Part 20

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Earl French, _Despatches_; Earl Haig, _Despatches_ (edited by Lieutenant-Colonel J. H. Boraston); Sir Julian Corbett, _The Official History of the War: Naval Operations_; Viscount Jellicoe, _The Grand Fleet, 1914-1916_, and _The Crisis of the Naval War_; Filson Young, _With the Battle Cruisers_; F. A. Mumby and others, _The Great World War_ (9 vols.); _The Times History and Encyclopedia of the War_ (21 vols.); A. F. Pollard, _A Short History of the Great War_; Lord Edward Gleichen, _Chronology of the War_; Thomas G. Frothingham, _A Guide to the Military History of the World War, 1914-1918_; Sir James Willcocks, _With the Indians in France_; W. T. Massey, _How Jerusalem was Won_, and _Allenby's Final Triumph_; John Masefield, _Gallipoli_; Sir Ian Hamilton, _Gallipoli Diary_; Sir Charles Townshend, _My Campaign in Mesopotamia_; V. J. Seligman, _The Salonica Side-Show_; Angus Buchanan, _Three Years of War in East Africa_; Boyd Cable, _Airmen o' War_; J. F. C. Fuller, _Tanks in the Great War; Germany's Violation of the Laws of War, 1914-1915_ (translated from the French Official Records); _Ypres, 1914_ (published by order of German General Staff, translated by G. C. W.); Theobald Bethmann-Hollweg, _Reflections on the World War_ (translated by G. Young); General Ludendorff, _My War Memories, 1914-1918_; Marshal von Hindenburg, _Out of my Life_ (translated by F. A. Holt); Count Czernin, _In the World War_.

EUROTIUM. See _Plectascineae_.

EURYDICE ([=u]-rid'i-s[=e]), in Greek mythology, the wife of Orpheus (q.v.).

EUSE'BIUS, of Caesarea, the father of ecclesiastical history, a Greek writer, born in Palestine about A.D. 265, died about 340. About 315 he was appointed Bishop of Caesarea. When the Arian controversy broke out, Eusebius showed considerable sympathy with Arius. At the Council of Nicaea (A.D. 325), when Arian doctrines were condemned, he took a leading part. His ecclesiastical history (_Historia Ecclesiastica_) extends from the birth of Christ to 324. Amongst his other extant works is a life of Constantine the Great, which may be said to continue his ecclesiastical history to within a few years of the writer's own death.

EUSPORANGIATE FERNS, those in which the sporangium is a massive organ arising from several cells, whereas in leptosporangiate ferns it is a more delicate structure derived from a single superficial cell. The bulk of living ferns are leptosporangiate, the eusporangiate class comprising only two living families, viz. the Marattiaceae and Ophioglossaceae, as well as many extinct types. The eusporangiate types include the more primitive ferns; all the other main groups of Pteridophytes, and the seed-plants are also eusporangiate.

EUSTACHIAN TUBE, in anatomy, a canal leading from the pharynx to the tympanum of the ear.

EUSTACHIO, Bartolomeo, Italian physician and anatomist, born soon after 1500, died about 1574. He devoted himself to medical science and in

## particular to anatomy, which he much enriched by his researches. Amongst

his discoveries were the _eustachian tube_ and the eustachian valve of the heart.

EUSTATIUS, ST., or ST. EUSTACHE ISLAND, a Dutch island in the W. Indies, one of the Leeward Islands, 11 miles north-west of St. Christopher's, pyramidal in form; area, 8 sq. miles. Sugar, cotton, and maize are raised; but the principal production is tobacco. The climate is healthy, but earthquakes are frequent. Pop. 1431.

EUTER'PE, (1) one of the Muses, considered as presiding over lyric poetry, the invention of the flute being ascribed to her. She is usually represented as a virgin crowned with flowers, having a flute in her hand. (2) In botany, a genus of palms, natives of South America, sometimes nearly 100 feet in height.

EUTHANASIA, literally, a painless or easy death, a term often used in connection with the theory or proposal that it should be lawful to administer drugs to bring about a painless death, in the case of persons suffering from painful and hopeless diseases.

EUTRO'PIUS, Flavius, a Latin historian, who flourished about A.D. 360. His abridgment of the history of Rome (_Breviarium Historiae Romanae_) is written in a perspicuous style, and is often read, or rather spelled out word by word, by beginners in Latin. It is of little or no authority as a history.

EUTYCHES ([=u]'ti-k[=e]z), a Greek heresiarch who lived in the fifth century after Christ. He was superior of a monastery near Constantinople, and his heresy consisted in maintaining that after the incarnation there was only a divine nature in Christ under the appearance of a human body. The doctrines of Eutyches were condemned by the Council of Chalcedon in 451, and he was expelled from his monastery. He died not long afterwards. His followers were often called Monophysites (Gr. _monos_, single, _physis_, nature) as well as Eutychians.

EUXANTHINE, a substance supposed to be derived from the bile or urine of the buffalo, camel, or elephant. It comes from India under the name of purree or Indian yellow, and is used as a pigment.

EUX'INE (_Pontus Eux[=i]nus_), the ancient name for the Black Sea.

EVANGEL'ICAL, a term often used to qualify certain theological views, especially strict views on the question of the atonement, justification by faith, the inspiration and authority of the Scriptures, and allied doctrines. In England the so-called Low Church party is evangelical in its views. In a more general sense the word implies a peculiar fervency and earnestness in insisting on such doctrines as regeneration and redemption. The 'Evangelical Church' is the official title of the Established Church of Prussia, formed in 1817 by the union of Lutherans and Calvinists.

EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE, an association of members of different sections of the Christian Church, organized in London in 1845, to lend its influence in favour of evangelical doctrines, religious union and liberty, and against superstition and unbelief. The Alliance, incorporated in 1912, has branches throughout the world, the American branch being especially strong, and has held meetings at Paris, Berlin, Amsterdam, Geneva, New York, Copenhagen, Florence, and London. A week of united prayer is held in London in the early part of January each year. The organ of the Alliance, _Evangelical Christendom_, is published in London.

EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION, a body of American Christians, chiefly of German descent, established about the beginning of the last century. In form of government and mode of worship it generally agrees with the Methodist Episcopal Church.

EVANGELICAL UNION, the name of a religious sect, also familiarly known as the Morisonians, from the Rev. James Morison, its originator. It took rise in Scotland in 1840, and three years afterwards organized itself as a separate Christian denomination. The Morisonians maintain the universality of the atonement, combining with this the doctrine of eternal personal and unconditional election, and denying that anyone will be condemned for Adam's fall. In point of government the individual Churches are independent. The body has now only a few adherents, the majority having united in 1896 with the Congregationalists.

EVAN'GELISTS, the writers of the history or doctrines, precepts, actions, life, and death of Christ; in particular, the _four evangelists_, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. The ancient symbols of the four evangelists are: for Matthew, _a man's face_; for Mark, _a lion_; for Luke, _an ox_; and for John, _a flying eagle_.

EV'ANS, Sir Arthur John, born in 1851, son of Sir John Evans. He was educated at Harrow, Oxford, and Goettingen, is a distinguished archaeologist, as well as an investigator into the history and affairs of Eastern Europe, and in particular has made important investigations and discoveries in Crete. He has travelled in Finland, Lapland, and the Balkan countries, and has written works connected with these travels and with his archaeological researches. From 1884 to 1908 he was keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. He was knighted in 1911, and was president of the British Association 1916-7. Among his works are: _Through Bosnia_, and _Scripta Minoa_.

EVANS, Sir George de Lacy, a British general, born at Moig, in Ireland, in 1787, died 9th Jan., 1870. After some years of service in India, he joined the army of Wellington in the Peninsula in 1812, where he served with distinction. In 1814 he was sent to America, and was present at the battles of Bladensburg and New Orleans, returning to Europe in time to take part in Waterloo. In 1830 and 1831 he was elected member for Rye, and in 1833 for Westminster. In 1835 he was appointed to the command of 10,000 troops raised in Britain on behalf of the Queen of Spain. Under the training of Evans this force became an excellent army, and several times defeated the Carlists. During the Crimean War he distinguished himself as commander of the second division of the English army, and received the thanks of the House and other honours.

EVANS, Sir John, English archaeologist, born in 1823, died in 1908, was an

## active member of a firm of paper-makers, but eventually retired from

business and devoted himself chiefly to scientific pursuits, being distinguished as a geologist, numismatist, and antiquarian. From 1878 till 1896 he was treasurer of the Royal Society; in 1897 he was president at the Toronto meeting of the British Association. He was created a K.C.B. in 1892. His chief works are: _The Ancient Stone Implements, Weapons, and Ornaments of Great Britain and Ireland_; and _The Ancient Bronze Implements, Weapons, and Ornaments of Great Britain and Ireland_.

EV'ANSTON, a city of the United States, Illinois, 13 miles from Chicago. It is pleasantly situated on Lake Michigan. It is the seat of the North-Western University and other institutions. Pop. 37,215.

EV'ANSVILLE, a town in the United States, in Indiana, pleasantly situated on a height above the Ohio. It contains some handsome buildings, including custom-house and post office. Coal and iron abound in the vicinity, and there are numerous factories, flour-mills, and iron-foundries, and a large shipping trade. Pop. 85,264.

EVAPORATION, the process of changing a liquid into vapour, which goes on at the surface of the liquid. When evaporation takes place into a closed space above the liquid, a state is reached in which the space is saturated with vapour, and no further change is apparent. Certain conditions influence the rate at which evaporation takes place in the open, such as the extent of the exposed surface, the dryness, pressure, and temperature of the air, and the presence or absence of wind. The farmer looks for a drying wind to dry his corn-sheaves before they are carted from the field. Evaporation is always accompanied by an absorption of heat by the vapour, namely the latent heat necessary for the change of state from liquid to vapour. This heat is abstracted from the liquid, which, as a consequence, falls in temperature, and neighbouring bodies may also be cooled. A bather emerging from the water experiences this cooling as the water evaporates from his skin. In hot countries, water is kept cool by being placed in porous earthenware jars: the evaporation which takes place at the outer surface prevents the water in the jar from becoming too warm. The continual evaporation from land and water surfaces is the cause of the presence of water in the atmosphere, whether in the form of invisible vapour or of cloud, mist, fog, rain, hail, or snow. The cooling caused by evaporation is applied in industry in the case of the ammonia compression machine, in working refrigerating plant for the preservation of food-stuffs, and in the manufacture of artificial ice. When evaporation takes place at the surface of a dry solid, the process is called sublimation, and it may be observed in the cases of iodine, camphor, and ice.

EV'ELYN, John, an English writer of the seventeenth century, born at Wotton, in Surrey, 31st Oct., 1620, died there, 27th Feb., 1706. After completing his course at Oxford, he studied law at the Middle Temple, visited various parts of the Continent, and in 1659 prepared the way for the Restoration. He published numerous works, amongst which are: _Sculptura, or the History and Art of Chalcography_; _Sylva, or a Discourse of Forest Trees_; treatises on gardening and architecture. But by far his most important work is his memoirs, comprehending a diary and correspondence, which are interesting contributions to the history of the time. Evelyn's _Diary_ was first published in 1818, and an edition by Austin Dobson appeared in 1906.--Cf. H. Maynard Smith, _The Early Life of John Evelyn_.

EVENING-PRIMROSE, Oenoth[)e]ra, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Onagraceae. _Oe. biennis_, an American species common in cottage gardens, is not infrequent as an escaped plant in England.

EV'EREST, MOUNT, the highest summit of the Himalayas and the loftiest mountain in the world, 29,002 feet. It was named after Sir George Everest (1790-1866), chief of the great Indian trigonometrical survey and Surveyor-General of India. In 1921 an expedition set out to climb the mountain.

EV'ERETT, Alexander Hill, an American diplomatist, born at Boston in 1792, died at Canton in 1847. After studying at Harvard, in 1809 he accompanied John Quincy Adams to St. Petersburg (Petrograd) as Secretary of Legation. He afterwards filled successive diplomatic posts in the Netherlands, Spain, and elsewhere. He was the author, amongst other works, of _Europe, or a General Survey of the Present Situation of the Principal Powers_ (1822); and a similar work on America.

EVERETT, Edward, an American statesman and author, brother of the preceding, born at Dorchester, Massachusetts, 11th April, 1794, died at Boston, 15th Jan., 1865. After travelling for some years in Germany and England, he returned to America in 1819 to occupy the chair of Greek literature at Harvard. He became editor of the _North American Review_, and entering the political world became successively member of Congress, Governor of Massachusetts, and Minister Plenipotentiary in England (1841-5). In 1845 he was appointed president of Harvard College; in 1852 Secretary of State; in 1853 a Senator. He wrote poems; a _Defence of Christianity_, and his speeches and orations have been published.

EVERGREEN, a plant that retains its verdure through all the seasons, as the fir, the holly, the laurel, the cedar, the cypress, the juniper, the holm-oak, and many others. Evergreens shed their old leaves in the spring or summer, after the new foliage has been formed, and consequently are verdant through all the winter season. They form a considerable part of the shrubs commonly cultivated in gardens, and are beautiful at all seasons of the year.

[Illustration: Everlasting Flower (_Helichrysum sentii_)]

EVERLASTING-FLOWERS, a name applied to certain plants which, when dried, suffer little change in their appearance. The plants to which this name is peculiarly applied belong to the genus Helichrysum, but it is also given to members of allied genera, such as Antennaria or Gnaphalium.

EVERLASTING-PEA, a popular name for _Lathyrus latifolius_, cultivated in flower-gardens, and belonging to the same genus as the sweet-pea.

EVERSION OF THE EYELIDS (Ectropion), is a turning outward of the eyelids, and it may be congenital or acquired. The latter follows severe infection of the hair-follicles of the eyelashes.

EVESHAM ([=e]vz'am), a town in England, in the county and 15 miles S.E. of Worcester, beautifully situated on the Avon, and giving name to a parliamentary division of the county. It was the seat of a monastery as early as the eighth century. Simon de Montfort was defeated by the Royal troops at Evesham on 4th Aug., 1265. Pop. 8685.

EVICTION, the dispossession of a person from the occupancy of lands or tenements. The term occurs most commonly in connection with the proceedings by which a landlord ejects his tenant for non-payment of rent or on determination of the tenancy. In the case of eviction of tenants in Ireland, generally for non-payment of rent, the tenants are frequently readmitted as care-takers, or under some other title. The Rent Restrictions Act, 1920, operative until 1923, severely curtails a landlord's common law rights to recover possession of certain premises at the time when, but for the Act, the tenancy would expire.

EVIDENCE is that which makes evident, which enables the mind to see truth. It may be (_a_) _intuitive_, i.e. resting on the direct testimony of consciousness, of perception or memory, or on fundamental principles of the human intellect; or it may be (_b_) _demonstrative_, i.e. in a strict sense, proofs which establish with certainty as in mathematical science certain conclusions; or it may be (_c_) _probable_, under which class are ranked _moral evidence_, _legal evidence_, and generally every kind of evidence which, though it may be sufficient to satisfy the mind, is not an absolutely certain and incontrovertible demonstration.

In jurisprudence evidence is classified into that which is _direct_ and _positive_ and that which is _presumptive_ and _circumstantial_. The former is that which is proved by some writing containing a positive statement of the facts and binding the party whom it affects; or that which is proved by some witness, who has, and avers himself to have, positive knowledge thereof by means of his senses. Whenever the fact is not so directly and positively established, but is deduced from other facts in evidence, it is _presumptive_ and _circumstantial_ only. The following are the leading rules regarding evidence in a court of law:

(1) The point in issue is to be proved by the party who asserts the affirmative. But where one person charges another with a culpable omission this rule will not apply, the person who makes the charge being bound to prove it. (2) The best evidence must be given of which the nature of the thing is capable. (3) Hearsay evidence of a fact is not admissible. The principal exceptions to this rule are--death-bed declarations, evidence in questions of pedigree, public right, custom boundaries, declarations against interest, declarations which accompany the facts or are part of the _res gestae_, &c. (4) Insane persons and idiots are incompetent to be witnesses. But persons temporarily insane are in their lucid intervals received as witnesses. Children are admissible as witnesses as soon as they have a competent share of understanding and know and feel the nature of an oath and of the obligation to speak the truth.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. F. Stephen, _Digest of the Law of Evidence_; W. M. Best, _Law of Evidence_.

EVIDENCES OF CHRISTIANITY. These may be divided broadly into two great classes, viz. _external evidences_, or the body of historical testimonies to the Christian revelation; and _internal evidences_, or arguments drawn from the nature of Christianity itself as exhibited in its teachings and effects, in favour of its divine origin. The first Christian apologies--those of Justin Martyr, Minucius Felix, and Tertullian, written in the second century--were mainly intended as justifications of the Christian religion against the charges of atheism and immorality commonly made at that time. Of a more philosophical kind, and dealing more comprehensively with the principles of religion and belief in general, are the works of Origen, Arnobius, and Augustine in the centuries immediately succeeding. During the Middle Ages, the scientific representation of Christianity is mostly the work of the schoolmen occupied in welding Aristotelian or Platonic philosophy with the fabric of Christian dogmatics, or writing attacks on the Jewish and Mohammedan faiths.

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the influences of the Renaissance and the Reformation gave rise to a spirit of inquiry and criticism which developed English deism as represented by Herbert and Hobbes in the seventeenth century, and Collins and Bolingbroke in the eighteenth. The general position of English deism was the acceptance of the belief in the existence of God, and the profession of natural religion along with opposition to the mysteries and special claims of Christianity. It was in confutation of this position that the great English works on the evidences of Christianity of Butler, Berkeley, and Cudworth were written. In France the new spirit of inquiry was represented by Diderot, D'Holbach, and the encyclopedists in general, who assailed Christianity mainly on the ground that it was founded on imposture and superstition, and maintained by sacerdotal trickery and hypocrisy. No reply of any great value was produced in the French Church, although in the previous age Pascal in his _Pensees_ had brought together some of the profoundest considerations yet offered in favour of revealed religion. The nineteenth century has been distinguished by the strongly rationalistic spirit of its criticism. The works of such writers as Strauss, Bauer, and Feuerbach, attempting to eliminate the supernatural and the mysterious in the origin of Christianity, have been answered by the works of Neander, Ebrard, and Ullmann on the other side. The historical method of investigation, represented alike by the Hegelian school and the Positivists and Agnostics in philosophy, and by the Evolutionists in science, is the basis of the chief attacks of the present time against the supernatural character of Christianity. The tendency of all the critics is to hold that while Christianity is the highest and most perfect development to which the religious spirit has yet attained, it differs simply in degree of development from any other religion. Notable amongst later apologists of Christianity have been Paley (_Natural Theology_), Chalmers (_Natural Theology_), Mansel, Liddon, and others.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. R. Illingworth, _Reason and Revelation_; A. Garvie, _Handbook of Christian Apologetics_.

EVIL, ORIGIN OF. The difficulty of the question lies mainly in this, that the existence of evil in the world seems inconsistent with the view that it was created and is maintained by an omnipotent and beneficent creator. The various theories on the subject have all sought to elude this difficulty either by the supposition of some principle of evil equally eternal with that of good, or by regarding evil as having only a relative existence, being a kind of good in an imperfect and immature stage. Perhaps the oldest theory upon this subject is that of Parseeism, or the religion of Zoroaster, according to which there were two original principles, one good (Ormuzd) and the other evil (Ahriman). This is the doctrine that is now very often spoken of as Manichaeism, from the fact that it was adopted by Manes, who attempted to engraft it on the doctrines of Christianity. In contradistinction to this dualistic theory with reference to the origin of evil stand the Monistic theories of Brahmanism and Platonism. According to the Brahmanic doctrine of the emanation of all things from one original being (Brahma), this original being was regarded as the sole true existence, and the phenomenal world, with all the evils appearing in it, was held to be mere illusion. Similarly, Plato held that the good was the essence of all things, and that the evil and imperfect contained in them had no real existence. The theory enunciated by Leibnitz in his _Theodicee_ resembles that of Plato. In that work he assigns to the evil existing in the world created by God, which he holds to be the best of all possible worlds, a merely relative existence. According to Plato, all that we call evil is only evil to us because we do not see it in relation to the rest of the universe, for in relation to the universe it is not evil but good, and accordingly cannot be evil in its own nature. Another view on the subject is that which neither assigns to the evil principle (as it does to God or the good principle) an original existence, nor denies the real existence of evil, but ascribes it to the exercise of man's free-will. Besides the theoretical problem of the origin of evil, there is the practical one of the elimination of evil which forms the subject of _Ethics_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Rashdall, _The Theory of Good and Evil_; B. Bosanquet, _The Value and Destiny of the Individual_.

EVIL EYE, a power which, according to an old and widespread superstition, resides in some people of doing injury to others by a mere look, or a look accompanied by certain words or charms. This belief, common amongst the ancients, is still prevalent among the more ignorant classes in Italy, Russia, Andalusia, the Highlands of Scotland, and other places. The Finns, Lapps, and Scandinavians, the Arabs and the Turks are all firm believers in the evil eye.