshal Ney received the title of Duke of Elchingen.

=Electric light.= An intense light produced by passing an electric current between points of carbon forming electrodes of the circuit. There are many forms of the apparatus. It will be extensively used in future wars for lighting harbor channels, approaches to forts, etc.

=Elements.= In a military sense, signify the first principles of tactics, fortification, and gunnery.

=Elephant.= See PACK AND DRAUGHT ANIMALS.

=Elevate, To.= Is to raise the muzzle of the cannon or rifle so that the latter shall be directed at a point above that which it is intended shall be struck.

=Elevating Arc.= In gunnery, is an arc attached to the base of the breech parallel to the ratchets and graduated into degrees and parts of a degree. A pointer attached to the _fulcrum_ points to the zero of the scale when the axis of the piece is horizontal. Elevations and depressions are indicated by the scale. Besides the graduations on the arc, the ranges (in yards) and charges for shot and shell are given.

=Elevating Bar.= An iron bar used in elevating guns or mortars having ratchets at the breech.

=Elevating Screw.= The screw by means of which the breech of a cannon is raised, the result being to depress the muzzle.

=Elevating Sight.= See SIGHT, ELEVATING.

=Elevation.= In gunnery, is one of the elements of pointing, being the movement of the axis of a piece in a vertical plane as distinguished from _direction_ or its movement horizontally. The elevation is usually positive,--that is, the gun is pointed above the horizontal. When it is pointed below, it is said to be depressed. The word is also used to express degree, or as a synonym for _angle of elevation_. The sights or elevating apparatus of guns are graduated on the theory that the object is in the horizontal plane of the piece, or that the line of sight is horizontal, which is not always the case in practice. When the elevation is determined by sights the angle of elevation is the angle between the line of sight and the axis of the piece, when these lines are in the same vertical plane,--or the angle between the line of sight and a plane containing the axis of the piece and a horizontal line intersecting it at right angles, when they are not. The graduations of tangent scales and fixed breech-sights give this angle in degrees. The graduation of the pendulum hausse gives the angle correctly only when the line of sight is horizontal. When the elevation is given by elevating arcs or gunner’s quadrant, the angle of elevation becomes the angle of fire, or the angle which the axis of the piece makes with the horizontal. Elevation is necessary to overcome the effect of gravity on the projectile. The degree of elevation increases with the range. _In vacuo_ the elevation corresponding to the maximum range is 45°. In the air the angle of maximum range diminishes with the velocity and increases with diameter and density of the ball. It is greater in mortars than in howitzers, and greater in howitzers than in guns. In mortars it approximates to 42°; in guns it is about 37°.

=Ellisburgh.= A village of Jefferson Co., N. Y. In 1814 an engagement took place here between the Americans and British, in which the latter were defeated.

=Elmina.= A fortified town and seaport of West Africa, founded by the Portuguese in 1481; was the first European settlement planted on the coast of Guinea. It was taken by the Dutch in 1637, and was ceded by them to Portugal. It was burned by the British troops in 1873.

=Elsass= (Fr. _Alsace_). One of the old German provinces, having the Rhine on the east and the Vosges Mountains on the west. It was ceded to France in 1648; but after the Franco-German war was annexed by Prussia, under treaty of May 10, 1871.

=Elswick Compressor.= An arrangement for compressing friction plates used in the English navy to take up the recoil of gun-carriages upon their slides. The 7 friction plates arranged longitudinally under the carriage and attached to its lower part, have alternating between them 6 long flat bars attached at their ends to the slide by bolts passing through them, but allowing them a side motion. The plates and bars are tightly clamped by short rocking levers, the lower ends of which act on the outside plates. The levers are worked by collars on a threaded shaft, which catch their upper ends. The shaft is called the compressor shaft, and has a handle or crank on the outside of each cheek or bracket,--one is called the _adjusting lever_, the other the _compressor lever_. The first is used to give an initial compression to suit the charge, the other is operated by the recoil being forced down by a tripper on the slide. Two forms of the compressor are used,--one for the _single plate_, the other for the _double-plate carriage_. In the double-plate carriage the adjusting lever can be set to any degree of compression without causing any motion in the compressor shaft or lever.

=Elswick Gun.= Armstrong gun (which see).

=Elvas.= A strong frontier town of Portugal, in the province of Alemtejo, situated on a rocky hill, 10 miles northwest from Badajos. It is one of the most important strongholds in Europe. The arsenal and bomb-proof barracks are capable of containing 6000 or 7000 men. In 1808 it was taken and held for five months by the French.

=Emaum Ghaur.= In Scinde, was a strong fortress in the Thur or Great Sandy Desert, separating that province from the rajpoot state of Jessulmere. It was captured by Sir Charles Napier in January, 1843.

=Embark.= To put or cause to go on board a vessel or boat; as, to embark troops. To go on board of a ship, boat, or vessel; as, the troops embarked for Egypt.

=Embarkation.= The act of putting or going on board of a vessel.

=Embaterion.= A war-song of the Spartans, accompanied by flutes, which they sung marching in time, and rushing on the enemy. The origin of the embaterion is lost in antiquity.

=Embattle.= To arrange in order of battle; to draw up in array, as troops for battle; also, to prepare or arm for battle.

=Embattle.= To furnish with battlements. “_Embattled_” house.

=Embattlement.= An indented parapet; battlement.

=Embezzlement.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 60.

=Emblazonry.= See BLAZONRY.

=Emblee= (_Fr._). A prompt, sudden, and vigorous attack, which is made against the covert way and outworks of a fortified place.

=Embody.= To form or collect into a body or united mass; as, to embody troops.

=Embrasseur= (_Fr._). A piece of iron, which grasps the trunnions of a piece of ordnance, when it is raised upon the boring machine, to widen its caliber.

=Embrasure.= In fortification, is an opening in the parapet, or a hole in the mask wall of a casemate through which the guns are pointed. The _sole_ or bottom of the embrasure is from 2¹⁄₂ to 4 feet (according to the size of the gun) above the platform upon which the gun stands. Parapet embrasures are smallest at the interior opening, which is called the mouth, and is from 1¹⁄₂ to 2 feet wide. The widening of the embrasure is what is called the _splay_. The sole slopes downward about one in six. Its exterior line, or its intersection with the exterior slope, is usually made half the length of the sole. The line which bisects the sole is called the _directrix_. The sides are called cheeks. The masses of earth between embrasures are called _merlons_. When the directrix makes an angle with the direction of the parapet, the embrasure is _oblique_. The embrasures of casemates have in horizontal section a shape something like an hour-glass. The nearest part is called the throat. This is sometimes closed with iron shutters.

=Embrocher.= A vulgar term used among French soldiers to signify the act of running a man through the body; literally to _spit him_.

=Emery.= A powder made by grinding a mineral,--corundum,--used by soldiers for cleaning their arms.

=Eminence.= A high or rising ground, which overlooks and commands the low places about it. Such places, within cannon-shot of any fortified place, are a great disadvantage, if the besiegers become masters of them.

=Emir=, or =Emeer=. An Arabic word, equivalent to “ruler,” is a title given to all independent chieftains, and also to all the actual or supposed descendants of Mohammed through his daughter Fatima. In former times, the title of Emir was borne by the leaders in the religious wars of the Mohammedans, and by several ruling families.

=Emissary.= A person sent by any power that is at war with another, for the purpose of creating disaffection among the people of the latter.

=Emousser= (_Fr._). To blunt, to dull. In a military sense, it signifies to take off the four corners of a battalion, which has formed a square, and to give it, by those means, an octagon figure; from the different obtuse angles of which it may fire in all directions.

=Emperor= (_Imperator_). Among the ancient Romans, signified the general of an army, who, for some extraordinary success, had been complimented with this appellation. Subsequently it came to denominate an absolute monarch or supreme commander of an empire. In Europe, the first who bore the title was Charlemagne.

=Empilement= (_Fr._). From _empiler_, to pile up. The act of disposing shot and shell in the most secure and convenient manner. This generally occurs in arsenals and citadels.

=Emprise.= A hazardous attempt upon the enemy.

=Encamp.= To form and occupy a camp; to halt on a march, spread tents, and remain for a night or for a longer time; as, an army or company.

=Encampment.= The pitching of a camp. The act of pitching huts or tents, as by an army, for temporary lodging, or rest; the place where an army or company is encamped. There are _intrenched_ camps, where an army is intended to be kept some time, protected against the enemy; _flying_ camps, for brief occupation; camps of _position_, bearing relation to the strategy of the commander; and camps of _instruction_, to habituate the troops to the duties and fatigues of war.

=Enceinte.= In fortification, denotes generally the whole area of a fortified place. Properly, however, it means a cincture or girdle, and in this sense the _enceinte_ signifies the principal wall or rampart encircling the place, comprising the curtain and bastions, and having the main ditch immediately outside it.

=Encircle.= To pass around, as in a circle; to go or come round; as, the army encircled the city.

=Encombrer= (_Fr._). In fortification, to fill up any hollow place, such as a stagnant lake, etc., with rubbish.

=Encompass.= To describe a circle about; to go around; to encircle; to inclose; to environ; as, an army encompasses a city; a ship’s voyage encompasses the world.

=Encounter.= A meeting with hostile purpose; hence, a combat; a battle.

=Encounter.= To come against face to face; to engage in conflict with; to oppose; as, two armies encounter each other.

=Encounters.= In military affairs, are combats or fights between two persons only. Figuratively, battles or attacks by small or large armies.

=Encroachments.= The advancement of the troops of one nation on the rights or limits of another.

=Enemy.= In military language, the opposing force; as, “We have met the enemy, and they are ours.”

=Enfans Perdus.= Forlorn hope, in military history, are soldiers detached from several regiments, or otherwise appointed to give the first onset in battle, or in an attack upon the counterscarp, or the breach of a place besieged; so called (by the French) because of the imminent danger to which they are exposed.

=Enfield Rifle-musket.= The service arm of Great Britain prior to the adoption of breech-loaders; manufactured at Enfield, England, at the royal small-arms factories. It was first extensively introduced in 1853, and was used during the Crimean war. It had three grooves, with a twist of about one turn in 6 feet. Before the adoption of the Martini-Henry, large numbers of those guns were utilized by converting them into breech-loaders on the Snider principle. The Enfield rifles, though very serviceable weapons, much better than the Belgian and Austrian arms imported to the United States during the civil war, were in almost every respect inferior to the old Springfield (U. S.) rifle-musket, nearly of the same caliber (.58), the Enfield being .577. All those weapons have now given place to various breech-loading arms.

=Enfilade.= Is to fire in the direction of the length of a line of parapet or troops; to “rake it,” as the sailors say. In the siege of a fortress, the trenches of approach are cut in a zigzag, to prevent the defenders enfilading them from the walls.

=Enfilading Batteries.= In siege operations are one of the classes of batteries employed, the other classes being _counter_ and _breaching_ batteries. Enfilading batteries are located on the prolongation of the faces and flanks of the works besieged, to secure a raking fire along the terre-pleins.

=Engage.= To gain for service; to enlist.

=Engage.= To enter into conflict; to join battle; as, the armies engaged in a general battle.

=Engagement.= A general action or battle, whether by land or sea.

=Engarrison.= To protect any place by a garrison.

=Engen.= In Baden; here Moreau defeated the Austrians, May 3, 1800.

=Enghien=, or =Steenkirk=. In Southwestern Belgium. Here the British under William III. were defeated by the French under Marshal Luxemburg, July 24, 1692.

=Engineer, Military.= An officer in the service of a government, whose duties are principally to construct fortifications, to make surveys for warlike purposes, to facilitate the passage of an army by the construction of roads and bridges; in short, to execute all engineering works of a military nature. He is also called upon to undertake many works which more properly belong to the business of a civil engineer, such as the survey of the country, the inspection of public works, and, in short, all the duties of a government engineer.

=Engineering.= The business of the engineer; the art of designing and superintending the execution of railways, bridges, canals, harbors, docks, the defense of fortresses, etc.

=Engineer Corps.= In modern nations, the necessity for a corps of staff-officers, trained to arrange for and overcome the embarrassments of the movements of an army in the field, has been thoroughly demonstrated, and hence, in European armies, a trained staff of officers is organized for this purpose. In the United States a force of about 300 officers and enlisted men are engaged in these duties. See SAPPERS AND MINERS.

=Engineers, Topographical.= See TOPOGRAPHICAL ENGINEERS.

=England.= The southern and larger division of the island of Great Britain, and the principal member of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It was so named, it is said, by Egbert, first king of the English, in a general council held at Winchester, 829. It was united with Wales, 1283; with Scotland in 1603; and Ireland was incorporated with them, January 1, 1801. For previous history, see BRITAIN; and for further details of battles, etc., see separate articles.

=Enlargement.= The act of going or being allowed to go beyond the prescribed limits; as the extending the boundaries of an arrest, when the officer is said to be enlarged, or under arrest at large.

=Enlargement.= Enlargements of the bore and vent are injuries suffered by all cannon that are much used. The term is technically applied to certain injuries to brass cannon. See INJURIES TO CANNON.

=Enlistment.= The voluntary enrollment of men in the military or naval service.

=Enniscorthy.= A town of Ireland, in the county of Wexford, on the river Slaney. It arose in the Norman castle, still entire, founded by Raymond le Gros, one of the early Anglo-Norman invaders. Cromwell took this place in 1649; and the Irish rebels stormed and burned it in 1798.

=Enniskillen.= A town of Ireland, in the county of Fermanagh. This place is famous for the victory, in 1689, won by the troops of William III., under Lord Hamilton, over a superior force of James II., under Lord Gilmoy. The banners taken in the battle of the Boyne hang in the town-hall of Enniskillen.

=Enniskillen Dragoons.= A British regiment of horse; it was first instituted from the brave defenders of Enniskillen, in 1689.

=Enrank.= To place in ranks or in order.

=Enroll.= To place a man’s name on the roll or nominal list of a body of soldiers.

=Ensconce.= To cover as with a fort.

=Enseigne= (_Fr._). The colors. The French designate all warlike symbols under the term _enseigne_; but they again distinguish that word by the appellations of _drapeaux_, colors, and _etendards_, standards. _Drapeaux_ or colors are particularly characteristic of the infantry; _etendards_ or standards belong to the cavalry.

=Ensemble.= Together; the exact execution of the same movements, performed in the same manner, and by the same motions. It is the union of all the men who compose a battalion, or several battalions or companies of infantry and cavalry, who are to act as if put in motion by the same spring.

=Enshield.= To cover from the enemy.

=Ensiform.= Having the shape of a sword.

=Ensign-bearer.= One who carries a flag; an ensign.

=Ensigncy.= The rank or office of an ensign.

=Ensisheim.= In Eastern France; here Turenne defeated the imperial army, and expelled it from Alsace, October 4, 1674.

=Entanglement.= Abatis, so called, when made by cutting only partly through the trunks, and pulling the upper parts to the ground, where they are picketed.

=Entanglement, Wire.= Formed by twisting wire round stout stakes or trees 7 feet apart. The wires are placed about a foot or 18 inches above the ground. The trees-pickets or trees are in two or three rows, arranged checkerwise, the wires crossing diagonally.

=Enter, To.= To engage in; to enlist in; as, to enter an army.

=Enterprise.= An undertaking attended with some hazard and danger.

=Enterpriser.= An officer who undertakes or engages in any important and hazardous design.

=Entire=, or =Rank Entire=. A line of men in one continued row by the side of each other. When behind each other, they are said to be in file.

=Entonnoir= (_Fr._). The cavity or hole which remains after the explosion of a mine. It likewise meant the tin case or port-feu which is used to convey the priming powder into the vent of a cannon.

=Entrench, To.= Is to construct hastily thrown-up field-works for the purpose of strengthening a force in position. See INTRENCH.

=Entrepôts.= Magazines and places appropriated in garrison towns for the reception of stores, etc.

=Envelope.= In fortification, a work of earth, sometimes in the form of a single parapet, and at others like a small rampart; it is raised sometimes in the ditch, and sometimes beyond it. Envelopes are occasionally _en zigzag_, to inclose a weak ground, where that is practicable, with single lines. Envelopes, in a ditch, are sometimes called sillons, contregardes, conserves, lunettes, etc.

=Environ, To.= To surround in a hostile manner; to hem in; to besiege.

=Enzersdorf.= A fortified town of Austria, 8 miles east from Vienna.

=Epaule.= In fortification, denotes the shoulder of a bastion, or the place where its face and flank meet and form the angle, called the angle of the shoulder.

=Epaulement= (Fr. _epaule_). In siege works, is a portion of a battery or earthwork. The siege batteries are generally shielded at one end at least by epaulements, forming an obtuse angle with the main line of the battery. The name is often given erroneously to the parapet of the battery itself, but it applies properly to the flanking return only. Sometimes the whole of a small or secondary earthwork, including the battery and its flanks, is called an epaulement; and sometimes the same name is given to an isolated breastwork intended to shield the cavalry employed in defending a body of besiegers.

=Epaulette.= A shoulder-knot worn by commissioned officers of the army and navy, as a mark of distinction. The insignia of their rank are usually marked on officers’ epaulettes.

=Epauletted.= Furnished with epaulettes.

=Ephebi.= In Grecian antiquity, the name given to the Attic youth from the age of 18, till they entered upon their 20th year. During this period they served a sort of apprenticeship in arms, and were frequently sent, under the name of _peripoli_, to some of the frontier towns of Attica to keep watch against foreign invasion.

=Epibatæ.= In Grecian antiquity, the name given to soldiers whose duty it was to fight on board ship. They corresponded almost exactly to the marines of modern naval warfare. The term is sometimes found in Roman authors to denote the same class of soldiers, but the general phrase adopted by them is _milites classiarii_, or _socii navales_.

=Epignare= (_Fr._). A small piece of ordnance which does not exceed one pound in caliber.

=Epigoni.= A term which signifies “heirs” or “descendants.” It was applied to the sons of the seven chiefs who conducted an expedition against Thebes to restore Polynices, and who were all killed except Adrastus. Ten years later the Epigoni--namely, Alcmæon, Thersander, Diomedes, Ægialeus, Promachus, Sthenelus, and Euryalus--renewed the enterprise and took Thebes. The war of the Epigoni was celebrated by several ancient epic and dramatic poets.

=Epinglette= (_Fr._). An iron needle with which the cartridge of any large piece of ordnance is pierced before it is primed.

=Epinikian.= Pertaining to, or celebrating, victory; as an epinikian ode.

=Epirus.= A celebrated country of ancient Greece, lying between the Ionian Sea and the chain of Pindus.

=E Pluribus Unum.= “One out of many.” A motto adopted by the United States since their declaration of independence, in 1776.

=Epouvante= (_Fr._). A sudden panic with which troops are seized, and under which they retreat without any actual necessity for so doing.

=Eprouvette= (_Fr._). A small mortar to prove the strength of gunpowder. There are different sorts of eprouvettes, according to the fancy of different nations who use them. Some raise a weight, and others throw a shot, to certain heights and distances. As a test of gunpowder the eprouvette is comparatively worthless, and it has been generally superseded by instruments for measuring the initial velocity obtained by firing the powder in the particular gun for which it is intended. A short mortar is, however, still used, to a certain extent, for testing the power of modern blasting powders, such as the mixtures of nitro-glycerine. A very small charge and a heavy shot of chilled iron which enters two or three inches only into the mortar are used. The square roots of the ranges (other things being equal) give the relative powers of the different powders, nearly.

=Equalize.= To render the distribution of any number of men equal as to the component parts. To _equalize a battalion_, to tell off a certain number of companies in such a manner that the several component parts shall consist of the same number of men.

=Equation of Time.= See TIME, MEAN SOLAR TIME.

=Equerry.= Any person who is appointed to attend the sovereign, or prince of the royal blood, upon out-door excursions, and who has the care and management of their horses.

=Eques Auratus.= A heraldic term for a knight.

=Equestrian.= A man who rides on horseback; a horseman; a rider.

=Equestrian Order.= Among the Romans, signified their knights or equites; as, also, their troopers or horsemen in the field.

=Equip, To.= To furnish an individual, a corps, or an army with everything that is requisite for military service, such as arms, accoutrements, uniforms, etc.

=Equipage.= In military matters, is the name given to the necessaries of the soldier. The equipment of a private is often used as a name for the whole of his clothes, arms, and accoutrements, collectively. The equipage of the camp is of two kinds, _camp_ and _field_ equipage.

=Equipments, Cannoneers’.= Include the _hausse pouch_, _cartridge pouches_, _primer pouches_, and _thumb-stall_, used in the field service. The equipments for a field-piece are the _tampion_ and _strap_, _vent cover_ and _tarpaulin_. Other things used in service of cannon are called _implements_, which see.

=Equipments, Horse.= In the mounted service, comprise the _bridle_, _halter_, _watering bridle_, _saddle_, _saddle-bags_, _saddle blanket_, _nose-bag_, _lariat_, _curry-comb_, _brush_, etc.

=Equipments, Infantry.= Comprise the personal outfit of the soldier, excluding arms proper and clothing. A set of equipments is called a _kit_ (which see). The standard equipments for infantry include the _knapsack_, _belts_, and _plates_, _cartridge-box_, _bayonet-scabbard_, _haversack_, and _canteen_. The knapsack, haversack, and canteen are only used in marching. In the United States there is a strong tendency towards discarding the knapsack; a roll made of the blanket, piece of shelter-tent, or overcoat, being frequently used instead. A clothing-bag is also sometimes used to take its place. The best manner of arranging and slinging the various articles carried, for the comfort and health of the soldier, is still an open question. In future wars it is probable that an intrenching tool will be added to the soldier’s equipment. The equipments for a cavalry soldier in the United States are very much the same as for infantry.

=Equipments, Signal.= The _flags_, _staffs_, _flying torches_, _fort torches_, _flame shades_, _haversacks_, _telescopes_, etc., used in signaling. A set of equipments for one man is called a _signal kit_.

=Equites.= An order of equestrian knights introduced among the Romans by Romulus.

=Eretria.= One of the most celebrated of ancient cities, and, next to Chalcis, one of the most powerful in Eubœa. After the Peloponnesian war, the city was governed by tyrants.

=Erfurt.= A town of Prussian Saxony, on the river Gera; it was founded in 476. Erfurt was ceded to Prussia in 1802. It capitulated to Murat, when 14,000 troops surrendered, October 16, 1806. In this city Napoleon and Alexander met, and offered peace to England, September 27, 1808. The French retreated from Leipsic to Erfurt, October 18, 1813. This place was restored to Prussia by the Congress of Vienna.

=Ericius.= In Roman antiquity, a military engine, so named from its resemblance to a hedge-hog. It was a kind of chevaux-de-frise, placed as a defense at the gate of the camp.

=Erie, Fort.= A strong fortification in Upper Canada, on the northern shore of Lake Erie. Here the British were defeated by the Americans, August 15, 1814.

=Erlau.= A fortified town of Hungary, the old castle of which was frequently besieged during the Turkish wars, both by Moslem and Christian.

=Eryx.= A city and mountain in the west of Sicily, 6 miles from Drepana, and a short distance from the sea-shore. The possession of the town of Eryx was contested by the Syracusans and Carthaginians. A great battle was fought off the town between the fleets of the two nations, in which the Syracusans were victorious. The town subsequently changed hands more than once, but it seems to have owned the Carthaginian supremacy at the time of the expedition of Pyrrhus, 278 B.C. Though taken by that monarch, it once more fell into the hands of its original conquerors, who retained it till the close of the first Punic war.

=Erzroom=, =Erzroum=, or =Erzrum=. A fortified town of Armenia (Asiatic Turkey), on the river Kara-Soo, a branch of the Euphrates. Its position renders it an important military post. In 1210 it was taken by the Seljooks, who are said to have destroyed here 100 churches; taken by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. It was taken by the Russians in 1829, but was restored to Turkey in the following year.

=Escadron= (_Fr._). Squadron. Froissart was the first French writer who made use of the word escadron to signify a troop of horse drawn out in order of battle. The term escadron is more ancient than the word battalion.

=Escalade.= From the Latin _scala_, a ladder. In siege operations, a mode of gaining admission within the enemy’s works. It consists in advancing over the glacis and the covert way, descending, if necessary, into the ditch by means of ladders, and ascending to the parapet of the curtain and bastions, and are either procured on the spot, or are sent out with the siege army. The leaders constitute a forlorn hope.

=Escale= (_Fr._). A machine used to ply the petard.

=Escape of Gas.= See GAS-CHECK and BREECH MECHANISM.

=Escarp.= In fortification, the surface of the ditch next the rampart, the surface next the enemy being termed the counterscarp. Called also scarp.

=Escarp Galleries.= Galleries constructed in the escarp for the purpose of flanking the ditch caponnière.

=Escarpment.= Ground cut away nearly vertically about a position, in order to render it inaccessible to the enemy.

=Escort.= A body of troops attending an individual as a guard. The term is also applied to a guard placed over prisoners on a march, to prevent their escape, and to the guard of a convoy of stores.

=Escort, Funeral.= See FUNERAL ESCORT.

=Escort of Honor.= A body of troops attending a personage of rank by way of military compliment.

=Escort of the Color.= The military ceremony of sending for and receiving the colors of a battalion.

=Escouade= (_Fr._). In the old French service generally meant the third part of a company of foot or a detachment. Companies were divided in this manner for the purpose of more conveniently keeping the tour of duty among the men. We have corrupted the term, and called it squad.

=Escuage.= An ancient feudal tenure by which the tenant was bound to follow his lord to war or to defend his castle.

=Espadon.= In old military works, a kind of two-handed sword, having two edges, of a great length and breadth; formerly used by the Spanish.

=Espauliere= (_Fr._). A defense for the shoulder, composed of flexible, overlapping plates of metal, used in the 15th century; the origin of the modern _epaulette_.

=Espiere.= A town of Belgium, 8 miles from Courtrai, where the allied Austrian and English army defeated the French, May 22, 1794.

=Espingard=, or =Epingare= (_Fr._). An ancient name for a small gun under a 1-pounder. They were used as early as the 14th century.

=Espingole=, or =Spingole= (_Fr._). A blunderbuss; a kind of blunderbuss which, in early times, was loaded with several balls; the charges were separated from each other by tampions in which a hole was made, and thus the balls were fired in succession.

=Espinosa de la Monteros.= A town of Spain, on the Trueba, 50 miles from Burgos. The French defeated the Spaniards here in 1808.

=Esplanade.= In fortification, is the open space intentionally left between the houses of a city and the glacis of its citadel, so that the enemy may not be able to erect breaching batteries under cover of the houses. In old works on fortification, the term is often applied to the glacis of the counterscarp, or the slope of the parapet of the covered way towards the country.

=Espontoon= (_Fr._). A sort of half pike, about 3 feet in length, used in the 17th century. The colonels of corps as well as the captains of companies always used them in action. This weapon was also used by officers in the British army.

=Espringal.= In the ancient art of war, a machine for throwing large darts, generally called muchettæ.

=Esprit de Corps= (_Fr._). This term is generally used among all military men in Europe. It may not improperly be defined a laudable spirit of ambition which produces a peculiar attachment to any

## particular corps, company, or service. Officers without descending to

mean and pitiful sensations of selfish envy, under the influence of a true _esprit de corps_ rise into an emulous thirst after military glory. The good are excited to peculiar feats of valor by the sentiments it engenders, and the bad are deterred from ever hazarding a disgraceful

## action by a secret consciousness of the duties it prescribes.

=Esquimaux.= The tribes inhabiting Greenland and Arctic America. Those inhabiting the continent are found in sparse settlements from Behring Strait to Labrador. They are generally peaceable. Some of these in Greenland have been civilized by the influence of the Danes.

=Esquire.= In chivalry, was the shield-bearer or armor-bearer to the knight. He was a candidate for the honor of knighthood, and thus stood to the knight in the relation of a novice or apprentice. When fully equipped each knight was attended by two esquires.

=Essedarii.= In Roman antiquity, gladiators who fought in a heavy kind of chariot called _esseda_ or _essedum_. The _esseda_ (which derived its name from the Celtic word _ess_, signifying a carriage) was a ponderous kind of chariot much used in war by the Gauls, the Belgæ, and the Britons. It differed from the currus in being open before instead of behind; and in this way the owner was enabled to run along the pole, from the extremity of which, or even from the top of the yoke, he discharged his missiles with surprising dexterity.

=Essek=, or =Eszek=. A town and fortress of the Austrian empire, in Sclavonia, on the Drave. It contains an arsenal, barracks, and other military buildings. There were several battles fought here between the Turks and Germans. It was finally taken from the Turks in 1687, since which time it has continued in the hands of the house of Austria.

=Essling.= A village of Lower Austria, on the left bank of the Danube, 6 miles east of Vienna. Between this village and that of Aspern the French were repulsed by the Austrians in a severe engagement in 1809. See ASPERN.

=Establish.= A technical phrase to express the quartering of any considerable body of troops in a country. Thus it is common to say, the army took up a position in the neighborhood of ----, and established the headquarters at ----.

=Establishment.= The quota of officers and men in an army, regiment, troop, or company.

=Establishment, Peace.= Is the reduced condition of an army suited to a time of peace.

=Establishment, War.= Is the augmentation of regiments to a certain number, by which the whole army of a country is considerably increased, to meet war exigencies.

=Estacade= (_Fr._). A dike constructed of piles in the sea, a river, or a morass, to check the approach of an enemy.

=Estafette= (_Fr._). A military courier, sent express from one part of an army to another.

=Esthonia=, or =Revel=. A Russian province, said to have been conquered by the Teutonic knights in the 12th century; after various changes it was ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Oliva in 1660, and finally to Russia by the peace of Nystadt in 1721, having been conquered by Peter in 1710.

=Estimates.= Army estimates are the computation of expenses to be incurred in the support of an army for a given time.

=Estimating Distances.= See POINTING.

=Estoc= (_Ital._). A small dagger worn at the girdle, called in Elizabethan times a _tucke_.

=Estoile.= See ETOILES.

=Estradiots=, or =Stradiots=. Grecian and Albanian horsemen, some of whom were employed in the Italian wars by Charles VIII.; their favorite weapon was the zagaye; besides this they had a broadsword, and club slung on the bow of the saddle, with sleeves and gauntlets of mail.

=Estramacon= (_Fr._). A sort of two-edged sword formerly used. A blow with the edge of a sword.

=Etat Major= (_Fr._). The staff of an army, including all officers above the rank of colonel; also, all adjutants, inspectors, quartermasters, commissaries, engineers, ordnance officers, paymasters, physicians, signal-officers, judge-advocates; also, the non-commissioned assistants of the above officers.

=Etoiles= (_Fr._). Small redoubts which are constructed by means of angles rentrant and angles sortant, and have from 5 to 8 salient points. This species of fortification has fallen into disuse, and are superseded by square redoubts, which are sooner built and are applicable to the same purpose of defense.

=Etoupille= (_Fr._). An inflammable match, composed of three threads of very fine cotton, which is well steeped in brandy mixed with the best priming gunpowder.

=Etruria=, or =Tuscia= (hence the modern name _Tuscany_). A province of Italy, whence the Romans, in a great measure, derived their laws, customs, and superstitions. The subjugation of this country forms an important part of early Roman history. A truce between the Romans and Etrurians for forty years was concluded in 351 B.C. The latter and their allies were defeated at the Vadimonian Lake, 310 B.C.; with the Boii their allies, 823 B.C., and totally lost their independence about 265 B.C.

=Eubœa.= The largest island in the Ægean Sea. Two of its cities, Chalcis and Eretria, were very important, till the former was subdued by Athens, 506 B.C., and the latter by the Persians, 490. After the Persian war Eubœa became wholly subject to Athens. It revolted in 445, but was soon subdued by Pericles. After the battle of Chæronea, 338, it became subject to Macedon. It was made independent by the Romans in 194, but was afterwards incorporated in the province of Achaia. It now forms part of the kingdom of Greece.

=Eupatoria=, or =Koslov=. A town of Russia, on the west coast of the Crimea. In September, 1854, the allied English and French armies landed near here, and the town soon after was occupied by a small detachment. The Turks subsequently occupied it, and in 1855 it was attacked by the Russians, who, however, were repulsed by the Turks, and the Anglo-French ships of war, lying in the neighboring roadstead.

=Eureka Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.

=Europe.= The least extensive, but most civilized of the five great divisions of the globe. It is bounded by the sea in all directions, except the east, where it is separated from Asia by a boundary-line, formed by the river Kara, the Ural Mountains and River, and the Caspian Sea. For military and naval events which occurred in Europe, see separate articles.

=Eurymedon= (now _Kapri-Su_). A small river in Pamphylia, celebrated for the victory which Cimon gained over the Persians on its banks, 469 B.C.

=Eustace, St.= In Lower Canada; the rebels were defeated here, December 14, 1837, and compelled to surrender their arms. Their chiefs fled.

=Eustatius, St.= A West India island, which was settled by the Dutch in 1632; taken by the French in 1689; by the English in 1690; again by the British forces under Rodney and Vaughan, February 3, 1781. It was recovered by the French, November 26, same year. It was again captured by the British in 1801 and 1810, and restored to the Dutch in 1814.

=Eutaw Springs.= A small affluent of the Santee River, in South Carolina. On its banks was fought, September 8, 1781, the battle of this name. Gen. Greene, determining to dispossess the British of their remaining posts, with about 2000 men attacked their forces under Col. Stuart. The British were routed and fled; but finding in their flight some objects affording shelter, rallied and repulsed their assailants, and Gen. Greene finding it impossible to dislodge them, retreated to his camp with 500 prisoners. The British loss was about 1000; the American about 600.

=Euxine Sea.= See BLACK SEA.

=Evacuate.= To withdraw from a town or fortress, in consequence either of a treaty or a capitulation, or of superior orders.

=Evagination.= An unsheathing or drawing out of a sheath or scabbard.

=Evesham.= A borough and market town of England, in Worcestershire, on the Avon. Near this place a battle was fought between Prince Edward, son of Henry III., and Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, August 4, 1265.

=Evidence.= Is that which makes clear, demonstrates, or ascertains the truth of the very fact or point in issue. Hearsay evidence, the declaration of what one has heard from others. This species of evidence is not admissible in courts-martial.

=Evocati.= Were a class of soldiers among the Romans, who, after having served their full time in the army, entered as volunteers to accompany some favorite general. Hence they were likewise called _emereti_ and _beneficiarii_.

=Evocation.= A religious ceremony which was observed among the Romans at the commencement of a siege, wherein they solemnly called upon the gods and goddesses of the place to forsake it and come over to them. When any place surrendered they always took it for granted that their prayer had been heard.

=Evolutions.= Are the movements of troops in order to change position. The object may be to maintain or sustain a post, to occupy a new post, to improve an attack, or to improve a defense. All such movements as marching, countermarching, changing front, forming line, facing, wheeling, making column or line, defiling, deploying, etc., come under the general heading of evolutions.

=Evreux= (anc. _Mediolanum_). A city of France, capital of the department of Eure. It has sustained several sieges, and was burned by Henry I. of England in 1119.

=Examination, Boards of.= See BOARDS OF EXAMINATION.

=Exarchs.= Were appointed by the Byzantine emperors of the East, to govern Central Italy after its conquest by Belisarius and Narses, 548. They ruled from 568 to 752, when Eutychus, the last, was overcome by Astolphus the Lombard.

=Exauctoratio.= In the Roman military discipline, differed from the _missio_, which was a full discharge, and took place after soldiers had served in the army twenty years; whereas the exauctoratio was only a

## partial discharge; they lost their pay, indeed, but still kept under

their colors or vexilla, though not under the aquila or eagle, which was the standard of the legion; whence instead of _legionarii_, they were called _subsignani_, and were retained till they had either served their full time, or had lands assigned them. The exauctoratio took place after they had served seventeen years.

=Excavation.= The art of cutting or otherwise making hollows in the earth; also the cavity formed.

=Exchange.= The act of two officers changing regiments, battalions, or batteries. The mutual giving up of an equal number of prisoners by hostile states or armies. In this sort of exchange an officer, according to his rank, is reckoned as equal to a certain number of men or of officers of a lower grade than his own.

=Excubiæ.= In ancient warfare, the watches and guards kept in the day by the Roman soldiers. They differed from the _vigiliæ_, which were kept in the night.

=Execution, Military.= Is the pillaging or plundering of a country by the enemy’s army. Military execution also means every kind of punishment inflicted in the army by the sentence of a court-martial; which is of various kinds, including putting a soldier to death by shooting him, which is the ordinary punishment of deserters to the enemy, mutineers, etc. This form of death is considered less disgraceful than hanging by the neck.

=Exempt.= Not subject, not liable to. Men of certain age are exempt from serving in the militia. An aide-de-camp and brigade-major are exempt from all regimental duties while serving in those capacities. Officers on courts-martial are sometimes exempt from all other duties until the court is dissolved.

=Exercise.= The practice of all those motions and actions, together with the whole management of arms, which are essential to the perfection of a soldier, and the rendering him fit for service.

=Exercise, Artillery.= Is the method of teaching the regiments of artillery the use and practice of all the various machines of war belonging to that particular arm of the service.

=Exon.= In England, an officer of the Yeomen of the Royal Guard; an exempt.

=Exostre= (_Fr._). Bridge of the _Helepole_ or movable tower of the ancients, by which they passed upon a wall during a siege.

=Expanding System of Projectiles.= See PROJECTILES, RIFLE.

=Expedient.= A stratagem in warfare.

=Expedition.= Is an enterprise taken by sea or by land against an enemy, the fortunate termination of which depends on the rapidity and unexpected nature of its movements. It is usually intrusted to a commander of acknowledged talents and experience.

=Expense Magazines.= Are small powder-magazines containing ammunition, etc., made up for present use. There is usually one in each bastion.

=Experiments.= The trials or applications of any kind of military machines in order to ascertain their practical qualities and uses.

=Expiration of Service.= The termination of a soldier’s contract of enlistment.

=Explode.= To burst with a loud report; to detonate, as gunpowder, or a shell filled with powder or the like material.

=Explosion.= The sudden enlargement of the volume of a body by its conversion into gas or vapor. (See EXPLOSIVES.) The explosion of powder may be divided into three distinct parts, viz.: ignition, inflammation, and combustion, all of which see under their proper headings.

=Explosives.= Substances the elements of which under certain conditions suddenly undergo a chemical rearrangement into gases, giving rise to great pressures on surrounding bodies. Modern writers recognize two different kinds of explosions,--_explosions of the 1st order_, or _detonations_, and _explosions of the 2d order_, or _rapid combustions_. Detonating explosions are practically instantaneous. The explosion is supposed to be propagated by a vibration throughout the mass. Ordinary explosions are propagated by inflammation. _Gunpowder_, which may be taken as a type of explosives of the 2d order, burns at a certain rate, depending upon the density. When a charge is fired the inflammation spreads from the point of ignition to all parts of the charge,--each grain is successively enveloped and burned from surface to centre. The _velocity of inflammation_ is the greater in proportion to the degree of confinement from the increased tension of the gases. The _velocity of combustion_ is the rate at which the solid grains are burned. It is measured by the distance passed over by the burning surface (the line being taken perpendicular to the surface) in the unit of time. Time thus enters into the explosion of gunpowder and gives it its peculiar value as a ballistic agent.

In the _detonating explosives_, the case is very different. These bodies may be supposed to be made up of molecules containing so many atoms of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, etc., so placed as to be held in a state of equilibrium by their mutual attractions and repulsions, but this equilibrium is unstable; that is to say, each atom has only a very small arc of vibration in which the molecule is stable. If by any cause an atom is forced beyond this limit the equilibrium of the whole mass is destroyed, and the elements instantly rearrange themselves under the influence of the chemical affinities which obtain under the particular conditions of the explosion. This kind of explosion is brought about in various ways,--by percussion, concussion, heat, etc.,--some bodies being susceptible to one mode of firing more than another. The theory which offers the best explanation of the various phenomena is that the molecular balance is peculiarly susceptible to overturn by certain vibrations. The vibrations given out by the explosion of the fulminates seem to have the widest range in bringing about the detonation of different substances. For this reason the fulminate of mercury is the universal _detonating agent_. Its own susceptibility to explosion by heat, percussion, and the electric spark especially fits it for this work. Wet gun-cotton requires in addition to the fulminate a “primer” of dry gun-cotton.

=Explosives, Composition of.= _Ordinary explosives_ of which gunpowder is the type are _mechanical mixtures_ of two essential ingredients,--one a combustible, the other an oxidizing agent. The combustible is usually carbon,--sometimes associated with hydrogen. It may be sulphur or any substance having a great affinity for oxygen. Organic substances containing carbon and hydrogen are frequently used. In the chemical reaction the carbon is oxidized to carbonic acid and the hydrogen to water with the evolution of great heat.

The oxidizing substances ordinarily used are the nitrates and chlorates. Mixtures containing nitrates are the most stable, since the nitrate is comparatively slow to give up its oxygen. The chlorate mixtures are sensitive to friction and percussion, and explode with great quickness. Many of them are unsafe to handle. A new mode of preparing chlorate mixtures has been suggested which avoids this danger. A _combustible liquid_ is used, being absorbed in cakes or lumps of potassium or other chlorate.

_Detonating explosives_ are _chemical compounds_. Among them are _chloride_ and _iodide of nitrogen_. Both are dangerous, violent explosives of which no practical use has been made.

The _fulminates_ are salts of fulminic acid. The _fulminate of mercury_ is the one in common use. See FULMINATES.

The _nitro-substitution_ compounds form a large class, comprising the most important of the higher explosives. They are all formed by the

## action of nitric acid on organic substances containing oxygen, carbon,

and hydrogen. This action is to replace hydrogen (H) in the organic substance by hyponitric acid (NO₂) (in the acid), equivalent for equivalent. Sulphuric acid is generally mixed with the nitric, though it plays no direct part in the reaction, being used to absorb the water formed and prevent the dilution of the nitric acid.

_Nitro-glycerine_, the most powerful explosive in common use, is formed by the action of the acids on glycerine. See NITRO-GLYCERINE.

_Nitro-starch_ and _nitro-mannite_ are analogous substances, formed by the action of the acids on starch and sugar.

_Gun-cotton_ is produced by the action of the acids on cotton-wool--a form of cellulose. See GUN-COTTON.

There are varieties of all these compounds produced, by the substitution of different numbers of equivalents of hyponitric acid, but the names are specially given to the most highly nitrated forms.

_Picric acid_, the salts of which form the well-known _picrates_, is made by the action of the acids on carbolic acid.

To heighten the effect of the lower forms of nitro-substitution compounds they are usually mixed with an oxidizing agent, such as _nitrate_ or _chlorate_, which supplies the deficient oxygen. This is exemplified in Schultz’s wood powder (which see), and Reeve’s gun felt.

The picrates are similarly treated. Ammonium picrate mixed with nitre forms Abel’s _picric_ powder (Burgess’s powder). This has been used as a bursting charge for shells.

Mixtures of two high explosives have also been used, as in glyoxiline, invented by Prof. Abel, which is gun-cotton saturated with nitro-glycerine.

Explosive effect depends upon three elements,--1st, the volume of the gases produced taken at a standard temperature; 2d, the heat evolved in the chemical reaction; 3d, the time consumed in the development of the gases. Explosive effect is directly proportional to the first two of these elements, and inversely proportional to the third. According to Bertholet, nitro-glycerine gives out twice as much heat and three and a half times as much gas as an equal weight of gunpowder, but this gives no idea of their relative explosive effects, as the element of time in the detonating explosives is so short that it cannot be calculated. So nearly is this element absent that we may consider these explosions as almost perfect Impulsive Forces. To secure _ballistic effect_ requires the gradual application of force. When motion is imparted to a body the inertia developed is inversely proportional to the time consumed in imparting it. This resistance to motion becomes enormously great when the detonating explosives are used. For this reason their ballistic effect is small. The force which should give the projectile motion is expended in producing molecular changes in both projectile and gun. The same quality, however, fits them especially for blasting and torpedoes, where shattering effect is desirable.

=Express Rifle.= A modern sporting rifle of great killing power, used in hunting large or dangerous animals. They were first introduced in England, and have become celebrated in the hands of African travelers and explorers. The principle consists in using large charges of powder and a light bullet, which gives a very high initial velocity and a trajectory practically a right line for 150 or 200 yards, hence the term “Express.” To increase the killing power of the bullet it is made of pure lead and has a hollow point. Upon striking game the bullet spreads outwardly, giving a fearful death-wound. Moreover, for specially ugly game a small explosive cartridge can be dropped into the cavity in the point, making it an explosive bullet. (See BULLETS, EXPRESS.) In England a caliber as large as .57 is used for some Express rifles. In the United States a caliber of .45 or .50 is considered sufficient.

=Expugn.= To conquer; to take by assault.

=Expugnable.= Capable of being expugned, forced or conquered.

=Expugnation.= The act of taking by assault; conquest.

=Expugner.= One who expugns or conquers.

=Extend.= A term peculiarly applicable to light infantry movements, when the files are frequently loosened, and the front of the line extended for the purpose of skirmishing. When the divisions of a column are made to occupy a greater space of ground, they are said to extend their front.

=Exterior Crest.= The crest of the exterior slope of a parapet.

=Exterior Form of Cannon.= See ORDNANCE, EXTERIOR FORM.

=Exterior Side.= In fortification, is the side of the polygon, upon which a front of fortification is formed.

=Exterior Slope.= In fortification, is the slope given to the outside of a parapet. It is found by experience that earth of common quality will naturally acquire a slope of 45°, even when battered by cannon. This inclination is therefore given to the slope.

=External Injuries to Cannon.= See INJURIES TO CANNON.

=Extortion.= Under the modern laws of war, honorable men no longer permit the use of any violence against prisoners in order to extort information or to punish them for having given false information.

=Extrados= (_Fr._). The exterior surface of a regular arch, used in the construction of powder-magazines.

=Extraordinaries of the Army.= In the English service, the allowances to troops beyond the gross pay in the pay office, come under this head. Such are the expenses for barracks, marches, encampments, staff, etc.

=Extraordinarii.= In the ancient Roman army, a select body of men consisting of the third part of the foreign cavalry and a fifth of the infantry. These were carefully separated from the other forces borrowed from the confederate states, in order to prevent any treacherous coalition between them. From among the extraordinarii a more choice body of men were drawn, under the name of _ablecti_. See ABLECTI.

=Eylau=, or =Eilau=. Usually called Prussian Eylau, a town in the government of Königsberg, celebrated for the battle fought here between Napoleon and the allies--Russians and Prussians--under Bennigsen, February 8, 1807. The French force amounted to about 80,000, and the allies numbered 58,000, but were superior in artillery. The French claimed the victory, chiefly because the allied forces, unable to recruit their strength, were ordered to retreat from the field on the night of the battle, and to retire upon Königsberg. The loss of the allies is estimated at about 20,000, while that of the French must have been considerably greater.

F.

=Face.= A term of varied application. In fortification, it is an appellation given to several parts of a fortress, as the _face of the bastion_, which is the two sides, reaching from the flanks to the salient angles. The _prolonged or extended face_ is that part of the line of defense which is terminated by the curtain and the angle of the shoulder. Strictly taken, it is the line of defense _rayant_, diminished by the face of the bastion.

=Face.= In tactics, is the turning of a soldier on his heels as a “right face”; also the word of command for the movement. _To face_ is to turn on the heels.

=Face of a Piece.= In gunnery, is the terminating plane perpendicular to the axis of the bore.

=Face of a Place.= In fortification, is the front comprehended between the flanked angles of two neighboring bastions, composed of a curtain, two flanks, and two faces; and is sometimes called the _tenaille of the place_.

=Faces of a Square.= The sides of a battalion when formed in square.

=Fachon.= An Anglo-Norman term for a sword or falchion.

=Facing.= A covering, a plating.

=Facings.= The movements of soldiers by turning on their heels to the right, left, right-about, left-about, etc. _To put one through one’s facings_, is to examine into his elementary knowledge, to test his pretensions.

=Facings.= Are also the cuffs and collars of a military coat, and are generally of a different color from that of the coat.

=Faction.= In ancient history, one of the troops or bodies of combatants in the games of the circus, especially of the horse-races.

=Faction.= A term applied in an ill sense to any party in a state that offers uncompromising opposition to the measures of the government, or that endeavors to excite public discontent upon unreasonable grounds.

=Faction= (_Fr._). The duty done by a private soldier when he patrols, goes the round, etc., but most especially when he does duty as a sentinel. The French usually say, _entrer en faction_, to come upon duty; _etre en faction_, to be upon duty; _sortir de faction_, to come off duty.

=Factionnaire= (_Fr._). _Soldat factionnaire_, a soldier that does every species of detail duty. The term _factionnaire_ was likewise applicable to the duty done by officers in the old French service.

=Faenza= (anc. _Faventia_). A town in Central Italy, 19 miles southwest of Ravenna. Faventia is noted in history as the place where Carbo and Norbanus were defeated with great loss by Metillus, the general of Sulla, in 82 B.C.

=Fæsulæ.= See FIESOLE.

=Fag-end.= Is the end of any rope. This term is also applied to the end of a rope when it has become untwisted. _To fag out_, to wear out the end of a rope or a piece of canvas.

=Fagnano.= A village of Italy, 12 miles from Verona. In 1799 a battle was fought here between the Austrians and French.

=Fagots.= See FASCINES.

=Fagots.= In military history, were men hired to muster by officers whose companies were not complete; by which means they cheated the public of the men’s pay, and deprived the country of its regular establishment.

=Failure.= An unsuccessful attempt; as, the failure of an expedition.

=Faint.= To lose courage or spirit; to become depressed or despondent.

=Faint-hearted.= Wanting in courage; depressed by fear, easily discouraged or frightened; cowardly, timorous.

=Fairfax=, or =Culpeper Court-house=. A village, the capital of Culpeper Co., Va., on the Orange and Alexandria Railroad. This place was an important strategic point during the civil war (1861-65).

=Fairfield.= A village of Fairfield Co., Conn., situated on Long Island Sound. It was settled in 1659; it was burned in 1779 by order of Gov. Tryon.

=Fair Haven.= A village of Bristol Co., Mass., on Buzzard’s Bay. The town was attacked by the British on September 7, 1788, but they were repulsed without loss.

=Fair Oaks.= A locality in Henrico Co., Va., on the Richmond and York River Railroad, about 7 miles east of Richmond. Here a severe battle took place between the Federals under Gen. McClellan and the Confederate army under Gen. Johnston, May 31-June 1, 1862, in which the latter were defeated, although the former obtained no decisive results from their success. The Union loss was estimated at 5500; the Confederate was somewhat greater.

=Fakir.= A word derived from the Arabic _fakhar_, and designating a member of an order of mendicants or penitents, chiefly in India and the neighboring countries. They live either separately as hermits or solitary mendicants, or unite in large gangs, carrying arms and a banner, beating drums, and sounding horns, whenever they approach a town or village.

=Falarique= (_Fr._) Falarica; combustible darts or arrows of various thicknesses, generally about 3 feet long; close behind the head was lodged the combustible matter by which shipping, etc., was set on fire; it was projected from a bow or catapult.

=Falcair= (_Fr._). A soldier who was armed with a falcarius or short crooked sword.

=Falchion.= A curved sword, or small cimeter.

=Falcon.= An ancient form of cannon, 7 feet in length, carrying a ball of 4 pounds in weight.

=Falconet.= A small cannon anciently used, a little exceeding 6 feet in length, and carrying a ball of 2 pounds in weight.

=Falczi, Peace of.= Concluded between Russia and Turkey, July 2, 1711, the Russians giving up Azof and all their possessions on the Black Sea to the Turks. The Russians were saved from imminent destruction by the address of Catharine, the empress. In 1712 the war was renewed, and terminated by the peace of Constantinople, April 16, 1712.

=Falerii.= A city of ancient Etruria, which was situated west of the Tiber. The inhabitants, who were called Falisci, joined with those of Veii in assisting the Fidenates against the Romans, and were among the most dangerous enemies of Rome. In 241 B.C. the city was destroyed, and a Roman colony was settled in the time of the triumvirs.

=Falkirk.= A town of Scotland, in Stirlingshire. Sir William Wallace was defeated in a battle near Falkirk by Edward I., and here, also, the royal army was defeated by the adherents of the house of Stuart in 1746.

=Falkoping.= A town of Sweden, near which, in 1338, Margaret, queen of Denmark, defeated Albert, king of Sweden, and took him prisoner.

=Fall.= The surrender or capture of a place after it has been besieged.

=Fall.= The rope rove through blocks, used with gins and shears for raising weights, and with the crab for moving them.

=Fall.= The descent of a body by the attraction of the earth.

=Fall Foul, To.= To attack; to make an assault.

=Fall In.= A word of command for men to form in ranks, as in parade, line, or division, etc.

=Falling Bodies, Laws of.= When a body falls freely _in vacuo_ it is actuated by a force which may be taken as constant, consequently its velocity will be uniformly accelerated. The constant increment to the velocity in one second is called the _acceleration_, and is a measure of the force. (See FORCE OF GRAVITY.) The velocity acquired at the end of a certain time will be found by multiplying the force of gravity by the number of seconds. The laws of falling bodies are given by the following equations:

_v_ = _gt_

_v_ = √(2_gh_)

_v_² _h_ = ----- 2_g_

In which _v_ is the velocity acquired, _h_ the height fallen through, _g_ the force of gravity, and _t_ the time in seconds. These laws are approximately true for dense or heavy bodies falling for a few seconds in the atmosphere. For longer periods, _v_ is less than that due to _h_ under the above laws. For full discussion, see FINAL VELOCITY.

=Falling Branch.= That part of the trajectory of a projectile in which it approaches the earth.

=Fall Out, To.= To quit the rank or file in which you were first posted. Dirty soldiers on a parade are frequently ordered to fall out, and remain in the rear of their companies. The phrase is applicable in a variety of other instances.

=Fall Upon, To.= To attack abruptly.

=Falots= (_Fr._). Small lanterns fixed upon the end of a stick or pole. Small lamps likewise used, attached in the same manner, for the purpose of carrying them readily about to light a camp, or besieged towns, as occasion may require.

=False Alarm.= An alarm or apprehension which is either designedly or unintentionally created by noise, report, or signals, without being dangerous.

=False Attack.= An approach which is made as a feint for the purpose of diverting an enemy from the real object of attack.

=False Fires.= Lights or fires employed for the purpose of deceiving an enemy. When an army is about to retire from a position during the night false fires are lighted in different parts of the encampment to impose upon the enemy’s vigilance.

=False Lights.= In debarkations under cover of the night, may likewise be used as signals of deception, when it is found expedient to attract the attention of the invaded country towards one part of the coast or territory, whilst a real attack is meditated against another.

=False Muster.= An incorrect statement of the number of effective soldiers and horses. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 14.

=False Return.= A willful report of the actual state of a brigade, regiment, troop, or company, by which the commander-in-chief of the war department is deceived as to the effective force of such regiment or company. See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 8.

=Famagosta=, or =Famagusta=. A seaport town of the island of Cyprus, on the east coast, built on the ruins of the ancient Arsinoe. In 1571 Famagosta was taken by the Turks, and the town was almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake in 1735.

=Fanfare=. The French name of a short and lively military air or call, executed on brass instruments.

=Fang, To.= To pour water into a pump in order to fetch it, when otherwise the boxes do not hold the water left on them.

=Fanion= (_Fr._). A small flag which was sometimes carried at the head of the baggage of a brigade. It was made of serge, and resembled in color the uniform livery of the brigadier, or of the commandant of any

## particular corps.

=Fantassin= (_Fr._). A foot-soldier. This term is derived from the Italian _fante_, a _boy_, the light troops in the 14th and 15th centuries being formed of boys who followed the armies and were formed into corps with light arms, hence the origin of the word _infantry_.

=Fantee=, or =Fanti=. A maritime country of Guinea, inhabited by a tribe of the same name, who are now under English protection.

=Farcy.= A horse disease of the absorbents, affecting the skin and its blood-vessels; is of the nature of mange, and allied to glanders.

=Farrier.= In a general acceptation of the term, any person who shoes horses, or professes to cure their diseases. In a practical military sense, a man appointed to do the duty of farriery in a troop of cavalry. Troop farriers should be under the immediate superintendence and control of a veterinary surgeon. There is one farrier allowed to each troop of cavalry in the U. S. army.

=Farrier-Major.= A person who was formerly appointed by the colonel of a dragoon regiment to superintend the farriers of troops. He has since been superseded or replaced by a veterinary surgeon.

=Fasces.= Bundles of rods usually made of birch, but sometimes of elm, with an axe projecting from the middle of them, which were carried before the chief magistrates of ancient Rome, as symbols of their power over life and limb. They were borne by the lictors, at first before the kings; in the time of the republic, before consuls and prætors; and afterwards before the emperors.

=Fascine.= A long cylindrical fagot of brushwood, used to revet the interior of batteries and embrasures, and for many other purposes of military engineering.

=Fascines, Covering.= See COVERING-FASCINES.

=Fastness.= A fast place; a stronghold; a fortress or fort; a place fortified; a castle, etc.

=Fatigue.= The cause of weariness; labor; toil; as, the fatigues of war.

=Fatigue.= The labors of military men, distinct from the use of arms.

=Fatigue Call.= A particular military call, sounded on the bugle or drum, by which soldiers are called upon to perform fatigue duties.

=Fatigue Dress.= The working dress of soldiers.

=Fatigue Party.= A party of soldiers on fatigue.

=Faulcon.= A small cannon.

=Faulx= (_Fr._). An instrument nearly resembling a scythe. It was often used to defend a breach, or to prevent an enemy from scaling the walls of a fortified place. This weapon was first resorted to with some success, when Louis XIV. besieged Mons. On the surrender of that town, large quantities of faulx, or scythes, were found in the garrison.

=Fausse Braye.= In fortification, was a parapet constructed at a lower elevation than the main parapet, and between the foot of the parapet and the edge of the ditch. It was used only in permanent fortification, and has long been obsolete.

=Fayetteville.= A small town, capital of Washington Co., Ark. On April 18, 1863, this place, which was garrisoned by two regiments of Federal troops under Col. Harrison, was attacked by the Confederate general Cabell, with about 2000 men; and after six hours’ severe fighting the Confederates were repulsed.

=Fayetteville.= A town of Cumberland Co., N. C., on the left bank of the Cape Fear River. On April 22, 1861, the arsenal at this place surrendered to the Confederates, and about 35,000 stand of arms, besides some cannon and a considerable quantity of ammunition, fell into their hands. The town was taken by Gen. Sherman in March, 1865.

=Fecial.= Pertaining to heralds, and the denunciation of war to an enemy; as, fecial war.

=Federal States.= Are those united by treaty as one state, without giving up self-government,--as in Switzerland or the United States of North America. The Federals were the people of the Northern of the United States of America during the great conflict in 1861-65; their opponents were styled the Confederates.

=Fehrbellin.= A town of Prussia, 22 miles northwest from Potsdam. The elector of Brandenburg defeated the Swedish army near this town in 1675.

=Feint.= In military or naval matters, a mock attack or assault, usually made to throw an enemy off his guard against some real design upon his position.

=Feint.= In fencing, a seeming aim at one part when another is intended to be struck.

=Felloes.= In artillery, the parts of the wheel which form its circumference. There are generally seven in each wheel.

=Feltre= (_Fr._). A Roman cuirass made of strong woolen cloth.

=Fence.= Self-defense by the use of the sword; fencing; the art and practice of fencing or sword-play.

=Fencer.= One who fences; one who teaches or practices the art of fencing with sword or foil.

=Fence-roof.= A covering of defense.

=Fencible.= Capable of being defended, or of making or affording defense.

=Fencible.= A soldier enlisted for the defense of the country, and not liable to be sent abroad.

=Fencible Light Dragoons.= A body of cavalry raised voluntarily in various counties of England and Scotland in 1794, to serve during the war in any part of Great Britain. This force was disbanded in 1800.

=Fencibles.= In England, regiments raised for a limited service, and for a definite period. The officers rank with the militia.

=Fencing.= The art of using skillfully a sword or foil in attack or defense; the art or practice of self-defense with the sword.

=Fenian.= A name formerly applied among the Celts to bodies of troops somewhat similar to our modern militia. They derived their name from Finn McCumhail, a famous Celtic chief. In modern times the name was assumed by an association formed for the liberation of Ireland, whose principal headquarters was in the United States, but ramifications of which extended through Great Britain, Ireland, and the colonies. In 1866 the Fenians attempted to invade Canada, and succeeded in crossing the frontier; but they were soon dispersed, and their leaders arrested by the U. S. authorities for violation of the neutrality laws. In 1867 there were several demonstrations made by them in England and Ireland, but their leaders were promptly arrested, and after some were executed, and others sentenced to long terms of imprisonment, the movement was crushed.

=Fer= (_Fr._). Iron. Figuratively, this word is used for a sword or dagger; as, _manier le fer_, to wear the sword, to follow the profession of arms.

=Fer à Cheval= (_Fr._). In fortification, a horseshoe, a small round or oval work, with a parapet, generally made in a ditch or in a marsh. It further means, according to the French acceptation of the term, a work constructed for the purpose of covering a gate, by having within it a guard-house, to prevent the town from being taken by surprise.

=Ferdwit.= In ancient military history, a term formerly used to denote a freedom from serving upon any military expedition; or, according to some, the being acquitted of manslaughter committed in the army.

=Fere Champenoise, La.= A town of France, in the department of the Marne, 20 miles from Epernay. In 1814 the French were defeated here by the allies.

=Fere, La.= A fortified town of France, in the department of the Aisne, on an island in the Oise. It has an arsenal and a school of artillery. This town was taken by the Spaniards in 1530; and by the allies in 1814.

=Ferentarii.= Among the Romans, were auxiliary troops lightly armed; their weapons being a sword, arrows, and a sling. We have also mention of another sort of Ferentarii, whose business was to carry arms after the army, and to be ready to supply the soldiers therewith in battle.

=Ferozeshah.= A village in Hindostan, situated a few miles from the left bank of the river Sutlej. Here the British, commanded by Sir Hugh Gough, attacked the intrenchments of the Sikhs, and carried their first line of works, December 21, 1845; but night coming on, the operations were suspended till daybreak next day, when their second line was stormed by Gen. Gilbert, and 74 guns captured. The Sikhs advanced to retake their guns, but were repulsed with great loss, and retreated toward the Sutlej, December 22; and recrossed that river unmolested, December 27. The loss of the British was reckoned at 2415.

=Ferrara.= A city of Italy, and the capital of one of the Æmilian provinces of the same name. It was subdued by the Lombards in the 8th century, and taken from them by Pepin, about 752, who gave it to Pope Stephen II. About 1208 it fell into the hands of the house of Este, and in 1598 Pope Clement VIII. obtained the sovereignty. The French under Masséna took Ferrara in 1796; but it was restored to the pope in 1814. An Austrian garrison held it from 1849; it retired in June, 1859, and the people rose and declared for annexation to Sardinia, which was accomplished in March, 1860.

=Ferrara.= A sword of excellent temper, made of steel from Ferrara, Italy. The kind most prized was manufactured by Andrea di Ferrara; hence such a sword was often called an Andrea-Ferrara.

=Ferries, Rope.= See PONTONS.

=Ferrol.= A seaport town of Spain, province of Corunna, and an important naval station. This place was unsuccessfully attacked by the British in August, 1800. Marshal Soult captured Ferrol, January 27, 1809.

=Ferry.= A water conveyance made use of to cross a river, or branch of the sea.

=Fetter.= To put fetters upon; to shackle or confine the feet with a chain; to bind; to enchain. Deserters are sometimes fettered while undergoing punishment for the crime of desertion.

=Feu-de-joie.= A salute fired by musketry on occasions of public rejoicing, so that it should pass from man to man rapidly and steadily, down one rank and up the other, giving one long continuous sound.

=Feu Rasant= (_Fr._). A grazing fire, or a discharge of musketry or cannon, so directed that the balls shall run parallel with the ground they fly over, within 3 or 4 feet of the surface.

=Feud.= A contention or quarrel; especially an inveterate strife between families, clans, or parties in a state; deadly hatred; contention satisfied only by bloodshed.

=Feudal.= Consisting of, or founded upon, feuds or fiefs; embracing tenures by military system; as, the feudal system.

=Fez.= A red cap without a brim, worn by Turkish soldiers and others.

=Fez.= A city of Morocco, Africa; it was founded by Edris, a descendant of Mohammed, about 787; was long capital of the kingdom of Fez. After long-continued struggles it was annexed to Morocco about 1550.

=Fichant.= In fortification, said of flanking fire which impinges on the face it defends; that is, of a line of defense where the angle of defense is less than a right angle.

=Fidenæ.= An ancient city of Latium, on the left bank of the Tiber, 5 miles from Rome. The proximity of the two cities brought them early into collision, and we find that Fidenæ was engaged in successive wars with the early Roman kings. After the expulsion of the Tarquins Fidenæ entered into a league with the Sabines and Latins to effect their restoration, but the attempt proved abortive, and, deserted by their allies, the Fidenates were compelled to surrender to the Roman arms. The city afterwards continued its struggles against Rome, but without success, and, though there is no record of its destruction, it had dwindled into an insignificant village before the close of the Roman republic.

=Fidentia= (now _Bargo S. Domingo_). A town in Cisalpine Gaul, on the Via Æmilia, between Parma and Placentia, memorable for the victory which Sulla’s generals gained over Carbo, 82 B.C.

=Fief.= An estate held of a superior on condition of military service; a fee; a feud.

=Field.= A cleared space or plain where a battle is fought; also, the battle itself. _To take the field_ means to commence active operations against an enemy.

=Field.= In heraldry, the surface of a shield; hence, any blank space or ground on which figures are drawn or projected.

=Field Allowance.= In the British service, is an allowance granted to officers in camp at home, or on a campaign, to enable them to repay themselves the expense of purchasing camp equipage, bat-horses, etc. It is divided into ordinary and extraordinary field allowance, the former being granted in time of peace, the latter in that of war.

=Field Artillery.= That portion of the artillery which is used in the field. In the U. S. army the 3-and 3¹⁄₂-inch rifle guns, Gatling, and 12-pounder smooth-bore, constitute the field artillery. See ARTILLERY.

=Field-battery.= Is a certain number of pieces of artillery so equipped as to be available for attack or defense, and capable of accompanying cavalry or infantry in all their movements in the field. There are allotted to a field-battery 4 pieces in time of peace and 6 in time of war, and it is divided into _mounted artillery_, which usually serves with infantry, and _horse artillery_, which ordinarily serves with cavalry. The main difference between the two consists in the cannoneers of the latter being mounted; in rapid evolutions of the former they are conveyed on the gun-carriages. See ARTILLERY.

=Field-bed.= A folding bed used by officers while on campaigns or in the field.

=Field-carriage.= Field-gun carriages consist of two short cheeks of wood, bolted upon a stock and wooden axle-body, in a recess which fits the iron axle on which the wheels are placed. The stock terminates in a _trail_ and _trail-plate_ which rests on the ground, and has on the end a strong ring called the _lunette_, which is placed on the pintle-hook when the piece is limbered. In the stock is placed an elevating screw-box of bronze in which the elevating screw fits. They have also _limbers_ (which see).

=Field-colors.= Small flags of about a foot and a half square, carried along with troops for marking out the ground for the squadrons and battalions; camp-colors.

=Field-day.= A term used when a regiment is taken out to the field, for the purpose of being instructed in the field exercise and evolutions.

=Fielded.= Being in the field of battle; encamped. This term is now obsolete.

=Field-equipage.= Military apparatus for field service.

=Field Forge.= See FORGE.

=Field-glass.= A binocular telescope, used by officers in field service.

=Field-gun.= A small kind of gun, or cannon, used on the battle-field; a field-piece.

=Field-Marshal= (_Mareschal_, _Feldmarschall_, _Feldzeugmeister_). The commander of an army; a military officer of high rank in France, Germany, and other nations, and the highest military officer in England. Formerly a captain-general was occasionally appointed, who had rank higher even than a field-marshal.

=Field-officer.= Is a colonel, lieutenant-colonel, or major of a battalion or regiment, as distinguished from general officers, who are superior to field-officers in rank; from line-officers, who are inferior; and from staff-officers, general or regimental, who may be of rank superior, equivalent, or inferior to that of field-officers.

=Field-officer’s Court.= In the U. S. service, a court-martial consisting of one field-officer empowered to try cases, subject to jurisdiction of garrison and regimental courts, takes the place of the latter courts in time of war, but cannot be held in time of peace.

=Field of the Cloth of Gold.= A name given to an open plain between Ardres and Guisnes, where Henry VIII. of England had an interview in 1520 with Francis I. of France. The nobility of both kingdoms embraced the opportunity to display their magnificence with the utmost emulation and profusion of expense.

=Field-park.= The spare carriages, reserved supplies of ammunition, tools, and materials for extensive repairs and for making up ammunition, for the service of an army in the field, form the field-park, to which should be attached also the batteries of reserve.

=Field-piece.= A small cannon which is carried along with armies, and used in the field of battle.

=Field Service.= Service performed by troops in the field.

=Field-staff.= A staff formerly carried by gunners in the field, and holding lighted matches for discharging cannon. It is no longer used.

=Field Telegraph.= See TELEGRAPH, FIELD.

=Field-train.= In the British service, a department of the Royal Artillery, consisting of commissaries and conductors of stores, responsible for the safe custody of the ammunition, for the formation of proper depots of shot, etc., between the front and the base of operations, and that a due proportion shall be constantly at the service of each gun during an engagement.

=Field-works.= Are intrenchments and other temporary fortifications thrown up by an army in the field, either as a protection from the onslaught of a hostile force, or to cover an attack upon some stronghold. All works which do not come under the head of permanent fortification are called field-works.

=Fiesole= (anc. _Faesulæ_). One of the most ancient Etruscan cities, situated about 3 miles from Florence. This city was first mentioned in 225 B.C. during the great Gaulish war. Hannibal encamped here after crossing the Apennines. The city was next destroyed by Sulla in the Social war (90-89 B.C.), who afterwards dispatched thither a military colony. About the beginning of the 11th century, it was destroyed by the Florentines, and many of its inhabitants compelled to remove to the city of Florence.

=Fife.= A wooden wind instrument, which is used with the snare-drum for playing military music. The music is produced by blowing through a hole in a reed or tube, while the escape of air is regulated by the fingers stopping or opening a number of other holes in different parts of the pipe.

=Fife-Major.= The chief or superintendent of the fifers of a regiment.

=Fifer.= One who plays a fife; there is one fifer allowed to each company of infantry in the U. S. army. Fifers are also employed aboard men-of-war, and in the marine corps.

=Fight.= To strive or contend for victory, in battle or in single combat; to defeat, subdue, or destroy an enemy, either by blows or weapons; to contend in arms;--followed by _with_ or _against_.

=Fight.= To carry on, or wage, as a conflict, or battle; to win or gain by struggle, as one’s way; to sustain by fighting, as a cause. To contend with in battle; to war against, as, they fought the enemy in two pitched battles. To cause to fight; manage or manœuvre in a fight.

=Fight.= A battle; an engagement; a contest in arms; a struggle for victory, either between individuals or between armies, ships, or navies. A duel is called a single fight or combat.

=Fighter.= One who fights; a combatant; a warrior.

=Fighting.= Qualified for war; fit for battle; as, “A host of fighting men.” Also, occupied in war; being the scene of war; as, a fighting field.

=Fight, Running.= That in which the enemy is continually chased.

=Figueras.= A town in the northeast of Spain, province of Gerona. On a height near the town is the citadel of San Fernando, the strongest fortress of Spain, and the key of the Pyrenees on their south side. It has accommodation for 2000 men.

=Figure.= In fortification, the plan of any fortified place, or the interior polygon. Of this there are two sorts, regular and irregular; a regular figure is that where the sides and angles are equal; an irregular one where they are unequal.

=File.= A line of soldiers drawn up behind each other, in contradistinction to rank, which refers to men standing beside one another. The general term means two soldiers, consisting of the front and rear rank men. To _file_ is to advance to or from any given points by files; as, to file to the front, etc. To _file off_, or to _defile_, is to wheel off by files from moving in a spacious front, and march in length. _Flank file_, is the extreme file on the right or left of a squadron or troop, battalion or company, etc. _Indian files_, a line of men advancing or retreating from either of the flanks, from the centre or from any proportion of a line in succession to one another.

=File Firing.= Firing by files.

=File-leader.= Is the soldier placed in front of any file, or the man who is to cover all those who stand directly in the rear of him, and by whom they are to be guided in all their movements.

=Filibuster.= A lawless military adventurer, especially one in quest of plunder; a freebooter; a pirate; applied especially to the followers of Lopez in his expedition to Cuba in 1851.

=Filings.= Are movements to the front, rear, or flanks by files.

=Fillet.= A molding used on cannon of old pattern.

=Fillibeg=, or =Filibeg=. A little plaid; a kilt or dress reaching nearly to the knees, worn in the Highlands of Scotland, and by the soldiers of Highland regiments in the British service.

=Fillibuster.= See FILIBUSTER.

=Final Velocity.= In gunnery, is the technical term for the uniform velocity which a projectile would acquire in falling through an indefinite height in the air. A body falling in _vacuo_ is uniformly accelerated, its velocity being continually increased. In the atmosphere the case is different. Since the resistance of the air increases with some power of the velocity greater than the square, it follows that at some point in the descent the retardation becomes equal to the acceleration, and the body will move with uniform velocity. This is called “final velocity,” and is one of the most important elements in the theory of projectiles. Every projectile has its own “final velocity.” Other things being equal, that projectile is best which has the greatest “final velocity.” The “final velocity” of a given projectile will depend upon its weight on the one hand, and the extent of surface and the way it is presented to the air on the other. The extent and form of the surface directly opposed to the action of the air will largely determine the resistance. The best form, as determined by the experiments of Borda, is the _ogival_. The resistance, other things being the same, may be taken as proportional to the area of greatest cross-section. The weight in spherical projectiles is proportional to the cube of this dimension. It follows from these general principles that large projectiles are better than small, dense better than light, solid better than hollow, in regard to their final velocities; moreover, that oblong projectiles are better than spherical, ogival-headed oblong better than flat-headed, and long rifle projectiles better than short, in the same regard.

=Finding.= Before a court-martial deliberates upon the judgment, the judge-advocate reads over the whole proceedings of the court; he then collects the votes of each member, beginning with the youngest. The best mode of doing so is by slips of paper. The Articles of War require a majority in all cases, and in cases of sentence of death two-thirds. It is not necessary to find a _general_ verdict of guilt or acquittal upon the whole of every charge. The court may find the prisoner guilty of part of a charge, and acquit him of the remainder, and render sentence according to their finding. This is a _special_ verdict.

=Finland.= A Russian grand duchy; in the middle of the 12th century was conquered by the Swedes, who introduced Christianity. It was several times conquered by the Russians (1714, 1742, and 1808), and restored (1721 and 1743); but in 1809 they retained it by treaty.

=Fire.= In the art of war, a word of command to soldiers of all denominations to discharge their fire-arms, cannon, etc. It likewise expresses a general discharge against an enemy. To be “under fire” means to be exposed to the attack of an enemy by cannonade or fusilade. The fire in artillery may be either direct, ricochet, rolling, plunging, horizontal, or vertical, according to the nature of the projectile and the angle of elevation. A fire is said to be _direct_, when the projectile hits the object without striking any intermediate one; _ricochet_, when the projectile strikes the ground or water under a small angle of fall, penetrates obliquely to a certain distance, and is then reflected at an angle greater than the angle of fall. This action may recur frequently, depending, as it does, on the nature of the surface struck, the initial velocity, shape, size, and density of the projectile, and on the angle of fall. It is employed in siege-works to attain the face of a work in flank, or in reverse; and in the field, or on water, when the object is large, and the distance is not accurately known. The character of ricochet fire is determined by the angle of fall. It is _flattened_ when this angle does not exceed 4°, and _curvated_ when the angle is between 6° and 15°. Against troops the angle of fall should not exceed 3°. A particular kind of ricochet fire called _rolling_ is produced by placing the axis of the piece parallel, or nearly so, with the ground. It was formerly much used when the conditions were favorable in the field service, where it was very effective, as the projectile never passes at a greater distance above the ground than the muzzle of the piece. The projectile was solid round shot; rifled projectiles are unsuited to this kind of fire. When the object is situated below the piece, the fire is said to be _plunging_. This kind of fire is particularly effective against the decks of vessels. Under low angles of elevation the fire of guns and howitzers is said to be _horizontal_. The fire of mortars under high angles of elevation is called _vertical_.

=Fire-alarm.= An alarm given of a fire or conflagration. In military barracks or camp, it is sounded on drum or bugle, or the discharge of fire-arms by the guard.

=Fire, Angle of.= See POINTING.

=Fire-arms.= Every description of arms charged with powder and ball. See special headings.

=Fire-arrow.= A small iron dart, furnished with a match impregnated with powder and sulphur, used to fire the sails of ships.

=Fire-ball.= See PYROTECHNY.

=Fire-bavin.= A bundle of brushwood used in fire-ships.

=Fire-bucket.= A bucket to convey water for extinguishing fires. To each set of quarters in a garrison there are allotted a certain number of fire-buckets.

=Fire-cross.= An ancient token in Scotland for the nation to take up arms.

=Fire, Curved=, or =Curvated=. See FIRE.

=Fire, Direct.= See FIRE.

=Fire-eater.= One notoriously fond of being in action.

=Fire, Effects of.= See PROJECTILES, EFFECTS OF.

=Fire, Enfilade.= Fire in the direction of the length of a parapet or a line of troops.

=Fire-engine.= A hydraulic or forcing pump for throwing water to extinguish fires.

=Fire, Greek.= See GREEK FIRE.

=Fire-hoops.= A combustible invented by the Knights of Malta to throw among their besiegers, and afterwards used in boarding Turkish galleys.

=Fire, Line of.= See POINTING.

=Firelocks.= Were fire-arms formerly used by foot-soldiers; they were so called from their producing fire of themselves, by the action of the flint and steel. They were first made use of in 1690, but it is not ascertained when they were first invented. About the middle of the last century a firelock was called, by military writers, _asnapbaan_, which being a low Dutch word, seems to indicate its being a Dutch invention.

=Fire-master.= In the artillery, was a commissioned officer who gave the directions and proportions of all ingredients for each composition required in fireworks, whether for the service of war, or for rejoicings and recreation.

=Fire-master’s-mate.= In the artillery, a commissioned officer whose duty was to aid and assist the chief fire-master; and he was required to be skilled in every kind of laboratory works.

=Fire, Oblique.= That which strikes a parapet or a body of troops in a slanting direction.

=Fire-pan.= A pan for holding or conveying fire; especially, the receptacle for the priming in a gun.

=Fire, Plane of.= See POINTING.

=Fire, Plunging.= See FIRE.

=Fire-pot.= A small earthen pot, into which is put a charged grenade, and over that, powder enough to cover the grenade; the whole covered with a piece of parchment, and two pieces of quick-match across lighted; it breaks and fires the powder, as also the powder in the grenade, which has no fuze, that its operations may be quicker; it burns all that is near it. These are no longer used.

=Fire Rasant.= Is produced by firing the artillery and small-arms in a line parallel with those parts of the works you are defending.

=Fire, Reverse.= Is that which strikes the rear of a parapet or body of troops.

=Fire, Ricochet.= See FIRE.

=Fire, Slant.= Is when the shot strikes the interior slope of the parapet, forming with it a horizontal angle, not greater than 30°.

=Fire Stone.= A composition placed in a shell with the bursting charge, to set fire to ships, buildings, etc. It is made by stirring nitre, sulphur, antimony, and rosin in a mixture of melted tallow and turpentine. It is cast in molds made of rocket-paper. A priming of fuze composition is driven in a hole to insure its ignition.

=Fire-swab.= The bunch of rope-yarns sometimes secured to the tampion, saturated with water to cool the gun in action, and to swab up any grains of powder.

=Fire, Tables of.= In artillery, are tabulated statements for each piece, showing the range and time of flight for each elevation, charge of powder, and kind of projectile. Their purpose is to assist the artillerist in attaining his object without waste of time and ammunition, and also to regulate his aim when the effect of shot cannot be seen on account of the dust and smoke of the battle-field. The first few shots generally produce a great effect on the enemy, and it is very important that they should be directed with some knowledge of their results, which, in the field, can only be attained by experience, or from the data afforded by a table of fire. Tables of fire for different kinds of cannon may be found in the Ordnance and Artillery Manuals.

=Fire, Vertical.= See FIRE.

=Fire-workers.= In the British service, were formerly subordinate to the fire-master and his mate; had afterwards the rank of youngest lieutenants in the regiment of artillery, but now that rank is abolished, and they are all second lieutenants. They were supposed to be well skilled in every kind of laboratory-work, which knowledge is an essential qualification in every officer of that branch of the service.

=Fireworks.= Are various combustible preparations used in war. See PYROTECHNY.

=Firing.= The act of discharging fire-arms.

=First Sergeant.= The ranking non-commissioned officer in a company. He has immediate charge of all enlisted men of the company and company property; has command of it during formations, and calls the roll. He also makes all details, keeps the roster, etc. See ORDERLY SERGEANT.

=Fishguard.= A seaport town of South Wales, county of Pembroke. About 2¹⁄₂ miles south of this town a French force of 1400 men, under Gen. Tate, landed on February 22, 1797, and next day surrendered to a few militia and volunteers not half their number.

=Fishtail Wind.= A term in target practice with small-arms for a rear wind which is variable in direction.

=Fish Torpedoes.= See TORPEDOES.

=Fissure.= A narrow chasm where a small breach has been made, as in a fort, citadel, etc.

=Five Forks.= A name given to a locality in Dinwiddie Co., Va., the junction of the White Oak and Ford’s road with the one leading to Dinwiddie Court-house. An important battle was fought here April 1, 1865. The possession of this radiating centre was one of great strategic importance, inasmuch as by Ford’s road the Southside Railroad could be reached, and, indeed, the whole country which the intrenched Confederate lines were intended to cover. The attempt to gain possession of this position had been made (March 30-31) by Gen. Sheridan, with momentary success (March 31), during the absence of most of the Confederate force, engaged in fighting Warren on the White Oak road, but which now being recalled, regained possession, driving Sheridan back towards Dinwiddie Court-house. On the morning of April 1 Sheridan renewed the attempt, and after a day of very severe fighting compelled the surrender of nearly all the Confederate force, pursuing such as escaped till after dark. Over 5000 prisoners were captured with 5 guns. The Union loss was not above 1900 all told. The effect of this decisive battle was to determine Lee to abandon Petersburg, which he did undercover of night (April 2), but not before his entire outer line of works had been carried during the day. One week later Lee surrendered his army at Appomattox Court-house.

=Fix Bayonets.= A word of command in the manual exercise, whereby the bayonets are fixed on the rifles.

=Fixed Ammunition.= Consists of a projectile and its cartridge which are attached to the same block of wood called a _sabot_. See ORDNANCE, AMMUNITION FOR.

=Flag, Black.= A flag of a black color, displayed as a sign that no mercy will be shown to the vanquished, or that no quarter will be given.

=Flag, Garrison.= In the U. S. army the garrison flag is the national flag, and is 36 feet fly and 20 feet hoist. It is furnished only to very important posts, or those having large garrisons, and is hoisted only on gala days and great occasions.

=Flag of the Prophet= (_Sanjak-Sheriff_). Is the sacred banner of the Mohammedans. It was originally of a white color, and was composed of the turban of the Koreish, captured by Mohammed. A black flag was, however, soon substituted in its place, consisting of the curtain that hung before the door of Ayeshah, one of the prophet’s wives. This flag is regarded by the Mohammedans as their most sacred relic; it was brought into Europe by Amurath III. It was covered with forty wrappings of silk, deposited in a costly casket, and preserved in a chapel in the interior of the seraglio, where it is guarded by several emirs, with constant prayers. The banner unfolded at the commencement of a war, and likewise carefully preserved, is not the same, although it is believed by the people to be so.

=Flag of Truce.= A white flag carried by an officer sent to communicate with the enemy. The flag signifies his errand, but the enemy are not bound to receive him, though it would be a violation of the rules of war to injure the messenger, unless he persisted in his endeavor to communicate after due warning given. The term is often extended to the party which accompanies the flag, which consists generally of an officer, a trumpeter or bugler, who sounds to attract attention, and sometimes of an additional soldier who carries the flag.

=Flag, Post.= In the U. S. army, is the national flag, and is 20 feet fly and 10 feet hoist; it is furnished to all posts garrisoned by troops, and is hoisted only in pleasant weather.

=Flag, Red.= Is frequently used by revolutionists as an emblem of defiance. It is used in the U. S. service as a danger-signal at target practice, and on a man-of-war as a signal that the ship is receiving or discharging her powder.

=Flags.= See COLORS, STANDARDS, etc.

=Flags.= The national flag of the United States consists of 13 horizontal stripes, alternately red and white; the union to consist of 20 stars, white, in a blue field; one star to be added to the union on the admission of every new State; the addition to be made on the 4th day of July succeeding such admission. There are flags which are symbols of individual authority. Among such are royal standards, flag-officers’ flags, etc. An admiral’s flag is usually the flag of the country which such admiral serves, with the exception of the union. The flag of the admiral, vice-admiral, and rear-admirals of the United States is rectangular and consists of 13 alternate red and white stripes. The admiral hoists this at the main; the vice-admiral at the fore; the rear-admiral at the mizzen. Should there be two rear-admirals present, the junior hoists a flag at the mizzen similar to the one described, with the addition of two stars in the upper left-hand corner. The commodore’s flag differs from that of the admiral’s in form alone, it being a swallow-tail instead of a rectangular. Should the President go afloat, the American flag is carried in the bows of his barge or hoisted at the main of the vessel on board of which he may be. In foreign countries the royal standard is worn at ceremonies in honor of the sovereign or at which the sovereign may be present. The highest flag in the British navy is the anchor and cable, the next is the union, and the lowest the blue. Flags are said to be at half-mast when they are hoisted but half the height at which they are ordinarily worn, and in this position designate mourning. _To strike or lower the flag_, to pull it down upon the cap, in token of respect, submission, or, in an engagement, of surrender. _Dipping the flag_ is a salute to a fort or passing vessel by lowering it slightly and hoisting it again.

=Flag-staff.= The staff on which a flag is fixed.

=Flag, Storm.= In the U. S. army, is the national flag, and is 8 feet fly and 4 feet 2 inches hoist; it is furnished to all occupied military posts and national cemeteries, and will be hoisted in stormy or windy weather. It is also to be used as a recruiting flag.

=Flam.= A peculiar tap upon a drum. This word was formerly made use of in the British service, signifying a particular tap or beat upon the drum, according to which each battalion went through its firings or evolutions.

=Flambeau.= A kind of torch made of thick wicks, covered with wax, and used in the streets at night, at illuminations and in processions.

=Flanchière= (_Fr._). A part of horse armor which covered the flanks and croup as far as the houghs.

=Flanconade.= In fencing, a thrust in the side.

=Flanders.= The principal part of the ancient Belgium, which was conquered by Julius Cæsar, 51 B.C. It became part of the kingdom of France in 843, and was governed by counts subject to the king, from 862 till 1369. Flanders was subjected successively to Burgundy (1384), Austria (1477), and Spain (1555). In 1580 it declared its independence, but afterwards returned to its allegiance to the house of Austria. In 1792 the French invaded imperial Flanders, and occupied it till 1814. In 1814 a portion of Flanders was given to the king of the Netherlands. Since the revolution of 1831, it has belonged to Belgium.

=Flank.= A word of very extensive application in military matters. It literally means sides or ends of any fortification, or encampment, or body of troops. Thus a writer has described flanks as “certain proportions of offensive or defensive forces extended to the right and left of a main body.” In fortification the term means any part of the work defending another by a fire along the outside of its parapet.

=Flank Casemate Carriage.= Is a gun-carriage which is especially adapted to the mounting of the 24-pound iron howitzer in the flanks of casemate-batteries, for defending the ditch.

=Flank Company.= A certain number of men drawn up on the right or left of a battalion. Thus when there are grenadiers they compose the right, and the light infantry the left flank company. Grenadiers and light infantry are generally called flank companies, whether attached or not to their battalions; rifle corps are always flankers.

=Flank, Concave.= Is that which is made in the arc of a semicircle bending outwards.

=Flank, Covered.= The platform of the casemate, which lies hid in the bastion. These retired flanks were a great defense to the opposite bastion and passage of the ditch; because the besiegers could not see nor easily dismount their guns.

=Flank Defense Carriage.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, SEA-COAST CARRIAGES.

=Flank, Directing.= In drill, that by which companies march,--_i.e._, that at which is placed the guide, who directs and regulates the march.

=Flank En Potence.= Is any part of the right or left wing formed at a projecting angle with the line. See POTENCE.

=Flank Files.= Are the two first men on the right and the two last men on the left of a battalion, company, etc. When a battalion is drawn up three deep, its flank files consist of three men, or, as the French call it, file and demi-file. When four deep, the flank files are termed double files; so that a column formed from any of these alignments will have all its relative flank files, be the depth of formation what it may.

=Flank, Inner.= That which is nearest the point on which a line rests, or which is farthest from the enemy. In drill, it is that nearest the point from which the line is dressed.

=Flank, Leading.= When the line breaks into column in order to attack an enemy, it is the flank which must always preserve the line of _appui_ in all movements in front. The first battalion, or company of every column which conducts, is called the head or leading flank of that column.

=Flank, Oblique.= Or second flank, in fortification; that part of the curtain from whence the face of the opposite bastion may be discovered, and is the distance between the lines _rasant_ and _fichant_, which are rejected by some engineers, as being liable to be ruined at the beginning of a siege, especially when made of sandy earth. This second flank defends very obliquely the opposite face, and is to be used only in a place attacked by an army without artillery.

=Flank of a Bastion.= In fortification, that part which joins the face to the curtain, comprehended between the angle of the curtain and that of the shoulder, and is the principal defense of a place. Its use is to defend the curtain, the flank, and the face of the opposite bastion, as well as the passage of the ditch; and to batter the salient angles of the counterscarp and glacis, from whence the besiegers generally ruin the flanks with their artillery.

=Flank, Outward.= Of a line or battalion, the extreme file on the right or left of a division, subdivision, or section, according to the given front, when the battalion is at close or open column, and which is the farthest wheeling point from line into column, or from column into line. It is likewise called the _reverse_ flank.

=Flank, Prolonged.= In fortification, is the extending of the flank from the angle of the epaule to the exterior side, when the angle of the flank is a right one.

=Flank, Second.= See FLANK, OBLIQUE.

=Flank, To.= In fortification, is to erect a battery which may play upon an enemy’s works on the right or left without being exposed to his line of fire. In evolutions, to take such a position in action as either to assist your own troops, or to annoy those of your enemy by attacking either of his flanks, without exposing yourself to all of his fire. To _outflank_, a manœuvre by which an army, battalion, troop, or company outstretches another, and gets upon both or either of his flanks. In an extensive acceptation of the term, when applied to locality, it means to possess any range or opposite parts, or territory, whence you might invade your neighbors.

=Flanker.= A fortification jutting out so as to command the side or flank of an enemy marching to the assault or attack. Riflemen and all light troops are also called flankers, from the fact of their acting on the flanks.

=Flanker, To= (Fr. _flanquer_). In fortification, to fortify the walls of a city with bulwarks or countermines.

=Flanking.= Is the same in fortification as defending.

=Flanking Angle.= In fortification, that composed of the two lines of defense, and pointing toward the curtain. See TENAILLE.

=Flanking Party.= Any body of men detached from the main army to act upon the flanks of an enemy. See FLANKER.

=Flanks of a Frontier.= Are certain salient points in a national boundary, strong by nature and art, and ordinarily projecting somewhat beyond the general line. The effect of these flanks is to protect the whole frontier against an enemy, as he dare not penetrate between, with the risk of their garrisons, reinforced from their own territories, attacking his rear, and cutting off communication between him and his base.

=Flash.= The flame which issues from any fire-arm or piece of ordnance on its being fired.

=Flash in the Pan.= An explosion of gunpowder without any communication beyond the vent. When a piece is loaded, and, upon the trigger being drawn, nothing but the priming takes fire, that piece is said to flash in the pan.

=Flask, Powder-.= A measure formerly made of horn, used to carry powder in, with the measure of the charge of the piece on the top of it.

=Flathead Indians.= A tribe of aborigines, so called from the practice which prevailed among them of binding some solid substance on the foreheads of their children so as to cause a depression of the skull. They are located on an agency in Montana. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Flaw.= A crack or small opening in a gun or its carriage is so called.

=Fleau d’Armes= (_Fr._). An ancient offensive weapon; the part used for striking was armed with sharp iron spikes.

=Flèche.= Literally an arrow; but applied in fortification to a work resembling a redan, except that it is raised upon the terre-plein without a ditch. It is in short a field-work, having faces and small flanks hastily run up to shelter a small number of men, and form an outwork to some more powerful fortification.

=Fleece, Order of the Golden.= One of the most eminent orders of knighthood in Europe, was founded in 1430 by Philip III., duke of Burgundy. By its foundation his successors were declared hereditary grand-masters; and thus the title passed to the imperial house of Austria with the Burgundian inheritance, and thence to the Spanish line of the same house after the death of the emperor Charles V. When the Spanish Netherlands, however, became Austrian, and the Bourbons became monarchs of Spain, the grand-mastership was claimed by the archdukes of Austria. Hence at present the Spanish and Austrian sovereigns alike confer the order, and at both courts it gives the highest rank.

=Fletch, To.= To feather an arrow.

=Fletcher.= The man who made or repaired the military bows was so called. Also called _bowyer_.

=Fleur-de-lis= (_Fr._). This celebrated emblem is derived from the white lily of the garden, or from the flag or iris. The Franks of old had a custom at the proclamation of their king, to elevate him upon a shield or target, and place in his hand a reed or flag in blossom, instead of a sceptre; and from that time the kings of the first and second race in France are represented with sceptres in their hands like the flag with its flowers, these flowers subsequently becoming the armorial bearings of France. In later times their arms were azure, three fleur-de-lis _or_. Many English and Scotch families bear the fleur-de-lis in some portion of their arms, and generally with some reference to France.

=Fleurus.= A small town in Belgium, in the province of Hainault. It has been the scene of several conflicts, the last and most important being the battle fought June 26, 1794, between the army of the French republic under Jourdan and the allies under the Prince of Saxe-Coburg. The allied forces were compelled for a time to evacuate Flanders.

=Flight.= Is used figuratively for the swift retreat of an army or any party from a victorious enemy. It is likewise applicable to missile weapons or shot; as, a flight of arrows, a flight of bombs, etc.

=Flight, Time of.= In gunnery, the flight of a shot or shell is the time during which it is passing through the air from the piece to the first graze.

=Flight, To Put to.= To force your enemy to quit the field.

=Flint.= In the flint-lock musket, the stone which was fixed to the cock or gun-lock by which the sparks were elicited that discharged the piece.

=Flint-lock.= A musket lock with a flint fixed in the hammer for striking on the cap of the pan; also the musket itself.

=Flint Weapons.= Believed to have been used by the primitive inhabitants, have from time to time, in more or less number, been turned up with the plow and the spade, and dug out from ancient graves, fortifications, and dwelling-places. They do not differ in any material respect from the flint weapons still in use among uncivilized tribes in Asia, Africa, America, etc. The weapons of most frequent occurrence are arrow-heads, spear-points, dagger-blades, and axe-heads, or celts.

=Flo.= An arrow was formerly so called.

=Floating Batteries.= These are used in defending harbors, or in attacks on marine fortresses. The most remarkable instance of their employment was by the French and Spaniards against Gibraltar, in the memorable siege which lasted from July, 1779, to February, 1783. During the Russian war, 1854-55, they rendered good service before Kinburn. Now they are only used for defensive purposes.

=Floating-bridge.= A kind of double bridge, the upper one projecting beyond the lower one, and capable of being moved forward by pulleys, used for carrying troops over narrow moats in attacking the outworks of a fort. See BRIDGE, FLYING.

=Flodden Field.= The last point of the Cheviots, the place where King James IV. of Scotland, after crossing the border on August 22, 1513, with an army of over 30,000 men, took up his position, and where, on September 9, the bloody battle was fought in which the king was killed, and the Scottish army destroyed.

=Flogging.= A barbarous punishment formerly inflicted in the British army and navy. It was generally administered with a whip, or “cat-of-nine-tails,” on the bare back. This mode of punishment formerly existed in the American army and navy.

=Flood-gate.= In fortified towns, is composed of 2 or 4 gates, so that the besieged by opening the gates may inundate the environs so as to keep the enemy out of gunshot.

=Florent, St.= A fortified seaport town of Corsica, on the gulf of the same name, 6 miles west from Bastia. This town was taken by the British in 1793.

=Florida.= One of the United States of America, which was discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in the year 1497. Its conquest was accomplished by the Spaniards in 1539. It was plundered by Sir Francis Drake in 1585; and by Davis, a buccaneer, in 1665. It was invaded by the British in 1702; and again by Gen. Oglethorpe in 1740. In 1763 it was ceded to Britain, but in 1781 was recovered by Spain, and confirmed to her by the peace of 1783. In 1821 it was purchased from Spain by the United States. A war with the Seminole Indians commenced in 1835. After great trouble and expense they were subdued and emigrated to the Indian Territory in 1842. In 1839 its constitution was formed, and in 1845 it was admitted into the Union. Florida seceded from the Union on January 10, 1861, and was one of the first to return to the Union, October 25, 1865.

=Flourish.= The waving of a weapon or other thing; a brandishing; as, the flourish of a sword.

=Flourish.= To execute an irregular or fanciful strain of music, by way of ornament or prelude, as, a flourish of trumpets.

=Flugelman.= The leader of a file; one who stands in front of a body of soldiers, and whose motions in the manual exercise they all simultaneously follow; a fugelman.

=Flushed.= A term frequently applied when men have been successful; as, flushed with victory, etc.

=Flushing.= An important seaport of the Netherlands, in the island of Walcheren, on the north side of the Scheldt, where that river enters the North Sea. It was the first town which declared against the Spaniards in 1572. In 1585 the Prince of Orange pledged it to Queen Elizabeth as security for a loan which she made to the people of the Netherlands in their struggle against Philip II. of Spain. The English held it till 1616. At the commencement of the 19th century it came into the possession of the French, and in 1809 was bombarded by the British composing the Walcheren expedition, under Lord Chatham, when it suffered severely. Admiral Ruyter was born here in 1607.

=Flute.= A wind instrument which is sometimes used in military bands, but never in service.

=Fly.= The length of a flag. The dimension at right angles to the staff. The other dimension is called the _hoist_.

=Flying Army.= A strong body of cavalry and infantry which is always in motion, both to cover its own garrisons and to keep the enemy in continual alarm.

=Flying Artillery.= Artillery trained to very rapid evolutions. In passing from one part of the field to another, the men spring upon their horses in horse artillery, or on the ammunition-chests in light artillery.

=Flying Bridges.= See PONTONS.

=Flying Camp.= A camp or body of troops formed for rapid motion from one place to another.

=Flying Colors.= Colors unfurled and left to wave in the air. Hence to return or come off with flying colors is to be victorious, to get the better.

=Flying Party.= A detachment of men employed to hover about an enemy.

=Flying Sap.= See SAP.

=Flying Shot.= A shot fired at something in motion, as a bird on the wing, a ship under sail, etc.; also, one who fires thus.

=Flying Torch.= The torch used on a staff in signaling.

=Fodder.= See FORAGE.

=Foe.= An enemy in war; a national enemy; a hostile army; an adversary.

=Foeman.= An enemy in war.

=Fogey.= An old-fashioned or singular person; an invalid soldier or sailor.

=Foil.= A long piece of steel of an elastic temper, mounted somewhat like a sword, which is used to learn to fence with; it is without a point, or any sharpness, having a button at the extremity covered with leather.

=Foil.= To render vain or nugatory as an effort or attempt; to frustrate; to defeat; to baffle; to balk; as, the enemy attempted to pass the river, but was _foiled_; he _foiled_ his adversaries.

=Foin.= A thrust with a pike or sword.

=Foissonnement.= A term used in fortification to signify the increase in bulk of earth after its excavation. This increase varies from one-eighth to one-twelfth generally.

=Folding Boat.= A boat of a jointed framework covered with canvas, used in campaigning and by voyageurs.

=Followers, Camp-.= See CAMP-FOLLOWERS.

=Follow Up.= To pursue with additional vigor some advantage which has already been gained; as, to follow up a victory.

=Fone.= Formerly the plural of Foe. Now obsolete.

=Fontainebleau.= A town and parish of France, in the department of the Seine and Marne, 37 miles southeast from Paris. There is a celebrated royal palace here encompassed by parks and gardens, mentioned in history, ever since the 13th century, as the residence of the monarchs of France. This place was entered by the Austrians, February 17, 1814. Here Napoleon resigned his dignity, April 4, and bade farewell to his army, April 20, 1814.

=Fontenoy.= A village in Belgium, in the province of Hainaut, 5 miles southwest of Tournay. Here was fought the most famous contest in the War of the Austrian Succession, on May 11, 1745, between the French under Marshal Saxe and the allies (English, Dutch, and Austrians) under the Duke of Cumberland. After a hard-fought battle the allies were forced to retreat. The loss on both sides was stated at about 7000 men.

=Food.= Food has two functions, building up the body, and supplying it with force. Substances used as food may be divided into elements which are oxidizable and those conducive to chemical changes. Milk contains all the necessary elements in the best form. The nourishing elements of foods are usually classed under the heads of albuminates, fats, carbo-hydrates, and salts. In regard to the part played by the condiments used in flavoring and seasoning, and such things as tea, coffee, chocolate, alcohol, etc., little is positively known beyond the fact that some of them are useful in exciting the salivary and alimentary secretions. The amount of food necessary to health and vigor varies with the kind and amount of occupation, the character of the climate, and specifically with the individual. Playfair and Parkes give the following as the average daily allowance of anhydrous food for an adult, in avoirdupois ounces:

_In quietude._

Albuminates 2.5 Fats 1. Carbo-hydrates 12. Salts .5 ---- Total 16.

_Hard labor or campaigning._

Albuminates 6. to 7. Fats 3.5 to 4.5 Carbo-hydrates 16. to 18. Salts 1.2 to 1.5 ------------ Total 26.7 to 31.0

_European standard, for moderate work._

Albuminates 4.587 Fats 2.964 Carbo-hydrates 14.257 Salts 1.058 ------ Total 22.866

From 70 to 90 ounces of water in addition to this are usually consumed per day.

The ration of the U. S. army resolved into anhydrous elements gives the following:

_Soft bread, with ²⁄₃ fresh beef, ¹⁄₃ salt pork and beans._

Albuminates 3.93 Fats 4.15 Carbo-hydrates 12.37 Salts 1.19 ----- Total 21.64 and .26 coffee.

_Same with rice instead of beans._

Albuminates 3.47 Fats 4.11 Carbo-hydrates 12.50 Salts 1.14 ----- Total 21.22 and .26 coffee.

_Hard bread, ²⁄₃ fresh beef, ¹⁄₃ salt pork and beans._

Albuminates 4.99 Fats 4.09 Carbo-hydrates 15.26 Salts 1.23 ----- Total 25.57 and .26 coffee.

_Hard bread, bacon and beans._

Albuminates 4.10 Fats 9.06 Carbo-hydrates 15.26 Salts 1.29 ----- Total 29.71 and .26 coffee.

The following table, compiled from standard authorities, gives an alimentary analysis of 100 parts of various substances used as food, by means of which the nutritive value of all ordinary diets may be calculated:

--------------------------------+------+-------+-----+-------+------ |Water.|Albumi-|Fats.|Carbo- |Salts. | | nates.| | Hy- | | | | |drates.| --------------------------------+------+-------+-----+-------+------ Meat (best quality), beefsteak | 74.4 | 20.5 | 3.5 | ... | 1.6 Meat (average like soldiers), | | | | | less ¹⁄₅ for bone | 75. | 15. | 8.4 | ... | 1.6 Meat (very fat, stall fed) | 63. | 14. |19. | ... | 3.7 Salt beef (Girardin) | 49.1 | 29.6 | 0.2 | ... | 21.1 Salt pork (Girardin) | 44.1 | 26.1 | 7. | ... | 22.8 Fat pork (Letheby) | 39. | 9.8 |48.9 | ... | 2.3 Bacon (salted and smoked) | | | | | (Letheby) | 15. | 8.8 |73.3 | ... | 2.9 Fish (Letheby) | 78. | 18.1 | 2.9 | ... | 1. Poultry, less bone ¹⁄₆ (Letheby)| 74. | 21. | 3.8 | ... | 1.2 Butter | 6. | .3 |91. | ... | 2.5 Eggs (less ¹⁄₁₀ for shell) | 73.5 | 13.5 |11.6 | ... | 1. Cheese | 36.8 | 33.5 |24.3 | ... | 5.4 Bread (wheat, average quality) | 40. | 8. | 1.5 | 49.2 | 1.3 Biscuit, hard | 8. | 15.6 | 1.3 | 73.4 | 1.7 Wheat flour (average) | 15. | 11. | 2. | 70.3 | 1.7 Rice | 10. | 5. | 0.8 | 83.2 | .5 Oatmeal | 15. | 12.6 | 5.6 | 63. | 3. Cornmeal | 13.5 | 10. | 6.7 | 64.5 | 1.4 Peas (dry) | 15. | 22. | 2. | 53. | 2.4 Beans (dry) | 16. | 22.5 | 2.2 | 49.9 | 4.7 Potatoes, Irish | 74. | 1.5 | 0.1 | 23.4 | 1. Potatoes, sweet | 70.2 | 1.5 | 0.3 | 23.5 | 2.9 Yams | 74. | 2. | 0.5 | 16.2 | 1.3 Carrots | 85. | .6 | 0.25| 8.4 | .7 Parsnips | 82.4 | 1.125| 0.54| 6.39 | 1. Turnips | 90.5 | 1.1 | ... | 4. | .5 Cabbage | 91. | .2 | 0.5 | 5.8 | .7 Milk (average) | 88.3 | 3.5 | 3.1 | 4.5 | .5 Cream | 66. | 2.7 |26.7 | 2.8 | 1.8 Sugar | 3. | ... | ... | 96.5 | .5 --------------------------------+------+-------+-----+-------+------

=Foot.= The foot-soldiers; the infantry, usually designated as the foot, in distinction from the cavalry.

=Foot.= To gain or lose ground foot by foot, is to do it regularly and resolutely; defending everything to the utmost extremity, or forcing it by dint of art or labor.

=Foot Artillery.= Artillery troops serving on foot. Heavy artillery.

=Foot-band.= A band of infantry.

=Foot-bank.= See BANQUETTE.

=Foot-boards.= The transverse boards on the front of a limber, on which the cannoneers rest their feet when mounted.

=Foot-fight.= A conflict by persons on foot; in opposition to a fight on horseback.

=Foot Guards.= Guards of infantry. The flower of the British infantry, and the garrison ordinarily of the metropolis, comprise 3 regiments, the Grenadier, Coldstream, and Scots Fusilier Guards, in all 7 battalions, and 6307 officers and men of all ranks.

=Footing.= To be on the same footing with another, is to be under the same circumstances in point of service; to have the same number of men, and the same pay, etc.

=Footman.= A soldier who marches and fights on foot.

=Foot-pound.= In mechanics, is the unit of work. It is simply a contraction for “one pound raised through a height of one foot.” See WORK.

=Foot-soldier.= A soldier that serves on foot.

=Foot-ton.= In England the power of modern ordnance is estimated by the energy of the shot in foot-tons, divided by the number of inches in the shot’s circumference. The formula for calculating it is

_WV_² _E_ = ------- 2π_r.g_

in which _W_ is the weight of the shot in tons (English), _V_ is the velocity, 2π_r_, the circumference of the shot in inches, and _g_ the force of gravity;

_WV_² ----- _g_

is the living force of the shot, and is equal to twice the quantity of work it is capable of doing. This divided by the circumference gives a very fair estimate of its power in penetrating armor, as the resistance to penetration increases with the size of the projectile. This unit is also used to estimate the resisting power of armor-plating against shots of various sizes.

=Forage.= The hay, corn, fodder, and oats required for the subsistence of the animals in the army. The allowance of forage in the U. S. army is fixed by regulations at 14 pounds of hay and 12 of grain to each horse, and 14 pounds of hay and 9 of grain to each mule in the public service. Generals, field-officers, staff-officers, and cavalry officers receive forage for a certain number of private horses while actually kept in service.

=Forage.= To collect supplies both for man and beast, from an enemy by force, from friends by impressment, but giving to friends receipts, to be paid ultimately.

=Forage Cap.= A small low cap worn by soldiers when not in full dress.

=Forage-master.= See WAGON-MASTER.

=Foragers.= A detachment of soldiers who forage or collect stores for an army.

=Foraging.= Is properly the collection of forage or other supplies systematically in towns or villages, or going with an escort to cut nourishment for horses in fields. Such operations frequently lead to engagements with the enemy. Foraging parties are furnished with reaping-hooks and cords. The men promptly dismount, make bundles with which they load their horses, and are prepared for anything that may follow. The word foraging is sometimes inaccurately used for marauding.

=Forbach.= A small town of France, in the department of the Moselle, now a part of German Lorraine. It was occupied by the Prussians, January 10, 1814. During the Franco-Prussian war it was taken by the German generals Von Goeben and Von Steinmetz, after a fierce contest, in which the French were defeated and compelled to retreat, August 6, 1870.

=Forcat.= A rest for a musket in ancient times.

=Force.= In its military application, signifies an army of all branches,--artillery, cavalry, and infantry. It is sometimes used in the plural number, but with the same signification; as, “commander of the forces;” and occasionally we find the word used in another sense, thus, “He is in great force.” To force, in broadsword exercise, is to break an adversary’s sword-guard, and either wound him or expose him to a wound.

=Force.= To obtain or win by strength; to take by violence or struggle; specifically, to capture by assault; to storm, as a fortress. Also to impel, drive, wrest, extort, get, etc., by main strength or violence; with a following adverb, as _along_, _away_, _from_, _into_, _through_, _out_, etc.

=Force.= To provide with forces; to reinforce; to strengthen by soldiers; to garrison.

=Force of Gravity.= The force by virtue of which all terrestrial bodies fall to the earth when unsupported. As a terrestrial force it may be considered constant for the same place, but as it is practically the resultant of the earth’s attraction and the centrifugal force arising from its rotation, and as the earth is neither homogeneous nor a perfect sphere, it will vary slightly with the latitude, being greatest at the poles and least on the equator, and it will also vary in an insignificant degree from place to place in the same latitude. Gravity is distinguished in dynamics as the only constant force with which we have to do. It differs also from all others in this, that its measure is independent of mass. Other forces are measured by the product of the mass moved into the velocity imparted in the unit of time; but as gravity impresses the same velocity upon all masses, great or small, mass is properly omitted in its measure. The velocity impressed by it during each second of its action, or the _acceleration_, is about 32.1808 feet in latitude 45°, about 32.0977 at the equator, and 32.2629 at the poles. This number in gunnery is indicated by the algebraic symbol _g_. Its exact value at any place is best determined by the length of the simple second’s pendulum at that place. The value for _g_ for bodies falling in the air is very nearly true for dense substances presenting small surfaces, when the fall is limited by a few seconds. For the ordinary time of flight of projectiles it can be used without material error.

=Force, To.= To force an enemy to give battle, is to render the situation of an enemy so hazardous, that whether he attempts to quit his position, or endeavors to keep it, his capture or destruction must be equally inevitable. In either of such desperate cases, a bold and determined general will not wait to be attacked, but resolutely advance and give battle, especially if circumstances should combine to deprive him of the means of honorable capitulation. To _force_ a passage, is to oblige your enemy to retire from his fastnesses, and to open a way into the country which he had occupied. This may be done either by _coup de main_, or renewal of assaults. In either case, the advancing body should be well supported and its flanks be secured with the most jealous attention.

=Forced.= Exerted to the utmost; urged; hence, strained, urged to excessive or unnatural action; as, a forced march.

=Forces, Effective.= All the efficient parts of an army that may be brought into action are called effective, and generally consist of artillery, cavalry, and infantry, with their necessary appendages, such as hospital staff, wagon-train, etc. Effective forces of a country; all the disposable strength, vigor, and activity of any armed proportion of native or territorial population. The navy of a country must be looked upon as part of the effective force of the country, to which is added the marines.

=Forcing.= The operation of making a bullet take the grooves of a rifle. This was formerly effected in various ways, by flattening the bullet in its seat with the ramrod, by using a patch, etc. (See PROJECTILES, BULLETS.) The term is not much used at the present day.

=Ford.= A place in a river or other water where it may be passed by man or beast on foot, or by wading. A ford should not be deeper than 3 feet for infantry, 4 feet for cavalry, and 2¹⁄₂ feet for artillery. These limits must be lessened if the stream be swift. A bottom of large stones is bad for cavalry and impracticable for carriages; gravel is the best bottom; a sandy bottom, though good at first, is apt to deepen when many troops pass.

=Ford.= To pass or cross, as a river or other water, by treading or walking on the bottom; to pass through by wading; to wade through.

=Fordable.= Capable of being waded or passed through on foot, as water.

=Fording.= The act of passing over a ford.

=Fore.= In advance; at the front; in the part that precedes or goes first.

=Fore-arm.= To arm or prepare for attack or resistance before the time of need.

=Fore-fence.= Defense in front. The term is now obsolete.

=Forefront.= The foremost part or place; as, the forefront of the battle.

=Foreign.= Not of one’s country; not native; alien; from abroad.

=Foreign Enlistment Act.= 59 Geo. III. c. 69 (1819), forbids British subjects to enter the service of a foreign state, without license from the king or privy council, and also the fitting out or equipping ships for any foreign power to be employed against any power with which the British government is at peace. In 1606 Englishmen were forbidden to enter foreign service without taking an oath not to be reconciled to the pope. The act was suspended in 1835 on behalf of the British Legion.

=Foreign Legion.= Foreigners have frequently been employed as auxiliaries in the pay of the British government. An act (18 & 19 Vict. c. 2) for the formation of a Foreign Legion as a contingent in the Russian war (1855) was passed December 23, 1854. On the peace, in 1856, many of the Foreign Legion were sent to the Cape of Good Hope.

=Foreign Service.= In a general sense, means every service but home. In a more confined and native acceptation of the term, it signifies any service done out of the United States or the depending territories.

=Foreland.= In fortification, a piece of ground between the wall of a place and the moat.

=Fore Rank.= The first rank; the front.

=Fore-spurrer.= One who rode before. This term is now obsolete.

=Foreward.= The van; the front.

=Forfeit.= To render oneself by misdeeds liable to be deprived of; as, a soldier forfeits pay by sentence of court-martial for offenses committed.

=Forge.= Every field-battery is provided with a forge. It consists, besides the limber, of a frame-work, on which are fixed the bellows, fire-place, etc. Behind the bellows is placed the coal-box, which has to be removed before the bellows can be put in position. In the limber-box are placed the smith’s tools, horseshoes, nails, and spare parts (iron) of carriages, harness, etc. The weight of the forge equipped for field-service is 3383 pounds for the battery, and 3370 pounds for the reserve. A forge for red-hot shot is a place where the balls are made red-hot before they are fired off. It is built about 5 or 6 feet below the surface of the ground, of strong brick-work, and an iron grate, upon which the balls are laid, with a very large fire under them.

=Forlorn Hope.= Officers and soldiers who generally volunteer for enterprises of great danger, such as leading the attack when storming a fortress, etc. Formerly it was applied to the advanced guard before the enemy, even on a march. See ENFANS PERDUS.

=Form.= To form, in a general acceptation of the term, is to assume or produce any shape or figure, extent or depth of line or column, by means of prescribed rules in military movements or dispositions. To _form on_ is to advance forward, so as to connect yourself with any given object of formation, and to lengthen the line.

=Formation of Troops.= The term formation is applied to that particular arrangement of the troops composing any unit, when this latter is ready for battle, or is prepared to execute a movement.

That portion of the formation on the side towards the enemy is called the _front_; the side opposite to the front is termed the _rear_; the lateral extremities are called _flanks_.

Any row of soldiers placed parallel to the front is called a _rank_; a row perpendicular to the front is called a _file_; the number of ranks measures the _depth_ of the formation.

Troops drawn up so as to show an extended front, with slight depth, are said to be _deployed_; when the depth is considerable and the front comparatively small, they are said to be in _ployed_ formation. See ORDER, ORDER OF BATTLE, CONCAVE, ORDER OF BATTLE, CONVEX.

=Formers.= Are round pieces of wood that are fitted to the diameter of the bore of a gun, round which the cartridge-paper, parchment, lead, or cotton is rolled before it is served.

=Formigny.= A village of France, in the department of Calvados, 10 miles northwest from Bayeux, where a battle was fought in 1450, between the French and English, the latter being defeated, and thereby forced to abandon Normandy.

=Formosa.= An island in the China Sea belonging to China. The Dutch became masters of it in 1632, but they were expelled by the pirate Coxinga, whose successors ruled it till 1683. It was invaded by the Japanese in 1874, to avenge the murder of some of their people.

=Fornova= (Parma, Italy). Near here Charles VIII. of France defeated the Italians, July 6, 1495.

=Fort.= Technically applied to an inclosed work of the higher class of field fortification; but the word is often used in military works much more loosely.

=Fort Adams.= A fortification situated on Brenton’s Point, 1 mile west of the town of Newport, R. I., and commanding the entrance to the harbor. It was first garrisoned in 1841, and is established on the old fort which formerly occupied the position.

=Fort Adjutant.= In the British service, is an officer holding an appointment in a fortress,--where the garrison is often composed of drafts from different corps,--analogous to that of adjutant in a regiment. He is responsible to the commandant for the internal discipline, and the assignment of the necessary duties to particular corps. Fort adjutants are staff-officers, and receive additional pay.

=Fort Ann.= A village of Washington Co., N. Y., on the Champlain Canal. A fortification, from which the place derives its name, was erected here during the wars with the French, in 1756. It was captured from the Americans about 1779.

=Fort Barrancas.= Situated on the north side of the entrance to Pensacola harbor, and has been occupied since October 24, 1820, when it was ceded by Spain to the United States. During the civil war it was captured by the Confederates (1861), and held by them until the following year.

=Fort Caswell.= An old brick work situated on Oak Island, at the mouth of Cape Fear River, North Carolina. On the outbreak of civil war it fell into the hands of the Confederates, who held it until the fall of Fort Fisher, in 1865.

=Fort Columbus.= See GOVERNOR’S ISLAND.

=Fort Constitution.= Is situated in Portsmouth harbor, N. H. It was established in 1808, and garrisoned by U. S. troops; but as early as 1806 the post was occupied. It consisted of an earthwork, built by the English government, and named William and Mary. A new work was commenced in 1863, having its foundation outside the old one.

=Fort Covington.= A village of Franklin Co., N. Y., on Salmon River, about 18 miles northwest of Malone. Here the American army suffered greatly during the winter of 1813-14.

=Fort Delaware.= A casemated fort on Pea Patch Island, in the Delaware River. It was a military prison during the civil war.

=Fort Donelson.= See DONELSON, FORT.

=Fort Duquesne.= See PITTSBURG.

=Fort Erie.= In Upper Canada; this fort was taken by the American general Browne, June 3, 1814. After several conflicts it was evacuated by the Americans, November 5, 1814.

=Fort Fairfield.= A village of Aroostook Co., Me. It contains a barrack, and is chiefly interesting from its having been a military post during our trouble with England in 1839.

=Fort Fisher.= A strong earthwork on the east side of Cape Fear River, about 20 miles south of Wilmington, N. C., and one of the principal defenses of that port. On December 24-25, 1864, the forces of Gen. Butler attempted to take it, but unsuccessfully; but on January 15, 1865, it was taken by storm by the Union army and navy, and over 2000 Confederate prisoners and 169 pieces of artillery were captured.

=Fort George.= A fortification in Inverness, Scotland, on the extremity of a low peninsula, projecting upwards of a mile into the Moray Firth. It has barracks for about 3000 men, and is the most complete fortification in Great Britain.

=Fort George.= See FORT WILLIAM HENRY.

=Fort Griswold.= An old Revolutionary fort near New London, Conn. The traitor Arnold massacred the garrison and burned the town in 1781.

=Fort Hamilton.= A strong fortification on the Narrows, defending the entrance of New York harbor.

=Fort Independence.= A fortification on Castle Island, in Boston harbor, Mass., which forms one of the defenses of the harbor. It was commenced in 1833, and completed in 1851.

=Fort Jackson.= A fort on the right bank of the Mississippi River, about 80 miles below New Orleans. On April 18, 1802, Admiral Farragut, then captain, commenced the bombardment of this fort and Fort St. Philip on the opposite bank of the river, and after six days’ and nights’ continuous firing, succeeded in passing with his fleet; and destroying the Confederate flotilla, the forts surrendered.

=Fort La Fayette.= A fort surrounded by water in the Narrows, at the entrance of New York harbor, immediately in front of Fort Hamilton. It was used during the civil war as a prison. This fort was recently destroyed by fire.

=Fort Lee.= A village of Bergen Co., N. J., on the Hudson River, at the foot of the Palisades. It was once a noted military post, and was captured by the British in 1776.

=Fort McAllister.= See MCALLISTER, FORT.

=Fort McHenry.= Is situated on Whetstone Point, a peninsula formed by the junction of the northwest branch of the Patapsco with the main river, about 3 miles from Baltimore, Md. The site was first occupied as a military post by the erection of a water-battery in 1775 for the defense of the town. In 1794 the fort was repaired, and a star or pentagon fort of brick-work added, when it was ceded to the United States and called by its present name.

=Fort Mackinaw.= See MACKINAW.

=Fort Macon.= Situated on the eastern extremity of Bogue Banks, near Beaufort harbor, N. C. It was surrendered to Gen. Burnside after a siege of about two weeks, in which he was aided by the blockading gunboats, April 25, 1862.

=Fort-Major.= A commandant of a fort in the absence of the governor. Officers employed as fort-majors, if under the rank of captains, take rank and precedence as the junior captains in the garrisons in which they are serving. He is a staff-officer.

=Fort Marion.= At St. Augustine, Fla.; was erected by the Spaniards more than 100 years ago, and formerly called the Castle of St. Mark.

=Fort Mifflin.= Is one of the old Revolutionary fortresses, situated near the junction of the Schuylkill and Delaware Rivers. It is one of the defenses of the city of Philadelphia.

=Fort Monroe.= A massive work of granite surrounded by a moat, situated at Old Point Comfort, Elizabeth City Co., Va. It was established in 1818, in which year a reservation of about 250 acres for defensive purposes was here ceded to the United States by the State of Virginia. It is the largest military work in the United States, and during the civil war was an important naval rendezvous. The artillery school of the army is established at this post.

=Fort Morgan.= Situated at the entrance to anchorage in Mobile Bay, on the site of the old Fort Bowyer, which bore such an important part in the war of 1812-15, the Americans under Maj. Lawrence having here repulsed with great loss a combined land and sea attack of the British and their Indian allies, September 15, 1814.

=Fort Moultrie.= One of the defenses of Charleston harbor, S. C., on the west shore of Sullivan’s Island, about 5 miles east-southeast of Charleston. It received its name in honor of Col. Moultrie, an officer of the Revolution, who here successfully resisted an attack from 9 British vessels in 1776. It was abandoned by the Federal troops in December, 1860, and was seized by the Confederates, who fired from it some of the first shots of the civil war. It has been garrisoned by U. S. troops since the close of the war.

=Fort Niagara.= On the right bank of the Niagara River, in the county of the same name, in the State of New York. It was established by La Salle in 1678; captured by the British under Sir William Johnson in 1759; surrendered to and occupied by the United States in 1796. In the war of 1812-15 it was but feebly garrisoned, and on December 19, 1813, a force of 1200 British crossed the river, and took it by surprise, killing 65 of the garrison.

=Fort Ninety-Six.= A stockaded fort which was situated in Abbeville District, 6 miles from the Saluda River. It received its name from being 96 miles from the frontier fort Prince George, on the Keowee River. This fort was the scene of many exciting events during the Revolutionary war. With a garrison of about 350 Tories under Lieut.-Col. John Cruger, it was besieged by the Americans under Gen. Greene for twenty-seven days, May-June, 1781; but just as his efforts were about to be crowned with success, Gen. Greene was obliged to retreat, to avoid falling into the hands of a vastly superior British force, which was coming to relieve the beleaguered garrison.

=Fort Ontario.= An inclosed work on the west bank of Oswego River, built in 1755, on the site of Fort Oswego. Here were the scenes of many stirring events in the wars between France and England, and of a skirmish in 1814.

=Fort Pickens.= A fort on Santa Rosa Island, Pensacola harbor, Fla. Lieut. A. J. Slemmer in January, 1861, after evacuating Fort Barrancas, held this post against the Confederates until reinforced.

=Fort Pillow.= In Lauderdale Co., Tenn., by land about 40 miles north of Memphis. It was erected by the Confederates during the civil war. It was bombarded by Federal gunboats, and evacuated by the Confederates, June 4, 1862. On April 12, 1864, it was captured by the Confederates, when took place an indiscriminate slaughter of the negro troops garrisoned there.

=Fort Plain.= A Revolutionary fortress, which was situated near the junction of Osquaga Creek and the Mohawk, in Montgomery Co., N. Y. For a while it was an important fortress, affording protection to the people in the neighborhood, and forming a key to the communication with the Schoharie, Cherry Valley, and Unadilla settlements. On August 21, 1780, a party of 500 Tories and Indians marched up within cannon-shot of this fort, burned 53 dwellings and as many barns, destroyed the crops, and carried off everything of value. Sixteen of the inhabitants were slain, and between 50 and 60 persons, chiefly women and children, were taken prisoners.

=Fort Pulaski.= Located on Cockspur Island, at the head of Tybee Roads, commanding both channels of the Savannah River. It was named after a Polish patriot who fought in the American war of the Revolution, and died in consequence of wounds received in the attack on Savannah, October, 1779. During the civil war, being in possession of the Confederates, it surrendered to the Federals under Gen. Hunter, April 10, 1862.

=Fort Schuyler.= An old Revolutionary fort, which occupied the site of old Fort Stanwix, and was built on the present site of Rome, N. Y. It is celebrated in early American history as among the strongest forts on the then northern frontier.

=Fort St. David.= A town of Hindostan, on the sea-coast of the Carnatic, situated on the river Tripapalore. After the capture of Madras by the French in 1746, the English were besieged here without success; and from this period it continued the head of the English settlements till 1758, when it was taken by Lally, after a short siege, and the fortifications were destroyed.

=Fort St. Philip.= Situated on the left or north bank of the Mississippi River, nearly opposite Fort Jackson (which see).

=Fort Sumter.= A fort celebrated in the annals of the civil war. It is situated on a small island in Charleston harbor, S. C., between 3 and 4 miles from the city. April 12-13, 1861, it was bombarded and captured by the Confederates, who thus inaugurated the civil war. It was reduced to a ruinous condition during the siege of Charleston, in the summer of 1863, but was held by the Confederates until February 18, 1865.

=Fort Taylor.= An inclosed casemated pentagonal brick-work in Key West harbor, Fla., commenced 1845.

=Fort Trumbull.= Situated in the harbor of New London, Conn., on the west side of the Thames River. It is an inclosed work, and was commenced in 1839.

=Fort Wadsworth.= A permanent fortification on Staten Island, west of the Narrows, commanding the entrance on that side of New York harbor, distant from Fort Hamilton 1 mile.

=Fort Wagner.= See MORRIS ISLAND.

=Fort Washington.= A strong earthwork erected during the Revolutionary war upon the highest eminence on Manhattan Island, at a point now between 181st and 186th Streets, New York City. During the Revolutionary war it fell into the hands of the English, and nearly 3000 Americans were captured.

=Fort Wayne.= A U. S. fortification in Wayne Co., Mich., just below Detroit. It is intended to command the navigation of the Detroit River.

=Fort William Henry.= A Revolutionary fort near the head of Lake George, N. Y. During the wars of the colonies it was captured by the French and Indians in 1757.

=Fort Winthrop.= One of the defenses of Boston harbor, Mass., on Governor’s Island, the former site of old Fort Warren. It is a small inclosed quadrangular work, with exterior open barbette batteries; commenced 1844.

=Fort Wood.= On Bedloe’s Island, New York harbor, and in the city of New York, 1¹⁄₂ miles southwest of the Battery. It was erected in 1841, and mounted 71 guns.

=Fort Wool.= A large unfinished inclosed casemated work or “rip-rap” foundation, formerly called Fort Calhoun, designed for the defense of Hampton Roads, Va.

=Fortalice.= A small outwork of a fortification; a fortilage;--called also _fortelace_.

=Forted.= Furnished with or guarded by forts; strengthened or defended, as by forts.

=Forth.= The ancient name for ford.

=Forth Mountains.= A range in the county of Wexford, Ireland, celebrated for being the rendezvous of 15,000 insurgents, who, in 1798, met here previous to the attack and capture of the town of Wexford.

=Fortifiable.= Capable of being fortified.

=Fortification.= Is the art of fortifying a town, or other place; or of putting it in such a posture of defense that every one of its parts defends, and is defended by some other parts, by means of ramparts, parapets, ditches, and other outworks; to the end that a small number of men within may be able to defend themselves for a considerable time against the assaults of a numerous army without; so that the enemy in attacking them must of necessity suffer great loss. There are various kinds of fortification, as _defensive_ and _offensive_, _natural_, _artificial_, and _permanent_. _Defensive fortification_ is the art of surrounding a place by works so disposed as to render it capable of a lasting defense against a besieging army. _Offensive fortification_ comprehends the various works employed in conducting a siege. _Natural fortification_ consists of those obstacles which nature affords to retard the progress of an enemy; such as woods, deep ravines, rocks, marshes, etc. _Artificial fortification_ is that which is raised by human ingenuity to aid the natural advantages of the ground, or supply its deficiencies. It is divided into _permanent_ and _field fortification_. _Permanent fortification_ is intended for the defense of towns, frontiers, and seaports, and is constructed of durable materials in time of peace; while _field fortification_ being raised only for the temporary purpose of protecting troops in the field, its materials are those afforded by local circumstances and a limited time. For the principal parts of a regular fortress, see BANQUETTE, BASTION, BATARDEAU, BERM, CAPONNIERE, CAVALIER, CITADEL, CORDON, COUNTERSCARP, COVERED WAY, CROWN-WORK, CUNETTE, CURTAIN, DITCH, EMBRASURES, ENCEINTE, ENVELOPE, EPAULEMENT, ESCARP, ESPLANADE, FACES, FLANK, FLÈCHE, or ARROW, FRAISES, GLACIS, HORNWORK, LINES, LOOP-HOLES, LUNETTES and TENAILLONS, OUTWORKS, PALISADES, PARALLELS, or PLACES OF ARMS, PARAPET, RAMPS, RAMPART, RAVELIN, REDAN, REDOUBT, REVETMENT, SALLYPORTS, SLOPE INTERIOR, STAR FORT, TENAILLE, TERRE-PLEIN, TÊTES DE PONT, TRAVERSES, ZIGZAGS, or BOYAUX OF COMMUNICATION.

=Fortification, Elementary.= By some likewise called the theory of fortification, consists in tracing the plans and profiles of a fortification on paper, with scales and compasses; and examining the systems proposed by different authors, in order to discover their advantages and disadvantages.

=Fortification, Front of.= Consists of all the works constructed upon any one side of a regular polygon, whether placed within or without the exterior side. Some authors give a more limited sense to the term “front of fortification,” by confining it to two half bastions joined by a curtain.

=Fortification, Irregular.= Is that in which, from the nature of the ground or other causes, the several works have not their due proportions according to rule; irregularity, however, does not necessarily imply weakness.

=Fortification, Practical.= Consists in forming a project of a fortification, according to the nature of the ground, and other necessary circumstances, to trace it on the ground, and to execute the project, together with all the military buildings, such as magazines, storehouses, barracks, bridges, etc.

=Fortification, Regular.= Is that in which the works are constructed on a regular polygon, and which has its corresponding parts equal to each other.

=Fortification, Semi-permanent.= During the civil war in America, 1861-65, it became necessary to construct strong fortifications for large cities in a short time. These circumstances gave rise to a new kind of fortification combining certain of the arrangements of both permanent and field works, which were called semi-permanent works.

=Fortified.= Strengthened and secured by forts.

=Fortify.= To strengthen and secure by forts, batteries, and other works of art; to render defensible against an attack by hostile forces, or capable of standing a siege.

=Fortilage.= A little fort; a block-house. Now obsolete.

=Fortin.= A little fort; a field fort; a sconce; a fortlet. Now obsolete.

=Fortlet.= A little fort.

=Fortress.= Is a fortified city or town, or any piece of ground so strongly fortified as to be capable of resisting an attack carried on against it, according to rule. Also, as a verb, to furnish with fortresses; to guard; to fortify.

=Forward.= A word of command given when troops are to resume their march after a temporary interruption.

=Fosseway.= One of the military Roman roads in England, so called from the ditches on both sides.

=Fotheringay.= A village of England, in Northamptonshire. Richard III. was born in the castle of this place, and Mary, queen of Scots, was imprisoned and executed here. James I. razed it to the ground after his accession to the throne.

=Foucade=, or =Fougade=. A small mine.

=Fougasses.= A description of small mines, constructed in front of the weakest parts of a fortification, as the salient angles and faces not defended by a cross-fire.

=Fougass Shell.= A row of loaded shells in a box divided into two compartments. The lower compartment is filled with powder. The box is only just covered by the earth. The fougass is fired by a fuze, electricity, or a tube which explodes when trodden upon.

=Fougass, Stone.= A sort of natural mortar formed by an excavation in the ground. At the bottom of the excavation is placed the charge in a box, over this comes a shield of wood, and over that again is placed about 5 cubic yards of stones, each of which should weigh not less than 1 pound. The excavation is in the shape of a frustrum of a cone, and makes an angle of about 40° with the horizon. The charge is about 80 pounds of powder, and the stones will fall over a parallelogram about 110 yards by 120 yards.

=Fougeres.= A town and parish of France, 28 miles northeast from Rennes. This town was the scene of many engagements between the English and the French, from the 11th to the 15th centuries.

=Fougette= (_Fr._). An Indian sky-rocket, a species of firework which is frequently used by the Asiatics. It is made of the hollow tube of the bamboo, of a very large size, filled with the usual composition of rockets. The rod is only a part of the same bamboo, the greater part of which is cut away.

=Foughard.= Near Armagh, Northern Ireland. Here Edward, brother of Robert Bruce, after invading Ireland in 1315, was defeated by Sir John Bermingham in 1318. Bruce was killed by Roger de Maupis, a burgess of Dundalk.

=Fouiller= (_Fr._). To search. In a military sense, it signifies to detach small bodies of infantry round the flanks of a column that is marching through a wood, for the purpose of discovering an ambuscade, and of giving timely notice that it may be avoided. The same precaution is necessary when a body of men advance towards or enter a village.

=Fouling.= The action of gunpowder in dirtying the bore of a gun. Cannon for this and other reasons are sponged after each round.

=Foundation.= In military architecture, is that part of a building which is underground, or the mass of stone, brick, etc., which supports a building, or upon which the walls of a superstructure are raised; or it is the coffer or bed dug below the level of the ground to raise a building upon.

=Founder.= A person who casts cannon, etc.

=Foundery.= In military matters, the art of casting all kinds of ordnance, such as cannon, mortars, etc.

=Foundry.= A place for casting all kinds of ordnance; a foundery.

=Four.= A place of confinement in Paris to which vagabonds and persons who could not give any satisfactory account of themselves were committed; and when once shut up had their names registered, and were enlisted for the old French government. These Fours added annually 2000 men at least to the king’s regular army; by which means the capital was relieved of a multitude of thieves, pickpockets, etc.

=Fourage= (_Fr._). Forage; in the artillery, it is used figuratively to signify hay, straw, or anything else of vegetable growth, which is used to ram into the bore of a cannon for the purpose of cleansing it.

=Fourager= (_Fr._). To forage, or look about for provender and provisions. It likewise means among the French to ravage, desolate, pillage, and waste a country for the purpose of throwing the inhabitants into disorder. The word is derived from _foras agere_, or to seek for forage in the field.

=Fourier= (_Fr._). A quartermaster belonging to a cavalry or infantry regiment. In France there were _fouriers-majors_ who composed a part of the cavalry stall. _Sergeant-fourier_ and _corporal-fourier_ answer to our quartermaster-sergeant.

=Fourniment= (_Fr._). A horn formerly used, which held about 1 pound of gunpowder to prime cannon. It was likewise used by cavalry and infantry soldiers, who slung it across their shoulders. The artillerists kept it in a belt.

=Fowley.= A decayed seaport town of England, in the county of Cornwall, at the mouth of a small river of the same name. It became famous in the old French wars, and in 1347 sent 37 tall ships to the siege of Calais. It was burned by the French in 1457.

=Fowling-piece.= A term sometimes applied to shot-guns of large caliber and great power, for shooting ducks, geese, and other large birds.

=Fox.= The old English broadsword.

=Fox Indians.= A tribe of American aborigines of the Algonkin stock, associated with the Sacs. They formerly dwelt in the southern part of Iowa, but now occupy lands in Indian Territory. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Fraisers= (_Fr._). To plait, knead, or drill. In a military sense to fraise or fence; as, _fraiser un battalion_, is to fraise or fence all the infantrymen with pikes, to oppose the irruption of cavalry, should it charge them in a plain. At present it means to secure a battalion by opposing bayonets obliquely forward, or crossways in such a manner as to render it impossible for horsemen to act against it.

=Fraises.= Rows of palisades planted horizontally, or nearly so, as at the edge of a ditch, or on the steep exterior of a parapet. Fraises are generally 7 or 8 feet long, and about 5 inches thick. When an army intrenches itself, the parapets of the retrenchment are often fraised in the parts exposed to an attack. To _fraise a battalion_ is to line or cover it every way with bayonets, that it may withstand the shock of a body of horse.

=France.= A country of Western Europe, which was known to the Romans by the name of Gaul (which see). In the decline of their power it was conquered by the Franks, a people of Germany, then inhabiting Franconia, where they became known about 240. These invaders gave the name to the kingdom (_Franken-ric_, Frank’s Kingdom); but the Gauls, being by far the more numerous, are the real ancestors of the modern French. For details of important events in France, see separate articles.

=Franches= (_Fr._). _Les compagnies franches_, free companies, were bodies of men detached and separated from the rest of the army, having each a chief, or commandant. They consisted chiefly of dragoons, hussars, etc., and their peculiar duty was to make irruptions into an enemy’s country. They may not improperly be called land-pirates, as their chief occupation was to harass and plunder the enemy and his adherents, in whatever manner they could, without paying any regard to military forms. The persons who composed these corps were termed

## partisans. They always accompanied the main army in time of war, and

were distributed among the different garrison towns in France during peace. They were common to every power in Europe; the Pandours and Hulans were of this description. They were the worst afflictions of war; and generally as fatal to their friends as to their enemies.

=Francisque= (_Fr._). A battle-axe; an ancient weapon formed like an axe, used principally by the Franks.

=Franco-Prussian War.= The origin of this dreadful series of sanguinary conflicts is ascribed to the jealousy of the emperor of the French of the greatly increased power of Prussia, in consequence of the successful issue of the war with Denmark in 1864, and more especially of that with Austria in 1866. By these events the German Confederation was annulled, and the North German Confederation established under the supremacy of the king of Prussia, whose territories were also enlarged by the annexation of Hanover, Hesse-Casel, Nassau, Frankfort, and other provinces. This great augmentation of the power of Prussia was mainly due to the policy of Count Bismarck-Schönhausen, prime minister. In March, 1857, a dispute arose through the emperor’s proposals for the purchase of Luxemburg of the king of Holland, which was strongly opposed by Prussia, but the affair was eventually settled, by a conference of the representatives of the great powers declaring Luxemburg neutral. Both governments, however, had prepared for the impending struggle, and the crisis came when Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen consented to become a candidate for the throne of Spain, about July 3, 1870. This was violently denounced by the French government, and eventually, after some negotiation and the intervention of Great Britain, the prince, with the consent of his sovereign, declined the proffered crown. This submission did not satisfy the French government and nation, and the demand for a guarantee against the repetition of such an acceptance irritated the Prussian government, and led to the termination of the negotiations. War was declared by the emperor July 15, 1870, and actually commenced about July 23. It did not end until January 27, 1871, and France was overrun by the victorious Prussians and their auxiliaries. On May 10, 1871, a definitive treaty of peace was concluded at Frankfort-on-the-Main, and on account of the rapid payment of the war expenses the last German soldier left French soil in July, 1873. For important battles and engagements during the war, see separate articles.

=Franconia= (Ger. _Franken_). An old duchy, afterwards a circle of the Germanic empire, between Upper Saxony, the Upper and Lower Rhine, Swabia, Bavaria, and Bohemia. Since 1806, it has been divided between the grand duchies of Baden and Hesse, and the kingdoms of Bavaria and Saxony.

=Franc-Tireurs.= Literally free-shooters, a name given to French soldiers during the Crimean war, who were stationed as sharpshooters. In the republican wars the name was also given to certain corps of light infantry. During the Franco-German war the name was also applied to a class of combatants among the French, who carried on a partisan warfare.

=Frankfort-on-the-Main.= A city of Prussia, province of Hesse-Nassau, to which it was annexed in 1866. It is situated on the right bank of the Main. Said to have been a free city in 1174, and suffered much by the wars of France. It was entered by the Prussians, who exacted heavy supplies, July 16, 1866.

=Frankfort-on-the-Oder.= A well-built town of Prussia, capital of the province of Brandenburg, 48 miles southeast from Berlin. It suffered much from marauders in the Middle Ages, and in the Thirty Years’ War. Near Frankfort, on August 12, 1759, Frederick of Prussia was defeated by the Russians and Austrians. See CUNNERSDORF.

=Franklin.= In the southern part of Tennessee, near the boundary-line of Alabama. A severe engagement took place here between the Union and Confederate forces under Gens. Schofield and Hood respectively, November 30, 1864.

=Franks.= A name given to a combination of the Northwestern German tribes about 240, which invaded Gaul and other parts of the empire with various success.

=Fraser Gun.= See ORDNANCE, WOOLWICH GUN.

=Fraud.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 60.

=Fray.= Affray; combat; duel; broil; contest.

=Frazier’s Farm, Battle of.= See GLENDALE.

=Fredericia.= A fortified town of Denmark, in Jutland, on the Little Belt. It was besieged and taken by Prussia in 1864.

=Fredericksburg.= A city of Spottsylvania Co., Va., on the south bank of the Rappahannock River. On December 10, 1862, Gen. Burnside and the Federal army of the Potomac crossed the small deep river of the Rappahannock. On December 11, Fredericksburg was bombarded by the Federals and destroyed. On the 13th commenced a series of most desperate yet unsuccessful attacks on the Confederate works, defended by Gens. Lee, Jackson, Longstreet, and others. Gen. Hooker crossed the river with reserves, and joined in the conflict in vain. The Federal army recrossed the Rappahannock December 15 and 16. This battle was one of the severest of the war. Fredericksburg was the scene of several bloody battles during the civil war.

=Frederickshald.= A town of Norway, at the influx of the Tistedals-elf into the Idefiord, 55 miles southeast from Christiania. Charles XII. of Sweden was killed here in the trenches before the fortress of Fredericksteen, on December 11, 1718.

=Frederickshamm=, or =Hamina=. A fortified town of Finland. The treaty which ceded Finland to Russia was signed here in 1809.

=Freebooter.= One who wanders about for plunder; a robber; a pillager; a plunderer.

=Freebootery.= The act, practice, or gains of a freebooter; freebooting.

=Freebooting.= Robbery; plunder; a pillaging. Also acting the freebooter; practicing the freebooter; robbing.

=Freehold.= A village, the capital of Monmouth Co., N. J. Near here was fought the battle of Monmouth, June 28, 1778.

=Free-lances.= Were roving companies of knights and men-at-arms, who, after the Crusades had ceased to give them employment, wandered from state to state, selling their services to any lord who was willing to purchase their aid in the perpetual feuds of the Middle Ages. They played their most prominent part in Italy, where they were known as _Condottieri_ (which see).

=Fregellæ= (_Fregellanus_; now _Ceprano_). An ancient and important town of the Volsci, on the Liris, in Latium, conquered by the Romans, and colonized 328 B.C. It took part with the allies in the Social war, and was destroyed by Opimius.

=Fregosa=, or =Fregose= (in the plural _Fregosi_). A Genoese family, which in the 14th century gained distinction among the popular party, and by their rivalry with the Adorni occasioned frequent civil wars. Fregoso (Domenico), became doge of Genoa in 1370. He conquered the isle of Cyprus and was deposed in 1378. Pietro was a brother of the preceding; he commanded the armament which conquered Cyprus in 1373, and in 1393 was elected doge. Thomas was elected doge in 1415; being attacked by Alfonso of Aragon and the Duke of Milan, he made a brave resistance, and was forced to retire from Genoa in 1421. Pietro was elected in 1450, and for eight years maintained his power against Alfonso of Aragon and the Adorni; he was killed in an attempt to expel the French from Genoa in 1459. There were several other doges of this family in Genoa.

=Fréjus.= A town of France, in the department of the Var, 45 miles northeast from Toulon. It was here that Bonaparte landed on his return from Egypt in the autumn of 1799; and here also he disembarked after his escape from Elba in 1814.

=French Fury, The.= A name given, in history, to the attempt made by the Duke of Anjou to carry Antwerp by storm, January 17, 1583. The whole of his force was either killed or taken captive in less than an hour.

=Frenchtown.= In Canada; it was taken from the British by the American general Winchester, January 22, 1813, during the second war with the United States. It was retaken by the British forces under Gen. Proctor January 24, and the American commander and troops were made prisoners.

=French Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.

=Fréteval.= A town of France, in the department of Loir-et-Cher, 9 miles northeast from Vendôme. In 1194 the army of Philip Augustus was defeated here by the English.

=Friction Plates.= Plates used to check the recoil of guns. See RECOIL and ELSWICK COMPRESSOR.

=Friction Primer.= In gunnery, consists of a short tube of metal inserted into a hole near the top of a larger tube, and soldered in that position. The short tube is lined with a composition made by mixing together one part of chlorate of potassa and two of sulphuret of antimony, formed into a paste with gum-water. A serrated wire passes through the short tube and hole opposite to it in the side of the long one, the open end of the short tube being compressed with nippers, and the wire at the end of the serrated part doubled under to prevent displacement. The other end of the wire is doubled and twisted by machinery. The long tube is filled with rifle-powder, its upper end being covered with shellac-varnish blackened with lamp-black, and its lower end closed with shoemaker’s wax and dipped into varnish. One great advantage of the friction tube is that it gives an enemy at night no clue to the position of a piece as does the lighted port-fire or slow-match.

=Friedland.= A town of East Prussia, in the circle of Königsberg, on the Alle. This place is famous for being the scene of the battle gained by Napoleon I. over the Russians and Prussians on June 14, 1807, and which led to the peace of Tilsit.

=Frill.= Was an ornamental appendage to the shirt which officers and soldiers generally wore with regimentals. A small aperture was usually made at the top to admit the hook and eye of the uniform coat. Enlisted men generally wore frills detached from the coat.

=Frisians.= Were an ancient Teutonic race, dwelling together with the _Batavi_, the _Bructeri_, and the _Chauci_, in the extreme northwest of Germany, between the mouths of the Rhine and Ems. They became tributaries of Rome under Drusus, and for a time remained faithful to the Roman alliance; but, in 28, they were driven to hostilities by the oppression of their protectors, and although partially subdued, they again rose against the Romans under Civilis. They were defeated and compelled to embrace Christianity in 689 and 785.

=Frisrutter.= An instrument made of iron, and used for the purpose of blocking up a haven or a river. The beams through which the upright bars pass must be 12 feet in length, and the upright bars that go through the beam must be of that length so that when one of these iron _frisrutters_ is let down into a haven or river, the perpendicular bars of this iron instrument shall be deep enough to reach at high water within 5 feet of the surface.

=Friuli.= An old province of Italy, belonging to Venice; made a duchy by Alboin the Lombard, when he established his kingdom about 570. It was conquered by Charlemagne; and Henri, a Frenchman, made duke, who was assassinated in 799. It was conquered by Venice in 1420.

=Frock.= In the British service, the undress regimental coat of the guards, artillery, and royal marines.

=Frogged.= A term used in regard to uniforms, and applied to stripes or workings of braid or lace, as ornaments, mostly on the breast, on the plain cloth of which a coat is made.

=Fronde= (_Fr._). A sling. This weapon was used in France by the Huguenots at Sancerre, as late as the year 1572, in order to save their powder. There were two kinds: one which was used in throwing a stone from the arm, and the other that was fixed to a lever, and was so contrived that a large quantity of stones might be thrown out of a machine, either from a camp into a besieged town, or from a town into the enemy’s camp. This machine has been used since the invention of cannon. The fronde or sling was used by the Romans on three different occasions, viz.: when they sent their light-armed men, called _velites_, forward to skirmish before a general engagement; when they wished to drive the enemy from under the walls of a town which they were preparing to storm, and finally to harass and wound the men in the enemy’s works. This weapon, in fact, together with the bow and arrow, may be numbered among the primitive arms of mankind.

=Fronde, Civil Wars of the.= These occurred in France in the minority of Louis XIV. (1648-53), during the government of the queen, Anne of Austria, and Cardinal Mazarin, between the followers of the court and the nobility, and the Parliament and the citizens. The latter were called _Frondeurs_ (_slingers_), it is said, from an incident in a street quarrel.

=Front.= A word of command signifying that the men are to face to their proper front; also to cast their eyes to the front after dressing.

=Front.= The foremost rank of a battalion, squadron, or any other body of men. The _front of a gun_ is the direction in which the muzzle points; but when a field-piece is limbered, its front is the direction in which the pole points. The _front of a work_ or fortification is the side it presents to the enemy. The _front of an army_, except in retreating, is the side towards the enemy. A column is said to be _right in front_ when it is formed by facing or wheeling to the right.

=Front, Bastioned.= A curtain connecting two half bastions.

=Front of Operations.= See STRATEGY.

=Frontal.= A front piece; something worn on the forehead or face; or the metal face-guard of a soldier.

=Fronted.= Formed with a front; as, fronted brigades.

=Frontier.= That part of a country which fronts or faces another country; the marches; the border, confines, or extreme part of a country, bordering on another country; hence, a fortified or guarded position. Also, lying on the exterior part; as, a frontier town. Acquired on a frontier; as, frontier experience.

=Frontiera.= A town of Portugal, in the province of Alemtejo, 15 miles from Estremos. The Spaniards were defeated here in 1663 by the Portuguese under Schomberg.

=Froschweiler.= See WORTH.

=Frumentarius.= A Roman soldier, whose duty was to bring supplies of provisions to the army, and the earliest notice of all hostile movements. They were also, under the Roman empire, officers who acted as spies in the provinces, and reported to the emperor whatever seemed worthy of note. They appear to have derived this appellation from their gathering news in the same way that the Frumentarii or purveyors collected corn.

=Fuel.= The matter or aliment of fire; anything capable of ignition. There is a certain allowance of fuel made by government to regiments and companies. Officers in the U. S. army, at the present time, buy their fuel; in other countries it is furnished.

=Fuente-la-Higuera.= A city of Spain, in the province of Valencia. At this place Jourdan, Soult, and Suchet, after the rout of Salamanca, met with their retreating forces, and held a council how best to get back into France, when Ballesteros, by refusing to obey Wellington’s order, opened the way for them to Madrid, in October, 1812.

=Fuenterabia.= A very ancient city of Spain, in the province of Guipuzcoa. The Prince of Condé was repulsed here by the admiral of Castile, 1638. In 1794 the French completely dismantled the place.

=Fuentes de Onore.= A small town of Spain, 16 miles from Ciudad Rodrigo. It was the scene of some sharp fighting in May, 1811, between the French and the British.

=Fugitive.= One who flees from his station or duty; a deserter; one who flees from danger. One who has fled or deserted and taken refuge under another power, or one who has fled from punishment.

=Fugleman= (an incorrect method of pronouncing _flugelman_). A well-drilled intelligent soldier advanced in front of the line, to give the time in the manual and platoon exercises. The word _flugel_ is derived from the Germans, and signifies a wing; the man having been originally posted on the right wing.

=Fulcrum.= A cast-iron post at the breech of large cannon used as a support for an iron bar in giving elevations; called also _ratchet post_.

=Full Charges.= The charges of powder required in actual service.

=Full Pay.= The full amount of an officer’s regimental pay. When an officer receives that he is said to be on full pay.

=Full Pay, Retired.= In the British service, an officer of 30 years’ full pay is permitted to retire on the full pay of his regimental rank, with a rank one step higher than that which he holds by brevet or otherwise.

=Full Sap.= See SAP.

=Full Uniform.= See DRESS UNIFORM.

=Fulminate.= A salt of fulminic acid. Fulminate of mercury is the most useful. It explodes readily by percussion, by a heat of 367° Fahr., when touched with strong sulphuric or nitric acid, by sparks from flint and steel and by the electric spark. It is used for percussion-caps, primers, fuzes, etc. From its peculiar power to produce detonations it is the detonating agent for modern blasting powders, containing nitro-glycerine, also, for gun-cotton. _Detonating caps_, or _exploders_, are copper caps containing from 3 to 25 grains of the fulminate. In ordinary blasting, where the tube fuze is used, the cap is placed on the end of the fuze and crimped around it. The cap is then buried a short distance in the blasting charge, or cartridge. See EXPLOSIVES.

=Fumigation.= To correct and purify an infectious or confined atmosphere, such as is often found in transports, fumigations are necessary. The materials recommended for the purpose are brimstone with saw-dust; or nitre with vitriolic acid; or common salt with the same acid.

=Fund.= There are several kinds of funds in the U. S. service, viz.: post fund, which is constituted by the troops baking their own bread and thereby saving 33¹⁄₃ per cent., the difference between bread and flour; the post trader also pays an assessment of 10 cents a month for every officer and soldier in the garrison, which is carried to the credit of the fund. This fund is used to defray expenses of the post bakery, garden, school, library and reading-room, chapel, printing-press, etc. Fifty per cent. of the post fund, after deducting expenses of the bakery, is set aside and transferred to the regimental treasurer; this constitutes a regimental fund, which is appropriated exclusively for the maintenance of a band, and, when a regiment does not have access to a post library, for the purchase of books and papers. The savings arising from an economical use of rations of the company (excepting the savings of flour) constitute the company fund, which is kept in the hands of the company commander, and disbursed by him _exclusively for the benefit of the enlisted men of the company_, as follows: For enlisted men’s mess, for garden seeds and utensils, for purchase of books, papers, etc., when the company does not have access to a post library or reading-room, and for such exercise and amusements as may be, in the judgment of the commanding officer, for the benefit or comfort of the enlisted men of the company.

=Funeral Honors.= If an officer dies when on duty with his regiment, or engaged on staff employ, he is buried with military honors. His hat, epaulettes, and sword are placed upon the coffin, soldiers support it, and officers bear the pall; the troops march at a slow and solemn pace, with arms reversed; the drums are muffled; the band plays the dead march; and after the body has been lowered into the grave, a party of infantry, cavalry, or artillery, fire three volleys over it, and then retire. The strength of the funeral party, as it is called, depends upon the rank of the deceased. Artillery officers are sometimes honored by discharges of cannon. When a cavalry officer is buried his horse follows the _cortege_. When the funeral of an officer entitled, when living, to a salute, takes place at or near a military post, minute-guns are fired while the remains are being borne to the place of interment; but the number of such guns is not to exceed that which the officer was entitled to as a salute when living. After the remains are deposited in the grave, a salute corresponding to the rank of the deceased officer will be fired,--three salvos of artillery, or three volleys of musketry.

In the event of a flag-officer of the navy, whether of the United States or of a foreign country, dying afloat, and the remains are brought ashore, minute-guns are fired from the ship while the body is being conveyed to the shore. If it be in the vicinity of a military post, the flag of the latter is displayed at half-staff, and minute-guns are fired from the post while the procession is moving from the landing-place. These minute-guns are not to exceed in number that which the officer was entitled to, as a salute, when living. During the funeral of a civil functionary entitled, when living, to a salute, the flag is displayed at half-staff, and minute-guns fired as before; but neither salutes nor salvos are fired after the remains are deposited in the grave. On the death of an officer at a military post, the flag is displayed at half-staff, and kept so, between the hours of reveille and retreat, until the last salvo or volley is fired over the grave, or if the remains are not interred at the post, until they are removed therefrom. Funeral honors are likewise accorded to enlisted men. During the funeral of an enlisted man, the flag is displayed at half-staff, and is hoisted to the top after the final volley or gun is fired. All military posts in sight, or within 6 miles of each other, display their flags at half-staff upon the occasion of either one doing so. The same rule is observed toward a vessel-of-war.

On all occasions where the flag is displayed at half-staff, it is _lowered_ to that position from the top of the staff. It is afterwards _hoisted_ to the top _before_ being finally lowered.

=Furl, To.= In regard to military colors, is opposed to their exposure; and is used to express the act of folding them so as to be cased.

=Furlough.= The term is usually applied to the absence with leave of non-commissioned officers and other enlisted men, and may be granted at the discretion of the commanding officer.

=Furlough.= To furnish with a furlough; to grant leave of absence.

=Furnace.= In mining, signifies a hollow or excavation which is made in the earth and is charged with gunpowder, for the purpose of blowing up a rock, wall, or any part of a fortification.

=Furnish.= To provide; to equip; as, to furnish one with arms for defense.

=Furniture.= In a military sense, applies to certain articles which are allowed in barracks, to which are added household utensils, etc. Horse furniture, are ornaments and embellishments which are adopted by military men when they are mounted for service or parade, consisting chiefly of housings, saddle-cloth, etc.

=Furruckabad.= A fortified town, and capital of a district of the same name, in the province of Agra, Hindustan, about a mile from the Ganges. Lord Lake defeated Holkar at this place in 1804.

=Fürth.= A town of Franconia, situated at the confluence of the Rezat and Pegnitz, 4 miles northwest from Nuremberg. In 1632 a battle was fought here between Gustavus Adolphus and Wallenstein, in which the latter had the advantage.

=Fuse.= See FUZE.

=Fusil.= A light musket; a steel which strikes fire out of a flint; a tinder-box; the piece of steel which covers the pan of a fire-arm.

=Fusil à Chevalets.= A species of fusils upon rests, which was recommended by Marshal Vauban, to be used at the commencement of a siege, about 50 or 100 toises in front of the glacis, at the entrances of narrow passages, etc.

=Fusiliers.= In the British service, were formerly soldiers armed with a lighter fusil or musket than the rest of the army; but at present all regiments of foot carry the same rifle. Fusilier is therefore simply a historical title borne by a few regiments. The royal regiment of Scotch Fusiliers was raised in 1678; the royal regiment of Welsh Fusiliers was raised in 1685, and another royal regiment of Welsh Fusiliers was raised in 1688-89. It is always presumed that these corps like the guards possess an _esprit de corps_, which is peculiar to themselves. The Fusilier regiments never had any ensigns, their junior officers ranked as second lieutenants, taking precedence of all ensigns, and the 7th or Royal Fusiliers have no second lieutenants, so that their junior officers rank with the rest of the army according to the date of their several commissions, as lieutenants. Fusilier regiments wear a bear-skin head-dress. Among the French when pikes were in use, each regiment had only 4 fusiliers, exclusive of 10 grenadiers, who carried the fusil or musket. Among the French there was a distinct regiment of fusiliers under the immediate command of the master of the ordnance.

=Fusillade.= A simultaneous discharge of fire-arms in a military exercise; as, a grand fusillade. To shoot down by a simultaneous discharge of fire-arms. “Fusillade them all.”

=Fusils à l’Eppe= (_Fr._). Fusils with long bayonets, shaped like a cut-and-thrust sword. These weapons were recommended as extremely useful in the rear rank of a battalion, or in detached bodies that are stationed for the defense of baggage, etc.

=Fusils, Mousquets= (_Fr._). A sort of fusil which was invented by Marshal Vauban, and which was so contrived that in case the flint did not strike fire, the powder might be inflamed by means of a small match which was fixed to the breech.

=Fustuarium.= In Roman antiquity, a method of inflicting capital punishment upon any soldier guilty of theft, desertion, or similar crimes. When the accused had been found guilty he was made to stand in front of the legion to which he belonged. One of the tribunes then touched him lightly with a stick, and all the soldiers immediately rushed upon the criminal and beat him to death with clubs (fustes). If he escaped--as he was allowed to do if he could, but which was rarely if ever possible--he was forbidden ever to return to his native country, and his nearest relatives were not allowed to receive him into their houses. This method of capital punishment continued to be enforced even under the empire.

=Futtehghur.= A town of Hindostan, British district of Furruckabad, on the western bank of the Ganges. In the vicinity is the British military cantonment. Holkar, the Mahratta chief, appeared before the place in 1804, and was preparing for the assault of the fort, when the arrival of the British army under Lord Lake drove him into precipitate flight.

=Fuyard= (_Fr._). A runaway; a coward. _Un corps fuyard_, a regiment that has been in the habit of running away.

=Fuze.= In gunnery, is a contrivance for igniting the bursting charge in a hollow projectile at any point of its flight. The simplest classification of fuzes is the _time fuze_, the _percussion fuze_, and the _concussion fuze_, which are usually defined as follows:

FUZE, CONCUSSION. Is a fuze that is operated by the shock of discharge, or the shock of impact, excluding direct percussion effects. It is especially applicable to hollow spherical projectiles. The usual difference between the concussion and percussion fuze is, that the former explodes no matter what point of the projectile strikes, whereas the latter requires the projectile to strike at or near the front end; but these are exceptions to the rule.

FUZE, PERCUSSION. As shown below, is a fuze that receives no flame from the charge in the gun, but at the moment of impact a flame is generated by means of fulminates, which produces the explosion of the charge in the shell. Most varieties of this fuze consist essentially of a brass or pewter _fuze-plug_, or case which contains an iron or steel _plunger_ terminating in a nipple which carries a common percussion-cap; the _plunger_ is held in its place at the lower end of the fuze-plug by a collar-screw, wire, or other device; when the projectile strikes the plunger breaks loose, and by its inertia is driven forward with such force as to explode the cap and ignite the charge. This form of fuze is used for rifle-shells.

FUZE, TIME. This fuze is composed of a case of paper, wood, or metal, inclosing a column of burning composition ignited by the charge in the gun; it burns for a certain time, at the end of which the flame is communicated to the bursting charge of the projectile. This fuze is used for both shells and case-shot.

=Fuze, Blasting.= A fuze used to fire charges in mines and quarries. It consists usually of a flexible tube filled with a slow-burning composition. The tube is made of various materials, and is usually waterproof. In Beckford’s fuze the composition is encased in flax, which is covered with gutta-percha, and wound with varnished tape. This fuze is used extensively in England.

=Fuze-Composition.= See LABORATORY STORES.

=Fuze, Electric.= A fuze ignited by the passage of an electric current. It is used for firing torpedoes, for the simultaneous discharge of guns and charges in mining. The principle used is the heating of the wire by the current at a point of resistance. The point of resistance is called the _bridge_. Being surrounded by a priming of powder or other explosive, its sudden heating causes ignition in the fuze. The _bridge_ is made in various ways,--by connecting the current wires by a fine platinum wire; by passing the current through a chemical mixture rendered conducting by containing a salt of copper; also by filing the main wire nearly in two, and rubbing the cut with a lead-pencil.

=Fuze-implements.= Are the fuze-cutter, fuze-setter, fuze-mallet, fuze-saw, etc. See IMPLEMENTS.

=Fuze, Safety.= A name given to a blasting fuze filled with quick-burning composition, but sufficiently long to be ignited at a safe distance from the charge.

=Fuze, Tape.= So called from its shape. May be quick or slow burning.

=Fuzes, Combination.= Are fuzes combining the principles of the simple fuzes. The term is specially applied to _time-percussion_ fuzes, which are so arranged as to burst either at the end of a certain time or upon striking the object. No very exact classification of fuzes has ever been made. If we consider all the operations necessary to the action of the fuze, only certain time fuzes can be considered simple. Concussion fuzes usually depend for their action upon some operation which takes place between the discharge and the time of impact, which bestows a character of sensitiveness which would, if existing at the time of loading, make them too dangerous to handle. Percussion fuzes, also, must have a similar supplementary operation, but this usually takes place at the time of discharge, or upon impact. It is by this means that the safety-pin, screw, or wire holding the plunger is removed or broken. For these reasons these fuzes are ordinarily _time-concussion_ and _concussion-percussion_, respectively. A fuze, however, usually takes its name from the immediate cause of the explosion. If this is due to the explosion of a fulminate by a direct blow, it is a percussion fuze. If the shock acts in a different way, it is called concussion. If the explosion takes place at the end of a given time, we have a time fuze. There are also fuzes which may be called _centrifugal-percussion_, _concussion-chemical_, _concussion-friction_, etc., examples of which will be given. It is readily seen that it is difficult to make a classification which will cover all the ingenious devices which have been invented.

The simplest time fuze is one which is ignited by the flame of discharge. In the U. S. field and siege service the paper fuze is used for rifle projectiles, both shells and case-shot, and in the field service the Bormann for spherical. For larger spherical projectiles, the paper case is inclosed in a hollow plug of wood, as in mortar-shells, and in a brass plug in the sea-coast service. In the latter the outer end of the plug is closed with a brass cap having a crooked chaume, to prevent the burning composition from being extinguished in striking water. In the U. S. service percussion fuzes are used only for rifle-shells. The fuze ordinarily employed is, strictly speaking, a _concussion-percussion_, since the safety wire must be ruptured by the shock of impact before the cap can be exploded.

The time fuze already described can be used in smooth-bore guns and in muzzle-loading rifles; but in breech-loading guns or guns without windage, the fuze composition cannot be ignited directly by the flame of discharge,--one of the strongest arguments in favor of muzzle-loaders. The time fuze for breech-loading guns is ignited by an interior contrivance, usually a plunger and cap; it is, consequently, a _percussion-time_ fuze. Such is the nature of the _Armstrong time fuze_ and the time fuzes used in Germany and Russia. Time fuzes are absolutely necessary to the successful use of case-shot or shrapnel, which must be burst in the air. The latest invention in time fuzes is the substitution of clock-work for the column of burning composition as a time-keeper,--a Yankee idea which has not yet received any official recognition, or been subjected to public test.

The Boxer fuze, used extensively in England, is a time fuze consisting of a column of composition driven in a wooden plug, which is closed at the lower end. In some forms of the fuze small longitudinal channels filled with rifle-powder communicate with the bursting charge. The time-scale is a row of holes in the side of the plug, one of which is bored through to the composition in setting the fuze. The flame communicates with the charge either through the side hole directly, or by the side channels downwards through the end of the plug. Two kinds of fuzes are used,--the _simple time fuze_ for muzzle-loaders, and the _percussion-time_ for breech-loaders.

The Splingard fuze, invented by Captain Splingard, of the Belgian service, is a good example of a _time-concussion_ fuze. It consists of a column of pure composition surrounding a hollow spindle of plaster of Paris. The composition is ignited by the flame of discharge, and burns away, leaving the spindle unsupported. When the projectile strikes, the part of the spindle above the unburned composition breaks off, and the flame fires the bursting charge through the hole in the stump. If the spindle fails to break, the charge is fired when the entire column has been consumed. This fuze is specially applicable to spherical projectiles.

The concussion fuze formerly used in Prussia was a _time-concussion-chemical_ fuze. The burning of a column of composition left a glass tube containing sulphuric acid to be broken, by a lead ball, by the shock of impact. The acid coming in contact with a mixture of chlorate potash, sulphur, and white sugar, produced a flame which fired the bursting charge.

The _Beebe concussion fuze_ for spherical projectiles, invented by Captain Beebe, U. S. Ordnance Corps, was a _concussion-friction_ fuze. A contrivance equivalent to a friction-primer buried in the bursting-charge, and offering great resistance to motion in the powder, was fired by the sudden movement of an attached weight upon impact. The shock of discharge also played a part in detaching the fuze from the fuze-plug.

The _German percussion fuze_, now commonly used in Krupp guns, may be called _centrifugal-percussion_. The safety-pin passes through a hole from the outside of the shell. This pin is thrown out by the rotation of the shot, leaving but slight resistances to the motion of the plunger.

In the English _cap-percussion fuze_ the corresponding safety-pin is pulled out by a tape by hand just before loading.

The _Pettman general service fuze_, used in England, is a _percussion_ fuze of unusual form, equally applicable to spherical or oblong projectiles. It consists, essentially, of a hollow screw-plug containing a ball covered with detonating composition, which is freed from its bearings by the shock of discharge, and explodes the shell upon impact by striking the walls surrounding it. The detonating ball sometimes fails in breech-loading guns, the motion of the projectiles being too steady to shake it out of its seat. For this reason a _plain_ ball, as it is called, is placed in the upper part of the fuze, and held between two disks. These separate upon discharge, and the ball is thrown outwards by the rotation opposite an annular groove in the lower plug or disk filled with fulminate, which is exploded upon impact, the lower plug being driven against the ball by its inertia. This fuze is, properly, a _concussion-percussion_ fuze.

=Fyroz=, or =Feroze= (written also _Ferose_, _Firoz_, _Firouz_, _Feyrouz_, and _Firuz_). A Persian word signifying “victorious,” and forming the name of several ruling kings in Persia and Hindostan.

G.

=Gabion.= A kind of basket made of osier twigs, of a cylindrical form, having different dimensions, according to the purpose for which it is used. Filled with earth, these gabions serve in sieges to carry on the approaches under cover, when the assailants come near the fortification. Batteries are often made of gabions, which likewise serve for revetments in constructing parapets of loose earth.

=Gabionage.= Gabions when used for fortification.

=Gabionnade.= A work hastily thrown up; especially, one formed chiefly of gabions. A _parapet en gabionnade_ is a parapet constructed of gabions.

=Gabions, Corrugated Iron.= Are gabions made of corrugated iron. For this purpose, the corrugated sheet should be 6 feet long, 33 inches wide, and of iron weighing three-quarters of a pound to the square foot.

The corrugations running transversely, the sheet is easily bent into a cylindrical form, in which it is retained by two clamps, the holes for which are punched near the corners of the sheet. The chief advantage claimed for the corrugated over the hoop gabion is, the readiness with which it can be put together in the field. It is also rather more portable, and stakes are dispensed with; but it is inferior to the hoop gabion in stiffness.

=Gad.= The point of a spear, or an arrowhead; a steel spike on the knuckle of a gauntlet.

=Gadaru= (_Fr._). A very broad Turkish sabre.

=Gadling.= A spike or sharp-pointed boss on the knuckle of a gauntlet; a gad.

=Gaeta.= A strongly fortified maritime town of the Neapolitan province of Terra di Lavoro, 40 miles northwest from Naples. It is one of the strongest places in the kingdom, and its harbor is the same as it was in the time of the Romans. In 1799 and in 1806 it was taken by the French, and in 1849 Pope Pius IX. sought an asylum here. When Garibaldi took possession of Naples for Victor Emmanuel in September, 1860, Francis II., the last Bourbon king of Naples, took refuge in Gaeta, and remained until the town was taken by Gen. Cialdini, in February, 1861, after a siege of several weeks’ duration.

=Gætulia.= An ancient country of Africa, situated south of Mauritania and Numidia, and embracing the western part of the desert of Sahara. Its inhabitants belonged to the great aboriginal Berber family of North and Northwestern Africa. They were a savage and warlike race, and their first collision with the Romans was during the Jugurthine war, when they served as light horse in the army of the Numidian king. Cornelius Cossus Lentulus led a force against them, and for his success obtained a triumph and the surname of _Gætulicus_. The ancient Gætulians are believed to be represented in modern times by the Tuaricks.

=Gaffles.= The steel lever with which the ancients bent their cross-bows.

=Gage.= A challenge to combat; that is, a gauntlet, glove, cap, or the like, cast on the ground by the challenger, and taken up by the acceptor of the challenge.

=Gages= (_Fr._). Wages. Among the French this term signified the fruits or compensations which were derived by individuals from appointments given by the crown, whether of a military, civil, or judicial nature, or for service done at sea or by land.

=Gain.= To conquer; to get the better; as, we gained the day, etc. To _gain ground_, implies to take up the ground which a retiring enemy vacates.

=Gaine de Flamme= (_Fr._). A sort of linen sheath or cover, into which the staff of a flag or pendant is put.

=Gaine de Pavillon= (_Fr._). A cloth or linen band, which is sewed across the flag, and through which the different ribbons are interlaced.

=Gaines’s Mill.= In Hanover Co., Va., about 20 miles northeast of Richmond. Here, on June 27, 1862, was fought one of the “seven days’ contests” between the Confederate forces under Gen. Lee and the Federals under Gen. McClellan, in which the latter were victorious.

=Gain-pain.= Bread-gainer; a term applied in the Middle Ages to the sword of a hired soldier.

=Gaiters.= A sort of cover for the leg, usually made of cloth, and are either long, as reaching to the knee, or short, as only reaching just above the ankle; the latter are termed half-gaiters, and are worn by infantry soldiers in Europe.

=Galatia.= An ancient province of Asia Minor; in the 3d century B.C., the Gauls under Brennus invaded Greece, crossed the Hellespont, and conquered Troas, 278; were checked by Attalus in a battle about 239; and then settled in what was called afterwards Gallogræcia and Galatia. The country was ravaged by Cn. Manlius, 189 B.C., and was finally annexed to the Roman empire, 25 B.C.

=Galatone.= A very ancient town in the south of Italy, in the province of Otranto, about 9 miles northeast of Gallipoli. In the struggle between Joanna, queen of Naples, and Alfonso, Galatone having declared for the former, was besieged by Alfonso, and its ramparts destroyed.

=Galea.= Among the Romans, a light casque, head-piece, or morion, coming down to the shoulders, and commonly of brass; though Camillus, according to Plutarch, ordered those of his army to be of iron, as being the stronger metal.

=Galeated.= Covered, as with a helmet.

=Galet= (_Fr._). A round stone thrown from a sling or bow.

=Galicia.= A province of Northwest Spain, was conquered by D. Junius Brutus, 136 B.C., and by the Vandals, 419, and was subdued by successive invaders.

=Galicia.= A kingdom or province of the Austrian empire, which formerly constituted a part of Poland. East Galicia was acquired by the emperor of Germany at the partition in 1772; and West Galicia at that of 1795. The latter was ceded to the grand duchy of Warsaw in 1809; but recovered by Austria in 1815.

=Gall.= To injure; to harass; to annoy; as, the troops were galled by the shot of an enemy.

=Gallant.= Noble in bearing or spirit; brave; high-spirited; courageous; heroic; magnanimous; as, a gallant youth; a gallant officer.

=Gallantly.= In a gallant manner, spirit or bearing; nobly; bravely; as, to fight gallantly; to defend a place gallantly.

=Gallantry.= Bravery; courageousness; heroism; intrepidity; as, the troops attacked the fort with great gallantry.

=Gallas.= A warlike race occupying the south and east of Abyssinia. They first appear in history in the 16th century, when they extended their conquests from the interior of Africa, laying waste by constant incursions the countries of Eastern Africa to the mountains of Abyssinia. Politically they do not form a single nation, but are divided into numerous tribes, forming separate kingdoms and states, which are frequently at war with each other.

=Gallery.= An underground passage, whether cut in the soil or built in masonry; it forms the communication between the inner and exterior works of a fortified place. When prepared for defense, it is a defensive gallery. In military mines, galleries are the underground passages leading to and connecting the mine chambers. _Scarp and counterscarp galleries_ are covered passages built in the scarp and counterscarp to give a flanking fire in the ditch.

=Gallery Descent of a Ditch.= Is the term applied when the besiegers cross the ditch by an underground passage.

=Gallet= (_Fr._). See JALET.

=Galling Fire.= A sustained discharge of cannon or small-arms, which by its execution greatly annoys the enemy.

=Gallipoli.= An important town and seaport of Turkey in Europe, in the province of Rumili, is situated on the peninsula of the same name at the northeast extremity of the Dardanelles, and about 130 miles west-southwest of Constantinople. It was once fortified, but its only defense now is a sorry square castle with an old tower. In 1357 the town was taken by the Turks, and formed the earliest Turkish possessions in Europe. In 1854 the allied armies of England and France occupied it.

=Gallipoli.= An important commercial seaport of Italy, in the Neapolitan province of Terra di Otranto. It has a good harbor, and in time of war is an important position, being strongly protected by fortifications and a castle. In 450 the town was sacked by the Vandals; in 1284 it was destroyed and almost depopulated by Charles of Anjou; and during subsequent centuries suffered severely from the Venetians, French, Spaniards, and Turks. In 1809 it repulsed an attack from the English flotilla.

=Gallop.= A mode of running by a quadruped, particularly by a horse, by lifting alternately the fore feet and the hind feet together, in successive leaps or bounds. A word of command in the cavalry service.

=Galloper.= A carriage on which very small guns are conveyed, having shafts on which the gun may be conveyed without a limber. This carriage is no longer used.

=Gallowglass.= In ancient times, a heavy-armed foot-soldier of Ireland and the Western Isles.

=Galway.= A seaport town of Ireland, and capital of Galway County. It was originally surrounded with walls. It was conquered by Richard de Burgo in 1232; in 1690 the city declared for King James, but was taken by Gen. Ginckel immediately after the battle of Aughrim, July 12, 1691.

=Gamala.= A town and strong fortress in Palestine, frequently mentioned by Josephus. Its site, though so remarkable and minutely described, had been forgotten for nearly 18 centuries; but it has latterly been identified with _El-Hossn_, which lies to the east of the Sea of Tiberias, nearly opposite the town. In the Jewish rebellion it revolted against Agrippa, who besieged it for seven months, but without success. It was afterwards, however, taken by Vespasian after a spirited resistance, and an indiscriminate slaughter of the inhabitants took place, 4000 being put to the sword, and 5000 being said to have thrown themselves from the walls, and to have been dashed to pieces on the rocks below.

=Gambado.= A case of leather, formerly used to defend the leg from mud, and in riding on horseback.

=Gambeson= (_Fr._). A term which the French formerly applied to a coat of mail that was worn under the cuirass. It was likewise called _cotte gamboisée_. It was made of two strong cloths interwoven with pointed worsted.

=Gamelle= (_Fr._). A wooden or earthen bowl formerly used among the French soldiers for their messes. It generally contained the quantity of food which was allotted for 3, 5, or 7 men belonging to the same room. The porridge-pots of the navy were made of wood, and held a certain allowance. During the monarchy of France, subaltern officers and volunteers were frequently punished for slight offenses by being sent to the _gamelle_, and excluded from their regular mess; they were put upon short allowance according to the nature of their transgression.

=Gantlope= (_Fr._). Corruptly _gauntlet_, from the French _gant_, a glove. A military punishment, which consisted in passing along the whole line, and receiving a blow from every man’s iron glove or gauntlet (_gantelet_). Whips and canes were subsequently used; this mode of punishment is now obsolete.

=Gaol.= A withe used for binding fascines or securing gabions.

=Gap.= An opening for a passage or entrance; an opening which implies a breach. _To stand in the gap_, to expose one’s self for the protection of something; to make defense against any assailing danger. _To stop a gap_, to secure a weak point; to repair a defect.

=Gap.= A small town of France, capital of the department Hautes Alps. It was sacked and almost wholly reduced to ashes by Victor Amadeus of Savoy in 1692.

=Gar.= The general term used by the Saxons for a weapon of war.

=Garamantes.= A Libyan people of the old race called _Amazergh_, who in ancient times inhabited the largest oasis of the desert of Sahara. When the Romans became masters of North Africa, they found it necessary to repress the barbarian tribes, and accordingly Cornelius Balbus Gaditanus the younger, as pro-consul, was sent against this people. He succeeded in defeating them, and obtained the honors of a triumph; but, owing to their nomadic character, he was unable thoroughly to subdue them.

=Garçon-Major= (_Fr._). An officer, so called in the old French service. He was selected from among the lieutenants of a regiment to assist the aid-majors in the general details of duty.

=Garda, Lake of.= A lake of Northern Italy, lying between the provinces of Lombardy and Venice. In 1796 the battle of Rivoli was fought near its eastern shore, in which Bonaparte defeated Wurmser.

=Gardant.= In heraldry, is said of an animal which is represented full-faced, and looking forward.

=Garde= (_Fr._). Guard. _Garde de l’armée_, the grand guard of an army. Guards in the old French service were usually divided into three sorts: _guards of honor_, _fatigue guard_, and the _general’s guard_. That was called a _guard of honor_ in which the officers and men were exposed to danger. A _fatigue guard_ belonging to a garrison or camp. A _general’s guard_ was mounted before the door or gate of a house in which the commanding officer resided.

=Garde-General d’Artillerie= (_Fr._). An officer was so called under the old government of France, who had charge of all the ordnance and stores belonging to his majesty for the land service. He gave receipts for all ammunition, etc., and his bills were paid by the treasurer-general of the army.

=Garde, Imperiale= (_Fr._). See GUARDS, IMPERIAL.

=Garde, Nationale= (_Fr._). See NATIONAL GUARDS.

=Garde Pluie= (_Fr._). Literally means a fence, or cover against rain. This machine was originally invented by a Frenchman, and submitted to the Prussians, who adopted it for the use of their infantry. Under the cover of them, the besieged, or the troops stationed in the posts attacked, would be able to keep up a brisk and effective discharge of musketry during the heaviest fall of rain, and thereby silence or considerably damp the fire of the enemy.

=Gardelegen.= A small town of Prussian Saxony, situated about 30 miles north-northwest of Magdeburg, on the Milde. It was destroyed by Duke Dervan in 633, and rebuilt about 924. It remained a free town until 1478.

=Gardens.= In ancient military history, places of resort to practice military exercises.

=Gardes Blancs= (_Fr._). Were Roman militia, composed of picked men.

=Gardes Costes=, or =Côtes= (_Capitaineries_), Fr. The maritime divisions, into which France was formerly divided, were so called. Each division was under the immediate superintendence of a captain, named _capitaine gardes-costes_, who was assisted by a lieutenant and an ensign. Their duty was to watch the coast, and to attend minutely to everything that might affect the safety of the division they had in charge.

=Gardes de la Porte= (_Fr._). A company so called during the monarchy of France, and of so ancient a date, indeed, with respect to original institution, that it appears to have been coeval with it. Mention is made of the _gardes de la porte_ in the oldest archives or records belonging to the king’s household, in which service they were employed, without being responsible to any particular treasurer as other companies were. This company consisted of 1 captain, 4 lieutenants, and 50 guards. The captain and officers received their commissions from the king. The first took an oath of fidelity to the king in person, and received the bâton from his hands. The duty he did was purely discretionary, and depended on his own will. The lieutenants served by detachment, and took their tour of duty every quarter. Their specific service consisted in guarding the principal gate belonging to the king’s apartments. They were relieved at night by the body-guards, and delivered the keys to a brigadier belonging to the Scotch garrison.

=Gardes du Corps= (_Fr._). The body-guards. Under the old French government, they consisted of a certain number of gentlemen or cavaliers whose immediate duty was to attend the king’s person. They were divided into four companies, under as many captains, whose tour of duty came every quarter. They took rank above the _gens d’armes_ and the king’s light cavalry. The first and most ancient of the four companies was called the Scotch company, which was established by Charles VII. of France in 1423.

=Gardes Françaises= (_Fr._). The French guards. In 1563 Charles IX., king of France, raised a regiment for the immediate protection of the palace. The colonel of the gardes Française was on duty throughout the year, and was entitled to the _bâton de commandement_ in common with the four captains of the body-guards. Peculiar privileges were attached to every officer belonging to this body. No stranger, not even a native of Strasburg, Savoy, Alsace, or Piedmont, could hold a commission in the French guards. In the revolution of 1789 they took a very active and leading part.

=Gardes-magazins= (_Fr._). In the old French service there were two sorts of magazine guards,--one for the military stores and the other for the artillery. The first was subject to the grand master, and the second was appointed by the secretary at war. _Gardes particuliers des magazins d’artillerie_, officers appointed by the grand master of ordnance for the specific purpose of attending to the ammunition, etc. Their pay was in proportion to the quantity of stores with which they were intrusted.

=Gardes Suisses= (_Fr._). A celebrated Swiss corps in the French army, constituted “Gardes” by royal decree in 1616. They comprised upwards of 2000 men, were always unswerving in their fidelity to the Bourbon kings, and are chiefly remarkable for their heroic end. On August 10, 1792, they withstood the Parisian revolutionary mob, and defended the palace of the Louvre till almost every man was cut down. During the resistance they offered, the royal family was enabled to escape to such shelter as the National Assembly afforded. _Gardes Suisses du corps du Roi_, one hundred Swiss guards who were immediately attached to the king’s person. They were a select body of men who took an oath of fidelity to the king, and were formed into a regular troop. But in the last period of the monarchy of France, the principal duties of the one hundred Swiss guards consisted in domestic and menial attendance.

=Garigliano.= A river in Southwestern Italy. After long waiting and refusing to recede a step, the great captain Gonsalvo de Cordova made a bridge over this river December 27, 1503, and surprised and totally defeated the French army. Gaeta surrendered a few days after.

=Garland.= A sort of chaplet made of flowers, feathers, and sometimes of precious stones, worn on the head in the manner of a crown. Both in ancient and modern times it has been customary to present garlands of flowers to warriors who have distinguished themselves. A beautiful young woman was generally selected for that purpose.

=Garlasco.= A market-town of Northern Italy, 24 miles from Novara. The Austrians, when they invaded Italy in 1849, crossed the Po near this place.

=Garnished.= In heraldry, any charge is said to be garnished with the ornaments set on it.

=Garnish-nails.= Diamond-headed nails, formerly used to ornament artillery carriages.

=Garret.= A turret or battlement. Now obsolete.

=Garreted.= Protected by turrets. Now obsolete.

=Garrison.= A body of troops stationed in a fort or fortified town to defend it against an enemy, or to keep its inhabitants in subjection. A strong place, in which troops are quartered for its security. _In garrison_, in the condition of a garrison; doing duty in a fort or as one of a garrison. _Garrison town_, is a strong place, in which troops are quartered and do duty for the security thereof, keeping strong guards at each post, and a main-guard in or near the market-place. As a verb it means to place troops in, as in a fortress, for its defense; to furnish with soldiers; as, to garrison a fort or town. To secure or defend by fortresses manned with troops; as, to garrison a conquered territory.

=Garrison Court-martial.= Is a legal tribunal for the examination and punishment of offenders against martial law, or against good order and military discipline. It is composed of three members and a judge-advocate. See COURT-MARTIAL, and TRIAL; also JUDGE-ADVOCATE.

=Garrison Gin.= The largest size gin. See GIN.

=Garrison Guns.= Guns used in fortifications. Fortress guns.

=Garrison des Janissaries= (_Fr._). The _élite_ or flower of the Janissaries of Constantinople was frequently sent into garrison on the frontiers of Turkey, or to places where the loyalty of the inhabitants was doubted. The Janissaries did not indeed assist in the immediate defense of a besieged town or fortress, but they watched the motions of all suspected persons, and were subject to the orders of their officers, who usually commanded the garrison.

=Garter, Order of the.= One of the most ancient and illustrious of the military orders of knighthood. It was instituted by Edward III. of England, and dates from about the year 1350, though some writers say 1344. Its origin is variously related. In Rastel’s “Chronicles” it is stated that this order was devised by Richard I. at the siege of Acre, when he is said to have caused 26 knights to wear thongs of blue leather about their legs. But the common account is, that the Countess of Salisbury happened at a ball to drop her garter, and that the king took it up and presented it to her, at the same time exclaiming, _Honi soit qui mal y pense_,--“Evil be to him who evil thinks,” in reference to the smiles which he observed the action had excited among some of the bystanders; adding “that shortly they should see that garter advanced to so high an honor and renown, as to account themselves happy to wear it.” It is founded in honor of the Holy Trinity, the Virgin Mary, St. Edward the Confessor, and St. George; but the last, who had become the tutelary saint of England, was considered its special patron; and for this reason it has always borne the title of “The Order of St. George,” as well as of “The Garter,” and those who wore it were called “Knights of St. George.” The number of knights companions was originally 26, including the sovereign, who is chief of the order; but in 1786 a statute was passed to the effect that this number should be irrespective of princes of the royal family, and illustrious foreigners on whom the honor might be conferred. The well-known emblem of the order is a dark-blue ribbon edged with gold, bearing the motto _Honi soit qui mal y pense_ in golden letters, with a buckle and pendant of gold richly chased, and is worn on the left leg below the knee. The mantle is of blue velvet, and on the left breast a star is embroidered. The hood and surcoat are of crimson velvet, and lined with white taffeta. The hat is of black velvet, with a plume of white ostrich feathers, in the centre of which there is a tuft of black herons’ feathers, all fastened to the hat by a band of diamonds. The collar is of gold, and consists of 26 pieces, each in the form of a garter. The “George” is the figure of St. George on horseback encountering the dragon; it is worn to the collar, and there is a lesser “George” pendent to a broad, dark-blue ribbon over the left shoulder.

=Garter King-of-Arms.= Is the principal king-of-arms in England. Though held by the same person, they are distinct offices. The first was instituted for the service of the order of the Garter (which see), not on its first foundation, but afterwards by Henry V. as sovereign, with the advice and consent of the knights-companions. The peculiar duty of Garter king-of-arms is to attend upon the knights at their solemnities, to intimate their election to those who are chosen by the order, to call them to be installed at Windsor, to cause their arms to be hung up over their stalls, and to marshal their funeral processions, and those of royal personages, and of members of higher nobility. In the capacity of principal king-of-arms, he grants and confirms arms, under the authority of the earl marshal, to whom he is not subject as Garter king-of-arms. All new grants or patents of arms in England are first signed and sealed by him, and then by the king (of arms) of the province to which the applicant belongs.

=Gas-check.= The device used in breech-loading cannon to prevent the gas from escaping at the breech. (See BROADWELL RING and BREECH-LOADING.) Also a term applied by the English to the soft metal sabot in the rear of rifled projectiles.

=Gasconade.= To boast; to brag; to vaunt; to bluster. The term was originally derived from the Gascons, or people of Gascony, in France, who it seems have been particularly distinguished for extravagant stories.

=Gasconader.= A great boaster; a blusterer.

=Gascony.= Formerly a district in the southwest of France, situated between the Bay of Biscay, the river Garonne, and the Western Pyrenees. It derived its name from the Basques, or Vasques (Lat. _Vascones_), who, driven by the Visigoths from their own territory on the southern slope of the Western Pyrenees, crossed to the northern side, and settled here. In 602, after an obstinate resistance, the Vasques were forced to submit to the Franks. They now passed under the sovereignty of the dukes of Aquitania, who for a time were independent of the crown, but were afterwards conquered by King Pepin, and later by Charlemagne. Subsequently it became incorporated with Aquitania, and for a time became part of the English possessions, but was afterwards reconquered by the French.

=Gastein=, =Badgastein=, or =Wilbad-Gastein=. A village of Austria, 49 miles south of Salzburg. On August 14, 1865, a convention was concluded here between Austria and Prussia, to make arrangements relative to the government of the duchies of Sleswick, Holstein, and Lauenburg, which their combined forces had wrested from Denmark.

=Gate.= A door of strong planks with iron bars to oppose an enemy. Gates are generally fixed in the middle of the curtain, from whence they are seen and defended by the two flanks of the bastions. They should be covered with a good ravelin, that they may not be seen or enfiladed by the enemy. The palisades and barriers before the gates within the town are often of great use.

=Gateshead.= A borough in Durham, on the Tyne, opposite Newcastle. At Gatesheadfell, William I. defeated Edgar Atheling in 1068.

=Gateway.= The passage or opening in which a gate or large door is hung. The gateway being a most important point in all fortified places, is usually protected by various devices. It is flanked by towers with loop-holes, from which assailants may be attacked, and is frequently overhung by a machicolated battlement, from which missiles of every description were poured upon the besiegers.

=Gath.= One of the five chief cities of the Philistines, was situated on the frontiers of Judah, and was in consequence a place of much importance in the wars between the Philistines and the Israelites. It formed in fact the key of both countries, and was strongly fortified.

=Gatling Gun.= Is a machine gun, the 1 inch composed of six and the ¹⁄₂ inch of ten rifled barrels of steel, made to revolve around a central axis parallel to their bores, by means of a hand crank. As each barrel comes opposite to the hopper on the left side of the cylinder, a self-primed metal case cartridge falls into a groove of the cartridge-carrier, is pressed into the breech by a plunger, and held there until exploded by the firing-pin. The empty case is withdrawn from the barrel by an extractor attached to the cylinder containing the firing-pin. With each revolution of the crank the 1-inch gun fires once, and the ¹⁄₂-inch gun three times. The ¹⁄₂-inch gun is reduced to caliber .45 inch, in order to use with it the projectile of the breech-loading musket.

=Gaucho.= One of the native inhabitants of the pampas of La Plata, of Spanish-American descent, celebrated for independence, horsemanship, and rude, uncivilized mode of life.

=Gaugamela= (now _Karmelis_). A village in the district of Aturia, in Assyria, the scene of the last and decisive battle between Alexander and Darius Codomannus, 331 B.C., commonly called the battle of Arbela. See ARBELA.

=Gauges.= In gunnery, are brass rings with handles, to find the diameter of all kinds of shot with expedition. Also instruments of various kind for verifying the dimensions of cannon and projectiles and the various parts of small-arms. Modern small-arms are made on the _interchangeable principle_, each part being accurately made to gauges. This principle has revolutionized the manufacture of small-arms. It was first introduced at the U. S. armory, at Harper’s Ferry, by Maj. Wade, of the Ordnance Corps.

=Gaul=, or =Gallia=. The ancient name of France and Belgium. The natives, termed by the Greeks Galatæ, by the Romans Galli or Celtæ, came originally from Asia, and invading Eastern Europe, were driven westward, and settled in Spain, North Italy, France and Belgium, and the British Isles.

=Gauntlet= (Fr. _gantelet_). A large glove of mail; a covering for the hand with plates of metal on the back, worn as a part of the defensive armor in ancient times. A long glove, covering the wrist; as, a riding-gauntlet. _To take up the gauntlet_, to accept a challenge. _To throw down the gauntlet_, to offer or send a challenge; to defy.

=Gauntlet.= A kind of military punishment; the gantelet used in the expression _to run the gauntlet_. See GANTLOPE.

=Gauntleted.= Wearing a gauntlet.

=Gawelgur.= A strong fortress of Hindostan, in the dominions of the Nizam or ruler of Hyderabad. It was taken by Gen. Wellesley, December 14, 1803, after a siege of two days, but was restored to the rajah on the conclusion of peace.

=Gaza.= A city of the Philistines, of which Samson carried off the gates, about 1120 B.C. It was taken by Alexander after a long siege, 332, and near it Ptolemy defeated Demetrius Poliorcetes, 312 B.C. It was taken by Saladin, 1170; by Bonaparte, March, 1799; and by the Egyptians in 1831.

=Gaze.= In heraldry, when a beast of the chase is represented as _affronté_, or full-faced, it is said to be at _gaze_.

=Gazette.= To announce or publish in a gazette; to announce officially; as an appointment either civil or military. All commissions in the British army, militia, fencible, and volunteer corps must be gazetted.

=Gazons.= In fortification, pieces of fresh earth, or sods, covered with grass, and cut in the form of a wedge, about a foot long and half a foot thick, to line the outsides of a work made of earth, as ramparts, parapets, banquettes, etc. The first bed of gazons is fixed with pegs of wood, and the second bed is so laid as to bind the former, by being placed over its joints, and so continued till the works are finished. Between those it is usual to sow all sorts of binding weeds or herbs, in order to strengthen the rampart.

=Gear.= Warlike accoutrements; military harness; equipage.

=Geat.= The hole through which the metal is conveyed to the mold in casting ordnance.

=Gebegis.= Armorers among the Turks were so called.

=Gebelis.= A Turkish corps of picked men.

=Gebelus.= Every Timariot in Turkey, during a campaign, is obliged to take a certain number of horsemen, who are called gebelus, and to support them at his own expense. He is directed to take as many as would annually cost 3000 _aspres_ for subsistence.

=Gela.= In ancient times, a very important city on the southern coast of Sicily. It was founded by a Rhodian and Cretan colony, in 690 B.C. In 505 B.C., Cleander made himself tyrant, and the colony reached its highest pitch of power under his brother Hippocrates, who subdued almost the whole of Sicily, with the exception of Syracuse. Gelon, the successor of Hippocrates, pursued the same career of conquest, and Syracuse itself fell into his hands, and was even made his principal residence, Gela being committed to the government of his brother Hiero. After many vicissitudes during the Carthaginian war in Sicily, it ultimately fell into decay. Its ruin was completed by Phintias, tyrant of Agrigentum, who, a little before 280 B.C., removed the inhabitants to a town in the neighborhood which he had founded, and to which he gave his own name. It occupied what is now the site of Terra Nova.

=Gelibach.= A sort of superintendent or chief of the gebegis, or armorers, among the Turks. He is only subordinate to the _toppi bachi_, or the grand master of the Turkish artillery.

=Gellia Gens.= A plebeian family; was of Samnite origin and afterwards settled at Rome. There were two generals of this family in the Samnite wars, Gellius Status in the second Samnite war, who was defeated and taken prisoner 305 B.C., and Gellius Egnatius in the third Samnite war.

=Gembloux.= A town of Belgium, on an affluent of the Sambre, 11 miles northwest from Namur. The French gained a victory over the Austrians near this town in 1794.

=Genappe.= A village of Belgium, in Southern Brabant, on the banks of the Dyle, 18 miles southeast from Brussels. Several military actions took place here in 1815, both before and after Waterloo, between the French and the allied forces.

=Gendarmes=, or =Gens d’Armes= (men-at-arms). Originally, and up to the time of the first French revolution, the most distinguished cavalry corps in the service of the Bourbon kings, to whom they formed a sort of body-guard. Under existing arrangements the gendarmes constitute a military police, and comprise both cavalry and infantry. The force consists principally of soldiers taken from the army, generally on account of intelligence and good conduct. The men receive much higher pay than the rest of the army, of which, however, the corps is a part, and they are liable in cases of emergency to be sent on active service.

=Gendarmery= (Fr. _gendarmerie_). The body of gendarmes or gens d’armes.

=General.= A term for the roll of the drum which calls the troops together. To “beat the general” is a phrase drawn from the French drum instructors, “_Battre la Generale_.”

=General.= The highest military title in the U. S. army, and the highest military title below that of field-marshal in European armies. A general ordinarily commands no body of men less than an army or _corps d’armée_.

=General, Adjutant-.= See ADJUTANT-GENERAL.

=General, Brigadier-.= See BRIGADIER-GENERAL.

=General, Colonel.= An honorary title, or military rank, which is bestowed in foreign services. Thus the Prince of the Peace in Spain was colonel general of the Swiss guards.

=General Court-Martial.= See COURT-MARTIAL.

=General de Battaile=, or =General Major=. A particular rank or appointment, whose functions correspond with those of a cidevant marshal of France. This situation is intrusted to a general officer, and is only known among the armies of Russia, and some other Northern powers. He takes precedence in the same manner that our major-generals do of all brigadier-generals and colonels, and is subordinate to lieutenant-generals.

=General des Galères= (_Fr._). Commander of the galleys, an officer of high rank and extensive jurisdiction in France.

=General des Vivres= (_Fr._). Commissary of stores; a sort of chief commissary or superintendent-general of stores, whose functions were to provide ammunition, bread, and biscuit, for the army.

=Generalissimo.= The chief officer in command of an army. This word is used in most foreign languages. It was first used to designate the absolute authority of Cardinal Richelieu, when he went to command the French army in Italy.

=General, Lieutenant-.= The second rank among general officers, and next below that of general. The normal command of a lieutenant-general is that of a division, but he is sometimes intrusted with the command of an entire army.

=General, Major-.= The rank next below that of lieutenant-general, and above brigadier-general. He usually commands a division; a general of division.

=General Officers.= Are all officers whose authority extends beyond the immediate command of a regiment, and who have either separate districts or departments at home, or commands on foreign service. A brigade is the smallest body of men constituting the command of a general officer. In an army of very large proportions, the normal sequence of command would be the following: The general commanding-in-chief, generalissimo, captain-general, or field-marshal would command the whole force; the generals would have separate _corps d’armée_; the lieutenant-generals, wings of those _corps d’armée_; the major-generals, divisions in the wings; and brigadier-generals, brigades in the divisions. In practice, however, an army is rarely large enough to allow of this exact scheme of military hierarchy being carried out; and general officers are also frequently assigned to high commands without regard to seniority. In the U. S. service there are one general, one lieutenant-general (whose offices expire with the present incumbents), three major-generals, and six brigadier-generals. The President is _ex officio_ commander-in-chief of the army. In the English service the sovereign is captain-general, and under the sovereign is the commander-in-chief, who takes rank as field-marshal. In the staff corps the word general is also used, as surgeon-, quartermaster-, adjutant-general, etc., to denote that the holder of the office has charge of his special department, and does not necessarily imply that he is a general officer. The chiefs of staff departments, however, in the U. S. service are usually of the rank of brigadier-general. In the German armies, and among the sovereigns of the North, there are certain generals of cavalry, and others of infantry, who take rank of all lieutenant-generals. In these armies it is usual for generals, lieutenant-generals, and major-generals to take their routine of duty, and rise progressively in the infantry or cavalry corps to which they were originally appointed, until they arrived at a chief command: whereas in France and other countries a major-general might be employed to take charge of either infantry or cavalry, without any regard being paid to the particular line of service in which he was bred.

=General Orders.= See ORDERS.

=General’s Guard.= See GARDE.

=Generalship.= The office of general; the exercise of the functions of a general; the skill and conduct of a general officer; military skill in a commander.

=Geneva.= A walled town of Switzerland, and the capital of a small canton, at the western extremity of the lake of the same name. In 1784 and 1794 revolutions took place in the city and state of Geneva; in 1798 it was taken by the French, and, till 1813, it was the capital of the department Leman, in the French empire, under Napoleon I. In 1814 it joined the Helvetic Confederation.

=Geneva, Convention of.= In October, 1863, an international convention was held at Geneva, Switzerland, comprising 14 governments, including Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, Prussia and Italy, who were represented by delegates, and propositions were drawn up forming the “Red Cross Society,” for the succor of the wounded in time of warfare. It gave aid to the sick and wounded during the Franco-German war, and its flag is recognized by all powers as neutral.

=Genius.= In a military sense, natural talent or disposition to every kind of warlike employment, more than any other; or, the aptitude a man has received from nature to perform well and easily that which others can do but indifferently and with a great deal of pains.

=Genoa.= A fortified maritime city in Northwestern Italy, once a celebrated republic, now the capital of a province of Northwestern Italy. From the 11th to the 18th century Genoa was the capital of a flourishing republic; it was bombarded by the French in 1684, and submitted to the Austrians in 1746; but, in consequence of a citizen having been abused by an Austrian officer, the inhabitants rose and massacred most of the soldiery, and drove away the remainder. The republic in 1798 assumed the French form of government, with the title of Ligurian republic, and in 1805 it was annexed to the French empire. In 1815 it was ceded to the king of Sardinia, and in 1859 the French troops landed here on their route to oppose the Austrian army, which had invaded Sardinia.

=Genouillère.= That part of the parapet of a battery which remains above the platform and under the gun, after the opening of the embrasure has been made. The name is derived from the French _genou_, the knee. The height of the genouillère is regulated by that of the gun-carriage, generally from 2 to 3 feet.

=Gens.= In Roman antiquity, a clan, embracing several families, whose bond of alliance was a common name and certain religious rites performed in common. Persons of the same gens were called _gentiles_, while those of the same family were designated _agnati_.

=Gens= (_Fr._). A word in much desultory use among the French, signifying, in the general acceptation of it, people, servants, soldiers, etc. This word is likewise used to distinguish bodies of men that are in opposition to each other.

=Gens d’Armes.= See GENDARMES.

=Gentilhommes de la Garde= (_Fr._). Gentlemen of the guard. Commonly called _Au bec de corbin_, or the battle-axe, from the weapon which they carried. This company went through many alterations during the monarchy of France. During the last years of that government it consisted of 200 guards, under the command of a captain, a lieutenant, and an ensign. The captain had the power of giving away the subaltern commissions, and had, moreover, the entire management of the rest; every vacancy being in his gift. They marched in file, each holding his battle-axe, before the king on days of public ceremony. When the company was first raised, its

## particular duty was to attend the king’s person, and to be constantly

near him on the day of battle.

=Gentlemen-at-arms= (formerly called the _Gentlemen-Pensioners_). The body-guard of the British sovereign, and, with the exception of the yeomen of the guard, the oldest corps in the British service. It was instituted in 1509 by Henry VIII., and now consists of 1 captain, 1 lieutenant, 1 standard-bearer, 1 clerk of the cheque, and 40 gentlemen, who must all be retired military officers of service and distinction. The attendance of gentlemen-at-arms is now rarely required, except on the occasion of coronations and important state ceremonies.

=Geographical Department, Commander of.= Is assimilated to the commander of a separate army, with the same powers and duties in similar cases over all the troops within the limits of the department. In all countries he derives his authority to command from the highest power of the government. In the United States he is assigned by order of the President, who alone can relieve him, and who also fixes the limits or boundaries of the department. His duties are mainly derived from customs of service. The only duties defined by statute relate to general courts-martial, which he can convene, and his action is final on all cases tried by such courts, except in the case of a general officer, or where the sentence of the court extends to the loss of life or the dismissal of a commissioned officer. In time of war he is authorized by existing laws to execute the death penalty in cases of persons convicted as spies, mutineers, deserters, or murderers, and in cases of guerrilla marauders convicted in time of war of robbery, burglary, arson, rape, assault with intent to commit rape, or violation of the laws of war. See DEPARTMENT, MILITARY.

=Geographical Division, Military.= In the United States a geographical military division consists of a number of geographical military departments, usually under the command of a general officer.

=Geometry.= That branch of mathematics which investigates the relations, properties and measurements of solids, surfaces, lines, and angles; the science which treats of the properties and relations of magnitudes. Its usefulness extends to almost every art and science. It is by the assistance of geometry that engineers conduct all their works, take the situation and plans of towers, the distances of places, and the measure of such things as are only accessible to the sight. It is not only an introduction to fortification, but highly necessary to mechanics. On geometry, likewise, depends the theory of gunnery, mining, mechanics, hydraulics, pneumatics, etc.

=George, Lake.= A beautiful sheet of water in the State of New York. Its length is 36 miles; its breadth from 1 to 3 miles. Lake George was the scene of important military operations during the French and Indian war of 1755-59. Here stood Fort George, Fort William Henry, and other works.

=George, St.= Patron of England and Russia, is reputed to have been born in Palestine in the 3d century. According to the legend, he became a prince in Cappadocia, and was distinguished for his exploit of rescuing a king’s daughter from a dragon. He was a Christian, and suffered martyrdom at Nicomedia, April 23, 303, for having torn down the edict of Diocletian against Christians, the emperor himself being then in the city.

=George, St., Banner of.= Is white with red cross. According to Sir N. H. Nicolas, the cross of St. George was worn as a badge over the armor of every English soldier “in the 14th and subsequent centuries, even if the custom did not prevail at a much earlier period,” to indicate that he was in the service of the crown. On the invasion of Scotland by Richard II. in 1386, it was ordained that every man of the English party should wear a sign of the arms of St. George both before and behind. A similar ordinance was adopted by Henry V. for the government of his army in France. The cross of St. George forms a part of the British standard.

=George, St., Knights of.= See GARTER, ORDER OF THE.

=George, The.= The badge of the order of the Garter exhibiting the figure of St. George on horseback piercing the falling dragon, which lies on a mount. See GARTER.

=Georges Conspiracy.= Took place in France; Gens. Moreau and Pichegru, and Georges Cadoudal, who was commonly known by the name of Georges, and others were arrested at Paris, charged with a conspiracy against the life of Bonaparte, and for the restoration of Louis XVIII., February, 1804. Pichegru was found strangled in prison, April 6, and 12 of the conspirators, including Georges, were executed, and others imprisoned, June 22. Moreau was exiled and went to America; in 1813 he was killed before Dresden.

=Georgia.= Called by the Russians Grusia, a considerable country of Asia, situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian, to the north of Armenia, and forming a government of Russia. The Georgians are skilled in the bow, and are thought to be the best soldiers in Asia. Georgia was formerly one kingdom, the inhabitants of which were Christians; but, in 1639, when it was conquered by the Persians, the country was divided between two native princes, by themselves called kings, but by the Sophia styled governors. Each of these had a guard of Mohammedan horse in their pay. In 1802 it was annexed to Russia.

=Georgia.= One of the original States of the United States, bounded on the north by Tennessee and North Carolina, on the east by South Carolina and the Atlantic Ocean, south by Florida, and west by Florida and Alabama. It was named in honor of King George II., who granted a charter for establishing a colony there in 1732; but a permanent settlement was not made till the following year, when Oglethorpe established himself at what is now Savannah. The colony soon became involved in several contests with the Spaniards of Florida, who claimed the territory. In 1739 Oglethorpe invaded Florida, but without much success. In 1742 the Spaniards retaliated by invading Georgia; but they also effected nothing. The next noteworthy event in the history of the colony was a war with the Cherokees in 1761, which was terminated by their suing for peace, after their country had been laid waste. They were afterwards peaceable, and were removed to the Indian Territory in 1838. In the war of the Revolution Georgia warmly sided with the colonies, and, in consequence, suffered severely at the hands of the British, who overran the country, and captured Savannah, December 29, 1778. In the following year (October, 1779) the Americans and French attempted to retake it, but were repulsed with severe loss. In the civil war (1861-65), Georgia took an active part against the Union, and suffered severely in consequence. Atlanta was captured September 2, 1864, after which Gen. Sherman marched with his army through the State to the sea over an area extending from 20 to 60 miles in width, destroying railroad communication, etc., and ending with the capture of Savannah, December 20, 1864. This magnificent military movement effectually humbled the State, and in 1866 the President issued a proclamation declaring it no longer in a state of insurrection.

=Gerasa=, or =Jerash=. An ancient city of Syria, whose site is now marked by very extensive and magnificent ruins, situated about 35 miles east of the Jordan, at the eastern extremity of the land of Bashan, and on the borders of the great desert of Hauran. But little of its early history is known. In the time of the Antonines it had arrived at the height of its splendor and prosperity. It was taken by Alexander Jannæus in 85 B.C.; the Jews burned it at the commencement of their last war with the Romans; it was taken and plundered by Annius, the general of Vespasian, and in 1122 its castle was destroyed by Baldwin II. of Jerusalem.

=Gerbe.= An ornamental firework. See PYROTECHNY.

=Gerberoi.= In Normandy, north of France. Here William the Conqueror was wounded in battle by his son Robert, who had joined the French king, Philip I., 1078.

=Gerit= (_Fr._). A Turkish dart 2¹⁄₂ feet long.

=Germany= (Lat. _Germania_). The name given to a large portion of Central Europe, composed of a number of independent states united together, and forming the German empire. In the time of Julius Cæsar the Germans were the most formidable and warlike of all the European barbarians. They long withstood the attempts of the Romans to subdue them; and, although that people conquered some parts of the country, they were expelled before the close of the 3d century. In the 5th century the Huns and other tribes prevailed over the greater portion of Germany. In the latter part of the 8th century Charlemagne subdued the Saxons and other tribes, and was crowned emperor at Rome, December 25, 800. At the extinction of his family the empire became elective, 911, and was generally obtained by a member of the house of Hapsburg from 1437 to 1806, when the emperor Francis Joseph II. formally renounced the title of emperor of Germany, having assumed that of emperor of Austria two years previously. The Confederation of the Rhine was formed July 12, 1806; the Germanic Confederation, June 8, 1815; and the North German Confederation, August 18, 1866. In consequence of the success of the Prussian arms in the war with France (1870-71) the new empire of Germany was founded, and the king of Prussia declared emperor, January 18, 1871.

=Germinal Insurrection.= That of the faubourgs of Paris, suppressed on 12th Germinal, year III. (April 1, 1795).

=Gerona.= A strong town of Spain, in Catalonia, at the confluence of the Oña and Ter, the latter of which flows through the town. It is built in the form of a triangle, at the foot of a steep mountain, and is surrounded by walls flanked with fortifications, and covered by a fort erected on a hill to the north of the town. It was besieged 28 times, and taken 5 times. In June, 1808, it successfully resisted the French, but after suffering much famine surrendered December 12, 1809.

=Gesate=, or =Gessate= (_Fr._). Formerly a Gallic mercenary soldier, who volunteered his services beyond his native country. These adventurers, or knights-errant, were called _gesates_, either on account of the gese, or large dart, which they carried, or, as Polybius imagines, on account of the subsistence they received, which was called by that name.

=Geserne.= The Anglo-Norman term for battle-axe.

=Geses and Materes.= Were weapons adopted by the Allobroges (a body of ancient Gauls so called), independently of the broad cut-and-thrust sword which the Swiss still wear. These instruments were only one cubit long; half the blade was nearly square; but it terminated in a round point that was exceedingly sharp. Not only the Romans, but the Greeks received it into their armies. The former retained the full appellation and called it _gese_, but the latter corrupted it into _ysse_. This is the only weapon with which those soldiers were armed that escorted malefactors, who were condemned to death, to the place of execution. The term _gese_ was also applied to a sort of a javelin.

=Gestic.= Pertaining to deeds or feats of arms; legendary.

=Gettysburg.= Capital of Adams Co., Pa., situated near the southern border of the State, 8 miles from “Mason and Dixon’s line.” Here three days’ severe fighting took place on July 1-3, 1863, between the invading Confederate army under Gens. Lee, Longstreet, and Ewell, and the Federals under Gen. George G. Meade.

On the morning of July 1, Maj-Gen. Reynolds, in command of the 1st Corps, advanced on the Emmittsburg road from Marsh Creek to Gettysburg, arriving about 10 o’clock A.M., and marched directly through the town, and soon after encountered a body of the enemy, which were driven back by Gen. Buford’s cavalry, which allowed the 1st Corps to form up in order of battle on a ridge northwest of the town, which sloped to the west into a little open valley. Beyond this valley was a ridge of higher land thickly wooded. Across this valley the line of Gen. Reynolds advanced somewhat hastily, almost before it was well formed, and soon encountered a heavy force of the enemy’s infantry, and was compelled to fall back, which it did in good order, and by a movement of its left centre against the enemy while falling back secured a large number of prisoners. The Confederate line being broken soon after, Gen. Reynolds again prepared to go forward. His line advanced as before, and drove the enemy from the valley and over the ridge at the farthest side, with a severe loss by the heavy fire of the foe. While reconnoitring on this ridge Gen. Reynolds was killed by a shot from the enemy. The 11th Corps now arrived and Gen. Howard took command of the whole field, Gen. Schurz commanding the 11th Corps. At about half-past 2 P.M. the enemy again advanced in force against the 1st Corps, which slowly fell back to its original position northwest of the town. The Confederate force advanced across the open space in line of battle, whilst their batteries shelled the position of the 1st Corps to cover the advance, but it met a fire so sharp and well served that it caused it to reel and fall back; the line was again formed and reinforced and once more advanced, but with no better success. By this time the line was increased by three more of the enemy’s divisions, and another charge was made by the whole force of the enemy. Their superior numbers enabled them to threaten both flanks of the Federal force, and notwithstanding a brave resistance the 1st Corps was compelled to fall back to the town. By this movement the 11th Corps was uncovered, and a heavy advance completely on its right flank compelled it to retire. The enemy advanced and took possession of the town, while the two corps of the Union troops fell back and occupied the west slope of the hill south of the town, held by Gen. Steinwehr. At dusk the 3d and 12th Corps arrived and next morning the 5th, making in all six corps, which were placed in position by Gen. Meade, the line stretching in a semicircle, having its convex centre toward Gettysburg, with the extreme toward the south and west. The heights on which they were posted sloped gently down from their front. The key of Gen. Meade’s position was Cemetery Hill, a little distance south of the town, and on the northern slope of which the town itself is situated. The enemy having been largely reinforced during the night were prepared to give battle on the morning of the 2d, having formed line on a ridge which ran nearly parallel to the extreme of that on which the Federal forces were formed, and separated from them by a valley varying in width from 1 to 2 miles.

On the ridge occupied by Gen. Meade 100 guns were in position facing the enemy, with reserve artillery in the rear about equidistant from the flanks. The enemy had nearly 150 guns in position. During the forenoon of the 2d no movement of importance took place, but about noon Gen. Lee ordered a general attack on the Federal centre and left. His movement being discovered by the Union commanders they were prepared, and the 3d Corps, commanded by Gen. Sickles, was advanced more to the left and front in order to be in a more commanding position to repel the Confederate attack. He had hardly got into position when the enemy attacked. Having bravely resisted their furious onslaught for about two hours, and not receiving the expected reinforcements, the 3d Corps was compelled to fall back to its previous position, when a most desperate assault was made upon it by Longstreet’s troops; but this part of the line being promptly strengthened it repulsed all the efforts of Longstreet, with great loss, however, on both sides. With the advance of Longstreet a part of the enemy advanced on the centre of the Union line, and meeting with stubborn resistance the battle grew fearful. The enemy pressed forward unrestrained. Gens. Sickles, Hancock, and Gibbon were wounded. The 1st and 2d Corps wavered and the enemy pressed up to the very guns of the batteries, which were exposed to capture; but the 6th Corps, although wearied with marching, hurried up with shouts to the support, and the enemy staggered and drifted slowly back, and being pushed on their left flank by a strong force of the Federals, they retired. At this time a desperate dash was made by the Confederates on the extreme right, which had been weakened to support the centre and left. For a short time the attack was furious, but the Federals being speedily supported the enemy were kept in check, and finally retired about 9 o’clock P.M., having lost the day in every quarter.

The battle commenced again on the morning of the 3d by an artillery fire from the Confederate lines, and an aggressive movement of the right of the Federal forces under Gen. Slocum to drive Gen. Ewell farther back. This attack met with a prompt response from the latter, but Gen. Slocum having been reinforced by part of the 3d and 5th Corps, the struggle was evenly contested for some time, when additional reinforcements having arrived, the tide of battle was turned in favor of the Union troops, causing the enemy to retire, and at 11 o’clock A.M. a general quiet prevailed. The movements of the morning against Gen. Meade thus far had been made to cover up the designs of the Confederates. The battle of the previous day had demonstrated that the issue of the struggle turned on the occupation of Cemetery Hill, the key of Gen. Meade’s position. To get possession of this spot was therefore the object of the enemy. Therefore Lee massed about 115 guns so as to subject the artillery on Cemetery Hill to more than a half circle of cross-fires. At about 1 o’clock P.M. the signal-gun was fired and the cannonading commenced. The fire of the enemy was concentrated on the position held by the 2d and 11th Corps. It drew a most terrific response from the Federal batteries, and as has been described by a spectator in the Confederate army, the almost simultaneous discharge of over 200 guns “made the air hideous with most discordant noise. The very earth shook, and the hills and rocks seemed to reel like a drunken man. For one hour and a half this most terrific fire was continued, during which time the shrieking of shell, the crash of fallen timbers, the fragments of rocks flying through the air, shattered from the cliffs by solid shot, the heavy muttering from the valley between the opposing armies, the splash of bursting shrapnel, and the fierce neighing of wounded artillery horses, made a picture terribly grand and sublime.” At the termination of the firing, the left of the Union line was assaulted twice, which were handsomely repulsed with severe loss to the Confederates. And thus ended the memorable battle of Gettysburg. The forenoon of the 4th was devoted to the burial of the dead, and in the afternoon the Confederate forces commenced to retreat, leaving the Federal forces in possession of the hard-fought field, which covered the Union troops with the highest honor and glory, but at a terrible sacrifice. During the three days the Confederate losses were 18,000 killed and wounded, and 13,000 missing, a large part of the latter prisoners; making a total of 31,000. The Union losses were 16,500 killed and wounded, and 6600 missing, chiefly prisoners captured on the first and second days, making a total loss of not less than 23,000--_Extracts from D. Appleton’s “History of the Rebellion,” by Tenney, “Lippincott’s Gazetteer,” and “Haydn’s Dates_.”

=Ghaut=, or =Ghât=. A term in India signifying a pass through a range of hills; also a flight of stairs descending to the rivers for the accommodation of bathers, and as landing-places for boats.

=Ghent= (Fr. _Gand_). An ancient fortified city of Belgium, capital of East Flanders, situated at the confluence of the Lys and Scheldt. It commenced to acquire importance in the 12th century, when its fortifications were completed. In the 14th century, having revolted against the Duke of Burgundy, it was subdued after seven defeats, in some of which it suffered a fearful slaughter of its citizens. It again revolted against Charles V. in the 16th century, was again subdued, made to pay a heavy fine, and forced to pay for the erection of a citadel to keep it in subjection. The French became masters of Ghent in 1678, 1708, 1745, 1792, and again in 1795. The city was united to the kingdom of the Netherlands after the peace of Paris (1814), and is now a rich and populous city of Belgium. In this city on December 24, 1814, the terms of the treaty were agreed on, between the United States and British envoys, which put an end to the war of 1812-15.

=Gheriah.= A town of British India, in the presidency of Bombay. It was the principal post of Angria, a famous piratical prince, whose fort here was taken, and his whole fleet destroyed, by Admiral Watson and Col. Clive, in conjunction with the Mahrattas in 1756.

=Ghizni=, or =Ghuznee=. A fortified city of Afghanistan, built on a hill 7720 feet above the level of the sea, 90 miles from Cabul. It was the capital of a powerful empire of the same name, and is sometimes called the second Medina, from the great number of illustrious persons who have been interred there. The old town of Ghuznee was destroyed in the 12th century, and the modern one stands on a site about 3 miles from the ruins of the other. It was stormed and taken by Lord Keane in 1839. In 1842 the garrison surrendered to the Afghans, from whom, however, it was again taken in the same year by the British forces under Gen. Nott.

=Ghoor=, =Ghore=, or =Ghour=. A large district of Afghanistan. This was formerly one of the Persian governments; but in the 12th century its chiefs became independent, overturned the Ghiznian empire, and carried their arms as far as Benares. One of their slaves founded the Mohammedan kingdom of Delhi about 1206. This country was overrun in the 13th and 14th centuries by the armies of Genghis Khan and Tamerlane. Its capital is Ghoor, which was taken by the king of Kharezim, and was subsequently sacked by the armies of Genghis and Tamerlane, from which it has never recovered, and is now scarcely known.

=Ghorchana.= The irregular Sikh yeomanry who served in the wars in the Punjab between the Sikhs and the English.

=Ghyretty.= Cantonments 14 miles from Calcutta. It is a palace built by Mr. Dupleix, which the British took by force in 1797, and imprisoned the principal French colonists of Chandernagore there.

=Giambeux.= Greaves; armor for the legs, in ancient times. See JAMBEUX.

=Giant Powder=, or =Dynamite=. See DYNAMITE.

=Giants, Battle of the.= See BATTLE OF THE GIANTS.

=Giberne= (_Fr._). A sort of bag in which the grenadiers held their hand-grenades. It was worn like a powder-flask.

=Gibraltar.= A fortified seaport town and garrison, occupying a promontory in the south of Spain, at the entrance from the Atlantic into the Mediterranean, 60 miles southeast from Cadiz. It consists of a high and rocky mountain running from north to south, about 3 miles in length, and three-fourths in width, its highest point being 1439 feet above the level of the sea. The “rock” was first fortified in the modern style in the reign of Charles V. It was surprised by the English under Sir George Booke in 1704, soon after the commencement of the War of the Spanish Succession, and it has been a British dependency ever since. It has been repeatedly besieged, and always without success,--first in 1720, next in 1727, and lastly in 1779, when it stood a siege of upwards of three years and a half, the French and Spaniards using their utmost endeavors to capture it; but every effort was bravely repulsed by the governor, Gen. Elliott.

=Gibraltar of America.= See QUEBEC.

=Gib-staff.= In England, a staff to gauge water, or to push a boat.

=Gin.= In military mechanics, is a machine for raising great weights: it is composed of three long legs, one of them being longer than the rest, and called the _pry-pole_. The other two are kept at a proper distance by means of two iron bars fixed on one of the legs by a staple passing through a hole at one end; the other end has a hook which enters into a staple fixed into the other leg so as to be taken off or put on at pleasure. At about 3 feet from the bottom is a windlass, upon which the cable is wound; and the three legs are joined together at the top by an iron bolt, about which they move; to this bolt is also fixed an iron clevis to which is hooked the blocks and fall. When the gin stands upright with legs at a proper distance, one end of the cable is fastened to a gun, mortar, or other weight; and the other passes through the pulleys and about the roller, which is turned round by means of hand-spikes passing through the holes in the end of the roller; whilst a man holds the cable tight, the gun is raised to the height required, so that the carriage may be put under it. The modern gin has a windlass with pawl and ratchet attachments. There are three different kinds of gins,--the _field and siege_, the _garrison_, and the _casemate_ gins; and they only differ in their size and weight.

=Gindi.= Turkish horsemen, who perform extraordinary feats.

=Gingals=, =Ginjauls=, or =Gingauls=. Large muskets used in India by the natives, with a rest, somewhat similar to those invented by Marshal Vauban for the defense of forts.

=Gingee.= A strong town on the coast of Coromandel, once the capital of a kingdom of the same name, 85 miles from Madras. Towards the end of the 18th century, the Great Mogul unsuccessfully besieged this place for a period of three years. In 1750 it was taken by the French, who, in 1761, ceded it to the British.

=Gionules= (_Fr._). Turkish volunteer cavalry, renowned for their bravery.

=Girandole= (_Fr._). Any firework turning upon a wheel; a wheel whose circumference is studded with rockets.

=Girandole= (_Fr._). In fortification, several chambers in mines connected for the defense of the place of arms of the covered way.

=Girondists.= An important party during the French revolution, principally composed of deputies from the Gironde. At first they were ardent republicans, but after the cruelties of August and September, 1792, they labored to restrain the cruelties of the Mountain party, to which they succumbed. Their leaders, Brissot, Vergniaud, and many others were guillotined October 31, 1793, at the instigation of Robespierre.

=Gironné=, or =Gyronné=. A term used in heraldry to indicate that the field is divided into six, eight, or more triangular portions of different trenches, the points of the triangles all meeting in the centre of the shield.

=Gisarm.= A scythe-shaped weapon, with a pike projecting from one side, formerly borne by foot-soldiers on the end of a long staff. It was used as late as the battle of Flodden. See GUISARME.

=Gisors.= A town of France, in the department of the Eure, 23 miles from Rouen. Here a battle took place October 10, 1198, between the French and English, in which the former were completely defeated. Richard I., who commanded the English, gave as the “parole,” or watch-word of the day, _Dieu et mon droit_ (God and my right), and ever since the expression has been the motto to the royal arms of England.

=Gistes.= Pieces of wood which are made use of in the construction of platforms to batteries, and upon which the madriers or broad planks are placed.

=Gitschin.= A walled town of Bohemia, about 50 miles northeast of Prague. It was captured by the Prussians after a severe conflict with the Austrians, June 29, 1866. Near Gitschin, the same evening, the crown-prince of Prussia was victor in another engagement.

=Giurgevo.= A town and river-port of Wallachia, opposite Rustchuk, and about 40 miles southwest from Bucharest, of which it is the port. In 1773 the Turks were defeated here by the Russians, who took it in 1811, and again in 1829, when its defenses were leveled with the ground. In 1854 the Russians were defeated in its neighborhood by the Turks.

=Givet.= A fortified town of France, in the department of Ardennes, on the Belgian frontier. This place was fortified by Vauban; the chief defensive works are Charlemont, the citadel, and the forts Notre Dame and St. Hilaire.

=Glabrio.= A family name of the _Acilia gens_ at Rome. The Acilii Glabriones were plebeian, and first appear on the consular annals in 191 B.C., from which time the name frequently occurs to a late period of the empire. M. Acilius Glabrio, the most distinguished of the family, became consul in 191 B.C. In that year Rome declared war against Antiochus the Great, king of Syria. Glabrio was sent against him, and with the aid of his ally, Philip II., king of Macedonia, he speedily reduced to obedience the whole district between the Cambunian mountain-chain and Mount Œta. Antiochus, alarmed at Glabrio’s progress, intrenched himself strongly at Thermopylæ; but, although his Ætolian allies occupied the passes of Mount Œta, the Romans broke through his outposts, and cut to pieces or dispersed his army. Glabrio was engaged in the siege of Amphissa, when his successor, L. Cornelius Scipio, arrived from Rome and relieved him from command. He was unanimously granted a triumph on his return to Rome.

=Glacis.= A slope of earth, usually turfed, which inclines from the covered way towards the country. Its object is to bring assailants, as they approach, into a conspicuous line of fire from the parapet of the fortress, and also to mask the general works of the place.

=Gladiators.= Were men who fought with swords in the amphitheatre and other places for the amusement of the Roman people. They are said to have been first exhibited by the Etruscans, and to have had their origin from the custom of killing slaves and captives at the funeral pyres of the deceased. The first exhibition of gladiators at Rome occurred in 264 B.C. They were at first confined to public funerals, but afterwards fought at the funerals of most persons of consequence. Combats of gladiators were also exhibited at entertainments. They consisted either of captives, slaves, and condemned malefactors, or of free-born citizens who fought voluntarily. But it was in the amphitheatre that the combats of gladiators most frequently took place. Notice of the exhibition being given beforehand, thousands flocked to witness the spectacle. When a gladiator was vanquished by his antagonist, his fate depended upon the people, who by a sign indicated whether they wished him to be put to death or saved. Shows of gladiators were abolished by Constantine, but appear, notwithstanding, to have been generally exhibited till the time of Honorius, by whom they were finally suppressed.

=Gladsmuir.= A parish in Scotland, in the county of Haddington, in which the battle of Gladsmuir, or Prestonpans, was fought.

=Glaire.= A broadsword or a falchion fixed on a pike.

=Glais, Militaire= (_Fr._). A military compliment which was paid to the remains of a deceased general. It consisted in a discharge of ordnance. It also signifies the funeral procession of a sovereign.

=Glaive.= Sword; a large blade fixed on the end of a pole, whose edge was on the outside curve; a light lance with a long sharp-pointed head. Also a knight, fully armed, with his squire. A kind of sword worn by peers in France in full dress.

=Glaize.= A kind of halbert, so called by the Saxons.

=Glanders.= A contagious and very destructive disease of the mucous membrane in horses, characterized by a constant discharge of sticky matter from the nose and an enlargement and induration of the glands beneath and within the lower jaw.

=Glarus.= A canton in the northeast of Switzerland. In the earliest times Glarus was reckoned sometimes as a part of Rhœtia, sometimes as a part of Swabia, and was peopled by German settlers. After various changes it passed into the possession of the dukes of Austria, but ultimately secured its independence by the victories of Nafels in 1352 and 1388, when it joined the Swiss Confederation.

=Glastonbury.= A town of England, in Somersetshire, 25 miles from the city of Bath. It was anciently called Avalonia, or the Isle of Avalon, and no person whatever, not even a bishop or prince, was allowed to enter without leave from the abbot, to whom this power was granted by Canute the Dane. There were 61 abbots of Glastonbury, who sat among the barons in Parliament, and governed it successively for nearly 600 years. Richard Withing, the last, was condemned at Wells for refusing to surrender his abbey to King Henry VIII., and acknowledge his supremacy, and carried, with two of his monks, on a hurdle, to Tor Hill, a bleak hill close to the town, where he was hanged in his robes.

=Glatz.= A town of Prussia, capital of Glatz district; built on both sides of the Neisse, and is strongly fortified. This place surrendered to the Prussians in 1742, and was taken by the Austrians in 1759, but restored at the peace of 1763. It was taken by Würtemberg and Bavarian troops in 1807. The celebrated Baron Trenek was confined in its fortress, but made his escape by leaping from the walls.

=Glave.= See GLAIVE.

=Glazing Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Glencoe.= A valley of Scotland, in Argyleshire, noted for the military execution of its unsuspecting inhabitants, the Macdonalds, by a party of English soldiers, in 1692, in consequence of an order signed by William III. in council for that purpose, and issued contrary to the faith of a royal proclamation. Many of the inhabitants had been in arms for James II. during his attempts to recover the crown of England.

=Glendale, Battle of.= Also known as the battle of Frazier’s Farm, and White Oak Swamp, and Charles City Cross-roads, Virginia, one of the “seven days’ contests,” was fought June 30, 1862, between the Army of the Potomac under Gen. McClellan, on its retreat towards the James River, and the Confederate forces under Gen. Longstreet. The battle commenced in the afternoon, and continued with fury well into the night, the Confederate loss being about 2000 men, and the Union loss about 1500. By next morning McClellan had his whole army in position on Malvern Hill, and communication with the James River was secured.

=Glissade= (_Fr._). A term formerly applied to the forward or backward movement of the pike.

=Globe Sight.= A form of front sight used specially on target rifles. It consists of a pin with a small ball on the end of it, or a disk with a hole in it. For protection it is set in a tube open at both ends.

=Gloire= (_Fr._). An artificial firework which resembles a large sun.

=Glorious Virgin=, or =St. Mary the Glorious, Order of the=. An order of knighthood in Venice, founded by Bartholomew of Vicenza in 1262. This institution was ecclesiastical as well as military; its objects were the protection of widows and orphans, and the furtherance of the peace of Italy. The badge was a purple cross between certain stars, and the costume a white surcoat on a russet cloak. An order of knighthood of St. Mary the Glorious also existed in Rome in the 17th century, whose purpose was the suppression of the Barbary corsairs who infested the Mediterranean.

=Glory, Military.= Honor, reputation, and fame acquired by military achievements. That precarious splendor which plays around the brows of a warrior, and has been collected by hard service, extraordinary genius, and unblemished integrity; but which may desert the greatest hero through one unfortunate failure, occasioned by the fatality of human imperfection.

=Gloucester.= A city and the capital of a county of the same name in England. It became a Roman station under the name of _Colonia Glevium_, and an important town in Mercia under the Saxons, by whom it was called _Glean-Ceaster_,--whence its present name. Here the celebrated single combat between Edmund Ironsides and Canute is said to have taken place. It was repeatedly visited by William I.; afforded a refuge and support to Queen Matilda in her contest with Stephen; saw Henry III. crowned, and Parliaments held under Richard II. and Henry IV., and sided successfully with the Parliament in the civil war against Charles I.

=Gloucestershire.= A county of England, which, previous to the Roman invasion, was inhabited by a tribe called the Dobuni; and after that event, the county, or the greater part of it, was included in the province named _Flavia Cæsarienes_. From the earliest of the Danish invasions down to the battle of Tewkesbury, in 1471, and to the civil wars between the crown and Parliament, Gloucestershire has been the scene of many and disastrous encounters. There are traces of British, Saxon, and Danish works in the county.

=Glove.= A cover for the hand, or for the hand and wrist, with a separate sheath for each finger. _To throw the glove_, an old expression which formerly meant to challenge to single combat.

=Glückstadt.= A town of the German empire, capital of the duchy of Holstein, on the Elbe, 32 miles below Hamburg. It was founded in 1620 by Christian IV. of Denmark, and fortified. During the Thirty Years’ War, it successfully withstood three sieges; its fortifications were demolished in 1815.

=Glycerine, Nitro-.= See EXPLOSIVES.

=Glyoxiline.= See EXPLOSIVES.

=Go.= The verb “to go” is variously used in a military sense; as, to march in a hostile or warlike manner. _To go off_ implies to depart from any post. _To go on_ is to make an attack. _To go over_ is to revolt. _To go out_, to go upon any expedition, etc. It was likewise frequently used to signify the act of fighting a duel; as, he went out with so and so.

=Goa.= A town of Hindostan, on the Malabar coast. It was formerly the capital of the Portuguese dominions in India. This place was taken by the Portuguese under Albuquerque in 1510; and by the English April 2, 1756.

=Gobille= (_Fr._). A small copper ball, a quarter of an inch in diameter, several of which are put into a revolving cask for the purpose of more intimately incorporating the ingredients of powder, carcass, and rocket composition.

=Gobisson=, or =Gambasson= (_Fr._). A quilted and padded dress worn under the habergeon.

=Godesberg.= A village of Rhenish Prussia, on the left bank of the Rhine, 4 miles south of Bonn. In 1582, Gebhard, the deposed archbishop, took refuge here, and intrusted the castle to a Dutch garrison. It was, however, soon after taken possession of by his successor, on which occasion it sustained much injury. During the Thirty Years’ War it was alternately in the possession of the Swedes and the Imperialists, and was finally almost demolished by the French.

=Godolo.= A market-town in Hungary. It was near here that the combined armies of Austria under Prince Windischgrätz and Count Jellachich were defeated in two bloody battles by the Hungarians under Görgei. On the eve of victory, Governor Kossuth held a conference with the generals Görgei, Klapka, and Damjanich for laying down the principles of the famous declaration of independence, issued April 14, 1849. It was this declaration which served the emperor of Russia as a pretext for the invasion of Hungary.

=Gohud.= A fortified town of Hindostan, in the territory of Gwalior, or possessions of the Scindia family. This place was taken from Bheem Singh by the Mahrattas about 1761. When this nation lost the battle of Paniput, the rannah of Gohud attempted to shake off their yoke, but was conquered by Ragoonauth Row in 1766, and compelled to continue tributary. On a subsequent rupture Gohud was taken by Scindia in 1784. Relinquished to Scindia by a treaty with Great Britain subsequent to 1804.

=Goito.= A small town in Lombardy, 15 miles northwest from Mantua. In 1630 this place was carried by assault by the Imperialists, who entered Mantua on the same night, and took it by surprise. During the War of the Spanish Succession in 1701, it was alternately captured by the allies and the Imperialists; and in 1796 the French took it, but were expelled, after a brief tenure, by the Austrians. In 1814, a severe engagement took place here between the Austrian and Italian troops; and during the war of independence in 1848, it became the theatre of two other battles between the same powers, to which it owes its modern celebrity.

=Goladar=, or =Goldar=. An East Indian term signifying a store-keeper, or store-house keeper.

=Golandaazee=, or =Golandauzee=. The Indian term of an artilleryman.

=Golconda.= A town of Hindostan, strongly fortified by nature and art, standing on a hill 5 miles northwest from Hyderabad. It was once noted for its diamonds. Golconda was once the capital of an extensive kingdom which arose on the dissolution of the Bhamenee dynasty, and was governed by native Hindoo princes; but being taken by Aurungzebe by treachery in 1687, after a siege of seven months, the whole territory became incorporated with the empire of Delhi.

=Goldberg.= A town in Prussian Silesia, on an affluent of the Oder, 12 miles southwest from Liegnitz. The French were defeated by the Prussians near this place in 1813.

=Gold Coast Corps.= A corps in the British service formed of drilled Africans, and officered from the West India regiments. It is kept up for the purpose of protecting the possessions of Sierra Leone and Gambia.

=Gold Stick.= A title given to the captain of the gentlemen-at-arms, or body-guard of the British sovereign, and to colonels of the Life Guards. When either of the regiments of Life Guards is given to an officer, he is presented by the sovereign with the gold stick. The colonels of the two regiments are in attendance on the sovereign alternately month and month. The one thus on duty is called _gold stick in waiting_; and all orders relating to the Life Guards are transmitted through him. See SILVER STICK.

=Golden Fleece.= A celebrated order of knighthood in Austria and Spain, founded by Philip III., duke of Burgundy and the Netherlands, at Bruges, January 10, 1429. The order was instituted for the protection of the Roman Catholic Church, and ranks next after the order of the Garter. The insignia of the Austrian order are a golden fleece hanging from a gold and blue enameled flint-stone emitting flame, and borne in its turn by a ray of fire. On the enameled obverse is inscribed _Pretium laborum non vile_. The Spanish decoration differs slightly from the Austrian.

=Golden Horde.= A name given to the Mongolian Tartars, who established an empire in what is now Southeast Russia about 1224, their ruler being Batou, grandson of Genghis Khan. They invaded Russia, and made Alexander Newski grand duke in 1252. At the battle of Bielawisch, in 1481, they were crushed by Ivan III. and the Nogay Tartars.

=Gollette= (_Fr._). A shirt of mail formerly worn by foot-soldiers.

=Gonfalon=, or =Gonfanon=. An ensign or standard; colors.

=Gonfalonier.= A Turkish general and standard-keeper who always precedes the grand seignor during war.

=Gong.= An Indian and Chinese instrument of percussion, made of a mixture of metals, which produces a very loud, piercing sound on being struck by a wooden mallet. It is used by the Chinese as an instrument of martial music.

=Gong Wallas.= Militia in India; so called from _gong_, a village, and _wallas_, a man.

=Goniometer.= A general name for angle-measuring instruments.

=Good-conduct Pay.= Given in the British service as a stimulus to soldiers to conduct themselves with propriety. Soldiers who have not figured in the defaulters’ book are entitled to extra pay, which goes on increasing at intervals upon the same condition of “good conduct.” To mark the soldiers so distinguished, badges are given them in the form of rings of white lace, worn on the right arm. The receipt of good-conduct pay uninterruptedly for some years influences the amount of pension.

=Goojerat.= A village in the Punjab, India, the scene of the last stand made by the Sikh army against the British under Lord Gough, in 1849. In this action the Sikhs lost 53 guns, and their army of 60,000 men was entirely broken up and dispersed. The whole of the Punjab then fell under the British yoke.

=Gordian Knot.= It is said to have been made of the thongs that served as harness to the wagon of Gordius, a husbandman, afterwards king of Phrygia. Whosoever loosed this knot, the ends of which were not discoverable, the oracle declared should be ruler of Persia. Alexander the Great cut away the knot with his sword until he found the ends of it, and thus, in a military sense at least, interpreted the oracle, 330 B.C.

=Goree.= A town and small island, or rather rock, off the coast of Africa, a little more than a mile from Cape Verd. This island was first occupied by the Dutch, and afterwards taken by the French, to whom it was finally ceded by the treaty of Nimeguen, 1678. It is now the bulwark of the possessions of the French in Africa. Goree was taken by the British in 1758, 1779, 1800, and 1804.

=Gorey.= A town in the southeast of Ireland. Near here the king’s troops under Col. Walpole were defeated, and their leader slain by the Irish rebels, June 4, 1798.

=Gorge.= The entrance into any piece of a fortification, which consists of the distance or space between the inner extremities of the two faces; as, between the faces of a half-moon, redoubt, bastion, redan, lunette, etc.

=Gorge, Demi-.= See DEMI-GORGE.

=Gorge of a Bastion.= In fortification, is usually an open space between the extremities of the flanks of the bastion. The larger this gorge is, the better is the defense; for when the ruined bastion is about to fall by siege into the hands of the enemy, the defenders can construct defensive works or dig small ditches in the gorge of the abandoned bastion. Such resistance sometimes drives the besiegers to the necessity of battering in breach the curtain.

=Gorge of Mountains.= Is the passage, more or less compressed, between two mountains, which is used as a passage-way into valleys. Gorges are important military points. If they lead to an intrenched camp, it is necessary to fortify them, and there post grand guards; these positions are the principal theatres for affairs of posts.

=Gorged.= In heraldry, when an animal is represented with a crown round its neck, it is said to be gorged.

=Gorgerin= (_Fr._). In ancient times, that part of the armor which covered the neck of a man. Hence our word _gorget_.

=Gorget= (Ital. _gorgietta_, from _gorga_, a throat). That part of ancient armor which defended the neck. Also a crescent-shaped ornament formerly worn by military officers on the breast.

=Gorgons.= In military antiquity, a warlike female nation of Lybia, in Africa, who had frequent quarrels with another nation of the same sex, called _Amazons_.

=Gothard, St.= The pass of St. Gothard is one of the best and most frequented routes across the Alps. On the northern slope is the celebrated Devil’s Bridge across the Ruess. The French and Russians had several combats here in 1799.

=Gothland.= An island in the Baltic Sea. It was conquered by the Teutonic knights, 1397-98; given up to the Danes, 1524; to Sweden, 1645; conquered by the Danes, 1677, and restored to Sweden, 1679.

=Goths.= A warlike nation that inhabited the country between the Caspian, Pontus, Euxine, and Baltic Seas. They entered Mœsia, took Philippopolis, massacring thousands of its inhabitants; defeated and killed the emperor Decius, 251; but were defeated by Claudius, 320,000 being slain. Aurelian ceded Dacia to them in 272; but they long troubled the empire. After the destruction of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the _Ostrogoths_, under Theodoric, became masters of the greater part of Italy, where they retained their dominion till 553, when they were finally conquered by Narses, Justinian’s general. The _Visigoths_ settled in Spain, and founded a kingdom, which continued until the country was subdued by the Saracens.

=Gotthard, St.= Near the river Raab, Hungary. Here the Turks under the grand vizier Kupriuli were totally defeated by the Imperialists and their allies, commanded by Montecuculli, August 1, 1664. Peace followed this great victory.

=Goudrons= (_Fr._). Small fascines, or fagots, which are well steeped in wax, pitch, and glue, and then are lighted for the purpose of setting fire to beams, planks, traverses, galleries, pontons, etc. They are likewise used in various shapes and ways, to convey light into the ditches, or upon the ramparts.

=Goujat= (_Fr._). A soldier’s boy. It likewise signifies an ignorant, good-for-nothing fellow.

=Gourdin= (_Fr._). A flat stick, two fingers in breadth, which was used by the French to punish galley-slaves.

=Government.= The Constitution of the United States provides that Congress shall make rules for the government and regulation of armies. By government is understood not only the body of fundamental laws of a state, but also the body of persons charged with the management of the executive power of a country; direction, power or authority which rules a community; administration; rule; management. Government of the military is that branch of the code which embraces the creation and regulation of the military hierarchy, or the gradual distribution of inferior authority. The power of making rules of government is that of _supreme command_, and from this living principle proceed the localization of troops, their organization and distribution; rules for rewards and punishments; and generally, all rules of government and _regulation_ whatsoever, which the legislature may judge necessary to maintain an efficient and well-disciplined army. All authority over the land forces of the United States must, therefore, be derived from Congress. For, although the President is the commander-in-chief, yet his functions, as such, must be regulated by Congress, under the 17th clause of Sec. 8 of the Constitution, as well as under the general authority of Congress to make rules for the government and regulation of the land forces. The President cannot be divested of power which Congress may assign to any inferior military commander, because the authority of the greater includes that of the less. But all the authority over the land and naval forces, save the _appointment_ of the commander-in-chief, rests with Congress, and no authority can be exercised not delegated by Congress, except such as may be fairly deduced from powers given for the effective discharge of the duties annexed to his office.

=Government’s Island.= See ROCK ISLAND.

=Governor.= An officer placed by royal commission in the military command of a fortress, not only over the garrison but over the inhabitants. In time of war it is an office of great responsibility, and at all times requires considerable experience and military information. Also, in the United States, one who is invested with supreme authority in a State.

=Governor’s Island.= An island in New York harbor, about a mile and a half south of the City Hall. It belongs to the United States, and is strongly fortified by Fort Columbus, Castle Williams, and a battery commanding the entrance to Buttermilk Channel, the channel which separates the island from Brooklyn. The ordnance department has a depot here. It is now the headquarters of the military division of the Atlantic.

=Gowrie Conspiracy.= One of the most singular events in the history of Scotland took place in August, 1600. John Ruthven, earl of Gowrie, and others entered into a conspiracy to possess themselves of the king’s (James VI.) person, to convey him to England and to administer the government in the interest of the Presbyterian leaders at home. They succeeded in enticing the king to the Gowrie House at Perth, and after they had held him as a prisoner were almost successful in dismissing his attendants without exciting suspicion; but the king crying out for assistance his voice was instantly recognized; his attendants hastened to the rescue, and quickly dispatched the earl and his brother Alexander.

=Grade.= Synonymous with rank; peculiarly applicable to the different ranks among officers, beginning from an ensign to the commander-in-chief of an army.

=Gradivus.= A surname of Mars (which see).

=Grain.= See FORAGE.

=Grainoir=, or =Grénoir= (_Fr._). A term used in the French artillery to signify a sort of sieve, in which there are small round holes for moist powder to be passed through, in order to make the grains perfectly round.

=Gran.= A town of Hungary, on the right bank of the Danube, 25 miles northwest of Pesth. It is one of the oldest towns of Hungary, was formerly fortified, and has undergone assaults and sieges almost without number.

=Granada.= A city of Southern Spain, founded by the Moors in the 8th century. It formed at first part of the kingdom of Cordova. In 1236, Mohammed-al-Hamar made it the capital of his new kingdom of Granada, which was subjugated by the “great captain,” Gonsalvo de Cordova, in 1492. Granada was taken by Marshal Soult in 1810, and held till 1812.

=Granada, New.= The name formerly given to the republic now known as the United States of Colombia (which see).

=Grand.= This word is frequently used, both in French and English, to indicate superiority of position, force, or display; as _grand master_, _grand army_, _grand march_, _grand parade_, etc.

=Grand Division.= A battalion or regiment being told off by two companies to each division, is said to be told off in grand divisions; hence, grand-division firing is when the battalion fires by two companies at the same time, and is commanded by one officer only.

=Grand Guard.= The main guard of an army; the guard covering the army or camp from an attack by the enemy; other guards are called _interior guards_.

=Grand Master.= The title of the head of the military orders, the Hospitallers, the Templars, and the Teutonic knights.

=Grand Master of Cross-bows.= The _personnel_ of the French artillery was for a long time prior to 1420 retained, together with the engineers, under the general direction of an officer who was titled “grand master of cross-bows.” In 1420 the master-general of artillery was made independent of this officer.

=Grand Rounds.= See ROUNDS.

=Grand Tactics.= See TACTICS.

=Granicus.= A river in Northwestern Asia Minor, near which, on May 22, 334 B.C., Alexander the Great signally defeated the Persians. The Macedonian troops (30,000 foot and 5000 horse) crossed the Granicus in the face of the Persian army (600,000 foot and 20,000 horse). Sardis capitulated, Miletus and Halicarnassus were taken by storm, and other great towns submitted to the conqueror.

=Granson=, or =Grandson=. A town of Switzerland, canton of Valid, on the southwest shore of the Lake of Neufchâtel, 20 miles north of Lausanne. Near it the Burgundians under Charles the Rash were defeated by the Swiss with great loss, March 8, 1476.

=Granville.= A fortified seaport of France, in the department of La Manche, on a rocky peninsula 12 miles northwest from Avranches. In 1695 this place was burned by the English, and in 1793 it was besieged by the Vendeans.

=Grape-shot.= A certain number of iron balls, usually nine, put together by means of two cast-iron plates, two rings, and one pin and nut. Each plate has on the inside three beds for the shot, of a depth equal to half the thickness of the plate and of the form of a spherical segment, the curvature of which is the same as that of the shot. An iron pin riveted to the bottom iron plate passes through the centre and also through the top plate, where the whole is secured by a nut and screw. In the United States the use of these shot for field-pieces has been discontinued, canister answering the purpose. (See CANISTER-SHOT.) In the old pattern, the balls were placed in tiers around an iron pin attached to an iron tampion at the bottom, put into a canvas bag, and then quilted around with a strong cord.

=Grapple.= To seize; to contend in close fight; to attach one’s self as if by a grapple, as in wrestling; hence to _grapple with_, to enter into contest with, resolutely and courageously.

=Grappling.= A laying fast hold of; also, that by which anything is seized and held.

=Grasp.= The handle of a sword, and of an oar. Also, the small part of the stock of a musket.

=Grass-cutters.= Followers of cavalry regiments in India, whose duty it is to go forth and collect green forage for the horses.

=Grassin= (_Fr._). An ancient name for militia composed of light troops.

=Gratification.= In a general acceptation of the term, this word meant, among the French, certain rewards which generals gave to the troops, after a severe engagement, in testimony of their valor and good conduct. These rewards were distributed according to rank. This custom was prevalent in the most ancient times. By gratification was likewise meant the accumulation of a certain sum, which was deposited for the specific purpose of burying a deceased soldier. This term also meant a certain allowance in money allotted to prisoners of war.

=Gratuity.= An allowance to officers of the British service in the Indian army, varying with their rank. This and other allowances, such as batta, tentage, etc., had been granted for the purpose of augmenting an officer’s emoluments in India, without giving him a claim to a higher rate of net paper when on furlough in England. Gratuities are allowed to officers in the French service at the beginning of a campaign.

=Gravelines.= A small fortified town and seaport of France, in the department of Nord, 12 miles southwest of Dunkirk. Here Count d’Egmont obtained a victory over the French army commanded by Marshal de Thermes in 1558. Ten years later, it was taken by Louis XIV., who had it fortified by Vauban.

=Gravelotte, Battle of.= Also called the battle of Rézonville, the bloodiest battle of the Franco-German war, took place August 18, 1870. It was gained by the German armies, commanded by the king in person, after twelve hours’ hard fighting. The most desperate struggle took place on the slopes over Gravelotte, which the Germans gained by nightfall, after repeated charges, the fortune of the day being long in suspense. But the right of the French had been outflanked, they fell back fighting to the last, and retired under cover of Metz. The French are said to have lost 19,000, including officers and men, besides a large number of prisoners; and the Germans, 25,000.

=Graveurs= (_Fr._). Persons employed and paid by the founders of cannon for repairing damaged pieces of artillery. Some individual, however, was distinguished by the name of _graveur de l’artillerie_ (engraver to the artillery), and was permitted by the grand master of the ordnance to exhibit over his shop door the arms of the royal artillery.

=Gravimetric Density of Gunpowder.= Is the weight of a measured quantity.

=Gravity.= Is the tendency of all bodies towards the centre of the earth. The force of gravity is in the inverse proportion to the square of the body’s distance from the centre of the earth. The specific gravity of a body is the ratio of the weight of a body to that of an equal volume of some other body assumed as a standard, usually pure distilled water at a certain temperature for solids and liquids, and air for gases.

=Graze.= The point at which a shot strikes and rebounds from earth or water. _Grazing-fire_, that which sweeps close to the surface it defends.

=Great Britain.= See BRITAIN, GREAT.

=Great-coat.= A soldier’s overcoat is so called.

=Great Fortification.= One of the divisions of the first systems of Vauban. It consists in a fortification whose exterior side is from 185 to 260 toises, or from 370 to 520 yards, and is seldom adopted but towards a river or a marsh.

=Great Radius.= In fortification, the whole oblique radius.

=Greaves.= Were a kind of armor for the legs, worn both by the Greek and Roman soldiers; the latter having adopted them from the former. They were made of brass, copper, tin, or other metals. The sides were closed about the ankles with buttons of gold, silver, etc. This kind of defensive armor was at first peculiar to the Grecians. The Etruscans had them, apparently of rough hides, fastened behind by a single ligature near the middle of the calf; these subsequently gave way to buskins. Servius Tullius introduced the Etruscan greaves among the Romans; but from the time of the republic the word _ochrea_ applied to the laced-up boots, which succeeded them.

=Greece=, or =Hellas, Kingdom of=. The ancient Græcia, a maritime country in the southeast of Europe. In the early ages the Greeks were governed by monarchs; but the monarchical power gradually decreased, and the love of liberty led to the establishment of the republican form of government. No part of Greece, except Macedonia, remained in the hands of an absolute sovereign. The expedition of the Argonauts first, and, in the succeeding age, the wars of Thebes and Troy, gave opportunity to their warriors, who afterwards ranked as heroes and demigods, to display their valor in the field of battle. The spirit of Greece, however, was crushed by the Romans; and in 1718 she became a Turkish province. In 1821 the ancient spirit seemed to have revived in the modern Greeks, and they determined to be free. The struggle was severe and protracted; but, by the interference of the great European powers, the Turks were forced to acknowledge Greece an independent state in 1829.

=Greek Fire.= A combustible composition (now unknown, but thought to have been principally naphtha), thrown from engines said to have been invented by Callinicus, an ingenious engineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, in the 7th century, in order to destroy the Saracens’ ships, which was effected by the general of the fleet of Constantine, Pogonatus, and 30,000 men were killed. A so-called “Greek fire,” probably a solution of phosphorus in bisulphide of carbon, was employed at the siege of Charleston, U. S., in September, 1863. Greek fire, as now understood, is simply a solid, highly combustible composition, consisting of sulphur and phosphorus dissolved in the bisulphide of carbon, to which occasionally some mineral oil is added, with the view of increasing its incendiary powers. When the liquid is thrown on any surface exposed to the air the solvent evaporates, leaving a film of the phosphorus or sulphide of phosphorus, which then inflames spontaneously. The proper mode of extinguishing such a fire is to throw damp sand, ashes, sawdust, or lime, wet sacking or carpeting; in short, any material which will exclude the air from the fire. No attempt should be made to remove the covering for some time after the flame has been extinguished. The place should afterwards be thoroughly washed by a powerful jet of water forced upon it.

=Greener’s Bullet.= One of the first attempts to make a bullet take the grooves by the expanding action of the powder was by Mr. Greener, an English gunsmith, in 1836. He used a conical pewter wedge, which was driven into a cavity in the base of the bullet by the powder and forced the outer walls of the bullet into the grooves.

=Grenada.= An island in the West Indies belonging to the Windward group. It was discovered by Columbus in the year 1498. It was originally settled by the French, but was taken by the British in 1762, to whom it was confirmed by the peace of Paris in 1763.

=Grenade.= In gunnery, is a shell thrown from the hand, or in barrels from mortars of large caliber, and ignited as other shells by means of a fuze. There are hand-grenades and rampart-grenades; old 6-pounder spherical-case may be used for the former, and shells of any caliber for the latter. Grenades are useful in the defense of works, the smaller, thrown by hand into the head of a sap, trenches, covered way, or upon the besiegers mounting a breach; the larger kinds are rolled over the parapet in a trough. Hand-grenades are intended to be used against the enemy when he has reached such parts of the defenses (the bottom of the ditch for example) as are not covered by the guns, or the muskets of the infantry posted on the banquettes. After the enemy has passed the abatis and jumped into the ditch, hand-grenades will be used; and then if he mounts the parapet, he must be met there with the bayonet. _Ketchum’s hand-grenade_ is a small oblong percussion shell which explodes on striking the object.

=Grenadier.= Originally a soldier who was employed in throwing hand-grenades, but in some modern armies a member of the first company of every battalion of foot, in which the tallest and finest men of the regiment are placed.

=Grenadier Guards.= The first regiment of foot guards in the British Household Brigade of Guards, and generally considered the finest corps in the army. It comprises 2697 officers and men, divided into three battalions. The officers of this fashionable corps are usually from the families of the nobility, or more distinguished landed gentry. The 1st Foot Guards, under which name the regiment was originally known, was first raised in 1660. The Grenadier Guards distinguished themselves in the Peninsula, at Waterloo, and in the Crimea.

=Grenadiers Auxiliaries= (_Fr._). Auxiliary grenadiers. During a siege, and when a place was closely invested, a certain number of grenadiers were chosen out of the battalions belonging to the trenches, for the purpose of making head against the besieged, whenever they might risk a sally, or assault the works. It was the peculiar duty of these men to stand forward on every occasion, to set fire to the gabions attached to the batteries, and to crush every attempt which might be made by the garrison to annoy the men that were posted in the trenches, etc.

=Grenadiers, Horse.= Called by the French _grenadiers volans_, or flying grenadiers, are such as are mounted on horseback, but fight both on foot and on horseback. They were first established in France by Louis XIV. in 1676, and formed in squadrons.

=Grenado.= The ancient term for a live shell.

=Grenoble.= A fortified town of France, in the department of the Isère. The town is surrounded with fortifications, and the heights which command the town are also fortified. This was the first place which openly received Napoleon I. on his escape from Elba, in 1815.

=Gribeauval’s System of Artillery.= About 1765 various improvements were introduced into European artillery by Gen. Gribeauval. He separated _field_ from _siege_ artillery, lightened and shortened field-guns and diminished the charges. He adopted elevating screws and tangent scales, strengthened the carriages, and introduced neater uniformity in the dimensions, enabling spare parts to be carried for repairs.

=Grices.= In heraldry, are young wild boars.

=Griffe= (_Fr._). Means literally a claw; but in a military sense, as accepted by the French, it signifies an iron instrument which is made like a hook, and is used by miners to pick out the small stones that are incorporated with cement, etc.

=Griffin.= A fabulous animal, usually represented in heraldry with the body and hind legs of a lion, and the beak, wings, and claws of an eagle.

=Griffin Gun.= A name sometimes given to the 3-inch rifle used in the U. S. field service from its inventor, Mr. Griffin, of the Phœnixville Iron-Works, Pa., where the gun was made.

=Grip.= The handle of a sword.

=Grisons.= The largest of all the cantons of Switzerland. The country was anciently inhabited by the Rhætii; it was conquered by the Roman emperor Constantius in the 4th century, and his camp (_Curia_, _Chur_, or _Coire_, the name of the present capital) was planted on the Rhine. In the 10th century the country of the Grisons was added to the German empire, and remained till 1268 subject to the Swabian dukes. With the decay of the imperial authority it came to be oppressed by a numerous nobility, the ruins of whose castles still crown the heights. Against them the people began, in the end of the 14th century, to form leagues in the different valleys. In 1472, these separate unions entered into a general confederation, which then formed an alliance with the Swiss cantons, but it was not till 1803 that it was admitted into the Swiss Confederation as the fifteenth canton. Grisons was overrun by the French in 1798 and 1799.

=Grochow.= Near Prague, a suburb of Warsaw. Here took place a desperate conflict between the Poles and Russians, February 19-20, 1831, the former remaining masters of the field of battle. The Russians shortly after retreated, having been foiled in their attempt to take Warsaw. They are said to have lost 7000 men, and the Poles 2000.

=Grognard= (_Fr._). Grumbler; an old soldier of the French empire was so called.

=Groma= (_Fr._). A Roman measuring-rod, 20 feet long, used for setting off distances in a camp.

=Grommet.= Consists of a ring of rope-yarn, with two pieces of strong twine tied across at right angles to each other. Grommets are used as wads for cannon. The size of the ring is the full diameter of the bore of the piece, in order that it may fit tight, and stop the windage. They increase the accuracy of fire, and are to be preferred when the object of the wad is merely to retain the projectile in its place, as in firing at a depression. They stop the windage best when placed behind the projectile.

=Groom.= One of several officers of the English royal household, chiefly in the lord chamberlain’s department; as the groom of the chamber; groom of the stole, or robes.

=Groom-porter.= An officer in the household of the king of England, who succeeded the master of revels, and gave directions as to sports.

=Grooved Ball.= See PROJECTILE.

=Grooved Bullet.= See BULLET.

=Grooves.= Spiral grooves or “rifles” cut into the surface of the bore of fire-arms, have the effect of communicating a rotary motion to a projectile around an axis coincident with its flight. This motion increases the range of the projectile, and also corrects one of the causes of deviation by distributing it uniformly around the line of flight. There are two kinds of twist used,--uniform and increasing. Increasing twists are supposed to give greater accuracy, and are well adapted to expanding projectiles which have but short bearing in the grooves. They are also used for stud projectiles. The uniform twist is generally applicable and has many advantages. In small-arms at the present time the bullet used has such a long bearing in the grooves that an increasing twist is not desirable. The ordinary twist is right-handed, giving a _drift_ to the right. The _gras_, the official arm of France, has a left-handed twist. In regard to number and form of grooves authorities differ. The polygroove (or many small grooves) system has given very accurate results, especially in breech-loading cannon. It is in great favor on the continent of Europe. The French system, also used in a modified form in Woolwich and Elswick guns, consists of a few deep grooves in which the studs of the projectile move. The objection to this system is the weakening of the gun and the great strain when fired. For expanding projectiles, experiment shows that broad and shallow grooves with a moderate twist give range, endurance, accuracy of fire, and facility in loading and cleaning the bores. The proper twist to be given to the grooves depends on the length, diameter, and initial velocity of the projectile used; the most suitable twist is best determined by experiment. Other things being equal, the longer the projectile the more rapid the rotation necessary to steady it; the greater the diameter the less rapid the rotation. As the initial velocity is increased, the rotation must be increased. The farther forward the centre of inertia of the projectile, the less the tendency to tumble. The tendency in modern small-arms is to shorten the twist on account of large charges and long bullets. Grooved bullets are best suited to broad shallow grooves; patched bullets to a greater number of sharp-edged grooves.

=Gros= (_Fr._). A body of soldiers; a detachment. The French frequently say, _Un gros de cavalerie_, a body of cavalry; _un gros d’infanterie_, a body of infantry.

=Gros Ventres Indians.= A tribe of aborigines living in Dakota and Montana. They received their name Gros Ventres, “Big Bellies,” from the Canadian _voyageurs_ of the Hudson Bay Company. They are peaceably disposed, and are mostly located at Fort Berthold agency, Dakota, and at Fort Peck, Montana. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Groton.= A village of New London Co., Conn., on the east side of Thames River, opposite New London. It is famous as being the scene of the massacre perpetrated by British troops under Arnold. Old Fort Griswold, commanded by the brave Ledyard, who was barbarously slain with his own sword after he had surrendered, is still standing on Groton Heights; and a granite obelisk has been erected to commemorate the patriotism of those who perished.

=Ground.= In a military sense, the field or place of action. _To take ground_; a battalion or company is said to take ground when it extends in any given direction. This term is likewise used in dueling; as, they _took their ground_ at eight or ten paces from each other.

=Ground Arms.= An old word of command, on which the soldiers laid down their arms upon the ground.

=Ground-work.= See FOUNDATION.

=Grynia=, or =Grynium=. A very ancient fortified city on the coast of the Sinus Elaiticus, in the south of Mysia. Parmenio, the general of Alexander, destroyed the city and sold the inhabitants as slaves, after which the place seems to have decayed.

=Guadaloupe.= An island in the West Indies, and one of the largest and most valuable of the Leeward group. This island was first discovered by Columbus. It was taken possession of by the French in 1635, who drove the natives into the mountains. In 1759 it was taken by a British squadron, and was restored to France at the peace of 1763. It was again taken by the British in 1794; but was retaken by the French in 1795. In 1810 the British once more took possession of it, and in 1814 restored it to the French, to whom it now belongs.

=Guad-el-ras.= In Northwestern Africa. Here the Spaniards signally defeated the Moors, March 23, 1860, after a severe conflict, in which Gen. Prim manifested great bravery, for which he was ennobled.

=Guanches.= The original inhabitants of the Canary Islands, who were supposed to have come from the adjoining coast of Africa. In the 15th century many of these people fell in opposing the Spanish invasion; many were sold by the conquerors as slaves, and many conformed to the Roman Catholic faith, and intermarried with the Spaniards; so that all trace of them as a distinct race is lost. They were celebrated for their tall stature, and were styled by Humboldt the Patagonians of the Old World.

=Guarantee Association, The British.= An association which, for a small percentage, undertakes to vouch for the prudence and fidelity of such public officers (military) as paymasters, ordnance store-keepers, commissaries, staff-officers of pensions, barrack-masters, etc. The government accepts the guarantee of this particular office in preference to that offered by private individuals.

=Guard.= A body of men whose duty it is to secure an army or place from being surprised by an enemy. In garrison the guards are relieved every day. _On guard_ is being engaged on guard duty.

=Guard, Advanced.= See ADVANCED GUARD.

=Guard, Baggage.= A guard who has the care of the baggage on a march.

=Guard-chamber.= A guard-room.

=Guard, Counter-.= See COUNTER-GUARDS.

=Guard, Detail.= The men from a company, regiment, or other organization detailed for guard duty.

=Guard, Dismounting.= The act of coming off guard.

=Guard, Forage.= A detachment sent out to secure foragers. They are posted at all places where either the enemy’s party may come to disturb the foragers, or where they may be spread too near the enemy, so as to be in danger of being taken. This guard consists both of horse and foot, who must remain on their posts till the foragers are all come off the ground.

=Guard, Grand.= The main guard of a camp or army. See GRAND GUARD.

=Guard-house.= A building occupied by the guard. The prisoners being kept in the building, it is frequently used as a synonym for prison-room or lock-up. _To take one to the guard-house_, is to confine him.

=Guard, Magazine-.= See GARDES-MAGAZINE.

=Guard, Main.= Is that from which all other guards are detached, and constitutes the chief guard of a garrison.

=Guard Mess.= Is the table which is kept for the officers of the Life and Foot Guards in St. James’ Palace. The sum of £4000 per annum is allowed for the mess.

=Guard Mounting.= The act of going on guard. The military ceremony of marching on guard.

=Guard of Honor.= A guard drawn up to receive eminent personages, as a mark of respect, or to accompany them.

=Guard, Picket.= An outpost guard for the purpose of preventing a surprise.

=Guard, Police.= The interior guard of a camp or army in charge of arms, property, tents, etc. Also a guard in charge of prisoners engaged in policing a camp or garrison.

=Guard, Provost-.= See PROVOST-GUARD.

=Guard, Quarter.= The guard which is posted in front of a camp.

=Guard, Rear-.= The guard posted in rear of a camp. It also means the body of troops which, when troops are on the march, bring up the rear, and hold a pursuing enemy in check.

=Guard Report.= The report which the non-commissioned officer or officer in charge of the guard sends in on dismounting. It contains a statement of duties performed, of hours at which the guard was visited by the officer of the day or field-officer, a list of government property and its condition, and also of the prisoners handed over to the guard, with the charge against each, together with the name of the officer by whom the prisoner was confined.

=Guard Tent.= Tent occupied by the guard.

=Guardable.= Capable of being guarded or protected.

=Guardiagrele.= An old town of Southern Italy, in the province of Chieti. Belisarius surrounded it with a turreted wall as a defense against the Goths. It was often besieged during the Middle Ages, and in 1799 was mercilessly sacked and burned by the French.

=Guards.= In the British service constitute in time of peace the garrison of London, and the guard of the sovereign at Windsor. The Guards compose what is called the Household Brigade, and include in cavalry the 1st and 2d Life Guards, and the Royal Horse Guards; and in infantry the Grenadier Guards, the Coldstream Guards, and the Scots Fusilier Guards. The officers of the regiments of Foot Guards hold higher army rank than that they bear regimentally,--that is, ensigns rank with lieutenants of other regiments, lieutenants with captains, and so on.

=Guards, Imperial.= The name of a body of select troops organized by the French emperor, Napoleon I., which greatly distinguished themselves at Austerlitz.

=Guards’ Institute.= An establishment in London; it consists of reading-, lecture-rooms, etc., for all officers and soldiers in the metropolis. It was inaugurated by the Duke of Cambridge, July 11, 1867.

=Guards, The Horse Grenadier.= Formerly a body of horse guards in the British service; the first troop was raised in 1693, and the second in 1702. This corps was reduced in 1783, the officers retiring on full pay.

=Guastadours= (_Fr._). Turkish pioneers. Armenians and Greeks are generally employed in the Turkish armies to do the fatigue-work that is necessary for the formation of a camp, or for conducting a siege.

=Guastalla.= A city in Northern Italy, near which the imperial army, commanded by the king of Sardinia, was defeated by the French, September 19, 1734. The ancient district of that name, long held by the dukes of Mantua, was seized by the emperor of Germany, 1746, and ceded to Parma, 1748. After having been comprised in the Italian republic, 1796, and subjected to other changes, it was annexed to Parma, 1815, and to Modena, 1847.

=Guatemala.= A republic in Central America, declared independent March 21, 1847. A war between Guatemala and San Salvador broke out in January, 1863, and on June 16 the troops of the latter were totally defeated.

=Guatuso Indians.= A tribe of aborigines living on the Rio Frio, in Central America. They are said to be a brave and warlike race.

=Gubbio= (anc. _Iguvium_). A city of Central Italy, 27 miles south of Urbino, on the southern declivity of the Apennines. It bore a conspicuous part in the beginning of the civil war between Cæsar and Pompey, when it was occupied by the prætor Minucius Thermus with five cohorts; but on the approach of Curio with three cohorts, Thermus, who was apprehensive of a revolt of the citizens, abandoned the town without resistance.

=Gudda.= An Indian term for a fool; also a small fort erected upon a hill or eminence.

=Guelphs and Ghibellines.= Names given to the papal and imperial factions who destroyed the peace of Italy from the 12th to the end of the 15th century (the invasion of Charles VIII. of France in 1495). The origin of the names is ascribed to the contest for the imperial crown between Conrad of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, lord of Wiblingen (hence _Ghibelin_), and Henry, nephew of Wolf, or Guelf, duke of Bavaria, in 1138. The former was successful; but the popes and several Italian cities took the side of his rival. _Hie Guelf_ and _Hie Ghibelin_ are said to have been used as war-cries in 1140, at the battle before Weinsberg, in Würtemberg, when Guelf of Bavaria was defeated by the emperor Conrad IV., who came to help the rival duke, Leopold. The Ghibellines were almost totally expelled from Italy in 1267, when Conrad, the last of the Hohenstaufens, was beheaded by Charles of Anjou. Guelph is the name of the present royal family of England.

=Guelphs, Order of.= An order of knighthood for Hanover, instituted by George IV., when regent, on August 12, 1815. It is both a military and civil order, unlimited in number, and consisted originally of three classes,--Knights Grand Cross, Commanders, and Knights; but in 1841 another class of simple members was added to the order.

=Guerite= (_Fr._). A sentry-box, small turret. In fortified towns there are several small turrets of this denomination, which are sometimes made of wood, and sometimes built with stones. They are generally fixed to the acute points of bastions, and sentinels are posted within them for the purpose of watching the ditch, and of preventing any surprise in that quarter.

=Guerre= (_Fr._). War; warfare; art of war; dissension; strife. _En guerre_, at war; in action; ready for action; a piece of ordnance unlimbered, trunnions shifted, and everything made ready for firing.

=Guerrillas= (Sp. _guérra_, “war”). The name given to armed bands, who on occasion of foreign invasion or civil wars, carry on an irregular warfare on their own account. The name was first applied in Spain to irregular soldiery. From 1808 to 1814 they were regularly organized against the French, and being favored by the character of the country which they fought in, were successful on many occasions. In our late civil war many bands were organized in the Border States, and were a great annoyance to both armies. If guerrillas are taken captive in open warfare, they should be treated according to the usual customs of war, unless they are known to have been guilty of acts not tolerated in civilized warfare. In the Franco-German war, however, we find that the Germans refused to recognize as soldiers, or extend the privileges of war, to the _francs-tireurs_, a body of French volunteer sharpshooters, who, to a great extent, adopted this system of guerrilla warfare.

=Guerrillero= (_Sp._). An irregular soldier; a member of a guerrilla band or party; a partisan.

=Guet= (_Fr._). This term was particularly attached to those persons belonging to the French body-guard, who did duty during the night. It also signified rounds, or those duties of a soldier, or patroling party, which are prescribed for the security of a town, etc., and to prevent surprises. It is also used in a military sense in conjunction with other words; as _guet à pied_, foot patrol; _guet à cheval_, horse patrol, etc.

=Gueux= (_Fr._). “Beggars.” A name applied by the Count of Barlaimont in 1566 to the confederated nobles and others of the Low Countries who opposed the tyrannies of Philip II. The malcontents at once adopted the title, and calling themselves _gueux_, for many years opposed the Spanish king by sea and land with varying success.

=Guichet= (_Fr._). A small door or outlet, which is made in the gates of fortified towns. It is generally 4 feet high, and 2 broad, so that a man must stoop to get through. In garrison towns the guichet was left open for the space of one-quarter of an hour after the retreat, in order to give the inhabitants time to enter.

=Guides.= Generally the country people in the neighborhood where an army encamps. They give intelligence concerning the country, and the roads by which the enemy may approach. In time of war, particularly in the seat of it, the guides invariably accompany headquarters. Of late years it has been customary to form them into regular corps with proper officers at their head.

=Guides.= The name given to the non-commissioned officers, or other enlisted men, who take positions to mark the pivots, marches, formations, and alignments in modern discipline; the French call them _jaloneurs_, from _jalon_, a post.

=Guides, Corps des= (_Fr._). The corps of guides. This body was originally formed in France in 1756, and consisted of 1 captain, 1 first lieutenant, 2 second lieutenants, 2 sergeants, 2 corporals, 1 anspessade, and 20 privates, called _fusiliers-guides_. Another corps of guides was also formed in 1796. This corps now forms part of the imperial guard.

=Guidon.= A small flag or streamer, as that carried by cavalry, which is broad at one end, nearly pointed at the other, and usually of silk; or that used to direct the movements of infantry, or to make signals at sea. In the U. S. service, each company of cavalry has a guidon.

=Guidon.= One who carries a flag. Also, one of a community of guides established at Rome by Charlemagne to accompany pilgrims to the Holy Land.

=Guienne=, or =Guyenne=. An old province in the southwest of France, lying to the north of Gascony. It was part of the dominions of Henry II. Philip of France seized it in 1293, which led to war. It was alternately held by England and France till 1453, when John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, in vain attempted to take it from the latter.

=Guilford Court-house= was situated about 5 miles northwest of Greensboro’, N. C. Here an engagement took place between the British troops under Cornwallis, and the American forces, chiefly composed of inexperienced militia, under Gen. Greene, on March 15, 1781. The fight resulted in a partial victory for the royal troops, owing principally to the disorganization and flight of the North Carolina militia. Gen. Greene, not wishing to risk the annihilation of his army, retreated to Speedwell’s iron-works, 10 miles distant. Cornwallis, however, did not attempt to pursue him, but fell back himself to Cross Creek (Fayetteville).

=Guillotine.= The instrument of decapitation introduced during the French revolution by the Convention, and named after its supposed inventor, J. I. Guillotin. It is composed of two upright posts, grooved on the inside, and connected on the top by a cross-beam. In these grooves a sharp iron blade, placed obliquely, descends by its own weight on the neck of the victim, who is bound to a board laid below. The invention of machines of this kind is ascribed to the Persians. In Italy, from the 13th century, it was the privilege of the nobles to be put to death by a machine of this kind, which was called _mannaia_. Machines of similar kind were used in Scotland and Holland for the purpose of decapitation.

=Guinegate, Battle of.= Or more familiarly, the “Battle of the Spurs,” was fought at Guinegate, not far from Tournai, in the province of Hainault, August 16, 1513, between the English under Henry VIII., assisted by a considerable body of troops headed by the emperor Maximilian, and the French under the Duc de Longueville. The latter were defeated. The battle received its familiar designation from the circumstance of the French knights having made better use of their _spurs_ than of their _swords_.

=Guisarme=, or =Gisarme= (_Fr._). An offensive weapon formerly used in France; it was a two-edged axe mounted upon a long handle, and sometimes called _voulque_. There were three kinds; the _glaive gisarme_ had a sabre-blade with a spike, the _bill gisarme_ a blade like a hedging-bill, and the _hand gisarme_ was a kind of bill with a serrated back.

=Guisarmiers= (_Fr._). Were French foot-soldiers (_piétons_) of the free archers, armed with the guisarme.

=Gujerat=, or =Guzerat=. A walled town of the Punjab, on the right side of the Chenab, about 8 miles from the stream. It is a place of some military importance, being on the great route between Attock and Lahore. Here on February 21, 1849, a Sikh army of 60,000 men was utterly defeated by a British force decidedly inferior in point of numbers.

=Gules.= The term by which the color red is known in heraldry. In engraving it is marked by perpendicular lines traced from the top of the shield to the bottom. It is supposed to indicate valor, magnanimity, and the like, and is regarded as the most honorable heraldic color.

=Gun.= In its most general sense, a gun is a machine, having the general shape of a hollow cylinder closed at one end, and used for the purpose of projecting heavy bodies to great distances by means of gunpowder. Technically, it is a heavy cannon, distinguished by its great weight, length, and absence of a chamber. It is used for throwing projectiles with large charges of powder to long distances, with great accuracy and penetration. Guns came into use in the 14th century, and were first fired from supports, and in reality were artillery. Shortly after, they took the form of a clumsy hand-gun, called an arquebuse, which was portable, but discharged from a forked rest. The next modification, which came into use about the end of the 14th century, was called the matchlock. The piece was discharged by a lighted match brought down on the powder-pan by the action of a trigger. This was superseded in 1517 by the wheel-lock, the fire being produced by the action of a toothed wheel upon flint or iron pyrites. Almost contemporary with this was the snaphance gun, in which sparks were generated by the concussion of flint on the ribbed top of the powder-pan. About the middle of the 17th century the flint-lock began to be employed. This was a combination of the two latter weapons, but much superior to either. It continued universally in use until the early part of the present century, when the percussion-lock was invented, which by 1840 (the time of its adoption by the British government), had completely superseded it. As the lock improved, and the rapidity of firing increased, the weight of the piece diminished; the old tripod first used as a rest gave way to one stake, and finally, in the 18th century, was abandoned altogether. The weapon was then the smooth-bore musket, which continued in use with various modifications until the middle of the 19th century, when it was

## partially superseded by the rifle. (See SMALL-ARMS.) In their earlier

stages cannon went by various names, as bombards, culverins, petronels, and later on were reduced to the three denominations, technically, of guns, howitzers, and mortars. For the two latter, see HOWITZER and MORTAR. Guns are subdivided in the U. S. service according to their use, into field, siege, and sea-coast guns. The field-guns consist of two rifle pieces; the 3-inch rifle, adopted in 1861, and the 3¹⁄₂-inch rifle, adopted in 1870 (see ORDNANCE, CONSTRUCTION OF), and the Napoleon gun, a 12-pounder smooth-bore, adopted in 1857. (See NAPOLEON GUN.) The only siege gun adopted by the United States is a 4¹⁄₂-inch rifle. The 30-pounder Parrott, so extensively employed in our service for siege purposes, is not a regulation gun. The sea-coast guns consist of 13-, 15-, and 20-inch smooth-bores, and 10- and 12-inch rifles. An 8-inch rifle has been constructed by converting the 10-inch smooth-bore according to the Palliser or Parsons method. The 13-inch smooth-bore and the 10- and 12-inch rifles are regarded as experimental guns. The guns principally in use for the land and sea forces of the United States are those known as the Columbiad, or Rodman, Dahlgren, Gatling, Hotchkiss, Napoleon, Parrott. (For particular descriptions, see appropriate headings.) In the British service they are the Armstrong, Palliser, Woolwich, or Fraser, and the Lancaster, Mackay, and Whitworth; the three latter being now very little used. (See appropriate headings.) The only breech-loader in general use in Europe is the Krupp, which is largely employed for all purposes by Germany and Russia. See KRUPP GUN.

=Gun, Curricle.= Is a small piece of ordnance, mounted upon a carriage of two wheels, and drawn by two horses. The artilleryman is seated on a box, and the whole can be moved forward into action with astonishing rapidity. The tumbrils belonging to curricle guns carry 60 rounds of ball cartridges. This gun is no longer in general use.

=Gun Factories, Royal.= Are government establishments in England, at Woolwich, and Elswick, near Newcastle-on-Tyne, for the construction of great guns for the use of the British army and navy.

=Gun-barrel.= The barrel or tube of a gun. Gun-barrels were formerly made on the coiled principle, and this method is still largely followed in thin barrels like those of shot-guns. The superior kinds of shot-gun barrels are known as _stub_, _stub-twist_, _wire-twist_, _laminated_, etc.

_Stub-iron_ is made from horseshoe nails cleaned by tumbling and mixed with a small proportion of steel scrap. It is then puddled and put through various processes, which end in the production of a flat bar called a _skelp_.

_Twist_ is the term applied to _coiled barrels_. The iron or steel is made into a ribbon, which is wound spirally around a mandrel and welded.

_Stub-twist_ is stub-iron coiled.

_Wire-twist_ is made by welding iron and steel bars together, or two qualities of iron, and drawing the compound bar into a ribbon, which is coiled as before described. The term is specially applied to coiled barrels made from small ribbons.

_Damascus iron_ is made by twisting compound bars of steel and iron, welding several of the twisted bars together and forming a ribbon from the mass.

_Laminated_ is the term applied to barrels made from compound bars.

In twist-barrels, the ribbon is several yards long, about half an inch wide, and thicker at the breech than at the muzzle end. It is heated to redness, wound on the mandrel, then removed and heated to the welding-point slipped over a rod with a shoulder at the lower end. The rod is then dropped vertically several times on a block of metal, which welds the spiral edges together. This is called _jumping_. The welding is completed by hammering.

Rifle-barrels and the cheaper kinds of shot-gun barrels are made directly from the _skelp_, which is passed between rollers, which first bend the plate longitudinally and afterwards convert it into a tube. The tube is then heated to a welding heat, a mandrel is pushed into it, and it is passed through the welding rolls, which weld the edges and at the same time taper and lengthen the tube. The boring and turning are done in lathes.

=Gun-carriage.= See CARRIAGE.

=Gun-carriage, Barbette.= See BARBETTE CARRIAGE.

=Gun-carriage, Field.= See FIELD-CARRIAGE.

=Gun-carriage, Flank Casemate.= See FLANK CASEMATE CARRIAGE.

=Gun-carriage, Mountain.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Gun-carriage, Prairie.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Gun-carriage, Sea-coast.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Gun-carriage, Siege.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR.

=Gun-cotton=, or =Pyroxyle=. Gun-cotton was discovered by Schönbein in 1846, and was first made by treating ordinary cotton with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids. The product resembles ordinary cotton in appearance, but in color is slightly tinged with yellow, and is very much heavier. It explodes with great violence, but is unfit for most military purposes on account of its liability to spontaneous explosion, its corroding residue, and the irregular character of its explosion. Baron von Lenk, of the Austrian service, however, succeeded to some extent in regulating the suddenness of the explosion by twisting it into ropes, and weaving it into cloth, but it never came much into favor for military purposes. As first made, the length of time necessary for its manufacture was about two or three months, but Mr. Abel, of the British war office, has by a series of experiments materially decreased the time necessary for its manufacture, and greatly increased the safety and certainty of the product. At Favesham the manufacture of a peculiar kind of gun-cotton, known as _tonite_, is conducted on a large scale. The process consists in intimately mixing the ordinary gun-cotton with about an equal weight of nitrate of baryta. This compound is then compressed into candle-shaped cartridges, formed with a recess at one end for the reception of a fulminate of mercury detonator. It contrasts favorably with soft, plastic dynamite from the fact of its being easily fastened to the safety-fuze. Among its advantages, said to be due to the use of the nitrate, are that it contains a great amount of oxygen in a very small volume, and that it is very ready under the detonator, while its great density makes it slow to the influence of ordinary combustion. It is 30 per cent. stronger than ordinary gun-cotton, and takes up but two-thirds of its space, or the same space as dynamite. The cartridges are generally made water-proof. The projectile force of gun-cotton, when used with moderate charges, is equal to about twice its weight of the best gunpowder. Its explosive force is in a high degree greater than that of gunpowder, and in this respect its nature assimilates much more to the fulminates than to gunpowder. It evolves little or no smoke, as the principal residue of its combustion is water and nitrous acid. Recently, by the mixture of nitre and cane-sugar its quickness in action has been reduced so as to make it available for use in small-arms. The nitrous acid, however, will soon corrode the barrel if the piece is not carefully wiped after firing. Other explosive substances analogous to gun-cotton may be prepared from many organic bodies of the cellulose kind, by immersing them in the same bath as for gun-cotton; among these may be mentioned paper, tow, sawdust, calico, and wood fibre.

=Gundermuk.= A village of Afghanistan, 28 miles west from Jellalabad. Here the remnant of the British force, consisting of 100 soldiers and 300 camp-followers, were massacred in 1842, while retreating from Cabul (Cabool), only one man escaping.

=Gun-fire.= The hour at which the morning or evening gun is fired.

=Gun-lift.= The gun-lift recently devised by Col. Laidley, of the U. S. Ordnance Corps, is a most complete and rapid means for moving and dismounting heavy guns. In it the hydraulic jack is placed upon a stand over the gun, whereby the building-up of the crib-work of blocks, which serves as a base for the jack to stand on, is dispensed with, and the position of the jack has not to be changed during the operation of raising or lowering a gun. The ordinary carpenter’s horse or trestle is taken as the basis of the _hoisting_ apparatus. The cap of the trestle, having to sustain the weight of the gun suspended at a distance of more than 2 feet from the points of support, is a large, strong, and heavy piece of timber, and the legs of the trestle have to be strongly braced. The bolster, a strong piece of oak on top of the cap of the trestle, has two mortices cut in it, one for a hoisting-bar _to pass through_, and the other for the fulcrum-post to _rest in_. The fulcrum-post has a recess cut on the top to receive the end of a lever and keep it in place. The lever has a mortice through which the hoisting-bar, already mentioned, passes; the latter is perforated with a series of holes through which a pin passes, by which the end of the lever, under which the hydraulic jack works, can be fastened to the hoisting-bar. The hoisting-bar has a hook on its lower end to which the weight to be raised is fastened by means of a sling.

=Gun-metal.= An alloy of nine parts of copper and one part of tin, used for brass cannon, etc. (See BRONZE). The name is also given to certain strong mixtures of cast iron.

=Gunner.= A soldier employed to manage and discharge great guns; an artilleryman. In the U. S. service there is with each piece a gunner, who gives all the executive commands in action. He is answerable that the men at the piece perform their duties correctly.

=Gunner’s Calipers.= Are made of sheet-brass, with steel points. The graduations show diameters of guns, shot, etc.

=Gunner’s Elevating Arc.= See ELEVATING ARC.

=Gunner’s Level=, or =Gunner’s Perpendicular=. Is an instrument made of sheet-brass; the lower part is cut in the form of a crescent, the points of which are made of steel; a small spirit-level is fastened to one side of the plate, parallel to the line joining the points of the crescent, and a slider is fastened to the same side of the plate, perpendicular to the axis of the piece. This instrument is used to mark the points of sight on pieces. By means of the bubble the feet or points of the crescent are placed on a horizontal line on the base-ring or base-line, the slider pushed down until the point rests on the base-ring or line, and its position marked with chalk.

=Gunner’s Pincers.= Are made of iron with steel jaws, which have on the end of one a claw for drawing nails, etc.

=Gunner’s Plummet.= A simple line and bob for pointing mortars.

=Gunner’s Quadrant.= Is a graduated quarter of a circle of sheet-brass of 6 inches radius, attached to a brass rule 22 inches long. It has an arm carrying a spirit-level at its middle and a vernier at its movable end. To get a required elevation, the vernier is fixed at the indicated degree, the brass rule is then inserted in the bore parallel to the axis of the piece; the gun is then elevated or depressed until the level is horizontal. There is also a graduated quadrant of wood, of 6 inches radius, attached to a rule 23.5 inches long. It has a plumb-line and bob, which are carried, when not in use, in a hole in the end of the rule, covered by a brass plate.

=Gunnery.= The art of using fire-arms; but the term is commonly understood as being restricted to the use or application to the purposes of war of the larger pieces of ordnance, as cannon, mortars, and howitzers. In its practical branch gunnery includes a just knowledge of the construction of the several pieces of artillery, and of the strength, tenacity, and resisting power of the materials of which they are formed; of the method of mounting them upon strong, efficient, well-proportioned, and conveniently constructed carriages; of the proportions due to the strength of the powder and projectiles they should carry; of the force and effect, and also of the manufacture of gunpowder; and, generally, of all such mechanical arrangements and appliances as may facilitate the movements and working of the guns, etc., when prepared for action. But gunnery takes a yet far more extensive range; for it may be said to be based upon nearly every branch of the mathematical and physical sciences, and may be itself considered as a science requiring the most intricate combinations of human knowledge and mechanical ingenuity fully to comprehend and perfect. It

## particularly requires an acquaintance with all experiments which may

have been made to ascertain the impetus of projection, the momentum of bodies in motion, and the range and time of flight of projectiles with given charges of gunpowder,--with the effect of the resistance of the atmosphere upon projectiles propelled with different velocities, and the laws of gravitation as affecting falling bodies; and with the various causes, mechanical and otherwise, of the usual deflection of projectiles in their course, when fired from a gun. See PROJECTILES and VELOCITY.

=Gunning.= The act of hunting or shooting game with a gun.

=Gun-pendulum.= A contrivance for obtaining initial velocities of projectiles. The gun is suspended from a frame-work with its axis horizontal. The velocity of the shot is deduced from the arc described in the recoil. The apparatus is now nearly obsolete.

=Gun-platform.= See PLATFORM.

=Gunpowder.= A well-known explosive mixture, whose principal employment is in the discharge, for war or sport, of projectiles from fire-arms, and for mining purposes. The ingredients in gunpowder are saltpetre, charcoal, and sulphur. Slightly different proportions are employed in different countries. In the United States the proportions are 75 to 76 saltpetre, 14 to 15 charcoal, and 10 sulphur. Charcoal is the combustible ingredient; saltpetre furnishes the oxygen necessary to support a rapid combustion and to change the whole mass into gas, and sulphur adds consistency to the mixture and intensity to the flame, besides rendering the powder less liable to absorb moisture; increases the volume of gas by preventing the formation of a solid potassium carbonate, and by increasing the temperature.

In the _manufacture_ of ordinary powder, the operations usually employed are _pulverizing_ the ingredients, _incorporation_, _compression_, _granulation_, _glazing_, _drying_, and _dusting_.

The ingredients are _pulverized_ by placing each separately in barrels which contain bronze or zinc balls, and which are revolved rapidly for several hours.

_Incorporation_ or thorough mixing is effected partially by the use of a rolling barrel, and completed in the _rolling-mill_. This consists of two cast-iron cylinders rolling round a horizontal axis in a circular trough with a cast-iron bottom. The cylinders are very heavy, and give a grinding motion, which is very effective in bringing about a thorough mixture of the three ingredients. A wooden scraper follows the rollers and keeps the composition in the middle of the trough. The charge in the trough is moistened with 2 or 3 per cent. of water before the rollers are started. A little water is added from time to time as required. This is the most important operation in the manufacture of powder. The time required is about one hour for each 50 pounds of composition. When finished the composition is called _mill-cake_.

_Compressing._--This is next taken to the press-house, slightly moistened and arranged between brass plates, and then subjected to hydraulic pressure of about 70 tons (English tons) per square foot. Each layer is thus reduced to a hard cake.

_Granulation._--The cake is broken up into grains by means of toothed rollers revolving in opposite directions, the cake being passed between them. The different-sized grains are separated by sieves between the different sets of rollers.

_Glazing_ is effected by moistening the grains and revolving them in a rolling barrel.

_Drying_ is done on sheets in a room heated to 140°-160°.

_Dusting._--The dust is removed by revolving the powder in rolling barrels covered with coarse canvas. The dust is caught by an outside case.

There are five kinds of grain powder used in the U. S. service, distinguished as _mammoth_, _cannon_, _mortar_, _musket_, and _rifle_ powder, all made in the same manner, of the same proportion of materials, and differing only in the size of the grain. Mammoth is employed for the heaviest sea-coast guns; cannon for smaller sea-coast guns; mortar for mortars and field- and siege-pieces; musket for rifle-muskets; and rifle for pistols. In addition to the above we have the following:

_Meal powder_, a fine dust containing the ingredients of ordinary gunpowder, but in which the relative proportions of these ingredients vary, according to the rate of burning desired, and the object for which the powder is to be used. Used principally in pyrotechny, and in mortar fire to communicate the flame from the charge to the shell. Also “_German_” or “_American_” “_White Gunpowder_,” more powerful than ordinary gunpowder, but more expensive; acts upon iron, and is very little used in gunnery.

_Pebble powder_, an irregular large-grain powder, very similar to American “Mammoth,” which preceded it, was made in England, 1865, by breaking ordinary _press-cake_ with copper hammers.

_Fossano powder_, made in Italy, 1871, granulated by hand, is a slow-burning powder, used in large guns, notably in the 100-ton guns, one of which was recently burst, 1880, by a charge of 552 pounds of this powder. Lately the grains of this powder have been given a regular form.

Among _regular grain_ powders made _without molding_ are _cubical_, an English powder, extensively used in all their large guns, the largest being 2 inches on the edge. This is made by passing the cake between fluted rollers, which cut it into strips, and then these strips endways between a second set of rollers.

_Schaghticoke_, made at Hart’s Falls, N. Y., is a _cubical_ powder made very much like the English,--the lines of fracture are, however, simply scratched on the cake (both sides), which is afterwards broken in the ordinary way.

_Molded Powder._--The ingredients are the same as those of ordinary gunpowder, but each grain is separately molded.

Gen. Rodman was the first to propose the manufacture of these powders in his _perforated cake_, 1860; the object being to cause the powder to burn on an increasing surface, thus lessening the strain on the gun in the first moments of combustion. His powder after a few experiments was allowed to fall into disuse in the United States, but the invention was carried to Europe and developed with a smaller grain into _prismatic powder_, used in Europe, and especially in Germany and Russia, and

## particularly adapted to breech-loading cannon; the grain is a hexagonal

prism in form and contains six cylindrical orifices passing entirely through it parallel to the axis, and symmetrically arranged with respect to it. The cartridge is so made that the cylindrical orifices pass through the entire length.

_Hexagonal Powder._--This is the powder principally used in the United States; the grains have the shape which would be given by joining the larger bases of two frustrums of equal six-sided pyramids, and vary in size according to the piece in which the powder is to be used. This powder is believed in the United States to give the best results, and can be adapted to cannon of any caliber.

_History of Gunpowder._--The origin of gunpowder as an explosive, and its application to the projection of missiles of war, are lost in the mists of obscurity. Its use in Europe can be traced only to the middle or early part of the 14th century. It is believed by many that certain experiments by Schwartz, a German monk, led to its introduction in war, but the better theory seems to be that the knowledge was obtained from the Saracens. It is probable that the invention arose in Central Asia in the regions where saltpetre occurs as an effervescence of the soil. The Chinese appropriated the discovery at a very early period, and fireworks were common in that country when Europe was roamed by the primitive savage. When Ghengis Khan invaded China, B.C. 1219, fire-arms of a primitive form appear to have been used. Passages in old writers seem also to show that when Alexander invaded India, 327 B.C., he encountered tribes that used similar weapons. The people of India doubtless obtained their knowledge from China. Wars and migrations of tribes gradually disseminated a knowledge of gunpowder over Asia and Northern Africa. The use of gunpowder is mentioned in Arabic writings in the 13th century. The Moors used it in Spain in 1312. In 1331 the king of Granada employed it in sieges. It is said to have been used by the English in the battles of Crécy, 1316. The Venetians employed it in 1380 against the Genoese. From that time to the present fire-arms have gradually supplanted other weapons.

For a long time after its introduction gunpowder was used in the form of dust or “meal powder.” Granulation was attempted to get rid of the difficulties in handling the dust, but the grained form proved too strong for the arms used, and “meal powder” continued in general use till improvements in the weapons about the close of the 16th century admitted of the other form. The granulation was at first very crude. This was remedied in time by the introduction of machinery or _corning-mills_ in the manufacture. Though different-sized grains were at first used in large and small guns the principles involved were not studied, and afterwards one uniform size--large musket powder--was employed in all fire-arms. This step backwards may have been caused by the impurity of the ingredients and bad manufacture, which made the large grains too weak. In the early part of the present century a classification of grains was revived under the two general names of _musket_ and _cannon powder_. The invention of the _mercury densimeter_ rendered practicable an accurate determination of the specific gravity of powder and its relation to quickness of burning, but the importance of size and form of grain was first appreciated by Gen. Rodman, who, in 1859, began experiments which led at once to the introduction of _mammoth powder_ for large guns, and later to the invention of _perforated cake_. The introduction of the powerful ordnance now existing in Europe has been rendered possible by improvements in this direction based upon the principles first formulated by Rodman. The latest idea on the subject is “compensating powder” (proposed by Lieut. C. A. L. Totten, of the 4th U. S. Artillery), a spherical grain of gunpowder inclosing a smaller sphere of gun-cotton. This powder remains to be made and experimented with, but it opens a field of research which must lead to valuable results.

=Gunpowder, Absolute Force of.= See ABSOLUTE FORCE OF GUNPOWDER.

=Gunpowder Pile-driver.= A pile-driver operated by the explosive force of gunpowder. The hammer is arranged as usual to slide in vertical guides. It has a piston on its lower end, which enters a cylindrical hole in the pile-cap. In this hole the cartridge is placed, and is exploded through the compression of the air by the piston of the hammer, when the latter falls. The explosion drives down the pile and raises the hammer at the same blow. The powder ordinarily used is a mixture of chlorate of potash and bituminous coal.

=Gunpowder Plot.= A conspiracy entered into by a few Roman Catholics to destroy the king, lords, and commons on the meeting of Parliament on November 5, 1605. On the evening of the 4th, the famous Guy Fawkes, who was to be the leader and agent of the conspirators, was detected under the vaults of the House of Lords preparing the train for being fired the next day; and on the morning of the 5th, a little after midnight, he was arrested, examined, and tortured. He confessed his own guilt, but would not discover his associates. However, all of them were either killed on being captured, or died on the scaffold, except one. The memory of this plot has survived in England, and the name of Guy Fawkes is detested.

=Gunpowder-mill.= See MILL, GUNPOWDER-.

=Gunreach.= The reach or distance to which a gun will shoot; gunshot.

=Güns.= A town of Hungary, situated on the river of the same name, about 57 miles south-southeast of Vienna. It is famous for its noble defense of its fortifications for twenty-eight days against the Turks under Solyman in 1532, thus enabling the emperor Charles V. time to assemble a force strong enough to oppose them.

=Gunshot.= The distance of the point-blank range of a cannon-shot. The distance to which shot can be thrown from a gun so as to be effective; the reach or range of a gun.

=Gunshot.= Made by the shot of a gun; as, a gunshot wound.

=Gun-sling.= See SLING.

=Gunsmith.= A maker of small-arms; one whose occupation is to make or repair small fire-arms; an armorer.

=Gunsmithery.= The business of a gunsmith; the art of making small fire-arms.

=Gunster.= A gunner. This term is now rare.

=Gunstick.= A stick to ram down the charge of a musket, etc.; a rammer or ramrod. This term is now rare.

=Gunstock.= The stock or wood in which the barrel of a gun is fixed.

=Gunstone.= A stone used for the shot of cannon. Before the invention of iron balls, stones were used for shot, but are now altogether superseded.

=Gunter’s Chain= (from Edmund Gunter, the inventor). The chain commonly used by military engineers for measuring land. It is 4 rods, or 66 feet long, and is divided into 100 links.

=Gunter’s Line.= A logarithmic line on Gunter’s scale, used for performing the multiplication and division of numbers mechanically by the dividers;--called also line of lines, and line of numbers; also a sliding scale corresponding to logarithms, for performing these operations by inspection, without dividers;--called also Gunter’s sliding rule. This is used by military engineers.

=Gunter’s Scales.= A wooden rule 2 feet long, on one side of which are marked scales of equal parts, of chords, sines, tangents, rhombs, etc., and on the other side, of logarithms of these various parts, by means of which many problems in surveying and navigation may be solved mechanically, by the aid of the dividers alone. This instrument is used by military engineers.

=Gurges=, or =Gorges=. A charge in heraldry meant to represent a whirlpool. It takes up the whole field, and when borne proper is azure and argent.

=Gurries.= Mud forts made in India are so called. These forts are sometimes surrounded with ditches.

=Gurwal.= A state of Northern Hindostan, under the protection of the British government, at the foot of the Himalaya Mountains. Gurwal was subdued by the Nepaulese about the year 1803, when Purdumin Shah, the rajah, at the head of 12,000 men, was defeated and slain at Gurudwara. The country was conquered by the British in 1814, and partly restored to the rajah’s son.

=Gusset.= Was at first a piece of chain, and afterwards of plate-armor, intended as a protection to the vulnerable point where the defenses of the arm and breast left a gap. In heraldry it is one of the abatements, or marks of disgrace for unknightly conduct. It is represented by a straight line extending diagonally from the dexter or sinister chief point one-third across the shield, and then descending perpendicularly to the base.

=Guy.= A rope used to swing any weight, or to keep steady any heavy body, and prevent it from swinging, while being hoisted or lowered.

=Guzerat.= A state in India, founded by Mahmoud the Gaznevide, about 1020; was conquered by Akbar in 1572; and became subject to the Mahrattas, 1732 or 1752. At the battle of Guzerat, February 21, 1849, Lord Gough totally defeated the Sikhs, and captured the city of Guzerat.

=Gwalior.= Capital of the state of the same name, in Central India. Its nucleus is a completely isolated rock of about 300 feet in height, perpendicular, either naturally or artificially, on all sides; and as it measures 1¹⁄₂ miles by 800 yards, it can accommodate a garrison of 15,000 men. It is thus virtually impregnable against any native force. The spot is understood to have been occupied as a stronghold for more than a thousand years.

=Gyongyos.= A town of Hungary, 43 miles northeast from Pesth. The Austrians were defeated here by the Hungarians in 1849.

=Gytheum=, or =Gythium= (now _Palæopolis_, near _Marathonisi_). An ancient town on the east coast of Laconia, founded by the Achæans, near the head of the Laconian Bay, southwest of the mouth of the river Eurotas. It served as the harbor of Sparta, and was important in a military point of view. In the Persian war, the Lacedæmonian fleet was stationed at Gytheum, and here the Athenians under Tolmides burned the Lacedæmonian arsenal, 455 B.C. After the battle of Leuctra (370) it was taken by Epaminondas. In 195 it was taken by Flamininus, and made independent of Nabis, tyrant of Sparta, whereupon it joined the Achæan league.

=Gyves.= Fetters; old word for handcuffs.

H.

=Haarlem=, or =Haerlem=. A city of the Netherlands, in the province of Northern Holland, on the Spaarne. It is an ancient town, and was once the residence of the counts of Holland; was taken by the Duke of Alva in July, 1573, after a siege of seven months. He violated the capitulation by butchering half the inhabitants.

=Habeas Corpus.= A writ of habeas corpus is an order in writing, signed by the judge who grants the same, sealed with the seal of the court of which he is a judge, and issued in the name of a sovereign power where it is granted, by such a court or a judge thereof having lawful authority to issue the same, directed to any one having a person in his custody or under his restraint, commanding him to produce such person at a certain time and place, and to state the reason why he is held in custody or under restraint.

=Habergeon.= A short coat of mail, consisting of a jacket without sleeves. In early times the habergeon was composed of chain-mail; but in the 14th century a habergeon of plate-armor was worn over the hauberk.

=Habiliments of War.= In ancient statutes signify armor, harness, utensils, etc., without which it is supposed there can be no ability to maintain a war.

=Habsburg=, or =Hapsburg, House of=. An ancient sovereign family of Austria, which derives its name from the castle of Habsburg, in Switzerland. The first member of the family who acquired great celebrity was Rudolph of Habsburg, born in 1218, and elected emperor in 1273. He obtained Austria and other provinces by conquest, and founded the dynasty which now reigns over the Austrian empire, and which, since 1736, has been styled the house of Habsburg-Lorraine.

=Hachée= (_Fr._). Ignominious punishment of carrying a saddle or dog, to which soldiers were formerly subject in France.

=Haches d’Armes= (_Fr._). Pole- or battle-axes. A _hache d’arme_ is an axe with a narrow handle armed with a sharp blade in the form of a crescent very much curved, terminating in two points approaching the handle on one side; the other side terminating in a point or hammer; when both sides were armed with a blade it was called _besague_.

=Hack.= To cut irregularly, without skill or definite purpose; to notch; to mangle by repeated strokes of a cutting instrument. “My sword hacked like a handsaw.”

=Hack-bush.= Formerly a heavy hand-gun.

=Hacquet Wagen.= A four-wheeled wagon used in the Prussian service to carry pontons. The under-frame of this carriage is built like that of a chariot, by which means it can turn without difficulty.

=Hacqueton.= A stuffed coat or cloak, generally of leather, mounted with metal, formerly worn in France by certain knights of the king’s guards called “_Gardes de la Manche_.” It came into use during the reign of Charles V., and was discarded during the revolution of 1789.

=Haddington.= A royal burgh of Scotland, and county town of Haddingtonshire, or East Lothian. It was burnt in 1216 by an invading army under John, king of England. Having been rebuilt, it was again burnt to the ground in 1244. In 1355 it was reduced to ashes for the third time by Edward III. of England. The year after the battle of Pinkie, 1548, Haddington was seized and strongly fortified by the English. An allied army of Scotch and French laid siege to it, and, after a memorable defense, it was evacuated by the English in October, 1549.

=Hadrumetum.= See ADRUMETUM.

=Hagbut=, or =Haguebut= (Fr. _haquebute_). An arquebuse, of which the butt was bent or hooked, in order that it might be held more readily.

=Hagbutar.= The bearer of a fire-arm formerly used.

=Hagg.= An arquebuse with a bent butt.

=Hague.= A little hand-gun of former times.

=Haguebut=, or =Hague-but=. The same as hagbut (which see).

=Haguenau.= A town of France, in the department of Bas-Rhin, formerly a free town of Germany and a strong fortress, situated on the Moder, 18 miles north-northeast of Strasburg. It was founded in 1164 by Frederick Barbarossa. It successfully withstood many sieges, especially during the Thirty Years’ War; but on its occupation in 1675 by the Imperialists, its fortifications were destroyed. On October 17 and December 22, 1793, bloody battles took place here between the French and Austrians, in which the former were the victors.

=Haik.= A large piece of woolen or cotton cloth worn by the Arabs over the tunic, being itself covered in foul weather by the burnoose. This word is also written _hyke_.

=Hail.= To accost; to call; to salute. A sentinel hails any one approaching his post with, “Who comes there?”

=Hail-shot.= Grape-shot.

=Hainburg.= A town of Austria, on the Danube, 28 miles southeast from Vienna. The Magyars, or Hungarians, gained a great victory here over the Germans in 907.

=Hair.= A spring or other contrivance in a rifle or pistol lock, which, being unlocked by a slight pressure on the trigger, strikes the tumbler-catch, and unlocks the tumbler.

=Hair-cloth.= A species of cloth made of horse-hair, laid upon the floors of magazines and laboratories to prevent accidents. It is usually made up in pieces 14 feet long and 11 feet wide, each weighing 36 pounds.

=Hair-line.= A line made of hair; a very fine line. This line is used in military engineering.

=Hair-trigger.= A trigger so constructed as to discharge a fire-arm by a very slight pressure, as by the touch of a hair. It is connected with the tumbler-catch by a device called a _hair_.

=Hajduk=, =Haiduk=, or =Hayduk=. The Magyar inhabitants of the district of Hajdu Kerulet, in Eastern Hungary. The Hajduk are direct descendants of those warriors, who, during the long and bloody contest between the house of Hapsburg and the Protestant insurgents of Hungary, formed the nucleus of Prince Stephen Bocskay’s valiant armies. They formerly enjoyed the privileges of the nobility, and were free from taxation.

=Hake.= An old term for a hand-gun.

=Halberd=, or =Halbert=. A weapon borne up to the close of the 18th century by all sergeants of foot, artillery, and marines, and by companies of halberdiers in the various regiments of the English army. It consisted of a strong wooden shaft about 6 feet in length, surmounted by an instrument much resembling a bill-hook, constructed alike for cutting and thrusting, with a cross-piece of steel, less sharp, for the purpose of pushing; one end of this cross-piece was turned down as a hook for use in tearing down works against which an attack was made.

_Old Halberd_ is a familiar term formerly used in the British army, to signify a person who had gone through the different gradations, and risen to the rank of a commissioned officer.

=Halberdier.= One who is armed with a halberd.

=Hale’s Rocket.= See ROCKET.

=Half Bastion.= A demi-bastion. That half of a bastion cut off by the capital, consisting of one base and one front.

=Half Caponniere.= A communication in a dry ditch with one side prepared for defense.

=Half Merlens.= The merlens at the ends of a parapet.

=Half-batta.= An extra allowance which was granted to the whole of the officers belonging to the British East Indian army, except Bengal, when out of the company’s district in the province of Oude. In the upper provinces double batta was allowed. All above full was paid by the native princes, as the troops stationed in that quarter were considered as auxiliaries. Batta is equal to full pay. See BATTA.

=Half-brigade.= A demi-brigade.

=Half-cock.= The position of the cock of a gun when retained by the first notch. Also, to set the cock at the first notch.

=Half-companies.= The same as subdivisions, and equal to a platoon.

=Half-distance.= Is half the regular interval or space between troops drawn up in ranks or standing column.

=Half-face.= Is to take half the usual distance between the right or left face, in order to give an oblique direction to the line, or to fill up a gap at the corner of a square.

=Half-file Leader= (Fr. _chef de demi-file_). The foremost man of a rank entire.

=Half-files.= Is half the given number of any body of men drawn up two deep. They are so called in cavalry when the men rank off singly.

=Half-full Sap.= When the sappers have only a flank fire (coming in a direction nearly perpendicular to that of the sap) to fear, the sap-roller may be dispensed with. The first sapper then covers himself with the last-filled gabion whilst placing and filling the new one. This species of sap is called the half-full sap.

=Half-hitch.= Pass the end of a rope round its standing part, and bring it up through the bight.

=Half-moon= (Fr. _demi-lune_). In fortification, is an outwork that has two faces which form a salient angle, the gorge of which resembles a crescent. It owes its original invention to the Dutch, who used it to cover the points of their bastions. This kind of fortification is, however, defective, because it is weak on its flanks. Half-moons are now called ravelins, which species of work is constructed in front of the curtain.

=Half-pay.= An allowance given in the British army and navy to commissioned officers not actively employed. It was first granted by William III. in 1698. In the U. S. service officers receive half-pay only when on leave of absence for a longer period than that for which full pay on leave is allowed, namely, thirty days in each year. See ABSENCE, LEAVE OF.

=Half-pike.= A short pike, which was formerly carried by officers.

=Half-sunken Battery.= See BATTERY.

=Half-sword.= A fight within half the length of a sword; a close fight.

=Haliartus= (now _Mazi_). An ancient town in Bœtia, on the south of the Lake Copais. It was destroyed by Xerxes in his invasion of Greece, 480 B.C., but was rebuilt, and appears as an important place in the Peloponnesian war. Under its walls Lysander lost his life, 395; it was destroyed by the Romans (171) because it supported Perseus, king of Macedonia, and its territory was given to the Athenians.

=Halicarnassus= (now _Boudroum_). A Greek city of Asia Minor, situated on the Ceramian Gulf. It was founded by a colony from Trœzene, and was one of the cities of the so-called Doric Hexapolis. During the Persian conquests it readily yielded to the dominion of the conquerors, and remained faithful to Persian interests. Alexander the Great, provoked by the obstinacy with which the city held out against him, commanded that it should be destroyed by fire; but the inhabitants took refuge in the citadel, which successfully resisted his arms.

=Halidon Hill.= Is situated about a mile to the northwest of the town of Berwick, England, in the fork formed by the Whitadder and the Tweed. It was the scene of a bloody conflict between the English and Scots, July 19, 1333, when the latter were defeated, and lost upwards of 14,000 slain, among whom were the regent Douglas and a large number of the nobility, while a comparatively small number of the English suffered.

=Hallecret.= See ALLECRETE.

=Halluc.= A small river in Northern France, which empties into the Somme above Amiens. Near here, at Pont à Noyelles, a seven hours’ battle took place December 23, 1870, between the German army under Gen. Manteuffel and the French Army of the North under Gen. Faidherbe. Both parties claimed the victory. Next day the French general retreated.

=Halt= (Fr. _halte_). The discontinuance of the march of any body of men, armed or unarmed, under military direction. Frequent halts are necessary for the purpose of resting troops during their progress through a country, or to render them fresh and active previous to any warlike undertaking. It is likewise a word of command in familiar use. See MARCH.

=Halting Days.= Are the days in the week usually allotted for repose, when troops are upon the march, and there is not any particular necessity for exertion or dispatch.

=Halyard.= The rope for hoisting and lowering a flag. Written also _halliard_.

=Halys.= A river in Asia Minor, near which a battle was fought between the Lydians and Medes. It was interrupted by an almost total eclipse of the sun, which led to peace May 28, 585 B.C. Others give the date 584, 603, and 610 B.C. This eclipse is said to have been predicted many years before by Thales of Miletus.

=Ham.= A town and fortress of France, in the department of Somme, situated on the river of that name, 36 miles east-southeast from Amiens. It is of ancient origin, and was erected in 1407 into a duchy, which was held by the families of Courcy, Orleans, Luxemburg, and Vendôme. Its old fortress was built by Constable de St. Pol in 1470, and is now used as a state prison. Its walls are 39 feet thick, and its principal tower is 108 feet in height, and the same in diameter. Louis Napoleon, late emperor of the French, was confined here from 1840 till 1846.

=Hamburg.= A famous free city of Germany, and one of the most important commercial ports in Europe, is situated on the right bank of the Elbe, about 70 miles from its mouth. It is said to have been founded in the 8th century by Charlemagne. In the 13th century it joined Lubeck in the formation of the Hanseatic League. It was occupied by the French from 1806 to 1809, and was annexed to France in 1810. The Russians became masters of it in 1813, but the French regained possession of it in the same year, and Marshal Davoust sustained a memorable siege here in 1813-14. In 1871 Hamburg became a member of the German empire.

=Hames.= The wooden or iron curved pieces fitting the collar of draught harness to which the traces are attached.

=Hamlets, Tower.= A district in the county of Middlesex, England, under the command of the constable of the Tower, or lieutenant of the Tower Hamlets, for the service and preservation of the Tower of London.

=Hammer.= An instrument with an iron head, for driving nails, etc. The term is also applicable to that part of a gun-lock which strikes the percussion-cap or firing-pin.

=Hammering.= A heavy cannonade at close quarters.

=Hammer-spring.= The spring on which the hammer of a gun-lock works.

=Hammer-wrench.= A combination hammer and wrench; called also _monkey-wrench_.

=Hampton.= A small village on the Chesapeake Bay, in Virginia, giving its name to Hampton Roads, a southerly branch of Chesapeake Bay, and mouth of James River, defended by Forts Monroe and Calhoun. These roads were the scene of important events in the American Revolution, the war of 1812, and the late civil war, especially the first naval battle between ironclad vessels, the “Merrimac” and the “Monitor.”

=Hanapier=, or =Hanepier= (_Fr._). The front part of a cuirass, or iron breastplate worn by light-armed soldiers.

=Hanau.= A town of Germany, the capital of a province of the same name, in Hesse-Cassel, on the Kinzig, 12 miles from Frankfort-on-the-Main. In 1792, Hanau was attacked by the French, and occupied by them in 1796, 1797, and 1805.

=Hand.= A measure 4 inches in length. The height of a horse is computed by so many hands and inches.

=Hand-barrow.= A frame which is carried around by two men, instead of being rolled forward like a wheel-barrow. Those employed in the ordnance department are very useful in the erection of fortifications, as well as carrying shells and shot along the trenches. They generally weigh about 19 pounds.

=Hand-cart.= It consists of a light body with shafts, mounted on two wheels. The shafts are joined together at the ends, and supported immediately in front of the body by iron legs. It weighs 181 pounds, and is used for the transportation of light stores in siege and garrison service.

=Handcuff.= A fastening consisting of an iron ring around the wrist, usually connected by a chain with one on the other wrist; a manacle. Men who have deserted the service are usually manacled in this manner when removed from place to place.

=Handful.= Used figuratively, in a military sense, to denote a comparatively small number; as, “a handful of men.”

=Hand-gallop.= A slow and easy gallop, in which the hand presses the bridle to hinder increase of speed.

=Hand-grenades.= Are small iron shells, from 2 to 3 inches in diameter, filled with powder, which being lighted by means of a fuze, were formerly thrown by the grenadiers among the enemy, in storming a fortress. See GRENADES.

=Hand-gun.= An old term for a small-arm in the times of Henry VII. and VIII.

=Handle Arms.= Formerly a word of command (when the men were at _ordered arms_), by which the soldier was directed to bring his right hand briskly up to the muzzle of his firelock, with his finger bent upwards.

=Handles.= Bronze guns were formerly furnished with handles placed over the centre of gravity; from their shape they were called _dolphins_.

=Hand-mallet.= A wooden hammer with a handle, to drive fuzes, or pickets, etc., in making fascines or gabion batteries.

=Hand Sling-cart.= Is a two-wheeled carriage made entirely of iron, except the pole, which is of oak. The axle-tree is arched to make it stronger, and connected with the pole by strong wrought-iron straps and braces. In the rear of the axle a projection is welded, to receive the end of a strong hook. The end of the pole terminates in a ferule and an eye. The eye is for the purpose of attaching to the cart, when necessary, a limber or a horse. The diameter of the wheel is 6 feet. The _hand sling-cart_ is used in siege and garrison service for transporting artillery short distances. It should not be used _habitually_ for heavier weights than about 4000 pounds, but in case of necessity, a 24- or 32-pounder gun may be transported on it. For heavier guns or material, the large _sling-cart_ drawn by horses or oxen should be used. _This_ cart is wooden throughout, and the diameter of the wheels 8 feet.

=Hand-spike.= Is a wooden or iron lever, flattened at one end and tapering towards the other, used in raising heavy weights, or in moving guns to their places after being reloaded.

_Manœuvring hand-spike_, for garrison and sea-coast carriages and for gins, is 66 inches; for siege and other heavy work, it is made 84 inches long and 12 pounds weight.

_Roller hand-spike_, for casemate carriages. The latter is made of iron 1 inch round, the point conical; whole length 34 inches.

_Shod hand-spike_ is particularly useful in the service of mortars, and of casemate and barbette carriages.

_Trail hand-spike_, for field-carriages, is 53 inches in length.

_Truck hand-spike_, for casemate carriages (wrought iron).

=Hand-staff.= A javelin.

=Hand-to-hand.= A close fight; the situation of two persons closely opposed to each other.

=Handy-fight.= A fight with the hands; boxing.

=Hang Fire.= Fire-arms and trains are said to hang fire when there is an unwonted pause between the application of fire to the gunpowder and its ignition.

=Hang Upon, To.= To hover; to impend. Thus, _to hang upon_ the flanks of a retreating enemy, is to follow the movements of any body of men so closely as to be a perpetual annoyance to them; to harass and perplex him in a more desultory manner than what is generally practiced when pressing upon his rear.

=Hanged, Drawn and Quartered.= In Great Britain, the description of the capital sentence on a traitor, which consisted of drawing him on a hurdle to the place of execution, and after hanging him, dividing the body into quarters. This punishment was substituted by the stat. 54 Geo. III. c. 146, for the ancient and more barbarous sentence of disemboweling alive; but the crown has power to reduce the sentence to simple hanging.

=Hanger.= That which hangs or is suspended; specifically, a short broadsword, incurvated towards the point.

=Hangier.= A Turkish poniard, formerly worn by the Janissaries.

=Hango Head.= A promontory on the north coast of the Gulf of Finland. It was at this place, during the war with Russia, in 1855, that the unarmed crew of an English man-of-war’s boat, with a flag of truce flying, was treacherously fired upon by Russian grenadiers, when all the British sailors in the boat were either killed or wounded.

=Hanover.= A kingdom in the north of Germany, and since 1866 a province of Prussia. It was originally peopled by the Cherusci, the Chauci, and the Langobardi, afterwards known as Lombards. In the time of Charlemagne it was occupied by Saxon tribes, and continued, even after its conquest by that monarch, to be governed by Saxon dukes. From 1714 till 1837, Hanover was governed by the kings of England, without, however, forming part of that kingdom. The French occupied it in 1803; but, two years afterwards, ceded it to Prussia. In 1807, however, they took possession of it, and held it till 1813.

=Hanover Court-house.= A town in East Virginia. Here on May 27, 1862, a severe action took place between the armies of the North and South, which resulted in a victory for the former. The loss on the Northern side was 54 killed and 194 wounded and missing; and on the Southern side, between 200 and 300 killed and wounded, and about 500 taken prisoners.

=Hanse Towns.= The Hanseatic League (from _hansa_, association), formed by port towns in Germany against the piracies of the Swedes and Danes, began about 1140, and was signed in 1241. At first it consisted only of towns situated on the coasts of the Baltic Sea, but in 1370 it was composed of 66 cities and 44 confederates. They proclaimed war against Waldemar, king of Denmark, about the year 1348, and against Eric in 1428, with 40 ships and 12,000 regular troops, besides seamen. The Thirty Years’ War in Germany (1618-48) broke up the strength of this association. In 1630 the only towns retaining the name were Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen.

=Hansy.= A town of Hindustan, in the British district of Hurreeana, under the jurisdiction of the lieutenant-governor of the northwest provinces. It is a very ancient town; was taken by the Mohammedans early in 1035, and has experienced many revolutions.

=Hante= (_Fr._). An ornamental pike, having a banner attached.

=Haquebut.= See HAGBUT.

=Har.= A syllable used in composition usually as a prefix, and signifying _army_;--occurring in various forms, as _hare_, _her_, and _here_; as, harisvalt, leader of an army.

=Haranes= (_Fr._). Hungarian militia are so called.

=Harangue.= A speech addressed to a large public assembly; a popular oration; aloud address to a multitude; as, a general makes a harangue to his troops on the eve of a battle.

=Harass.= To annoy; to perplex, and incessantly turmoil any body of men; to hang upon the rear and flunks of a retreating army, or to interrupt operations at a siege by repeated attacks upon the besiegers.

=Harboring an Enemy.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 45.

=Harcarrah.= In India, a messenger employed to carry letters, and otherwise intrusted with matters of consequence that require secrecy and punctuality. They are very often Brahmins, well acquainted with the neighboring countries; they are sent to gain intelligence, and are used as guides in the field.

=Hard-fought.= Vigorously contested; as, a hard-fought battle.

=Hardihood.= Boldness, united with firmness and constancy of mind; dauntless bravery; intrepidity; audaciousness.

=Hardiment.= Hardihood; courage; bold or energetic action; contest; struggle.

=Hard-labor.= A military punishment frequently awarded by courts-martial.

=Hard-tack.= Sea-bread. Hard-tack is also used by U. S. troops while campaigning; large crackers.

=Harfleur.= A town of France, in the department of the Lower Seine, situated at the confluence of the Seine and the Lezarde, a mile from the sea, and 3 miles northeast from Havre. Harfleur was formerly fortified, and an important place. It was besieged by the English under Henry V. in 1415, and this monarch succeeded in taking it, after being before it forty days. It was again taken by the English in 1440.

=Harlaw.= A township of Scotland, in Aberdeenshire, situated 4 miles southwest from old Meldrum, near the confluence of the Ury and Don, memorable for a sanguinary battle fought in 1411 between the Highlanders under Donald, the Lord of the Isles, and the royal forces under the Earl of Mar.

=Harmostes.= A city governor or prefect appointed by the Spartans in the cities subjugated by them.

=Harness.= The iron covering or dress which a soldier formerly wore, and which was fastened to the body by straps and buckles; coat of mail; also, the whole accoutrements, offensive and defensive; armor of a knight or soldier; the armor of a horse. Also the equipments of a draught-horse.

=Harness.= To dress in armor; to equip with armor for war, as a horseman. To equip or furnish for defense.

=Harol.= An Indian term signifying the officer who commands the van of an army. It sometimes means the van-guard itself.

=Harpe.= A species of drawbridge used among the ancients, and deriving its name from its resemblance to the musical instrument. This bridge, which consisted of a wooden frame, and hung in a perpendicular direction against the turrets that were used in those times to carry on the siege of a place, had a variety of ropes attached to it, and was let down upon the wall of a town by means of pulleys. The instant it fell, the soldiers left the turret, and rushed across the temporary platform upon the rampart.

=Harper’s Ferry.= A town of Jefferson Co., W. Va., situated at the junction of the Shenandoah and Potomac Rivers, about 107 miles north from Richmond. In October, 1859, John Brown, the leader of the anti-slavery party, and his followers entered the town, and seized and held for a short time the armory and arsenal located here. In April, 1861, the Federal troops evacuated the public buildings here, and they were immediately taken possession of by the Confederates, who destroyed them and evacuated the place in June, following. The town was again taken by the Confederates in September, 1862, but was soon after recaptured by the Federal forces, who from that time retained possession of it.

=Harponully.= A district in the south of India. The rajah of this district was tributary to the kings of Benjanagur and Bejapore, to the Moguls, and the Mahrattas; in 1774 he became tributary to Hyder, and in 1786 he was completely subdued by Tippoo, and sent prisoner to Seringapatam. On the capture of that city, Harponully was assigned to the nizam as a portion of his division of Tippoo’s territory, and by him assigned to the British in 1800.

=Harpy.= A fabulous creature in Greek mythology, considered as a minister of the vengeance of the gods. In heraldry it is represented as a vulture, with the head and breast of a woman.

=Harquebuse.= See ARQUEBUSE.

=Harquebusier.= See ARQUEBUSIER.

=Hartlepool.= A seaport of England, in the county Durham, a few miles north of the mouth of the river Tees. It is mentioned as a harbor of some consequence as early as 1171. In the 13th century it belonged to the Bruces of Annandale, in Scotland. Hartlepool suffered severely from the Scots in 1312, and again in 1315, a year after the battle of Bannockburn. It was seized by the insurgents in the northern rebellion under the Earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland, in the time of Elizabeth. During the civil war it was taken by the Scottish army in 1644, and retained by them till 1647.

=Hastaire= (_Fr._). Pikeman; spearman.

=Hastati.= From the Latin word _hasta_, a spear, so that they may literally be called spearmen. A body of Roman soldiers who were more advanced in age, and had acquired a greater reputation in arms than the _velites_ possessed, were distinguished by this appellation. They wore a complete set of armor, and always carried a buckler, made convex, measuring 2¹⁄₂ feet in breadth and 4 feet in length. The longest measured about 4 feet 9 inches, or a Roman palm. The buckler was made of two boards glued together. These were covered in the first instance with a broad piece of linen, which was again covered over with sheep-skin. The edges, both at top and bottom, were fenced with iron, to enable them to meet the broadsword and sabre, and to prevent them from rotting when planted on the ground. The convex part was further covered over with iron plates, to resist the impression of hard blows, and to withstand the violent concussion of stones, etc. The _hastati_ commonly formed the first line in the order of battle; the _principes_ were placed in the second line; whilst the oldest and best legionaries, classed under the name of _triarii_, constituted a reserve or third line.

=Hastings.= A town of England, in the county of Surrey, 33 miles northeast from Brighton, and one of the Cinque Ports. Near this place, in 1066, was fought the decisive battle of Hastings, which wrested the crown of England from Harold, and gave it to William the Conqueror.

=Hatchet.= A small, light sort of axe, with a bazil edge on the left side, and a short handle. It is used by soldiers for cutting wood to make fascines, gabions, pickets, etc. _To take up the hatchet_, among the Indians, to declare war, to commence hostilities, etc. _To bury the hatchet_, to make peace.

=Hatchment.= An ornament on the hilt of a sword. In heraldry, a hatchment is the funeral escutcheon, usually placed in front of the house of a deceased person, setting forth his rank and circumstances. It is in the form of a lozenge, and in its centre are depicted the arms of the deceased, single or quartered.

=Hatras.= A town of Hindostan, in the northwest provinces, 33 miles to the north of Agra. As a place of some strength, it was at one time prominent in the wars of the Doab; but on falling, in 1817, into the possession of the British, it was immediately dismantled.

=Hattrass.= A fortress of India, taken by siege and storm by the troops under the Marquis of Hastings during the Mahratta war.

=Haubergier= (_Fr._). An individual who held a tenure by knight’s service, and was subject to the feudal system which formerly existed in France, and by which he was obliged to accompany the lord of the manor in that capacity whenever the latter went to war. He was called _fief de haubert_, and had the privilege of carrying a halbert. All vassals in ancient times served their lords-paramount as squires, haubergiers, lance-men, bow-men, etc.

=Hauberk.= A twisted coat of mail, sometimes extending only as high as the neck, but more generally continued so as to form a coif, leaving only the face of the knight who bore it exposed. In early times the sleeve of the hauberk sometimes terminated at the elbow, but in the 13th and 14th centuries it came down to the wrist, and very generally descended over the hand in the form of a glove, either one-fingered or divided. In the 11th century the hauberk was worn under plate-armor.

=Haul.= To pull or draw with force or violence; to transport by drawing; to drag; to compel to move or go.

=Hausse, Pendulum.= Is a scale of sheet-brass, the graduations of which are the sines of each quarter of a degree to a radius equal to the distance between the muzzle-sight of the piece, and the axis of vibration of the hausse, which is one inch in rear of the base-ring. At the lower end of the scale is a brass bulb filled with lead. The _slider_ which marks the divisions on the scale is of thin brass, and is clamped at any desired division on the scale by means of a screw. The scale passes through a slit in a piece of steel, with which it is connected by a screw, forming a pivot on which the scale can vibrate laterally. This piece of steel terminates in pivots, by means of which the pendulum is supported on the _seat_ attached to the gun, and is at liberty to vibrate in the direction of the axis of the piece. The _seat_ is of metal, and is fastened to the base of the breech by screws, so that the centres of the steel pivots of vibration shall be at a distance from the axis of the piece equal to the radius of the base-ring.

=Hausse-col= (_Fr._). An ornamental plate similar to the gorget. It was formerly worn by infantry officers.

=Hautes-payes= (_Fr._). Were soldiers selected by the captains of companies to attend them personally, for which service they received something more than the common pay. Haute-paye became afterwards a term to signify the subsistence which any body of men superior to, or distinguished from the private soldier were allowed to receive.

=Haut-le-pied= (_Fr._). A term used to distinguish such persons as were formerly employed in the French armies without having any permanent appointment. _Commissaires hauts-le-pied_ were known in the artillery during the monarchy of France. They were usually under the quartermaster-general.

=Havana= (Sp. _Habana_). The capital of the island of Cuba, on its north coast, at the mouth of the river Lagida. The harbor is one of the best in the world, being capable of holding 1000 ships with ease; but it has so narrow a channel that only one vessel can enter at a time. This channel is strongly fortified; the city is also surrounded with defensive works, all furnished with heavy artillery. Havana has been frequently attacked; it was captured in 1536 by a French pirate, and

## partially destroyed; it was subsequently taken, at different times, by

the English, by the French, and by the buccaneers. In 1762 the British took possession of it, but restored it in 1763.

=Havelock.= A light cloth covering for the head and neck, used by soldiers as a protection from sunstroke. This covering derived its name from Havelock, a distinguished English general.

=Haverfordwest= (Welsh, _Hwlfford_). A seaport of Wales, in Pembrokeshire, and the capital of that county. It was at one time strongly fortified, and was possessed of a strong castle, which was built by Gilbert de Clare, first earl of Pembroke. In the insurrection of Owen Glendower, it was successfully defended against the French troops in the Welsh service. In the civil war of the 17th century it was held by the royalists.

=Haversack.= A strong, coarse, linen bag, in which, on a march, a soldier carries his rations. It is borne on the left side, suspended by a strap passing over the right shoulder. The name is also given to the leather bag used in artillery to carry cartridges from the ammunition-chest to the piece in loading.

=Havildar.= A non-commissioned officer or sergeant among the Sepoys. He ranks next to the jemadar, or native lieutenant.

=Havildar-major.= The native sergeant-major in a native infantry regiment.

=Havoc.= Wide and general destruction; devastation; waste. Also, to waste; to destroy; to lay waste.

=Havock.= A cry originally used in hunting, but afterward in war as the signal for indiscriminate slaughter.

=Havre Le=, or =Havre de Grace=. An important and strongly fortified commercial town of France, in the department of the Lower Seine, at the entrance of the Seine into the English Channel. Havre was taken by the British in 1562, and bombarded by them in 1759, 1794, and 1795.

=Hawaii.= See OWYHEE.

=Haxo-casemate.= A vault of masonry thrown over a gun, but not over its embrasure. It is open at the rear, and acts as a traverse.

=Hayti=, =Haiti=, =St. Domingo=, or =Hispaniola=. The largest island in the West Indies, with the exception of Cuba. It was discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1495. Until 1665 Spain kept possession of the island; but in that year the French obtained a footing, and retained their position for upwards of a century and a quarter. In 1800 the independence of Hayti was proclaimed by the negro population, and the French finally quitted the island in 1803. Since that time various revolutions have occurred, and a kind of military elective government has prevailed under different leaders. In 1849 the former French portion of the island was proclaimed an empire under its president, Solouque, who took the title of Faustin I. The sable emperor was, however, deposed in 1858, and a republic was again proclaimed.

=Hazaree.= An Indian term signifying the commander of gun-men. It is derived from _hazar_, which, in its literal interpretation, signifies a thousand.

=Haze, To.= To punish a man by making him do unnecessary work.

=Head.= In gunnery, the fore part of the cheeks of a gun or howitzer carriage. _To head_, is to lead on, or be the leader of a party. _Head of a work_, in fortification, is the front next to the enemy, and farthest from the place; as the front of a horn-work is the distance between the flanked angles of the demi-bastions. The head of a double tenaille is the salient angle in the centre and the two other sides which form the re-entering angles. _Head of an army_, or body of men, is the front, whether drawn up in lines or on a march, in column, etc. _Head of a camp_, is the ground before which an army is drawn up.

=Head, Bridge.= Is the end of a bridge,--also the work defending it.

=Header.= In a revetment, is a brick, stone, or sod laid with its end outwards.

=Headless.= Destitute of a chief or leader.

=Head-man.= A chief; a leader.

=Head-piece.= Armor for the head; a helmet; a morion.

=Headquarters.= The place where the officer commanding any army or independent body of troops takes up his residence. The quarters or place of residence of the chief officer; hence, the centre of authority or order.

=Headstall.= That part of a bridle which encompasses the head.

=Heaume= (_Fr._). A word derived from the German, which formerly signified _casque_, or helmet. The heaume has been sometimes called among the French _salade_, _armet_, and _celate_ from the Latin word which means engraved, on account of the different figures which were represented upon it. The heaume covered the whole of the face, except the eyes, which were protected by small iron bars laid crosswise. It serves as an ornament or helmet in coats of arms and armorial bearings; it is still preserved in heraldry, and is a distinguishing mark of nobility.

=Heaver.= A bar used as a lever.

=Heavy.= Strong; violent; forcible; as, a heavy cannonade.

=Heavy Artillery.= Troops who serve heavy guns. The term is specially applied to troops in charge of siege guns or guns of position. Also large guns themselves.

=Heavy Cavalry.= European cavalry is divided into light and heavy cavalry, according to the size of the men and horses and the character of the equipment.

=Heavy Fire.= A continuous cannonading; a continuous discharge of musketry.

=Heavy Marching Order.= An expression applied to troops equipped for permanent field service with arms, accoutrements, knapsacks, canteens, and haversacks.

=Heavy Metal.= Large guns carrying balls of a large size; also, large balls for such guns.

=Heavy Ordnance.= Ordnance of great weight and caliber. In the United States the term is restricted in the land service to sea-coast ordnance. See ORDNANCE.

=Hebrides=, or =Western Islands=. A series of islands off the west coast of Scotland, consisting of two principal groups. In ancient times they were subject to the kings of Norway, but were annexed to the crown of Scotland in 1264. From that time they were held by various native chieftains in vassalage to the Scottish monarch, until they came under the sway of one powerful chief, who assumed the title of “Lord of the Isles” in 1346, and effected entire independence of Scotland. In 1748 all hereditary jurisdictions were abolished, and for the first time, under a just and powerful government, the peace of the islands was secured.

=Hebron.= A place in Palestine, about 20 miles a little west of south from Jerusalem, and one of the oldest existing cities in the world. The Maccabees recovered it from the Edomites, who had taken it after the Captivity. It was burned by an officer of Vespasian just before the destruction of Jerusalem. It was taken by the Arabs in 637, and by the Crusaders about 1100; and ever since 1187 has been in the hands of its present masters, the Mohammedans.

=Hedge.= To surround for defense; to fortify; to guard; to protect; to hem. To surround so as to prevent escape.

=Hedjrah.= See HEGIRA.

=Heel.= That part of a thing corresponding in position to the human heel; the lower back part, or part on which a thing rests. In a small-arm it is the corner of the butt which is upwards in the firing position.

=Heel-piece.= Armor for the heels.

=Hegemony.= Leadership; preponderant influence or authority; usually applied to the relations of a government or state to its neighbors or confederates.

=Hegira=, or =Hedjrah= (from the Arabic _hajara_, to desert). A Mohammedan epoch, dating from the expulsion or flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina, July 16, 622. This flight was fixed as the great Moslem epoch by the caliph Omar, seventeen years later.

=Heidelberg.= A city of Germany, in Baden, situated on the Neckar, which is possessed of a celebrated university. This town has been besieged several times; it was taken by Tilly in 1622, and by Turenne in 1674.

=Helder.= A town of Northern Holland, on the North Sea, at the mouth of the Marsdiep, which separates it from the island of Texel. Near this place a naval battle was fought between the English and the Dutch in 1653, in which Van Tromp was killed. It was taken by the English under Sir Ralph Abercrombie in 1799; was afterwards retaken by Brewe, and subsequently rendered a first-class fortress by Napoleon I. It is connected with Amsterdam by the famous Helder Canal.

=Helena, Saint.= An island in the Atlantic Ocean, which presents to the sea, throughout its whole circuit, an immense wall of perpendicular rock, from 600 to 1200 feet high. This island was discovered by the Portuguese in 1502, and belonged to the Dutch from 1610 to 1650, when it fell into the hands of the British. It is chiefly famous for having been the place in which Napoleon I. was confined by the allied powers after his final overthrow at the battle of Waterloo. Here he lived at Longwood, from November, 1815, till his death in 1821. His remains also lay here till 1840, when, by the permission of the English government, they were conveyed to France.

=Helepolis.= In the ancient art of war, a machine for battering down the walls of a place besieged. The invention of it is ascribed to Demetrius Poliorcetes. Diodorus Siculus says that each side of the helepolis was 450 cubits broad, and 90 in height; that it had nine stages, or floors, and was carried on four strong solid wheels, 8 cubits in diameter; that it was armed with huge battering-rams, and had two roofs capable of supporting them; that in the lower stages there were different sorts of engines for casting stones, and in the middle they had large catapults for launching arrows.

=Heligoland.= A small island in the North Sea, situated about 46 miles northwest from the mouths of the Elbe and Weser. It was taken from the Danes by the British in 1807, and became a depot for merchandise intended to be smuggled into the continent during Napoleon’s continental blockade. At the peace of 1814 it was retained by England, and is of importance as an outpost in time of war.

=Heliography.= See LOOKING-GLASS SIGNALING.

=Hellespont.= See DARDANELLES.

=Hellin= (anc. ILUNUM). A royal town of Spain, in the province of Murcia. This town was sacked by the French under Montbrun, and was the point where Joseph and Soult united with Suchet after Marmont’s rout at Salamanca.

=Helmet.= A piece of defensive armor or covering for the head. Among the early nations of antiquity the helmet forms a prominent feature in all military costume, and is often of very great utility in distinguishing the age or country of the wearer. The Egyptian kings had them of brass, while the soldiers wore linen ones thickly padded. The crests of the royal Egyptian helmet were the heads of the lion, bull, or dragon. The Milyans had helmets of skins; those of a fox formed the early Thracian helmet; and this ancient fashion of the heroic ages appears in the _galerus_ of the Roman light troops. The Phrygian bonnet was a skull-cap, with a bent peak projecting in front, like the bust of a bird, with an arched neck and head. It is certainly the most ancient form of helmet. Strabo says the ancient Persians, and probably their oriental neighbors, wore modern turbans; in war, a cap cut in the form of a cylinder or tower. This Asiatic fashion extended itself widely. The helmet of the Grecian soldier was usually made of brass, and sometimes of the skins of beasts, with the hair still on; and to render them more terrible, the teeth were often placed in a grinning manner. The crest was made of horse-hair or feathers, and was curiously ornamented. In the early period of the Greeks, helmets had been composed of the skins of quadrupeds, of which none were more common than the dog. After the time of Alexander the Great, common soldiers had only small crests; chieftains, plumes or two crests. The helmet of the Romans was a head-piece of brass or iron, which left the face uncovered, and descended behind as far as the shoulders. Upon the top was the crest, in adorning which the soldiers took great pride. The usual ornament was horse-hair or feathers of divers colors; but the helmets of the officers were sometimes very splendid, and adorned with gold and silver. Helmets occur with cheek-pieces and movable visors. Singular helmets, with aigrettes, plumes, wings, horns, double crests, double-cheek pieces (some of which are seen on the Hamilton vases), and others, with fantastical additions and overloaded crests, are either barbarian, or subsequent to the removal of the seat of empire to Constantinople. The Gauls wore helmets of brass, with monstrous appendages for ostentation, as the shapes of birds, beasts, etc. In the Middle Ages the knights of Europe were distinguished by helmets adorned with the figure of a crown, or of some animal. The king wore a helmet of gold, or gilt; his attendants of silver; the nobility of steel; and the lower orders of iron. In European armies helmets are worn by the horse-guards and heavy cavalry. In the United States, helmets made of felt and adorned with horse-hair plumes are worn by light artillery and cavalry troops.

=Helmet-shaped.= Shaped like a helmet; galeate.

=Helmless.= Destitute of a helmet; without a helm.

=Helos.= In ancient geography, the name of several towns, so called from their position among or near _fens_. The most important town of this name was in Laconia, at the mouth of the Eurotas, in a plain close to the sea. In the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus Helos was taken, and its inhabitants carried off to Sparta and reduced to slavery. Their name is said to have been applied by their masters generally to all the bondsmen or helots that fell into their power.

=Helots.= The lowest class of the population of ancient Sparta, which was formed of serfs or slaves. They are supposed to have formed the original population of the country, and to have been reduced to bondage by their Dorian conquerors. In war, they served as light troops, each free-born Spartan who bore heavy armor being accompanied to battle by a number of them, sometimes as many as seven. In order to keep their numbers within bounds the Spartans organized secret companies, who went abroad over the country armed with daggers, and both by night and day assassinated the unfortunate Helots, selecting as their special victims the strongest and most vigorous of the oppressed race.

=Helsingfors.= A fortified town, and seaport in Finland, on a peninsula in the Gulf of Finland. It has a good harbor, and is defended by the almost impregnable citadel and fortifications of Sweaborg, which stand on a number of rocky islands at the entrance of the harbor. This town was burnt in 1741, during the war between Sweden and Russia. In 1855, Sweaborg was bombarded for two days by the allied English and French fleet, when some damage was done to the interior defenses of the place.

=Helvetian Republic.= Switzerland having been conquered by the French in 1797, a republic was established in 1798 with this title.

=Helvetii.= A Celtic people inhabiting, according to Cæsar, the region between the mountains of Jura on the west, the Rhone on the south, and the Rhine on the east and north, the region corresponding pretty closely with modern Switzerland. The great and fatal event in their history is their attempted irruption into and conquest of Southern Gaul, in which they were repulsed by Cæsar with frightful slaughter in 58 B.C., and compelled to return to their own country, where they became subjects to the Romans. In the commotions which followed the death of Nero, the Helvetians met with another terrible catastrophe. Remaining faithful to Galba, they were fallen upon by Cacina, a general of Vitellius, who gave them up to the rapacity of his legions, and from this time they scarcely appear in history as a distinct people.

=Helvoetsluys.= A fortified town of Holland, on the south shore of the island of Voorn, 17 miles southwest from Rotterdam. At this place the Prince of Orange, afterwards William III., embarked for England in 1688. It was taken by the French in 1798, and evacuated by them in 1813.

=Hem In.= To surround an enemy, whether on land or sea.

=Hemerodromi.= In Grecian antiquity, were, as the name imports, runners or couriers, who could keep running all day. In a country like Greece, where the roads were few and bad, the hemerodromi were indispensable for the rapid diffusion of important news. Every Greek state made a point of training a number of these men who could travel great distances in an incredibly short space of time, and at every dangerous crisis they were stationed on commanding points to observe and report at headquarters what it was necessary for the authorities to know. In the service of the Persian kings, these men were called _angoroi_, and the service _angereion_. Among the Romans these couriers were known as _cursores_; they traveled sometimes on foot, sometimes on horseback. It is a well-known fact that running footmen attended the Duke of Marlborough in his wars in the Low Countries and in Germany. In the Byzantine empire they were employed as sentinels at the gates of towns. When the gates were opened they were obliged to patrol round the outskirts of the town during the whole day. Frequently, indeed, they advanced considerably into the country, in order to discover whether any hostile body of men was approaching in order to surprise the garrison.

=Henery Isle.= A small island lying due south from Bombay. In 1790 it belonged to Ragojee Angria, and was a principal rendezvous of pirate vessels, though within sight of Bombay. Near it is another small island named Kenery, which is also fortified, and of considerable strength. It was taken possession of and fortified by Sevajee in 1679. In 1790 it belonged to the Peshwa, and was also the haunt of pirates.

=Heneti.= An ancient people in Paphlagonia, dwelling on the river Parthenius; fought on the side of Priam against the Greeks, but had disappeared before the historical times. They were regarded by many ancient writers as the ancestors of the Veneti in Italy.

=Hengestdown.= In Cornwall, England. Here Egbert is said to have defeated the Danes and West Britons in 835.

=Hennebon.= A town of France, in the department of Morbihan, on the Blavet. It was formerly a very strong place, and was successfully defended by the Countess of Montfort, when it was besieged by Charles de Blois, in 1342.

=Henry Rifle.= See MAGAZINE GUNS.

=Hephestion=, or =Hephæstion=. A Macedonian courtier and commander, the son of Amyntor of Pella; became a favorite of Alexander the Great, whom he followed in the invasion of Persia and India. In the return of this expedition, Hephestion and Craterus commanded a separate part of the army. He died in 325 B.C.

=Hep-pah=, or =Hippa=. A New Zealand fort, or space surrounded with stout palisades.

=Heptarchy.= A government of seven; said to have been established by the Anglo-Saxons in England before the reign of Egbert (800-836 A.D.). Under Egbert, Wessex rose to be supreme, and virtually swallowed up the others. The common idea is that these seven kingdoms were contemporaneous; but all that can be safely asserted is, that England in this time was peopled by various tribes, whose leading occupation was war; and that sometimes one was conquered, sometimes another. At no time was there a counterpoise of power among seven of them, so that they could be said to have a separate, much less an independent existence. Still, seven names do survive, so as to use the term Heptarchy.

=Heraclea.= In ancient geography, a large and important city of Magna Græcia. It was situated in Lucania, between the small streams Siris and Aciris, a little way inland from the shore of the Tarentine Gulf. It seems to have been colonized about 432 B.C. In the wars with Pyrrhus it sided with Tarentum against Rome; but it afterwards abandoned its parent state and became an ally of the Roman people. It suffered severely during the Social war, but still retained a considerable measure of importance and prosperity. It afterwards fell into decay.

=Heraclea.= Surnamed Minoa; in ancient geography, a Greek city of Sicily, at the mouth of the Halycus (now the _Platani_), 20 miles northwest from Agrigentum. The surname seems to have been originally the name of the town, which is first mentioned in history as a colony of Selinus. About the end of the 6th century it was recolonized by the Spartans, and had attained to great prosperity and power, when it was destroyed by the jealousy of the Carthaginians. After remaining in their power for about 200 years it fell into the hands of Agathocles, and then of Pyrrhus. It was next recovered by the Carthaginians, who retained it to the end of the first Punic war, when the whole of Sicily was made over to the Romans. In the second Punic war it reverted to the Carthaginian sway, but was finally attached to the Roman empire by Marcellus, shortly after the fall of Syracuse. After the servile war, Heraclea was repeopled by the Romans, and continued to flourish till the time of Cicero. It afterwards sunk into decay, and at this day its very ruins can hardly be traced.

=Heracleidæ.= This term means, in its widest sense, all the descendants of Heracles (Hercules), of whatever time, and in whatever district of Greece; but is specially applied to those adventurers who, founding their claims on their supposed descent from the great hero (to whom Zeus had promised a portion of the land), joined the Dorians in the conquest of the Peloponnesus. There were five different expeditions, the last and greatest occurring eighty years after the Trojan war. The story of the return of the Heracleidæ touches on the historical period, and though there is much of fable and tradition, yet there seems to be also a large substratum of truth in the records of the Greek historians.

=Heracleum.= A place near Gindarus, in the Syrian province of Cyrrhestice, where Ventidius, the legate of M. Antony, gained his great victory over the Parthians under Pacorus in 38 B.C.

=Herald.= An officer in the European courts, whose duty consists in the regulation of armorial bearings, the marshaling of processions, and the superintendence of pubic ceremonies. In the Middle Ages heralds were highly honored, and enjoyed important privileges; their functions also included the bearing of messages between royal personages, and registering all chivalric exercises; the computation of the slain after battle; and the recording of the valiant acts of the falling or surviving combatants. The office of herald is probably as old as the origin of coat-armor. In England the principal heraldic officers are designated kings-of-arms, or kings-at-arms, and the novitiates or learners are styled pursuivants. There are in England three kings-at-arms, named by their offices Garter, Clarencieux, and Norroy; six heralds,--Somerset, Chester, Windsor, Richmond, Lancaster, and York; and four pursuivants, called Rouge Dragon, Portcullis, Blue Mantle, and Rouge Croix. In Scotland the principal heraldic officer is the Lyon king-at-arms; and there are six heralds,--Snowdoun, Albany, Ross, Rothesay, Marchmont, and Ilay; and five pursuivants,--Unicorn, Carrick, Kintyre, Ormond, and Bute. Ireland has one king-at-arms, Ulster; two heralds, Cork and Dublin; and two pursuivants, of whom the senior bears the title of Athlone, and the other is called the pursuivant of St. Patrick.

=Heraldry.= The science of armorial bearings. The practice of wearing devices on the shields of knights was originated in the middle of the 12th century, and ever since families bear on their shield the arms of their progenitors, which at first had been adopted either arbitrarily or suggested by some striking episode in the life of the bearer.

=Herald’s College=, or =College of Arms=. A collegiate body, founded by Richard III. in 1483, consisting of the heraldic officers of England, who were assigned a habitation in the parish of Allhallows-the-Less, in London. Various charters confirmed the privileges of the College of Arms, and it was re-incorporated by Philip and Mary in 1554. The presidency of the college is vested in the earl marshal, an office hereditary in the family of Howard, duke of Norfolk. He nominates the three kings-of-arms, six heralds, and four pursuivants, who are the members of the collegiate chapter. The members of the college have salaries, but derive their principal income from fees charged for assistance in tracing pedigrees and titles, and for the granting and registration of arms. In Scotland the corresponding functions belong to the Lyon court. See LYON KING-AT-ARMS.

=Herat.= A city of Afghanistan, the capital of an independent state, situated in a plain near the Hury River, 360 miles west from Cabul. This place has often been ravaged by various conquerors, who have claimed and won the empire of Asia. In 1220 it was taken by Genghis Khan, and in 1398 by Tamerlane. It was subsequently united to Persia; but the Afghans took possession of it in 1715. Nadir Shah retook it in 1737, and Ahmed Khan, an Afghan, and one of Nadir’s generals, added it to Afghanistan, after the assassination of Nadir Shah, in 1747. Mohammed Shah marched against Herat in 1836, and, after a long siege, the Persians were forced to withdraw. In 1855 the Persians again made an attempt to get possession of Herat; but, after a short war with England, desisted.

=Hercotectonique= (_Fr._). A term in fortification signifying that branch of military architecture which specifically points out the best means of defense and the surest method of providing stores. This word is derived from the Greek.

=Herculean.= Very great, difficult, or dangerous; such as it would require the strength or courage of Hercules to encounter or accomplish.

=Hercules, Pillars of.= The name given by the ancients to the two rocks forming the entrance to the Mediterranean at the Strait of Gibraltar. Their erection was ascribed by the Greeks to Hercules, on the occasion of his journey to the kingdom of Geryon.

=Herefare.= An old term from the Saxon, signifying the same as warfare.

=Hereford.= The chief town of Herefordshire, England, on the Wye. During the Saxon era, the Welsh inflicted considerable damage on this city; it also suffered greatly in the wars of the barons, and under the Plantagenets. During the civil war it held loyally to the cause of the king, and was one of the last places that yielded to the Parliament.

=Heregeld.= A term derived from the Saxon, signifying a tax which was formerly levied for maintaining an army.

=Herera.= In Aragon. Here Don Carlos of Spain, in his struggle for his hereditary right to the throne, at the head of 12,000 men, encountered and defeated (August 24, 1837) Gen. Buerens, who had not much above half that number of royal troops.

=Hereslita=, or =Heresilia=. A term derived from the Saxon, signifying a soldier who abandons his colors, or deserts the service.

=Heretoch=, or =Heretog=. The leader or commander of an army; also, a constable; a marshal.

=Heretum.= A court in which the guards or military retinue that usually attended the old British nobility and bishops were accustomed to parade or draw up.

=Hergate.= A term derived from the Saxon, signifying a tribute which was paid in ancient times to the lord of the soil, to enable him to carry on a war.

=Herisson.= A formidable hedge or chevaux-de-frise; made of one stout beam fenced by a number of iron spikes, and which, being fixed upon a pivot, revolves in every direction upon being touched, always presenting a front of pikes.

=Hermandad= (_Sp._). “Brotherhood.” An association of the principal cities of Castile and Aragon, bound together by a solemn league and covenant for the defense of their liberties in seasons of trouble. The most noteworthy (called _Santa Hermandad_, or Holy Brotherhood) was established in the middle of the 13th century in Aragon, and in Castile about thirty years later; while in 1295, 35 cities of Castile and Leon formed a joint confederacy, and entered into a compact, by which they pledged themselves to take summary vengeance on every noble who had either robbed or injured a member of their association, and refused to make just atonement for the wrong; or upon any one who should attempt, even by the order of the king, to levy an unjust tax. Isabella of Castile, seeing the beneficial effects which an extension of the institution was capable of producing, obtained the sanction of the Cortes for its thorough reorganization and extension over the whole kingdom in 1496. In 1498, the objects of the Hermandad having been obtained, and public order established on a firm basis, the brotherhood was disorganized and reduced to an ordinary police, such as it has existed, with various modifications of form, to the present century.

=Herminia Gens.= A very ancient patrician house at Rome, which appears in the first Etruscan war with the republic, 506 B.C.; vanishes from history in 448.

=Hermunduri.= One of the most powerful nations of Germany; belonged to the Suevic race. They were for a long time the allies of the Romans; but along with the other German tribes they assisted the Marcomanni in the great war against the Romans in the reign of M. Aurelius. After this time they are rarely mentioned as a separate people, but are included under the general name of Suevi.

=Hernici.= A people in Latium; belonged to the Sabine race. They inhabited the mountains of the Apennines between the Lake Fucinus and the river Trerus. They were a brave and warlike people, and long offered a formidable resistance to the Romans. They were finally subdued by the Romans in 306 B.C.

=Hero.= A man of distinguished valor, intrepidity, or enterprise in danger; a prominent or central personage in any remarkable action or event; hence, a great, illustrious, or extraordinary person.

=Hero.= In mythology, an illustrious man, supposed by the populace to partake of immortality, and after his death to be placed among the gods.

=Heroic.= Pertaining to, or like, a hero or heroes; as, heroic valor. Becoming a hero; bold; daring; illustrious; as, heroic action; heroic enterprises.

=Heroic Age.= The age when the heroes, or those called the children of the gods, are supposed to have lived.

=Heroically.= In the manner of a hero; with valor; bravely; courageously; intrepidly; as, the town was heroically defended.

=Heroine.= A female hero; a woman of a brave spirit. The principal female person who figures in a remarkable action.

=Heroism.= The qualities of a hero; bravery; courage; intrepidity.

=Heroship.= The character of a hero.

=Herrings, Battle of the.= Fought on February 12, 1429, when the English were besieging Orleans. It obtained its name from the Duc de Bourbon attempting to intercept a convoy of salt fish on the road to the English camp before Orleans, and in which he was defeated.

=Herse= (from the Fr. _herise_). In fortification, a grated door, formed by strong pieces of wood joined crosswise, and stuck full of iron spikes. It is usually hung by a rope, and fastened to a moulinet, which is cut in case of a surprise, or when the first gate is forced by a petard, so that it may fall like a portcullis and stop the passage of a gate or other entrance of a fortress.

=Hersillon.= A strong beam, whose sides are stuck full of spikes, which is thrown across the breach made by an enemy to render it impassable.

=Hertford.= The capital of Hertfordshire, England, on the Lee. It is a very ancient town: the castle was founded in 909. In the reign of John it was seized by the French dauphin, and under Edward III. the kings of France and Scotland were secured in it.

=Heruli.= An ancient German tribe, first mentioned among the Gothic nations when these latter had established themselves on the north coast of the Euxine, in the reigns of Gallienus and Claudius. In the reign of Valentinian they are mentioned as being in the service of Rome, fighting against the Alemanni. In the 5th century they allied themselves with the other German tribes, and under Odoacer, in 476, they overthrew the Western empire.

=Hesse.= A territory in Western Germany, the seat of the Catti; formed part of the empire of Charlemagne; from the rulers of it in his time the present are descended. It was joined to Thuringia till about 1263, when Henry I. became landgrave of Hesse. The most remarkable of his successors was Philip, who signed the Augsburg Confession in 1530, and the League of Smalcald in 1531. At his death Hesse was divided in Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt, and in 1803 the former became an electorate, and the latter a grand duchy. Hesse-Cassel was incorporated with Prussia in 1866, and Hesse-Darmstadt became a part of the North German Confederation in 1867, and as such it took part in the Franco-Prussian war in 1870.

=Hessians.= Troops belonging to Hesse-Cassel, Prussia. They have been frequently hired by Great Britain, particularly in the war of American independence, when they were sold at £40 sterling a head, £9 of which was to be repaid if they returned alive.

=Hetman=, or =Ataman=. A word derived from the German, which signifies the chief of a troop. The chief general of the old Polish armies was called _Hetman Wielki_, and the second general _Hetman Polny_. The chief or general of the Cossacks is likewise invested with this title by the czar of Russia.

=Heurtequins= (_Fr._). Two pieces of iron resembling a knocker, which are placed over the trunnions, or axis of a cannon.

=Heuse= (_Fr._). An iron shoe, sometimes called _pedieux_, attached to the greaves of ancient armor, having an iron sole, and the upper composed of mail.

=Hexagonal Powder.= See GUNPOWDER.

=Hexham.= A town of England, in Northumberland, situated a little below the confluence of the north and south Tyne, 21 miles west from Newcastle. This town is chiefly remarkable for the antiquities with which it is surrounded, and the historical events connected with it. The neighborhood abounds with ruined castles, monuments of battles and heroes; with Roman relics, altars, inscriptions, etc. The cathedral, or priory church of Hexham, was founded in 674, and was destroyed by the Danes. In 1463, a battle was fought in the neighborhood between the houses of York and Lancaster, in which the Yorkists gained the victory. As an interesting historical event, it may be remarked that it was in flying from this field that Queen Margaret threw herself on the protection of a robber, and the cave in which she concealed herself and the Prince of Wales is still pointed out.

=Hibernia=, =Ibernia=, =Ivernia=, and =Ierne=. The names by which Ireland is designated in the classical writers. See IRELAND.

=Hibernian Royal School.= A school established in Great Britain for the maintenance of 350 children of military officers who are supported and educated at this school, at an expense of £7000 per annum to the country.

=Hierarchy, Military.= The essential element for the government and service of an army is a military hierarchy, or the creation of different grades of rank, to which different functions and powers are assigned, the lower in regular subordination to the next higher in the ascending scale. It should be founded on the principle that every one acts in an army under the orders of a superior, who exercises his authority only within the limits established by law. This authority of the superior should be greater or less according to rank and position, and be proportioned to his responsibilities. Orders should be executed without hesitation; but responsibilities should be confined to him who gives orders in virtue of the superior authority with which he is invested; to him who takes the initiative in an order; to him who does not execute an order that he has received; and to him who usurps a command, or continues illegally to exercise its functions. The military hierarchy is determined and consecrated within its sphere of action by grades of rank created by military laws, by other laws regulating the exercise of rank, by military insignia, by military honors, and by the military oath.

=High Treason.= Treason against the state, being the highest civil offense. See TREASON.

=Highlanders.= Properly speaking, are the Celtic inhabitants of the Highlands of Scotland. In the army of Great Britain, it denotes the eight regiments who are uniformed in the Highland dress, including a distinctive tartan, and are as follows: 42d (see BLACK WATCH), 71st, 72d, 74th, 78th, 79th, 92d, and 93d. These regiments are recruited in the Highlands.

=Hilt.= The handle of anything, especially of a cutting instrument, as a knife or sword.

=Hilted.= Having a hilt. Also a term used in heraldry to indicate the tincture of the handle of a sword.

=Hilton Head.= A village on an island of the same name, forming part of Beaufort District, S. C., at the mouth of Broad River. It was taken from the Confederates by the U. S. forces after a severe naval engagement in November, 1861.

=Himera.= A celebrated city on the north coast of Sicily. Here the Carthaginians were defeated with great slaughter by the united forces of Theron and Gelon of Syracuse, 480 B.C. It assisted Syracuse against the Athenians in 415 B.C. In 409 B.C. it was taken by Hannibal, the son of Gisco, who, to revenge the great defeat which the Carthaginians had suffered before the town, leveled it to the ground, and destroyed almost all the inhabitants.

=Hindostan.= See INDIA.

=Hircarrah=, or =Hircarra=. An Indian term for a messenger, guide, footman, or spy.

=Hiring of Duty.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 36, 37.

=Hirpini.= An inland people of Italy who inhabited the southern portion of Samnium. In the early history of Rome the Hirpini are found identifying themselves with their Samnite neighbors against their common foes. They seem to have been subdued in the early part of the 3d century B.C. They appear as an independent people in the second Punic year. Revolting from their old conquerors, they joined the Carthaginian invaders, and, though they were unable to recapture their stronghold of Beneventum, they remained faithful to Hannibal till the defeat at the Metaurus restored the empire of Italy to his opponents. In the year of that event the Hirpini made their peace with their old masters by betraying into their hands the garrisons of their allies. From this time till the outbreak of the Social war, the Hirpini seem to have continued steadfast in their allegiance. On that occasion, however, they set the example of revolt to the allies, and might have become formidable enemies, had not the rapid successes of Sulla induced them to repair their error by complete submission. After the close of the war the Hirpini do not appear in history as an independent people.

=Hispalis.= See SEVILLE.

=Histiæa.= An ancient city of Eubœa. It was taken by the Athenians during the Persian wars, but they revolted from that people, and was again subdued, the old inhabitants of the city were expelled, and 2000 Athenian colonists settled in their stead, and its name changed to _Oreus_. In the war between Philip and the Greeks, Oreus was frequently contested, and in 200 B.C. it was stormed by the Romans.

=History, Military.= A narrative of military transactions, campaigns, battles, sieges, marches, etc., of an army. It likewise means a relation of the heroic actions of great generals, etc.

=Hit.= To reach with a stroke or blow; especially, to reach or touch an object aimed at, as a mark; to strike or touch, usually with force. Also a striking against; the collision of one body against another; the stroke or blow that touches anything.

=Hitch.= A knot or noose in a rope for fastening it to a ring or other object; as, a clove hitch, a timber hitch.

=Hivites.= A Canaanitish people, who in the time of Jacob are found occupying the uplands of Ephraim, and later the slopes of Hermon and region westward towards Tyre. They were conquered by the Hebrews, and they became menial subjects of Solomon.

=Hobeliers.= In the Middle Ages, a species of light horsemen, chiefly intended for reconnoitring, carrying intelligence, harassing troops on a march, intercepting convoys, and pursuing a routed army; the smallness of their horses rendering them unfit to stand the shock of a charge. Spelman derives the name from _hobby_, a small horse. Camden used the word _Hoblers_ for certain light horsemen, who were bound by the tenure of their lands to maintain a light horse, for giving notice of any invasion made by enemies, or such like peril towards the sea-side.

=Hobits.= Small mortars of 6 or 8 inches bore mounted on gun-carriages; they were in use before the howitzer.

=Hochebos= (_Fr._). Certain soldiers among the ancients, who were so called from their brandishing the pike. This word has likewise been applied to the pike itself.

=Hochkirch.= A village of Saxony, 7 miles southeast of Bautzen. Here Frederick the Great was completely defeated by the Austrians under Daun, October 14, 1758. A conflict between the Russians and Prussians and the French, in which the latter were victorious, took place here May 22, 1813.

=Hochstadt.= A town of Bavaria, situated on the left bank of the Danube. It is noted for a battle, generally known as the battle of Blenheim (which see), in which the French and Bavarians were defeated by the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugène, and which took place between this town and Blenheim in 1704. In 1800, the French under Moreau totally defeated the Austrians near here.

=Hohenlinden.= A village of Bavaria. It is noted for the defeat of the Austrian army in 1800, by the French under Moreau.

=Hohenstaufen.= A celebrated family of German princes, which kept possession of the imperial throne from 1138 to 1254, and died out in 1268. The first of the line was Friedrich von Büren, who received the name on account of having removed his dwelling from a valley _auf den Staufen_ (“up the hill” or “mountain”). His son Friedrich von Staufen, or Hohenstaufen, served under Henry IV., and distinguished himself greatly in the battle of Merseburg, for which the king awarded him the duchy of Swabia. He also fought against the pope in Italy, while holding the position of regent of Germany. Died in 1105.

=Hohenzollern.= The name of an ancient princely German family, from which the kings of Prussia are descended. The name is derived from the castle of Zollern, in Swabia, which is said to have been built by Tassillon or Thasilio about 800.

=Hoist.= To raise; to lift, or bear upward by means of tackle, as a flag, etc. The perpendicular height of a flag, as opposed to the _fly_, or breadth from the staff to the outer edge.

=Hold.= A place of security; a fortified place; a fort; a castle; often called a _stronghold_.

=Hold.= To keep one’s self in a given position or condition; to remain fixed; as, not to move; to halt; to stop. Not to give way; not to part or become separated; to remain unbroken. _To hold one’s own_, to keep up; not to lose ground or be left behind.

=Hold Out, To.= To maintain any place, ground, etc., resolutely against an enemy.

=Hold-all.= A portable case for holding small articles required by soldiers, marines, etc.

=Holland.= A kingdom in Northwest Europe, the chief part of the Northern Netherlands, composed of land rescued from the sea, and defended by immense dykes. It was inhabited by the Batavi in the time of Cæsar, who made a league with them. It became part of Gallia Belgica, and afterwards of the kingdom of Austria. From the 10th to the 15th century it was governed by counts under the German emperors. It was conquered by the French in 1795, and subsequently brought into the condition of a province of France under Napoleon; the emperor’s brother, Louis, being created king of Holland. It was delivered from the French yoke in 1813. See NETHERLANDS.

=Hollow Projectile.= Shell, case-shot, etc. See PROJECTILES, etc.

=Hollow Square.= The form in which a body of foot is drawn up with an empty space in the middle for the colors, drums, baggage, etc. A body of troops formed into a square to resist the charge of cavalry on critical occasions.

=Hollow Tower.= A rounding made of the remainder of two brisures, to join the curtain to the orillon, where the small shot are placed, that they may not be so much exposed to the view of the enemy.

=Hollow Way.= Any pass or road, both sides of which are commanded by heights.

=Holstein.= An extensive duchy of Germany, formerly a dependency of Denmark. The king of Denmark had originally a seat at the German Diet on account of his Holstein possessions, but in 1806, on the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine, this privilege was lost; but in 1815 he was admitted into the Germanic Confederation. In 1848 this duchy, with Schleswig, attempted to gain its independence; but, after some severe fighting, it was reduced to obedience in 1850. In 1863 the struggle was renewed; and, under the pretext of separating this duchy, together with that of Schleswig, from Denmark, and of annexing it to the Germanic Confederation, an allied Austrian and Prussian army invaded the country and drove out the Danes, after a short but desperate struggle. It was annexed to Prussia after the Prussian-Austrian war (1866), and now forms a part of the North German Confederation.

=Holsters.= Leathern cases for pistols, affixed to the pommel of the saddle. They are frequently covered with wool or fur, to prevent injury to the rider in the event of his being thrown forward upon them. They are also worn on a belt.

=Holstered.= Bearing holsters; as, a holstered steed.

=Holy Alliance.= A league formed after the fall of Napoleon by the sovereigns of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, nominally to regulate the relations of the states of Christendom by the principles of Christian charity, but really to preserve the power and influence of the existing dynasties. Most of the other European rulers acceded to it, and the treaty was made public February 2, 1816. A special article of the treaty excluded forever the members of the Bonaparte family from any European throne. But after the secession of England and France the alliance became practically obsolete.

=Holy Ghost, Order of the.= A Roman Catholic order consisting of hospital knights, which was founded in the 12th century, and ceased to exist as a knightly order in 1700.

=Holy Island=, or =Lindisfarne=. An island off the coast of Northumberland, 8 miles southeast from Berwick-on-Tweed, and is connected with the mainland by a narrow isthmus or neck of sand. On the south of the island lies the town, and near it are the ruins of an old abbey which the Danes destroyed in 900.

=Holy League.= A name applied to several combinations of sovereigns or princes of Europe for warlike or defensive purposes. The first was organized in 1510 by the pope, Venice and Spain against Louis XII. of France. But the most important of all was _the holy league_, so called by way of eminence, which was organized at Perrone in 1576, and lasted till 1593, to prevent the accession of Henry IV. of France to the throne.

=Holy Sepulchre, Knights of the.= An order of knighthood instituted probably by Pope Alexander VI., for the guardianship of the Holy Sepulchre, and the relief and protection of pilgrims. The pope was originally the grand master, but he subsequently ceded his rights to the Guardian Father of the Holy Sepulchre. The knights must, by the rules of the order, be all of noble descent; they were bound to hear mass daily, to fight, to live, and to die for the Christian faith, etc. In return for these duties, the knights had the most unusual and extraordinary privileges conferred on them; they were exempt from taxation, could marry, and yet possess church property, legitimize bastards, cut down and bury the bodies of criminals who had been hanged. On the recapture of Jerusalem by the Turks, the knights retired to Italy, and settled at Perugia. After a temporary union with the Hospitallers, the order was reconstructed in 1814 both in France and in Poland, and is still in existence within a very small circle of knights elected by the Guardian Father from the most respectable pilgrims who come to Jerusalem.

=Holy Wars.= See CRUSADE.

=Homelden.= In Northumberland, England, where the Scots, headed by the Earl of Douglas, were defeated by the Percies (among them Hotspur), September 14, 1402.

=Home-service.= Consists in military operations and arrangements for the immediate defense of our own country, should it be threatened by invasion, or by domestic broils or insurrections.

=Homme d’Armes= (_Fr._). A military phrase among the French, signifying a gentleman or cavalier who belonged to one of the old companies, was armed _cap-a-pie_, and always fought on horseback. In ancient times, every man of this description was accompanied by two horsemen independent of his servants. One of the mounted attendants was armed with a cross-bow, and the other with a common bow or battle-axe; so that 100 _hommes d’armes_ composed a body of 300 horse. It was a species of cavalry which existed from the reign of Louis XI. until the reign of Henry II.

=Honduras.= A republican state of the confederation of Central America; being bounded north by the Caribbean Sea and Bay of Honduras, southeast by the Mosquito Territory and Nicaragua, south by San Salvador and the Bay of Conchagua, on the Pacific, and west by Guatemala.

=Honeycomb.= A defect in guns resembling the cells of wax in which the bee stores her honey. These flaws in the metal arise either from careless or imperfect casting, or from long disuse of a gun and exposure to damp. A honeycombed gun is liable to burst in firing.

=Hong-Kong.= An island off the coast of China; was taken by Capt. Elliott, August 23, 1839, and ceded to Great Britain, January 20, 1841.

=Honi Soit Qui Mal y Pense= (_Fr._). See GARTER, ORDER OF THE.

=Honor.= In a general acceptation may be properly called a consciousness of worth and virtue in the individual, and a lively desire to preserve the reputation of virtue. As a term, it is variously used in military life. As a quality of the mind, it cannot be too much encouraged or too much cultivated among military men of all ranks and descriptions. The possession of it is a guarantee for good conduct, a bond of fidelity, and a certain barrier against military corruption. Men are excited to deeds of valor and enterprise by a sense of honor, who would otherwise remain inactive, or only perform the mere drudgery of service. This term may likewise be considered as esteem, reputation, the glory which is attached by mankind to talents and virtues.

=Honor, Affair of.= A transaction connected with a duel, or a challenge to fight a duel; a duel itself.

=Honor, Court of.= Is a species of board of inquiry, which has not only the power of ascertaining the degree of guilt which may be attached to misconduct, but of pronouncing an opinion which may or may not entail ignominy upon the guilty persons. See COURT OF HONOR.

=Honor, Debt of.= An obligation which among honorable men, especially officers, is more binding than those engagements or contracts that are guaranteed by law. The reason is manifest.

=Honor, Point of.= A nice discrimination in matters affecting one’s honor. A delicacy of feeling, which is generally acquired by education, and strengthened by intercourse with men of strict integrity and good conduct. It is likewise very frequently the offspring of peculiar habits, received notions, and established etiquettes; also, a minute distinction; a punctilio.

=Honor, Signatures upon.= Are instruments, such as declarations of officers on vouchers for allowances, pay, etc., that are guaranteed by the names of individuals, without oath.

=Honor, Word of.= A promise or engagement that is made or entered into by word of mouth, the breach of which entails disgrace upon the violator. _To die upon the bed of honor_, is a term particularly applied to military men, who die in battle fighting in their country’s cause.

=Honors of War.= A compliment granted on capitulation to a garrison which has made a gallant defense. The exact nature of the honors accorded have varied in different ages and on different occasions. Ordinarily they are as follows: The garrison marches out through the gap in the breach, if there is one, with arms and personal baggage. The drums beat, the colors fly, officers carry their swords drawn, and the men their bayonets fixed. A certain number of guns--ordinarily two--accompany the force, and formerly the gunners carried lighted matches. On reaching the glacis the garrison--unless it is one of the stipulations that it is to join the main army--forms up and grounds arms, only the officers retaining their swords, and is marched off under escort.

=Honvéd.= The name given in Hungary under the earlier kings to the national champions. With the disappearance of these, the word too disappeared; but in the summer of 1848 it was revived, and applied first to those Hungarian volunteers dispatched to the south against the Servians, and subsequently, when the war with Austria really commenced, to the whole patriotic army. Still, in common parlance, the term honvéd is used only with reference to the Hungarian infantry.

=Hood= (Sp. _tapadera_). A leather cover for the stirrup of a saddle.

=Hooghly.= A town of Bengal, and the capital of a district of the same name, situated on the west hank of the Hooghly River, 27 miles north from Calcutta. This place is supposed to have been founded by the Portuguese about 1538, and after their expulsion in 1632 by the Mogul troops, it became the imperial port of the Mogul empire. In 1757 it was taken by the British; it was retaken shortly after by Surajah Dowlah, but ultimately fell, after a few months, into the hands of the British under Lord Clive.

=Hooks.= Pieces of bent iron fixed to the transom plates of a field-carriage are so called. They serve to fix the bricoles or ropes for drawing it occasionally backwards or forwards.

=Hookum.= An Indian word, signifying order or command.

=Hookummaumeh.= In India, signifies a letter of instructions, or the paper that contains orders.

=Hoplital= (Fr. _hoplites_). Foot-soldiers among the Greeks, who bore heavy armor, and engaged with broad shields and long spears. These took precedence of all other foot-soldiers.

=Horde.= A wandering troop or gang; especially a clan or tribe of a nomadic people possessing no fixed habitations, but migrating from place to place for the sake of pasturage, plunder, or the like cause.

=Hordearium.= The money which the Romans gave their cavalry for the sustenance of their horses.

=Horion= (_Fr._). A term which formerly signified a helmet, and which in the vulgar acceptation of it now, among the French, means a blow upon the head.

=Horizon= (Gr. _orizo_, I bound or terminate). In astronomy and geography, is the plane of the great circle of the sphere, dividing the visible from the invisible hemisphere. The horizon is either _sensible_ or _rational_. The sensible horizon is a plane which is a tangent to the earth’s surface at the place of the spectator, extended on all sides till it is bounded by the sky; the rational horizon is a plane parallel to the former, but passing through the centre of the earth. Both the sensible and rational horizon are relative terms, and change with every change of the spectator’s position on the surface of the earth; in all cases they are perpendicular to the direction of gravity.

=Horizontal Fire.= The fire of guns and howitzers under low angles of elevation.

=Horizontal Plane.= That which is parallel to the horizon; a plane tangent to the surface of the earth, at the place.

=Horizontal Range.= In gunnery, is the distance to which a piece of ordnance will project a ball on a horizontal plane. Supposing no resistance from the atmosphere, the greatest range would be when the piece is elevated at an angle of 45°; and in all other positions the horizontal range would be as the sine of twice the angle of elevation. In a resisting medium the maximum horizontal range requires the elevation to be less than 45°. It is found by experience that, with the ordinary velocity, a cannon-shot ranges the farthest when the elevation of the piece is about 30°.

=Hornwork.= A kind of work in advance of a fortification, akin to a crown-work, but consisting of only one curtain and two half-bastions.

=Hors de Combat.= A French military phrase, signifying that an individual or body of men are so completely beaten as not to be able to maintain the field of battle. _Mettre hors de combat_, to drive your opponent before you; to press him so closely that he cannot make a stand against you; to put him out of the lists of contests. To be wounded or incapable of individual effort, is also being _hors de combat_.

=Horse.= A military term for a body of cavalry.

=Horse Artillery.= Is that portion of the artillery which usually serves with cavalry, and in which the cannoneers are mounted on horseback, to enable them to conform with the rapid movements of that arm of the service. Possessing, from their lighter construction and mounted detachments, much greater locomotive powers than other field-batteries, they are especially adapted for following the rapid evolutions of cavalry, for sudden attacks upon particular points, and for supporting the advance, or covering the retreat of an army.

=Horse, Associated.= A body of cavalry so called in the days of Cromwell. At the famous battle of Naseby (June 14, 1645), which decided the fate of Charles I., the Associated Horse were posted in the rear of the right wing of the Republican army, and formed a part of the reserve. Cromwell commanded the cavalry on the right of the whole, and the Associated Horse were under his immediate orders.

=Horse, Cavalry and Artillery.= Horses generally make in a minute, at ordinary pace, 120 steps, and they cover 110 yards; at a trot, 180 steps, covering 220 yards; and at a gallop, 100 steps or strides, covering 352 yards; from which it would appear that the length of the stride at the ordinary pace is about 0.917 yard, and that the velocity corresponds to about 1.74 yards per second; and at a trot the stride is about 1.28 yards and the speed about 3.68 yards per second; and at a gallop the stride is about 3.52 yards, with a speed of about 5.87 yards per second. A good horse carrying a weight of 225 pounds, can travel, without over-exertion, 25 miles in a day of from seven to eight hours; his speed in this case would be between 1.75 and 1.53 yards per second. The weight of an average-sized horse is about from 900 to 1350 pounds. The age of the horse is determined by the appearance of the teeth, which vary according to the number of years the animal has attained, and may be easily understood by a slight attention to the subject; the number, quality, and size of the teeth indicating the respective ages. The lower front teeth or nippers are those by which the age of a colt is usually determined. At two years old these teeth will be complete; that is to say, the colt will have a full set, six in number, of milch-teeth. Between two and three years old the two centre teeth are displaced, and two permanent teeth succeed them, easily distinguished from colt’s teeth by being broader, larger, and having a dark cavity in the centre of the upper surface. At three years old the colt will have in the lower jaw two permanent and four colt’s teeth; between the third and fourth year the next pair of incisor teeth will be shed, and permanent teeth succeed them. At four years old there will be four permanent teeth in the centre, and two colt’s teeth at each corner of the lower jaw. Between the fourth and fifth year the last remaining colt’s nipper, or corner tooth, will be cast; and, if a horse or gelding, the tushes, four in number, will show themselves, two in the upper and two in the lower jaw. At five years old the horse will have a full or complete set of permanent teeth in the upper and lower jaws; for the same change that takes place in the lower is developed in the upper jaw also. The colt at this age takes the name of horse, and is supposed to be equal to all the laborious duties expected from him. Although we can no longer judge of his age by the shifting or shedding of his teeth, we can form a tolerably correct conclusion from other appearances of them. At six years old the dark oval-shaped mark in the centre of the two front nippers, usually called by horsemen “the bean,” will be nearly or quite worn away; the tushes higher and stronger, and the cavities of the interior part of the tooth more filled; the two corner nippers level with the others, and equally developed. At seven years old the marks in the second pair of nippers are filled up, and the tushes become more round externally and internally. At eight years old the marks in the corner nippers are worn out, and the tushes more round and blunt. From this age the animal is said to be, in horse phraseology, “past knowledge”; and although a tolerably correct opinion may be formed for many years to come by the appearance of the upper jaw and other prognostics, still they cannot be implicitly relied on. It often occurs at a much earlier period that the best judges of age are deceived by the untimely structural alteration of the teeth, produced by mechanical or pathological causes, such as crib-biting, biting the rack or manger, eating hard food, etc. Horses used for cavalry in the United States are selected with regard to climate, the American horse east of the Rocky Mountains, and what is known as the Mexican or _bronco_, west of the Rocky Mountains; the power of endurance of the latter being much more than that of the former, they are better adapted to the rugged, arid country that an American cavalry soldier has to travel over on the western frontier. For artillery large, strong American horses are used. A horse occupies a space in the ranks of a front of 40 inches, a depth of 10 feet; in a stall, from 3¹⁄₂ to 4¹⁄₂ feet front; at picket 3 feet by 9. Cavalry horses usually charge at the rate of 24 miles per hour, or one mile in 2¹⁄₂ minutes. See PACK AND DRAUGHT HORSES.

=Horse Guards.= The name was applied to a large public office in Whitehall, London, appropriated to the departments under the general-commanding-in-chief, and guarded by a squadron of Horse Guards. In 1871 the headquarters were removed to Pall Mall.

=Horse Guards, Royal= (Oxford Blues). Is the third heavy cavalry regiment of the Household Brigade (English). The regiment was raised in 1661 from the remnants of the disbanded army of the late Commonwealth. It took part in Marlborough’s campaigns; served under the Duke of Wellington in the Peninsula and at Waterloo, and has always been considered one of the finest heavy cavalry corps in the world.

=Horseman.= A mounted soldier.

=Horsemanship.= The act or art of riding, and of training and managing horses; manege.

=Horse-power.= A measure for the quantity of work of which an engine or motor is capable in a given time. It is 33,000 foot-pounds in one minute.

=Horse-shoe.= In fortification, is a small round or oval work, with a parapet; generally made in a ditch, or marsh.

=Horse-tail.= A Turkish standard. Commanders are distinguished by the number of horse-tails carried before them, or planted in front of their tents. Thus, the sultan has seven, the grand vizier five, and the pashas three, two, or one.

=Hospital.= A place appointed for the sick and wounded men, provided with physicians, surgeons, nurses, servants, medicines, beds, etc.

=Hospital, Field.= Is the staff and apparatus for the surgical treatment of the wounded in the field, and the locality assigned for the resort of the latter to obtain it. In the United States there is a hospital at every military post, under the superintendence of the army medical department.

=Hospital, Regimental.= In Great Britain, each regiment has a hospital for the reception of the sick belonging to it. This hospital is under the immediate care of the regimental surgeon, who is subordinate to the general medical board.

=Hospital Steward.= In the U. S. service, is a non-commissioned officer of the general staff, whose duty consists in making up prescriptions, administering medicines, and in a general supervision of the sick, under the instructions of an army medical officer.

=Hospital Tent.= A large tent used for hospital purposes. See TENT.

=Hospitallers.= A celebrated brotherhood founded at various times and in different countries for the care of the sick in hospitals. The vow to devote themselves to this work of mercy is, in all these brotherhoods, superadded to the ordinary vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, which are common to all the religious orders in the Roman Catholic Church. One of the earliest recorded instances of a hospital served by such a brotherhood is that of Constance, in the 13th century. See SAINT JOHN OF JERUSALEM and TEUTONIC KNIGHTS.

=Hospodar.= A title borne by the governors of Wallachia and Moldavia, under the Turks. Although nominated by the porte, they possessed absolute power within their own dominions. By the treaty of Adrianople in 1829, the principalities were placed under Russian protection, and from that time till the treaty of Paris in 1856, the hospodars were virtually the nominees of Russia.

=Host.= An army; any large body of men assembled together in arms.

=Hostages.= Are persons given in pledge for the performance of conditions. When a town capitulates, victors and vanquished usually give into the custody, one of the other, several officers, as pledges that each party will duly carry out the terms stipulated. When the terms are fulfilled, the hostages are exchanged; but if the terms be evaded, the opposite side holds the right to put to death, or otherwise punish, the hostages in its possession; of late years the practice is going out of use.

=Hostile.= Belonging to an enemy; appropriate to an enemy; showing ill-will and malevolence, or a desire to thwart and injure; occupied by an enemy or a hostile people; inimical; unfriendly; as, a hostile force, hostile country, etc.

=Hostilities.= A rupture between the natives of different countries. The first hostile act that is committed by either party is considered the commencement of hostilities. Between nations, the first act of hostility presupposes a declaration of war.

=Hosting.= An encounter; a battle. A muster or review. This term is now obsolete.

=Hot Shot.= Shot made red-hot for the purpose of setting fire to buildings, shipping, etc. The charges for hot shot are from one-fourth to one-sixth the weight of the shot. With small velocities, the shot splits and splinters the wood, so as to render it favorable for burning. With great velocity the ball sinks into the wood, is deprived of air by the closing of the hole, and chars instead of burning the surrounding wood. It should not penetrate deeper than 10 or 12 inches. Red-hot balls do not set fire to the wood until some time after their penetration. They retain sufficient heat to ignite wood after having made several ricochets upon water. The wads for hot shot should be made of clay or hay, the latter to be well soaked in water, and before being used, the water pressed out of it. With proper precautions in loading, the ball may be permitted to cool in the gun without igniting the charge. The piece, however, should be fired with as little delay as possible, as the vapor would diminish the strength of the powder. They are heated by means of furnaces erected for the purpose, which hold sixty or more shot. The shot being placed, and the furnace cold, it requires one hour and fifteen minutes to heat them to a red heat; but after the furnace is once heated, a 24-pounder shot is brought to a red heat in twenty-five minutes. Red-hot shot is not in general use.

=Hotchkiss Projectile.= See PROJECTILE.

=Hotchkiss Revolving Cannon.= Consists of five barrels grouped around a common axis; they are revolved in front of a solid breech-block, which has in one part an opening to introduce the cartridges, and another opening through which to extract the empty shells. The cartridges are fired after being revolved and while motionless in front of the solid portion of the breech. In exterior aspect it resembles the Gatling gun, but is entirely different in its interior mechanism. See MACHINE GUNS.

=Hotchkiss Rifle.= See MAGAZINE GUNS.

=Hôtel des Invalides= (_Fr._). A spacious building which was erected by Louis XIV. in Paris, upon the river Seine, as a public monument of his charity and munificence. All disabled, infirm, and wounded officers and soldiers were received, lodged, and subsisted during the remainder of their lives within its walls.

=Hotte= (_Fr._). A sort of hand-basket, which is often made use of in the construction of batteries and other works, and serves to carry earth from one place to another. Hence the word _hod_, a well-known machine for carrying bricks.

=Hougines= (_Fr._). Parts of ancient armor covering the thighs, legs, and arms.

=Hounds.= Are pieces of wood used in the construction of limbers for gun-carriages to connect the splinter-bar with the axle.

=Hours of Sitting= (Courts-martial). See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 94.

=Household Troops.= See GUARDS.

=Housing.= Cover or cloth over or under a horse’s saddle used for cleanliness, or as an ornamental or military appendage; a saddle-cloth; a horse-cloth.

=Howitzer= (derived by Grimm and Littré from the Bohemian _haufnice_, “catapult”). A short, light cannon, having a chamber intended to throw large projectiles with comparatively small charges. A howitzer is of larger caliber than a gun of like weight; is mounted in a similar manner, and is used for shorter ranges. It is said to have been first introduced by the Dutch in the early part of the 17th century, and soon afterward came into almost general use. The Russians in 1777 introduced the _licorne_, an improved howitzer. Howitzers project larger shells than guns with which they are associated; are well adapted for ricochet fire, the destruction of field-works, breaking down palisades, and setting fire to buildings; and the projectiles used are shells, spherical-case, canister, grape, and carcasses. Howitzers, except for siege and mountain service, are no longer manufactured in the United States, as our present guns are equally suitable for shell-firing in field or garrison service. The ones now in use in the U. S. service are 8-inch and 24-pounder mountain howitzers. The former is used for siege purposes, and for the defense of ditches in fortifications. The 24-pounder flank defense howitzer, now out of use, was formerly employed for this purpose. The 8-inch howitzer has, strictly speaking, no chamber; the bore is, however, terminated by a semi-ellipsoid, the axis being 6 inches in length. This piece weighs 2600 pounds, and the shell (not filled) 45 pounds. The mountain howitzer (12-pounder) is a small, light, bronze piece about 3 feet long, weighing 220 pounds, capable of being easily removed from its carriage, and transported upon the back of a mule. The shell weighs, when strapped and charged, 9.35 pounds, and the maximum range of the piece is about 1000 yards. There are two distinct kinds of carriage used with it, one similar to the carriage of the ordinary field-piece, but smaller and lighter, the other having four wheels and called the prairie carriage. This piece has been extensively employed in our numerous Indian wars upon the plains and mountains of the West, and has done good service.

=Hualpais=, or =Hualapais Indians=. A tribe of aborigines who are located on the Colorado River near the Mojaves.

=Hub.= The hilt of a weapon; as, to drive a dagger into a body up to the hub.

=Hubbardton.= A village of Rutland Co., Vt., about 46 miles south-southwest of Montpelier. Here an American force of three regiments of Warner, Francis, and Hale, numbering about 1300, were defeated by the British under Col. Fraser, July 7, 1777.

=Hubert, St., Order of.= The highest Bavarian order of knighthood, founded in 1444.

=Hubertsberg.= A village of Saxony, 24 miles east from Leipsic. The treaty of peace, by which the Seven Years’ War was ended, was signed in the royal castle of this place in 1763.

=Hue and Cry.= In Great Britain, an official gazette, which serves to advertise deserters from her majesty’s service.

=Huguenots.= A term (derived by some from the German _Eidgenossen_, “confederates,” by others from Hugues, a Genevese Calvinist) applied to the Reformed party in France, followers of Calvin. They took up arms against their persecutors in 1561. After a delusive edict of toleration, a great number were massacred at Vassy, March 1, 1562, when the civil wars began, which lasted with some intermission till the edict of Nantes in 1598 (revoked in 1685). The massacre of St. Bartholomew’s day, August 24, 1572, occurred during a truce.

=Huissier d’Armes= (_Fr._). Tipstaff; an officer formerly so called in France, who was attached to the royal household. They were at first distinguished by the name of _sergens d’armes_, or sergeants-at-arms. Some were directed to bear the mace before the king during the day, and obtained on that account the appellation of _huissiers d’armes_; in later times they were called the _huissiers_, or tipstaffs of the king’s chamber. Others kept watch in the king’s bed-chamber during the night, and were sworn to expose their lives for the safety of his person, whence they obtained the name of _archers de la garde_, which term was changed to _gardes du corps_, or body-guards.

=Hulan.= See UHLAN.

=Hull=, or =Kingston-upon-Hull=. A seaport town of England, in Yorkshire, situated on the great inlet of the Humber, at the point where it is entered by the river Hull. It is a very ancient town; during the civil war it declared for the Parliament, and sustained two severe sieges by the royalists.

=Humaitá.= A strong post on the river Paraguay, defended by a battery of 300 cannon, and believed to be impregnable by Lopez, the president of Paraguay; was forced by the Brazilian ironclads February 17, 1868. On the 19th, Caxias, the Brazilian general, stormed a work to the north of Humaitá, and captured many stores.

=Hungary.= A portion of the Austrian empire. It was a part of the ancient Pannonia and Dacia; was subjected to the Romans about 106, and retained by them till the 3d century, when it was seized by the Goths, who were expelled about 376 by the Huns, under Attila. After his death in 453, the Gepidæ, and in 500 the Lombards held the country. It was acquired by the Avars about 568, and retained by them till their destruction by Charlemagne in 799. About 890 the country was settled by a Scythian tribe, named Vingours, or Ungri (whence the German name _Ungarn_), and the Magyars of Finnish origin. The progress of the Magyars westward was checked by their defeat by the emperor Henry the Fowler, 934. After various changes of rulers it came permanently under the dominion of Austria in 1526. A revolution took place in Hungary in 1848 under the leadership of Kossuth.

=Huns.= The name of a considerable nation of antiquity, which from time to time made incursions on the Roman dominions, and which eventually, under Attila, the most renowned of its leaders, brought in the 5th century the Eastern and Western empires to the verge of destruction. They were originally of Asiatic origin, and probably akin to the Scythians and Turks. In the latter part of the 4th century they settled along the Danube, in the territory abandoned by the Goths, and subsequently they pressed onward towards further conquests. In the 5th century they had acquired considerable power, but after Attila’s death it was broken. Many of them afterwards took service with the Romans; others joined the invaders from the north and east that were attacking the moribund Roman empire.

=Hunters, Death-.= Followers of an army, who, after an engagement, look for dead bodies in order to strip them.

=Hurdices.= Ramparts, scaffolds, fortifications, etc.

=Hurdles.= In fortification, twigs of willow or osiers, interwoven close together, and sustained by long stakes. They are made in the figure of a parallelogram, in length 5 or 6 feet, in breadth 3 or 3¹⁄₂. The closer they are wattled together the better. They serve to revet, or render batteries firm, or to consolidate the passage over muddy ditches; or to cover traverses and lodgments for the defense of the workmen against the fireworks. Hurdles are constructed in nearly the same manner as gabions, excepting that the pickets are placed in a straight line instead of a circle.

=Hurkaru.= A messenger; one who brings intelligence; a scout.

=Hurl.= To send whirling or whizzing through the air; to throw with violence; to drive with great force; as, to hurl a lance, etc.

=Huron Indians= (also called _Wyandots_). A tribe of aborigines now almost extinct, who were settled in Canada and in a part of the United States. They fought against the United States in the war of 1812-15.

=Hurst.= A charge in heraldry representing a small group of trees, generally borne upon a mount in base.

=Hurter=, or =Heurtoir=. A square beam placed at the foot of a parapet where there is an embrasure to prevent the wheels of the gun, when the latter is run up, from injuring the interior slope. A short fascine or military fagot is sometimes substituted for a beam. A hurter is placed on the front part of a siege platform, under the wheels. The motion of gun-carriages is checked, front and rear, by pieces of wood or iron bolted to the top rails called _hurters_ and _counter-hurters_.

=Hussar.= A name given to the national cavalry of Hungary and Croatia. They were first raised in 1458, and received their name either from the method in which they were called out, or from the Tartar _uswar_, which signifies cavalry. In the armies of modern Europe hussars are light horse, and differ from light dragoons only in some peculiarities of dress and equipments.

=Hussites.= Is the name of the followers of Huss. Immediately after his martyrdom they arose in Bohemia, and took a frightful revenge on the priests, monks, and prelates of the Roman Catholic Church. Wenceslaus succeeded, however, in appeasing the storm by granting them religious freedom. But when the king died in 1419, and the pope issued an order for the conversion of the Hussites by force, a civil war began. They assembled under the leadership of John Ziska, on Mount Tabor, captured Prague, pillaged and burnt the monasteries, and defeated at Deutchbrod in 1422, and in several other minor encounters, the troops of Sigismund, the German emperor and heir of Wenceslaus. Ziska died in 1424, but his successor, Procopius, a former monk, was still more successful. He defeated Sigismund at Miess and Tachau, and carried the war into Austria, Bavaria, Franconia, and Saxony. Meanwhile, the Hussites had separated into two parties, the Taborites and Calixtines. In the beginning they acted in perfect concert with each other. But in 1433 the Council of Basle succeeded in coming to an agreement with the Calixtines and in drawing them out of the contest; the result of which was that the Taborites were totally defeated at Bomishbrod in 1434. Toleration was granted, and Sigismund entered Prague, August 23, 1436. The Hussites opposed his successor, Albert of Austria, and called Casimir of Poland to the throne, but were defeated in 1438. A portion of the Hussites existed in the time of Luther, and were called “Bohemian Brethren.”

=Hut.= Is a wooden structure, more or less rough in details, for the housing of troops. It is substituted very often for the tent, when the sojourn in a camp or cantonment is likely to be of consideration, as, for instance, through a winter,--a hut, however rude, which is wind- and water-tight, being as superior in comfort to a tent as the latter is to the open air. Huts may be made of almost any size, and are sometimes for one officer; at others for as many as 100 men. The quarters occupied by U. S. troops on the American frontiers are very frequently huts made by the troops.

=Huy.= A town of Belgium, 18 miles southwest from Liege. This town has withstood several sieges. Its fortifications were dismantled in 1718, but in 1815 its castle was rebuilt.

=Hyccara= (now _Muro di Carini_). A town of Sicani, on the north coast of Sicily, west of Panormus. It was taken by the Athenians and plundered, and its inhabitants sold as slaves, 415 B.C.

=Hydaspes.= A river in India, where Alexander the Great defeated Porus, after a severely contested engagement, in 327 B.C.

=Hyder.= The Arabic term for lion. This title is frequently given to men of rank in India.

=Hydraulic Jack.= A powerful portable apparatus for moving heavy weights through short distances, by an application of the principles of the hydrostatic press. There are two forms, the _lifting_- and _pulling_-jack. Those used in the American military service are of 80 tons capacity.

=Hydraulic Loading Apparatus.= The apparatus used in manœuvring heavy turret-guns in the English navy, invented by Mr. George Rendel (a member of Sir William Armstrong’s firm), and first tested in the working of a 38-ton gun on the “Thunderer.” It was determined to similarly equip the “Inflexible,” with her 80-ton armament. The apparatus was thoroughly tested, in working the 100-ton guns delivered to the Italian government, in experiments at Spezzia, 1876. The working of the gun, including all the operations of loading and sponging, is effected by means of hydraulic pumps, which are all operated by one small steam-engine. The gun is placed with its trunnions resting on two heavy blocks of metal, which, being retained by guides, slide on large beams or girders built in the floor of the turret. In front and rear of the blocks are pistons, working in cylinders in the direction of the floor-beams. These pistons, under the influence of water-pressure, move the gun in and out of battery. The breech is raised and lowered by similar means. When the gun and trunnion-blocks rush back under the impulse of the recoil from firing, the water in the rear cylinders is forced out through escape-valves, which are held down by springs under a tension of 50 atmospheres. The recoil is thus checked in the space of 3 or 4 feet. If a larger charge is used the tension of the springs can be increased. The springs only come into play in resisting the desperate force of recoil. The water pumped into the cylinders (a valve at the rear opening outwards being raised) is sufficient to run the gun forward without displacing the recoil-valves, the working-pressure required being less than 50 atmospheres.

When the gun is to be loaded, it is run forward and the muzzle depressed till it is in front of an armored hood, which shields an iron door in the main deck. The door slides back, a sponge appears on the end of a staff, which enters the bore and lengthens itself like a telescope till the bottom is reached, when, in obedience to the touch of a valve, a flood of water is ejected from the sponge to extinguish fire and wash the bore. The shot and cartridge next appear, lifted from below on a small truck, which is run out on a trap-door. The cartridge is lifted in front of the muzzle, the sponge--now converted into a rammer--pushes it a short distance into the gun, is then withdrawn, and when the shot rises pushes both to the bottom of the bore. The sponge is then withdrawn below deck and the trap closes. Each of these movements is effected entirely by water-pressure, the course of the water and the corresponding operation being determined by manipulating the proper valve. The power is supplied by a small steam-engine specially designed for the purpose. When no manœuvre is to be performed, the engine occupies itself in pumping water from the tank against the recoil-valves. When the pressure rises above 50 atmospheres these valves allow a small quantity to escape, which runs back into the tank. The engine barely moves in this work. When any manœuvre is to be performed, such as running the gun forward, a handle is touched, the cylinder-valves open a passage to the water, and, the enormous resistance being removed, the engine rattles with energy, and the gun moves forward as by magic. The valve being closed by the operator, the engine returns to its sisyphean labor of pumping water against the loaded valves till some new outlet gives it a specific task.

Every part of this apparatus, notwithstanding its provisional mounting, worked perfectly in the experiments at Spezzia.

The only defect in the principle was developed by the bursting of one, the 38-ton gun of the “Thunderer” (January 2, 1879), which was worked by this apparatus. The disaster has been generally attributed to the presence in the gun of a double charge of both shot and powder. This could hardly have occurred in hand-loading. Steps have been taken to remedy the apparatus in this regard.

=Hygrometer.= An instrument for measuring the degree of moisture of the atmosphere.

=Hygrometer, Daniell’s.= A form of hygrometer consisting of a bent glass tube terminating in two bulbs, the one covered with muslin, the other of black glass, and containing ether and a thermometer. Ether being poured on the muslin, the black ball, cooled by the evaporation of the ether within, is soon covered with dew, at which moment the receding of the inclosed thermometer, compared with that of another in the air, gives the dew point.