Part 4

The needs of the early Egyptians compelled them to devise sea-going ships, which in turn became the models of the Cretans, the people of East Africa, the Babylonians, the Phoenicians, and the Greeks. These ships trafficked in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Red Sea, then farther west and east, to the Atlantic seaboard of Western Europe and the shores of the Indian Ocean. The search for gold and pearls led early mariners to Southern India and Ceylon, to Burmah and Indonesia, to the whole coast-line of Eastern Asia, New Guinea, and Melanesia, and in course of time to Polynesia and the coasts of Central America and Peru. Wherever these adventurers found gold or copper, pearls or precious stones, they settled to exploit these sources of wealth, and incidentally planted the germs of their methods of cultivation, their stonework, their burial customs and beliefs. Such expeditions were probably responsible for introducing into Polynesia its first colonists, a mixture of people of Brown and Maritime Central races, mingled with other elements in the course of their easterly wanderings. The earliest movement into Polynesia apparently took with it a considerable element of Melanesian blood, which eventually was carried to New Zealand and the Moriori Islands in the south, and to Easter Island and the American coast in the east. The germs of the ancient civilizations of Central America and Peru were carried across the Pacific from Cambodia and Indonesia between the years 300 B.C. and A.D. 1000, the periods of greatest

## activity being probably the third and fourth centuries A.D.

The elements of this imported culture were planted in Honduras and Guatemala and the Isthmus region (Costa Rica, Panama, and Colombia), and from there spread in the fifth century A.D. to Yucatan and then to Mexico. It also spread from the isthmus down the Pacific littoral of South America, the earliest centre of civilization being the region around Lake Titicaca. From Mexico the culture spread in a degraded form up the Mississippi to the Great Lakes, as well as north-west into Arizona.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. H. Keane, _Man, Past and Present_, revised edition by A. Hingston Quiggin and A. C. Haddon, is a useful guide to the literature of anthropology and ethnology; see also Robert Munro, _Prehistoric Britain_; W. J. Sollas, _Ancient Hunters and their Modern Representatives_; M. Boule, _Les Hommes fossiles_; G. Elliot Smith, _The Migrations of Early Culture_; such periodicals as the _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, _Man_, and especially _L'Anthropologie_, give the current literature.

ETH'YL, the name given to the radicle C_2H_5, contained in ether, (C_2H_5)_2O, alcohol, C_2H_5OH, &c. _Ethyl_ has not been isolated, as it immediately combines with another _ethyl_ group forming diethyl or butane, C_2H_5--C_2H_5. _Ethyl chloride_, C_2H_5Cl, formed by the action of hydrochloric acid on alcohol, is much used for the production of low temperature--as a local anaesthetic. _Ethyl nitrite_, C_2H_5NO_2, constitutes _sweet spirits of nitre_ when dissolved in alcohol.

ETH'YLAMINE, C_2H_5NH_2, an organic base formed by the substitution of 1 atom of hydrogen in ammonia by ethyl group. Thus

H C_2H_5 / / N--H ammonia --> N--H ethylamine. \ \ H H

It has the odour and many of the characteristic reactions of ammonia, but unlike ammonia it is inflammable and liquid at ordinary temperature.

ETH'YLENE, or OLEFIANT GAS, C_2H_4, an unsaturated hydrocarbon, the first member of the olefine series. It is a colourless gas with a faint odour, and burns with a bright luminous flame. It is a constituent of ordinary coal-gas, and may be obtained from alcohol by heating it with twice its volume of concentrated sulphuric acid.

ETIENNE ([=a]-ti-[=a]n), ST., a town of Southern France, department of Loire, on the Furens, 32 miles S.W. of Lyons. It has spacious streets with substantial houses, but, owing to the number of public works, presents a dingy appearance. The principal buildings and institutions are the cathedral, an ancient Romanesque structure; the town house, court-house, exchange, communal college, mining school, gallery of arts, library, and museum. The town stands in the centre of one of the most valuable mineral fields of France; and in addition to the extensive collieries, blast-furnaces, and other ironworks in the vicinity, has manufactures of ribbons, silks, cutlery, and fire-arms. Pop. 148,656.

[Illustration: Two Seedlings of _Sinapis alba_ of Equal Age

A, Grown in the dark, etiolated.

B, Grown in ordinary daylight, normal. The roots bear root-hairs.]

ETIOLATION (Fr. _etioler_, to blanch), or BLANCHING, of plants, is a state produced by the absence of light, by which the green colour is prevented from appearing. It is effected artificially, as in the case of celery, by raising up the earth about the stalks of the plants; by tying the leaves together to keep the inner ones from the light; by covering with pots, boxes, or the like, or by setting in a dark place. The green colour of etiolated plants may be restored by exposure to light. Etiolated plants are also abnormal in other respects; the stems, or in some cases the leaves, become extraordinarily elongated, and the internal structure undergoes modification in various ways.

ETIOLOGY (Gr. _aitia_, cause, and _logos_, discourse, account), a biological term introduced by Huxley, and denoting that branch of biology which deals with the origin and mode of development of organic beings. In medicine the word _etiology_, signifies the study of the causes and origin of disease. The term is also applied in philosophy to the science of Cause and Effect.

ETIVE (et'iv), LOCH, an inlet of the sea on the west coast of Scotland, Argyleshire, nearly 20 miles long, of very unequal breadth, but at the broadest part about 1-1/2 miles. The scenery of its shores is very beautiful. About 3 miles from the sea, at Connel Ferry, a ridge of sunken rocks crossing it causes a turbulent rapid, which at half-tide forms a sort of waterfall.

ETNA, or AETNA, MOUNT, the greatest volcano in Europe, a mountain in the province of Catania in Sicily; height, 10,758 feet. It rises immediately from the sea, has a circumference of more than 100 miles, and dominates the whole north-east part of Sicily, having a number of towns and villages on its lower slopes. The top is covered with perpetual snow; midway down is the woody or forest region; at the foot is a region of orchards, vineyards, olive groves, &c. Etna thus presents the variety of climates common to high mountains in lower latitudes, oranges and lemons and other fruits growing at the foot, the vine rather higher up, then oaks, chestnuts, beeches, and pines, while on the loftiest or desert region vegetation is of quite a stunted character. A more or less distinct margin of cliff separates the mountain proper from the surrounding plain; and the whole mass seems formed of a series of superimposed mountains, the terminal volcano being surrounded by a number of cones, all of volcanic origin, and nearly 100 of which are of considerable size. The different aspects of the mountain present an astonishing variety of features--woods, forests, pastures, cultivated fields, bare rocky precipices, streams of lava, masses of ashes and scoriae, as also picturesque towns and villages. From the summit the view presents a splendid panorama, embracing the whole of Sicily, the Lipari Islands, Malta, and Calabria. The eruptions of Etna have been numerous, and many of them destructive. That of 1169 overwhelmed Catania and buried 15,000 persons in the ruins. In 1669 the lava spread over the country for forty days, and 10,000 persons are estimated to have perished. In 1693 there was an earthquake during the eruption, when over 60,000 lives were lost. One eruption was in 1755, the year of the Lisbon earthquake. There were also eruptions in 1832, 1865, 1874, 1879, and 1886. Among more recent eruptions are those of 1892, 1899, 1911, and 1914. An eruption is ordinarily preceded by premonitory symptoms of longer or shorter duration. The population of the district of Etna is about 300,000.

E'TON, a town of England, in Buckinghamshire, on the left bank of the Thames, 22 miles west of London. An iron bridge connects it with Windsor, on the opposite side of the river. Eton derives its celebrity wholly from its college, called the King's College of Our Lady of Eton beside Windsor, one of the great public schools of England, founded by Henry VI in 1440. The building, which was commenced in 1441 and finished in 1523, has received important additions in recent times in the shape of mathematical and science schools, and a museum. The college foundation now consists of provost, headmaster, lower master, seventy scholars, and two conducts (or chaplains). The oppidans, or boys not on the foundation, number about 1100. They are mostly lodged and boarded in the masters' houses. Pop. 3366.

ETREPILLY, (1) a small town of France, department of Aisne, is situated near Chateau-Thierry. Millstones are obtained from quarries in the neighbourhood. (2) A small town of France, department of Seine-et-Marne, stands on the left bank of an affluent of the Marne. Agricultural implements are manufactured.

ETRU'RIA (Gr. _Tyrrhenia_), the name anciently given to that part of Italy which corresponded partly with the modern Tuscany, and was bounded by the Mediterranean, the Apennines, the River Magra, and the Tiber. The name of Tusci or Etrusci was used by the Romans to designate the race of people anciently inhabiting this country, but the name by which they called themselves was Rasena (or perhaps more correctly Ta-rasena). These Rasena entered Italy at a very early period from the north, and, besides occupying Etruria proper, extended their influence to Campania, Elba, and Corsica. Etruria proper was in a flourishing condition before the foundation of Rome, 753 B.C. It was known very early as a confederation of twelve great cities, each of which formed a republic by itself. Amongst the chief were Veii, Clusium, Volsinii, Arretium, Cortona, Falerii, and Faesulae; but the list may have varied at different epochs. The chiefs of these republics were styled _lucum[=o]nes_, and united the office of priest and general. They were elected for life. After a long struggle with Rome, the Etruscan power was completely broken by the Romans in a series of victories, from the fall of Veii in 396 B.C. to the battle at the Vadimonian Lake (283 B.C.). The Etruscans had attained a high state of civilization. They carried on a flourishing commerce, and at one time were powerful at sea. They were less warlike than most of the nations around them, and had the custom of hiring mercenaries for their armies. Of the Etruscan language little is known, although about 6000 inscriptions have been preserved. It was written in characters essentially the same as the ancient Greek. The Etruscans were specially distinguished by their religious institutions and ceremonies, which reveal tendencies gloomy and mystical. Their gods were of two orders, the first nameless, mysterious deities, exercising a controlling influence in the background on the lower order of gods, who manage the affairs of the world. At the head of these is a deity resembling the Roman Jupiter (in Etruscan _Tinia_). But it is characteristic of the Etruscan religion that there is also a Vejovis or evil Jupiter. The Etruscan name of Venus was _Turan_, of Vulcan _Sethlans_, of Bacchus _Phuphluns_, of Mercury _Turms_. Etruscan art was in the main borrowed from Greece. For articles in terra-cotta, a material which they used mainly for ornamental tiles, sarcophagi, and statues, Etruscans were especially celebrated. In the manufacture of pottery they had made great advances; but most of the painted vases popularly known as Etruscan are undoubtedly productions of Greek workmen. The skill of the Etruscans in works of metal is attested by ancient writers, and also by numerous extant specimens, such as necklaces, ear-rings, and bracelets. The bronze candelabra, of which many examples have been preserved, were eagerly sought after both in Greece and Rome. A peculiar manufacture was that of engraved bronze mirrors. These were polished on one side, and have on the other an engraved design, taken in most cases from Greek legend or mythology. The Etruscans showed great constructive and engineering skill. They were acquainted with the principle of the arch, and the massive ruins of the walls of their ancient cities still testify to the solidity of their constructions. Various arts and inventions were derived by the Romans from the Etruscans.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries in Etruria_; Seymour, _Up Hill and Down Dale in Ancient Etruria_.

ETRURIA, a village of England, in Staffordshire, between Hanley and Burslem, famous as the place where Josiah Wedgwood established his pottery works in 1769. Pop. 8056.

ETRURIA, KINGDOM OF, in Italy, founded by Napoleon I in 1801. Its capital was Florence. In 1807 Napoleon incorporated it with the French Empire.

[Illustration: Etruscan Pottery (from Veii)]

ETRUSCAN VASES, a class of beautiful ancient painted vases made in Etruria, but not strictly speaking a product of Etruscan art, since they were really the productions of a ripe age of Greek art, the workmanship, subjects, style, and inscriptions being all Greek. They are elegant in form and enriched with bands of beautiful foliage and other ornaments, figures and similar subjects of a highly artistic character. One class has black figures and ornaments on a red ground--the natural colour of the clay; another has the figures left of the natural colour and the ground painted black. The former class belong to a date about 600 B.C., the latter date about a century later, and extend over a period of about 300 or 350 years, when the manufacture seems to have ceased. During this period there was much variety in the form and ornamentation, gold and other colours besides the primitive ones of black and red being frequently made use of. The subjects represented upon these vases frequently relate to heroic personages of the Greek mythology, but many scenes of an ordinary and even of a domestic character are depicted. The figures are usually in profile: temples are occasionally introduced; and many curious particulars may be learned from these vase pictures regarding the Hellenic ritual, games, festivities, and domestic life.

ETT'RICK, a pastoral district of Scotland, in Selkirkshire, watered by the Ettrick, and anciently part of Ettrick Forest, which included Selkirk with parts of Peebles and Edinburgh. The Ettrick receives the Yarrow 2 miles above Selkirk, and enters the Tweed 3 miles below. The _Ettrick Shepherd_, the Scottish poet James Hogg, was a native of this district.

ETTY, William, an English painter, born in 1787, died in 1849. He studied at the Royal Academy, worked long without much recognition, but at length in 1820 he won public notice by his _Coral Finders_. In 1828 he was elected an academician. Among his works, which were greatly admired, are a series of three pictures (1827-31) illustrating the _Deliverance of Bethulia by Judith_, _Benaiah_ (one of David's mighty men), and _Women Interceding for the Vanquished_. All these are very large pictures, and are now in the National Gallery of Scotland (Edinburgh). Others of note are: _The Judgment of Paris_; _The_ _Rape of Proserpine_; and _Youth at the Prow, and Pleasure at the Helm_. Etty especially excelled at painting undraped figures.

ETYMOL'OGY (Gr. _etymos_, true, and _logos_, account), a term applied (1) to that part of grammar which treats of the various inflections and modifications of words and shows how they are formed from simple roots; (2) to that branch of philology which traces the history of words from their origin to their latest form and meaning. Etymology in this latter sense, or the investigation of the origin and growth of words, is amongst the oldest of studies. Plato and other Greek philosophers, the Alexandrian grammarians, the scholiasts, the Roman Varro, and others wrote much on this subject. Their work, however, is made up of conjectures at best ingenious rather than sound, and very often wild and fantastic. It was not till recent times, and particularly since the study of Sanskrit, that etymology has been scientifically studied. Languages then began to be properly classed in groups and families, and words were studied by a comparison of their growth and relationship in different languages. It was recognized that the development of language is not an arbitrary or accidental matter, but proceeds according to general laws. The result was a great advance in etymological knowledge and the formation of a new science of _philology_.--Cf. W. W. Skeat, _The Science of Etymology_.

EU (_eu_), a town in Northern France, department of Seine-Inferieure, about 17 miles north-east of Dieppe. It is notable for its old twelfth-century church and the celebrated Chateau d'Eu, part of which was destroyed in 1902. Pop. 4900.

EUBOE'A, formerly called Negropont, a Greek island, the second largest island of the Aegean Sea. It is 90 miles in length; 30 in greatest breadth, reduced at one point to 4 miles. It is separated from the mainland of Greece by the narrow channels of Egripo and Talanta. It is connected with the Boeotian shore by a bridge. There are several mountain peaks over 2000 feet in height, and one over 7000 feet. The island is well-wooded and remarkably fertile. Wine is a staple product, and cotton, wool, pitch, and turpentine are exported. The chief towns are Chalcis and Karysto. The island was anciently divided among seven independent cities, the most important of which were Chalcis and Eretria, and its history is for the most part identical with that of those two cities. With some small islands it forms a modern nomarchy, with a pop. of 116,900.

EUBU'LUS, a Greek comic poet, who flourished at Athens about 375 B.C. His subjects were chiefly mythological, and he delighted in ridiculing the tragic poets, especially Euripides.

[Illustration: Eucalyptus globulus

1, Section of unopened flower. 2, Anthers. 3, Section of fruit.]

EUCALYP'TUS, a genus of trees, nat. ord. Myrtaceae, mostly natives of Australia, and remarkable for their gigantic size, some of them attaining the height of 480 or 500 feet. In the Australian colonies they are known by the name of gum trees, from the gum which exudes from their trunks; individual species are known as 'stringy bark', 'iron bark', _karri_, or _jarrah_. The wood of some is excellent for building and many purposes. The _E. glob[)u]lus_, or blue gum, yields an essential oil which is valuable as a febrifuge, antasthmatic, and antispasmodic. The medicinal properties of this tree also make it useful as a disinfectant, and as an astringent in affections of the respiratory passages, being employed in the form of an infusion, a decoction, or an extract, and cigarettes made of the leaves being also smoked. The E. glob[)u]lus and the E. amygdalina are found to have an excellent sanitary effect when planted in malarious districts such as the Roman Campagna, parts of which have already been reclaimed by their use. This result is partly brought about by the drainage of the soil (the trees absorbing great quantities of moisture), partly perhaps by the balsamic odour given out. E. mannif[)e]ra and others yield a sweet secretion resembling manna. Some, especially E. rostrata, yield a kind of gum kino. The Eucalyptus has been introduced with success into India, Palestine, Algiers, and Southern France.

EUCHARIST ([=u]'ka-rist; Gr. _eucharistia_, from _eu_, well, and _charis_, grace), a name for the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, in reference to the blessing and thanksgiving which accompany it.

EUCHARISTIC CONGRESSES, gatherings of the Roman Catholic clergy and laity, held with the object of glorifying the Sacrament of the Eucharist, were inaugurated by Bishop de Segur, of Lille. The first congress, held in that city (1881) excited little but local interest; but the movement rapidly developed, succeeding congresses being held at Avignon (1882), Liege (1883), Paris (1888), Jerusalem (1893), Lourdes (1899), Rome (1905), and elsewhere. In 1908 the congress held in London was attended by Cardinal Vannutelli, the first Papal legate to visit England for three centuries, by six other cardinals, fourteen archbishops, and seventy bishops. A proposal to carry the Sacrament through London in procession aroused much opposition, and the project was abandoned on the personal intervention of Mr. Asquith, then Premier.

EUCHRE ([=u]'k[.e]r), a card-game very popular in America, is usually played by two or four persons. After the cut for deal five cards are dealt (either by twos and threes or by threes and twos) to each player, and the uppermost card of those undealt is turned up for trump. The first player has the option either to 'order up' (namely to make this card trump) or to pass. In the latter case it is left to the next player to decide if he will play first or pass, and so on till the turn of the dealer comes. He must either play on this trump or turn it down, when all the players have again in turn their choice of making a new trump or passing. If a trump is 'ordered up' or taken in the first round, the dealer may take it into his cards, discarding in its place his poorest card. If the player who elects to play wins five tricks, he counts two; if he wins three tricks, he counts one; if he wins fewer than three tricks, he is _euchred_, and each independent opponent counts two. The cards rank as at whist, except that the knave of the trump suit, called the _right bower_ (from the Ger. _bauer_, a peasant), is the highest card, the knave of the other suit of the same colour being the second highest.

EUCKEN, Rudolf Christoph, German philosopher and theologian, born in East Friesland in 1846. Educated at the Universities of Goettingen and Berlin, he was professor of philosophy at Basel from 1871 to 1874, when he obtained a similar appointment at Jena. Opposed both to utilitarianism and positivism. Eucken is one of the leaders of those German philosophers who maintain that the spiritual interests of man should be taken into consideration, and oppose the philosophic systems which treat life only from the physical and biological points of view. His spiritualistic philosophy has found many adherents, and his works are very popular. In 1908 he won the Nobel prize for literature, and in 1910 he was made a D.D. of the University of Glasgow. His works include: _The Life of the Spirit_ (1909), _The Problem of Human Life as viewed by the Great Thinkers_ (1909), The Meaning and Value of Life (1909), _Main Currents of Modern Thought_ (1911), _Life's Basis and Life's Ideal_ (1911), _Can we still be Christians?_ (1913).

EUCLID (_Eucleid[=e]s_), of Alexandria, a distinguished Greek mathematician, who flourished about 300 B.C. His _Stoicheia_ (Elements of Geometry), in thirteen books, are still extant, and form the most usual introduction to the study of geometry. The work was known to the Arabs, translations of it having appeared in the time of Harun-al-Rashid and of Al-Mamun. It was translated from the Arabic into Latin by Adelard of Bath, and an English translation from the Latin appeared in 1570. The severity and accuracy of Euclid's methods of demonstration have as a whole never been surpassed. Besides the _Elements_, some other works are attributed to Euclid.--Cf. R. S. Heath, _The Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements_.

EUCLID (_Eucleid[=e]s_), of Megara, an ancient Greek philosopher, the founder of the Megaric school of philosophy, and a pupil of Socrates.