CHAPTER XXIII

THE MEDIÆVAL CHURCH AT ITS HEIGHT

OUTLINE: I.--Characteristics of the thirteenth century. II.--Territorial extent and wealth of the Church. III.--Organisation of the papal hierarchy completed. IV.--The legal system of the Church. V.--The official language and ritual of the Church. VI.--The sacramental system. VII.--The employment of art. VIII.--The Church moulded the civilisation of Europe. IX.--Sources.

The thirteenth century was an age "of lofty aspirations unfulfilled, of brilliant dreams unsubstantial as visions, of hopes ever looking to fruition and ever disappointed. The human intellect awakened, but as yet the human conscience slumbered, save in a few rare souls who mostly paid in disgrace or death the penalty of their precocious sensitiveness."[569:1] The thirteenth century left as a legacy to the fourteenth century vast activity in intellectual progress, but a spiritual desert. Society was harder, coarser, and more worldly than ever.

Everywhere in western Europe the Church seemed to have attained the extreme limits of its claims. The papal theory was triumphant. Temporal rulers were everywhere subservient to the ecclesiastics. Locally the clergy ruled the masses in morals and religion; they controlled education and intelligence; and they practically settled all social and industrial questions. At the same time the spirit of asceticism was never more pronounced than in the early Cistercians, Carthusians, Dominicans, Franciscans, and other orders. Mysticism stood like a stone wall to stem the tide of worldliness, of wickedness, and of disbelief.[570:1] When St. Bernard preached to the students at Paris on the vanity of study and induced twenty of them to follow him into the cloister at Clairvaux he was attempting a very significant social revolution which culminated in St. Dominic and St. Francis. Nevertheless, in the very face of the ascendancy of the Roman hierarchy and notwithstanding the spiritual revival within the Church, there appeared a vast amount of heresy, of irreverence, and of independence. The spirit of individuality was abroad. Men became less obedient to authority and began to doubt the truth of what was taught them. This wide-spread distrust led to a shifting from one authority to another, rather than an entire rejection of all authority.[570:2]

The wealth and power of the clergy and nobility had decreased; the burghers had advanced to a position of influence and self-consciousness. Guilds, the awakened spirit of nationality, and self-governing communes were democratic factors to be taken into account. The rise of the lower classes, and the consequent decline of the upper classes, show that a new era is dawning over Europe. The bourgeois literature reveals a mocking contempt for nobles and bishops alike. There was a great deal of flippant wit which spared no topic and no individual. "God and the devil, Aristotle and the Pope, canon and feudal law, Cistercians and priests were held up to ridicule."[571:1] The subjects of popular songs are no longer exclusively the virtues of asceticism and humility, obedience to God and the feudal lord; but love of woman and the carnal joys of life have become popular themes. Villains achieve paradise by trickery. Men continually outwit Satan. A famous jongleur even shakes dice with St. Peter, and beats him at the game. Verily a new chapter was opening in the history of Europe.

Severe criticism of the iniquity and depravity of the clergy, their greed for wealth and position, and particularly their contempt for their sacred obligations, came from several sources.

(1) The best men in the Church, among whom are Popes, bishops, abbots, priests, and monks. Their letters and sermons reveal flagrant abuses and an earnest cry for reform.

(2) The acts of Church councils and synods show the general recognition among the clergy of the presence of grave irregularities and evils, and also a consciousness of their destructive tendencies.

(3) The general impression of selfishness and wickedness, which the Church officials made, soon was reflected in the satirical poems of the popular troubadours and by the sprightly versifiers of the courts.[571:2]

(4) The laity of course were not slow to understand conditions and became scathing critics. These lay censors in many instances went far beyond the clerical reformers. While the better clergy urged the elimination of current abuses not one of them dreamed of denying the fundamental doctrines of the Church or the efficacy of its ceremonies. On the contrary, the lay leaders became very extreme. They declared that the Church was the creation and home of the devil; that no one ought to believe any longer that salvation came only through sacerdotal ministrations; that all theatrical ceremonies were of no avail; that the masses, relics, holy water, and indulgences were mere priestly tricks for money-making purposes and not certain means of gaining paradise. These extreme opponents of the Church soon gained followers all over Christendom, from all social classes and on account of a great many reasons.

From the standpoint of ecclesiastical law, however, these drastic critics who questioned the teachings of the Church, and proposed to repudiate it, were guilty of the grave crime of heresy. The attempt to crush the wide-spread heresies of the thirteenth century forms an awful

## chapter in the history of the mediæval Church. The rise of the

Albigenses, the Waldenses, and other heretical sects forced the Church to take drastic measures against these dangerous foes. Before the close of the twelfth century secular rulers were induced to take measures against heresy. In England Henry II. in 1166 ordered that no one should harbour heretics, and that any house in which they were received should be burned. In Spain the King of Aragon in 1194 decreed that any one who should listen to the Waldensians, or even give them food, should have his property confiscated and suffer death. These measures began a series of merciless decrees which even the most enlightened rulers of the thirteenth century passed against heretics and their abettors.[573:1]

The Church was not slow to utilise this power. A determination to extirpate these dangerous heretics with the sword produced the crusade against the Albigensians. The Inquisition was also organised to ferret out secret heretics and to bring them before inquisitorial tribunals for punishment. The unfairness of the trials and the heartless treatment of suspects have rendered the name of the Inquisition infamous.[573:2]

From an early day the Church exercised a censorship over all books.[573:3] The first specific instance was that of a synod of bishops in Asia Minor about 150 A.D. which prohibited the _Acta pauli_. After that the condemnation of books was not at all uncommon.[573:4] The first papal Index was issued in 494 by Pope Gelasius I., who made a definite catalogue of works prohibited. Councils condemned books as heretical, while Popes prohibited their use, destroyed them, and punished those who violated the law. This policy was continued throughout the Middle Ages. Naturally the Church was just as desirous of getting rid of heretical books as of suppressing the obnoxious authors.[573:5]

In territorial extent the Roman Church of the thirteenth century included Italy and Sicily, Spain except the southern part, France, Germany, Hungary, Poland, England, Ireland, and Scotland, Scandinavia and Iceland, the Eastern Empire, though but temporarily, and Palestine for a short period. In size, therefore, it surpassed the old Roman Empire at its greatest height. The boundary lines of this great papal Empire were widened still further by the zealous missionary work encouraged by the Supreme Pontiff in Europe among the Slavs, Prussians, Finns, and Mohammedans in Sicily and Spain; in Asia among the Tartars, Mongols, and Moslems; in Africa among the Mohammedans[574:1]; in America among the inhabitants of Iceland, Greenland, and "Vineland"--possibly even on the New England coast. These fruitful labours were conducted chiefly by the Franciscans and the Dominicans.

The wealth of the Church at this time consisted of lands and buildings; Church furniture, utensils, and ornaments; and money derived from Church lands, the sale of privileges, the gifts of the pious, tithes, and the fees for various kinds of religious service. In the United States churches must rely wholly upon voluntary support. It was not so with the mediæval Church. The tithes were regular taxes and those persons upon whom they were levied had to pay them just as taxes imposed by governments must be paid to-day. Wide-spread complaint came from both clergy and laity that these taxes were unjust. The Church actually owned about one third of Germany, nearly one fifth of France, the greater part of Italy, a large section of Christian Spain, a big portion of England, perhaps one third, and important regions in Scandinavia, Poland, and Hungary. The papal states in Italy, running diagonally across the peninsula, were ruled by the Pope as a temporal prince. These extensive territorial possessions together with the great wealth made the Church the mightiest secular power in the world and put into the hands of the Church thousands of lucrative sinecures, coveted and too often secured by persons wholly unfitted for the spiritual functions of the office. Through these extensive possessions the Church was beyond all question the greatest economic and industrial power in Europe. The Church was led to adopt feudalism and thus the Pope became the most powerful feudal overlord in Europe. Furthermore, the Church, because of its vast domains and enormous income, was enabled to support itself by its own perpetual wealth. In consequence many evils and abuses sprang up,[575:1] or were introduced, which led to the decline of the Church and the numerous demands for reformation. It must be said, however, to the credit of the Church that these resources were used to excellent advantage in furthering charity of all sorts and in caring for the poor and unfortunate.

During this period the organisation of the papal hierarchy was perfected. At the head stood the all-powerful and absolute Pope as God's agent on earth; hence, at least in theory and claim, he was the ruler of the whole world in temporal and spiritual affairs. He was the defender of Christianity, the Church, and the clergy in all respects. He was the supreme censor of morals in Christendom and the head of a great spiritual despotism. He was the source of all earthly justice and the final court of appeal in all cases. Any person, whether priest or layman, could appeal to him at any stage in the trial of a great many important cases. He was the supreme lawgiver on earth, hence he called all councils and confirmed or rejected their decrees. He might, if he so wished, set aside any law of the Church, no matter how ancient, so long as it was not directly ordained by the Bible or by nature. He could also make exceptions to purely human laws and these exceptions were known as dispensations.[576:1] He had the sole authority to transfer or depose bishops and other Church officers. He was the creator of cardinals and ecclesiastical honours of all kinds. He was the exclusive possessor of the universal right of absolution, dispensation, and canonisation. He was the grantor of all Church benefices. He was the superintendent of the whole financial system of the Church and of all taxes. He had control over the whole force of the clergy in Christendom, because he conferred the _pallium_,[576:2] the archbishop's badge of office. In his hands were kept the terrible thunders of the Church to enforce obedience to papal law, namely, excommunication and the interdict.

Excommunication meant for a private person that he was a social outcast, excluded from all legal protection and deprived of the sacraments which were "the life blood of the man of the Middle Ages." His property might be confiscated without the possibility of recovery. Death and hell were sure to be his doom if repentance and absolution did not occur. And these same terrible results might even be extended to his descendants. Excommunication for a king meant, in addition to the same treatment as a private individual, the deprivation of all authority and the absolution of subjects from all obedience. Excommunication was the greatest moral power in all history and effective simply because the Christian opinion of the age responded to it and enforced it. By its use the Pope subjected to his will such powerful personages as Henry IV. of Germany, Henry II. of England, Philip (IV.) Augustus of France, Frederick II. of Germany, John of England, and countless lesser persons all over Christendom.[577:1] The power of excommunication was exercised by the Pope for the whole Church, by the bishop for his diocese, and even by subordinate Church officials. The formula and ceremony for excommunication were not uniform either in time or place but varied greatly.[577:2]

The interdict was directed against a city, a region, or a kingdom. It was used for the purpose of forcing a city or a ruler to obedience, as for example the interdict laid on Rome in 1155, and that on England, which lasted six years three months and fourteen days, to subdue the obstinate King John; or to enforce the ban of excommunication[577:3]; or to collect debts[577:4]; or to wreak vengeance for the death or maltreatment of a son of the Church.[577:5] The interdict was proclaimed in a papal bull and read by the clergy of the region affected to the congregations every Sunday for some weeks before it went into operation. Then all religious rites and sacraments ceased except baptism, confession, and the viaticum.[577:6] All the faithful were ordered to dress like penitents and to pray for the removal of the cause of the curse. Thus the interdict resembled a raging pestilence and made a deep impression on the ignorant masses. It practically stopped all civil government, for the courts of justice were closed, wills could not be made, and public officials of all kinds were forbidden to act. Naturally it led to many very superstitious tales. For instance, the valley of Aspe in Béarn was cursed for seven years and during that time it was said that women bore no children, cattle gave no increase, and the land produced no crops or fruit.[578:1]

The use of such powerful weapons as excommunication and interdict was soon greatly abused. Popes and bishops employed this power out of spite, or hatred or for ambitious ends.[578:2] Scheming rulers enlisted papal, or episcopal, help of this sort to humble political rivals and for purely secular ends such as enforcing laws and collecting obligations.[578:3] In fact so wide-spread was the employment of these powers that by the fourteenth century half of the Christians in Europe were under the ban.[578:4] It was taught, moreover, that however illicit or apparently unfair or unwarranted, still the ecclesiastical mandates were to be obeyed. Hence Popes even granted the right not to be excommunicated without good cause.[578:5] Before long these religious curses degenerated to the point where they were applied to animals and inanimate objects, of which there are many illustrations. For instance two of St. Bernard's monks cursed the vineyard of a rival monk and it became sterile until St. Bernard himself removed the blight.[579:1] A certain priest, noticing that the fruit of a neighbouring orchard had a stronger attraction for the children of his congregation than the divine service, excommunicated the orchard, whereupon it remained barren until the ban was taken off.[579:2] At the request of the farmers, the Bishop of Comminges cursed the weeds in their fields with the desired result.[579:3] St. Bernard, however, capped the climax of these absurdities when he solemnly excommunicated the devil.[579:4] After the thirteenth century the same weapons were used against leeches, rats, grasshoppers, snails, bugs, and pests of all kinds. In fact as late as 1648 a similar formula was given based on the forty-ninth psalm and the eleventh chapter of Luke.[579:5]

The efficacy of excommunication was likewise brought into service to protect property. For instance the Archbishop of Campostella in the twelfth century excommunicated any one who should steal or mutilate the manuscript history of his diocese. The Abbot of Sens in 1123 cursed on his death-bed any successor who should sell, lend, or lose any of the twenty volumes in the abbey library. Clement III. encouraged Bologna University by anathematising any person who should offer a higher rent for rooms used by students or teachers. Later, copyrights were protected by the same power and stolen property was recovered.[579:6] Letters bestowing the power of excommunication were soon purchased and used for all sorts of mercenary purposes.[579:7] John Gerson of the University of Paris denounced Pope Martin V. for saying that as Pope he congratulated himself because he was no longer in danger of excommunication.[580:1] Gradually there came to be drawn up a list of no less than one hundred sins which were _ipso facto_ followed by excommunication. Many of these are of the most trifling character, like that of collecting toll from a priest on crossing a bridge.[580:2] But this evil was offset by the ease with which one could purchase absolution.

The papal court, or curia, by the thirteenth century included an enormous number of persons both secular and ecclesiastic with all kinds of duties. The financial section was in many ways the most important one.[580:3] All members of the curia, which resembled the court of an Emperor, were directly responsible to the Pope. The cardinals were the most dignified and powerful members. Papal legates from the court swarmed over all Europe commissioned with unlimited authority to execute papal commands and to uphold papal claims. They ranged from primates to petty priests and monks, were directly subject to the Pope, and were feared and hated by the clergy and laity alike.

The College of Cardinals created in 1059 had come to play a marked rôle in ecclesiastical affairs in addition to their original duties. Their office ranked next to that of the Pope and they were called the "Holy and Sacred College." Foreigners were first appointed as cardinals in the thirteenth century. A distinct dress was assumed. The red hat was given by Innocent IV. (1245); the purple robe was bestowed by Boniface VIII. (1297); the white horse, red cover, and golden bridle were added by Paul II. (1464); and the title of "Eminence" was created by Urban VIII. (1630). These cardinals were shrewd politicians for the most part and hence divided into French, German, and Italian parties. They secured their appointments ofttimes through favouritism or nepotism, hence were not always men of the most sterling worth. As members of the papal court they lived at Rome and were supposed to be occupied with ecclesiastical affairs in the capital or busy on important diplomatic missions. They were easily won away, however, from their lofty duties by secular princes and became involved in all sorts of questionable intrigues. It is not a matter of surprise, therefore, to find the best men of the day like Dante and Petrarch denouncing them in unmeasured terms.

Below the cardinals in the hierarchy came the metropolitans, archbishops, and primates. The archbishops were the most numerous but the lowest in rank. The metropolitans ranked next and were found in the great cities. The primates had the highest rank but were comparatively few. It is doubtful whether altogether the archbishops in the thirteenth century numbered more than twenty-five. The primates, who had charge in a general way of what might be called the national churches, confirmed the election of bishops and archbishops in their dioceses, called and presided over national synods, held the superior ecclesiastical courts, performed the coronation ceremonies of kings and queens, and had general control of their districts. The archbishops ruled over a distinct province including several bishops, whose election and consecration they superintended, called and presided over provincial synods, inflicted censures and punishments on the bishops for breaches of discipline, acted as court of appeal above the episcopal courts, and exercised general oversight concerning all Church affairs of the districts. The metropolitans, whose historical significance was practically lost by the thirteenth century, had essentially the same office as that of archbishop. Under the leadership of the higher ecclesiastics there was a tendency to form national churches. The primates and archbishops defended these national churches even against the Pope and frequently sided with the kings against the supreme Pontiffs. In Germany they helped elect the Emperor, played an important political rôle, and saved Germany from ruin again and again.[582:1] In France and England they were the trusted counsellors and advisers of the sovereign. Almost without exception they came from the nobility and were large landed proprietors as well as secular rulers.

The bishops, who came next in the scale of the hierarchy, were elected originally by the people and the clergy but that right was gradually usurped by the metropolitans and the secular rulers. The mitre and crosier were the emblems of the episcopal office. The Concordat of Worms in 1122 settled long disputes by giving both Pope and ruler a share in the election. By the thirteenth century, however, the Pope had come to have the upper hand in these ecclesiastical preferments. The total number of bishops in the thirteenth century was approximately 700.[582:2] The duties of the bishop were both spiritual and temporal. His office was one of the most important in the mediæval Church. He ruled over a diocese of any number of parish churches, but had his own especial church, which was called the cathedral, and usually surpassed all other churches of the diocese in size and beauty. He saw to it that public services were conducted in the proper manner. He overlooked the administration of charity. He tried to secure efficient subordinates who would fulfil all their duties, and he alone could ordain new priests or degrade the old. He enforced discipline and canon law. He exercised the rights of confirmation and holy orders, and consecrated _res sacræ_ like churches and shrines. He usually supervised the monastic houses in his diocese.[583:1] And he himself conducted religious services of a special character in his cathedral or _domus dei_. He assumed judicial power over his clergy and in case of misbehaviour punished them by deposition or confinement in a cloister. He passed judgment on all questions of marriage, wills, oaths, usury, and similar subjects. In general each bishop, under the authority of the representative of St. Peter, was a little pope over that section of the Church which was under his jurisdiction[583:2] and he was regarded as the direct successor of the Apostles. On the temporal side the bishop was a landlord, governed a large estate, and performed those governmental duties which the king,

## particularly in Germany, thrust upon him. He did not own the land, but

only used it. He himself was often a vassal, had a large number of vassals and sub-vassals under him, collected feudal dues from his inferiors, paid feudal tributes to his superiors, and was an integral part of the feudal system. His installation to office was invariably accompanied by the ceremony of feudal investiture. Indeed from many standpoints he was more of a feudal lord than a churchman. It is easy to see, therefore, what a powerful factor the bishop was in both secular and ecclesiastical affairs, and how sweeping was his influence.

There were several deviations from the regular office of bishop. The chor-bishop or "country bishop," who was little more than an assistant of the city bishop, had gradually died out by the thirteenth century.[584:1] The honorary bishop, or titular bishop, a title first applied to missionary bishops, still existed in Europe but with no regular diocese. The progress of Mohammedanism drove many regular bishops away from their episcopal seats in Asia, Africa, and Spain. But they were allowed to retain their titles and functions even though deprived of their dioceses, and successors were regularly elected. Again during the Crusades many bishoprics were established in the East. Through the failure of the Crusades, however, these bishops lost their dioceses, but they too were permitted to retain their titles in the hope of eventually recovering their possessions. They likewise served as assistants to bishops in western Europe and their successors were regularly appointed by the Pope. They became very independent and often caused the regular bishops much trouble. Efforts were made later to get rid of them but without success.

Connected with each bishop's cathedral was a chapter which probably grew out of the original college of presbyters who assisted the bishop in his spiritual and secular duties. As time passed and the Church grew these presbyters came to be attached to the cathedral as a distinct body of the clergy. By the ninth century these clergy came to be known as a chapter and consisted of either the "seculars," _i.e._, the clergy not bound by monastic vows and living in separate houses, or the "regulars," _i.e._, the clergy living as monks in a common building. Thus the

## chapter came to have a regular organisation with officers whose duties

were more or less clearly defined. At the head stood the bishop; then the dean, the real acting head; and after him the precentor, or chanter, who was a musical director; the chancellor, who had charge of the education of younger members, the library, correspondence, and the delivery of lectures and sermons; the treasurer, who was responsible for the funds of the church, the sacred vessels, the altar furniture, and the reliquaries; the sub-dean, the sub-chanter, and vice-chancellor; and the archdeacons, whose number depended on the size of the diocese, who executed episcopal orders, who acted as inspectors and had minor judicial functions, and who became so independent and powerful that the office was abolished in the twelfth century.[585:1] The remaining members of the chapter were called canons or prebendaries. During the absence of the canons their duties were performed by substitutes called vicars.

Each chapter had its own laws, endowments, fees, revenues, and jurisdiction over lands. The chapters often came into open conflict with the bishops[585:2] and tended to form alliances with Popes and rulers against the episcopal authorities. It was not uncommon, either, to find chapters practically independent of the bishops with members appointed directly by the Pope. These bodies exercised great powers--they called councils, they tried clerical cases, they even excommunicated, and as little Colleges of Cardinals, usually at the king's suggestion, elected bishops.[586:1] Membership in a chapter was regarded as a fat berth and hence eagerly sought by leading families of nobility.

At the bottom of the hierarchical scale stood the priests who presided over the parishes, which were divided into city, village, and rural parishes, and were the lowest divisions of the Church. As a rule a parish contained at least ten families and varied from that to a considerable village, or a large section of a town. The appointment of the priests was made by the "Patron" of the parochial church, _i.e._, the person who owned the church property, whether a layman or a clerical person. The appointee was confirmed by the bishop. Churches were thus frequently handed about from one owner to another like any feudal property and consequently the tendency was to secularise the priests as well as the higher clergy. Seeing this evil the monastic orders sought to reform the abuse by bringing priests under their control. The income of the priest was derived from lands belonging to the parish church, from tithes, and from contributions, but as a rule it was scarcely more than enough to meet his scanty needs.[586:2] The priest was the only Church officer who came continually into direct touch with the masses of the people and, consequently, he it was who really controlled the destiny of both their bodies and souls. In addition to conducting the regular services, he could administer or withhold the sacraments so necessary to salvation, and hence the destiny of all men rested in his hands. He absolved, baptised, married, and buried his parishioners. He monopolised the auricular confession and through it regulated the conscience, determined conduct, and cured the soul of sin. If advice and penance failed to keep the incorrigible sinner in the path of righteousness, his case could be carried to the spiritual court of the bishop, who had practically unlimited power. Each priest had not only certain duties to perform, but also possessed distinct rights and privileges, and a supernatural character which put him and his property above the common level of humanity. No longer a citizen of a state, the Church was his country, his home, and his family. No matter what crime he committed, the secular power could not arrest him--only a religious tribunal could try him and such bodies never shed human blood. Hence punishments for misdemeanours were comparatively light.

The parish church was the unit of mediæval civilisation and the priest was looked up to as the natural guardian of the community. He cared for both the souls and bodies of his flock. In addition to using every agency to induce his members to lead godly lives, it was his business to see that no dangerous characters lurked in the villages--heretics, sorcerers, or lepers.

The clergy were separated from the laity by a very pronounced differentiation. The sacred character imparted to the priesthood by the sacrament of ordination, the holy calling of the man of God who held in his hands the power of spiritual life and death, and the enforcement of the canon of celibacy after a bitter struggle of more than a century, all tended to emphasise and magnify the wide gulf between the clergy and the laymen. The sacerdotal office was most highly respected as the certain avenue to social service, to fame, and to honour. It is no surprise, therefore, to see men of all ranks entering the ministry of the Church. For those of humble birth, the opportunity thus offered was about the only means of promotion in Europe. Once in the Church, talent and energy could always overcome lowly origin, and attain elevation to a high place. The annals of the hierarchy are full of the examples of those who rose from the meanest social ranks to the most commanding positions. Many of the greatest and best Popes had that experience.[588:1] Thus the Church constantly recruited its ranks with vigorous fresh blood. Not even the lot of the prince was envied by the priest. "Princes," asserted John of Salisbury, "derive their power from the Church, and are servants of the priesthood." Honorius of Autun wrote, "The least of the priestly order is worthier than any king." A great thing it truly was for the future of Europe that in those rough ages there existed a moral force superior to noble descent, to blue blood, and to martial prowess to point out the correct path, to uphold right, and to sanction eternal justice.

The _corpus juris canonici_, or canon law, which regulated all the workings of the hierarchy, included all the rules enacted by the Church for its relation with the secular power, for its own internal administration, and for the duties and conduct of its members. It differed from the _jus ecclesiasticum_, or ecclesiastical law, in having the Church for its source, while the latter had the Church for its subject. The Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals continued to be the constitution of the Church. Various commentaries, all based upon the Decretals as the chief repertory, were made by prominent churchmen.[589:1] Gratian, a Camaldolensian monk, a professor in Bologna University, in 1250 first taught canon law as a distinct and complete system like Roman law. He published the _Decretum Gratiani_, a scientific digest of all canon laws, which soon superseded all other codifications and became the basis for many later commentaries.[589:2] Canon law was studied in all the mediæval universities. Regular faculties of canon law were established, which granted the degree of _doctores decretorum_ after a course of six years' study. It was not long, therefore, until the Church was given a class of keen, well-drilled lawyers who gradually extended ecclesiastical jurisdiction over all religious duties; over baptisms, marriages, and deaths, and hence over legitimacy and succession; over all persons under religious vows, and consequently over the clergy, crusaders, widows, orphans, and minors; over heresy, blasphemy, and sacrilege; and over adultery, bigamy, fraud, and perjury. The canon law of the Church must also be given credit for laying the foundation for international law and serving as a model for constitutional law.

The papal penitentiary, or court, grounded on the "power of the keys," possessed original and appellate powers of first instance and last resort. It originated in 1215 at Rome and consisted of a body of canonists and theologians who acted as a unit under powers granted by the Pope.[590:1] It attempted to decide all cases of morals and discipline, oftentimes in virtual ignorance of the facts. During the thirteenth century penitentiaries were appointed in every bishopric to take cognisance of cases. Thus the eagle eyes of the supreme court of Rome were fastened on every breach of law throughout Christendom. Naturally many abuses were connected with such a system. In 1022 the Council of Seligenstadt complained that Rome had extended her jurisdiction even over the laity.[590:2] Through local representatives the papal penitentiary practically nullified the discipline of bishops and granted virtual immunity to offenders. Venality was an accompanying evil from the beginning. Absolution could easily be secured by the rich and influential and dispensations were sold for money. Of course this condition produced disastrous effects on morals. "Rome was a fountain of pardon for all infractions of the decalogue." Bishop Grosseteste declared about 1250 that the low morality of the priesthood was due to this system. Pardon was granted to both sides of the controversy. A priest stole a book from his own church, pawned it for money, and then excommunicated the unknown thief. He was discovered but pardoned on the ground that he could not interdict himself. Monks and nuns bought their way into convents and then purchased absolution for the act.

By the thirteenth century the Roman ritual in the Latin language was practically in universal use. The Slavish liturgy had disappeared and in Spain alone the old national liturgy still lingered, though even there the Roman ritual was permitted. Latin had become the general official language of the Church. But it was not uncommon to give in the vernacular, besides the regular announcements, the confession of faith, the confession of sin with the general absolution, intercessions for the living and the dead, and the Lord's Prayer.

At this period of the Church's greatest power there was a noticeable revival of preaching caused by the monastic reformers like the Clugniacs, Cistercians, Dominicans, and Franciscans who earnestly preached repentance, and also by the tremendous crusading enthusiasm. All the heroes of monasticism, scholasticism, and the papal hierarchy were forceful preachers.[591:1] To accommodate these preachers pulpits were built against a pillar or in a corner of a nave. To the masses on popular occasions, and even in the regular services, they spoke in the vernacular, but all stately addresses in synods and councils were delivered in the speech of Rome. Popes and councils urged the importance of rearing a race of learned clergy who could give the Church intelligent leadership. The synod of Treves in 1221 went so far as to forbid uneducated and inexperienced priests to preach, because it caused more harm than good. As a result of this wide-spread preaching the Church was given a unity of doctrine and feeling which it had not enjoyed before.

The number of sacraments was generally recognised by the thirteenth century as seven.[592:1] Peter Lombard's _Sentences_ first outlined them and Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274) practically established them, although they were not officially adopted until the Council of Florence in 1439. Theoretically the sacraments were believed to confer grace, "the fulness of divine life," upon the recipients and to make them different persons with new characters. This change was produced by God through the Church and was based upon the idea that this life should be consecrated and sanctified by religion in all its various relations. Hence baptism suggested birth to a new spiritual life free from the sin due to Adam's fall; the Lord's Supper gave nutriment to preserve life and strength; penance indicated a recovery to health after sickness incident to sin; confirmation marked the growth of righteous life to maturity; extreme unction suggested diet and exercise in convalescence and purified and refreshed the spirit of the dying; ordination marked a promotion to a higher consecrated life and to new duties; and marriage meant the assumption of new social relations which could never be severed. The Church held that all these sacraments were instituted by Jesus and used by him personally, although baptism and the Lord's Supper were the most important. Peter Lombard said that if Christ did not employ them, the Apostles at least did. Baptism, confirmation, and ordination, it was held, imparted an indelible character, therefore could not be repeated. All consecrations and blessings were looked upon as different from the sacraments and were called "Sacramentalia." It was asserted also that the administration of the sacraments in the hands of a bad priest was valid.

The mass continued to be the heart, life blood, and very centre of all worship. It was believed to be a propitiatory sacrifice offered to God for the sins of the world whenever the sacrament was celebrated. Christ was recrucified as on the cross at each mass. The eucharist gave spiritual nourishment to the communicant, averted evils and brought blessings, and, with penance, removed the guilt of sin. Transubstantiation became a fixed dogma in the thirteenth century. Up to the ninth century the Church unanimously believed that the real body and blood of Christ were administered to those who received the sacrament of the eucharist, but Christians differed widely as to the nature and manner of their presence and no Pope or council had settled the question. In 831 Radbert wrote a famous book on the subject in which he held that after consecration only the figure of bread and wine was present and that the rest was literal body and blood and that this body and blood was the same as that born of Mary, crucified, and raised from the dead. This work created a warm discussion which lasted for four centuries and provoked many bitter individual quarrels. Innocent III. in 1215 settled the dispute by making the dogma of transubstantiation a part of the constitutional law of the Church and at the same time ordered all the laity to go to confession and to partake of the eucharist at least once a year. The dogma did not pass unquestioned, although the common people had no difficulty in believing it.[593:1] As a result it led to the deification of the bread and wine, to the use of beautiful golden or silver urns and cups for them, to the construction of a costly tabernacle in which to keep the sacred elements, to lamps and decorations, to solemn processions, to a pompous ceremony, to bowing the knee before the host in the church and on the streets and to prayer to the host as the most important part of worship, and to the celebration throughout the whole Church of an annual festival of the Holy Sacrament (1264). The cup was withheld from the laity[594:1] and given only to the priests after the eleventh century because it was feared that the wine might be spilled and also because it was believed that the body and blood of Jesus were fully present in both elements.[594:2] Wafers, called the host, were substituted for the broken bread. The mass soon became an object of commerce. Private masses for the living and particularly for the dead, begun in the eighth century, were very common in the thirteenth, so much so, in fact, that certain priests had no other function than that of saying masses for the dead. All over Christendom endowments were given for these masses and an army of priests did nothing else. By refusing mass the clergy could exert strong pressure on individuals and governments. The mass was held to be absolutely necessary to salvation, and the eucharist was even given to little children, although in the thirteenth century it was restricted to children under seven. It also had a marked effect upon church architecture by increasing the number of altars in the church in order to accommodate the increasing number of private masses. All the physical and metaphysical education of the age turned upon the question of the mass.[595:1]

Penance played a very important part in the Church in the thirteenth century and received its final form in the Council of Florence in 1439. As early as the fifth century a regular criminal code developed in the Church and in the seventh century a Grecian monk who was archbishop enacted a body of severe laws for penitential discipline which remained in authority until the twelfth century. The climax was reached in the thirteenth century when every diocese had its own penitential code and public penance had been replaced by private penance. Penance was simply the punishment prescribed by the priest to remove the guilt of sin, and usually consisted of fasts, prayers, pilgrimages, and acts of charity and mercy. The Church early permitted penance to be paid by substituting money payments for some pious enterprise.[595:2] Furthermore, it was generally held that penance afflicted on one person could be paid by another; for example, a penance of seven years could be accomplished in seven days by a sufficient number of co-workers.[595:3] Even Thomas Aquinas said that as long as the debt was paid it mattered little who paid it. Indulgences and papal pardons paralleled the history of penance. The power to show leniency, or to shorten or to lengthen the character or the time of penance, was early recognised to be in the bishop's hands.[595:4] From this idea there gradually arose a regular system of commutation which reached the highest point during the crusade movement. The theory was most fully stated by Thomas Aquinas[596:1] and Alexander of Hales.[596:2] They asserted that after the remission of the eternal punishment due for sin there still remained a temporal punishment to be undergone either in this life or in purgatory; that temporal pain might be remitted by the application of the superabundant merits of Christ and the saints out of the treasury of the Church. The hierarchy was the custodian of that prerogative. But indulgence could be granted only to those who were in full communion with the Church and who manifested a contrite heart, made confession, and submitted to penance.[596:3] Penances were either general or local, or plenary or partial. The use of indulgences was very much abused since they were often granted only for money and because they were employed for trivial and secular purposes like building bridges[596:4] and improving roads.[596:5] They were even applied to the dead.[596:6] The doctrine of purgatory had developed by the twelfth century and was generally accepted in the thirteenth.[596:7]

Auricular confession, which seems to have been fully developed by the time of Innocent I.,[596:8] was required by Innocent III. after 1216 of all Church members at least once a year under penalty of exclusion from the Church. It was an essential part of the sacrament of penance and gave the priests a tremendous power over the people which was used both for good and ill. The synod of Toulouse in 1229 insisted on compulsory confession at Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost. Any breach of the confessional was visited by the fourth Lateran Council with excommunication, deposition, and imprisonment for life in a monastery. Confession was the bridle by means of which the laity were guided by the priesthood, hence the Church laid more and more importance upon the necessity of the practice as a duty.

Absolution grew up as a necessary part of auricular confession. Before the thirteenth century the priest acted ministerially and used the form: _domus absolvat te--misercatur tui omnipotens deus et dimittat tibi omnia peccata tua_. These words are still found in the Greek Church and are also allowable in the Roman Catholic service. After the thirteenth century, however, the priest acted judicially and said: _ego absolvo te_. The priest's forgiveness was God's forgiveness. The requisites for absolution were: contrition of heart, promise of amendment of life, and reparation.

Extreme unction as a sacrament came into use rather late. Peter Lombard gave it fifth place among the seven sacraments. Original sin was atoned for in baptism, actual sins by penance, and extreme unction wiped away all remaining sins which would hinder the soul from entering its perfect rest. Hence it was given only to those who were mortally ill. In case of recovery, however, it could be repeated.[597:1] The eyes, ears, nose, mouth, hands, loins, and feet (except of women) were anointed with holy oil consecrated by the bishop on Maundy Thursday. Confession and communion preceded the rite. These three together constituted the _viaticum_ of the soul on its long journey.

From the time when private meeting places gave way to places of public worship, throughout its whole career, the Church has employed art for purposes of utility and instruction. The transitional character of the thirteenth century along social, ecclesiastical, intellectual, and political lines was also strongly marked in art. In the conflict between feudalism and royalty, monarchy gradually gained ground. The problem of human right appeared along with the problem of human might. Out of the composite struggle of kings, feudal barons, popes, bishops, abbots, and free cities emerged the recognised supremacy of papal authority as the one power above and behind all others. The episcopacy stood for the rights of the Pope, on the one hand, and the rights of the people, on the other. Next to the papal supremacy, stood the kingly prerogative. Under the double patronage of the Church and the state ecclesiastical art advanced with rapid strides.

Gothic architecture reached its highest development during the thirteenth century. Europe was covered with magnificent churches, cathedrals, and monasteries. Architecture was the dominant art of the Middle Ages. The church building occupied a unique place in the community. Everybody was a member of the Church and attended the one sacred edifice in the parish. The erection and beautifying of a new church was a matter of interest to all. Local pride was deeply touched. A strong rivalry soon developed, which led each village and city to outdo their neighbours by erecting larger, more expensive, and more beautiful chapels and cathedrals. The church of that day was the centre not alone of religious activity, but also of local politics, of community business, of social gatherings, of education, and of the fine arts. It was the very heart of all life, and, hence, members lavished their affection, their time, and their wealth on it. Nothing in our community life to-day can be well compared with the church of that day. It was the town hall, art museum, club, public library, school, and church all in one. With us the religious interest of every community is divided among various denominations, while the differentiation of our other institutions has destroyed the earlier unity of interest.

The Gothic churches with pointed arches and flying buttresses lightened the masonry of the hitherto massive walls, pierced them with great, beautiful stained glass windows, and allowed the sunlight to stream into the dark interiors. Then mosaics, sculpture, fresco, and painting were used to enrich and decorate the inner parts. Mouldings and capitals, pulpits, altars, side chapels, choir screens, the wooden seats for the clergy and choristers, the reading desk, and the tombs were literally covered with carvings of leaf and flower forms, of familiar animals and grotesque monsters, of biblical scenes and ordinary incidents. The exteriors of these wonderful structures, which were marvels of lightness and delicacy of detail, were usually ornamented with an army of statues representing apostles, saints, donors, and rulers. Is it a matter of surprise that the bishops and clergy, who ruled over these Christian temples erected in love, in prayer, and in self-sacrifice, should be honoured and obeyed? These wonderful houses of religion were the glad free-will offerings of a devout and believing people to the mighty Roman Catholic Church of which they were the proud, privileged members.

A splendid picture of the beautiful devotion of the people of a region in the erection of a magnificent cathedral is found in Chartres, France. That wonderful edifice was begun in 1194 and completed in 1240. To construct a building that would beautify their city and satisfy their religious aspirations the citizens contributed of their strength and property year after year for nearly half a century. Far from home they went to the distant quarries to dig out the rock. Encouraged by their priests they might be seen, men, women, and children, yoked to clumsy carts loaded with building materials. Day after day their weary journey to and from the quarries continued. When at night they stopped, worn out with the day's toil, their spare time was given up to confession and prayer. Others laboured with more skill but with equal devotion on the great cathedral itself. As the grand edifice grew year by year from foundation stone to towers, the inhabitants watched it with pious jealousy. At length it was completed; not, however, until many who had laboured at the beginning had passed away. Its dedication and consecration marked an epoch in that part of France.

Most historians are prone to dwell upon the evils of the Church in this period, as if they far outweighed the good. Many bishops were worldly and wicked, therefore the conclusion is drawn that all bishops were of that character, whereas out of the 700 bishops in Europe a very large proportion were comparatively faithful shepherds who were striving with all their might to realise the high ideals for which the Church stood. Many of the clergy were guilty of gross immorality, hence comes the sweeping assertion that all the clergy were unfit for their high and noble calling, while as a matter of fact, thousands of the priests obeyed the laws of the Church, led model God-fearing lives, and continually pointed out to their people the high and certain path to salvation. Abuses, corruptions, extortions, did exist in every quarter of Christendom. Bad clergymen did use their high prerogatives for base purposes. Many bishops, abbots, and priests were no more worthy to be given extensive powers in trust than the unscrupulous politicians who often secure high places in our municipal, state, and national governments. The sinecures and benefices of the Church offered the same temptations to money-making and to questionable methods that our civil offices do to-day to the dishonest and unscrupulous office-holders. But all of the officials in the Church in the thirteenth century were no more guilty of these evils than are all public men in the United States to-day addicted to the practices of the base political tricksters. It seems to be a universal fact that one bad man in the Church attracts more attention and creates more comment than a multitude of good men.

The fundamental causes of the numerous evil practices in the Church are found in the wealth and power of the Roman ecclesiastical organisation, on the one hand, and the comparatively low moral standards of civilisation, on the other. Throughout its whole remarkable career of thirteen hundred years, the Catholic Church had denounced the bad and taught the good. Unfortunately in attempting to realise the kingdom of God on earth through that organisation which was assumed to be of divine origin, life and practice did not always harmonise with the doctrines inculcated. The ideal and the real are seldom brought to coincide in any human institutions and it would be expecting a realisation of the well-nigh impossible to hope to see the consummation of that desirable condition in the mediæval Church when all the contradictory factors and forces are taken into account. But it can be safely asserted, when all debits and credits of baneful and beneficial are given just consideration, that the mighty Church at its height was the most powerful force in Europe for justice, for mercy, for charity, for peace among men, for honesty, for temperance, for human rights, for social service, for culture, for domestic purity, for obedience to law and order, and for a noble, helpful Christian life both for individuals and states.

The sublime foundations on which the Church rested,[602:1] the marvellous history it could point to, its peerless organisation, its vast wealth, its strong grip on the faith of the people, its close alliance with the state, all combined to make its officers, the clergy, the most influential social class in Europe. In their hands were the keys of heaven and without their permission no one could hope to enter; since they were about the only educated class, they wrote the books and directed all advance along intellectual, literary, and artistic lines. In short they moulded the progress of that day. They wrote public documents and proclamations for rulers, sat in royal councils, and acted as governmental ministers.[602:2] They dominated every human interest, regulated more or less every phase of life in the Middle Ages, and conferred inestimable benefit upon Europe of that day and this.

The Church in this age was the dominant factor in European civilisation. It fashioned laws and dictated the policy of governments; it controlled education and intelligence; it influenced occupations and industries; it moulded social ideas and customs; and it set the standards of morality and determined the life and conduct of both this world and that to come. The Church was divided into two sharply defined classes: the laity and the priesthood. "The great division of mankind, which . . . had become complete and absolute, into the clergy . . . and the rest of mankind, still subsisted in all of its rigorous force. They were two castes, separate and standing apart as by the irrepealable law of God. They were distinct, adverse, even antagonistic, in their theory of life, in their laws, in their corporate property, in their rights, in their immunities. In the aim and object of their existence, in their social duties and position, they were set asunder by a broad, deep, impassable line."[603:1] The priesthood, with an indelible character, married to the Church, stood between God and man and tended to become "The Church."

The Church was essentially an organised state, thoroughly centralised, with one supreme head and a complete gradation of officials; with a comprehensive system of law courts for trying cases, with penalties covering all crimes, and with prisons for punishing offenders. It demanded an allegiance from all its members somewhat like that existing to-day between subjects and a state. It developed one official language, the Latin, which was used to conduct its business everywhere. Thus all western Europe was one great religious association from which it was treason to revolt. Canon law punished such a crime with death, public opinion sanctioned it, and the secular arm executed the sentence.

The Church Militant was thus an army encamped on the soil of Christendom, with its outposts everywhere, subject to the most efficient discipline, animated with a common purpose, every soldier panoplied with inviolability and armed with the tremendous weapons which slew the soul. There was little that could not be dared or done by the commander of such a force, whose orders were listened to as oracles of God, from Portugal to Palestine and from Sicily to Iceland.[604:1]

History records no such triumph of intellect over brute force as that which, in an age of turmoil and battle, was wrested from the fierce warriors of the time by priests who had no material force at their command, and whose power was based alone on the souls and consciences of men. Over soul and conscience their empire was complete. No Christian could hope for salvation who was not in all things an obedient son of the Church, and who was not ready to take up arms in its defence; and, in a time when faith was a determining factor of conduct, this belief created a spiritual despotism which placed all things within reach of him who could wield it.[604:2]

In the thirteenth century the mediæval Church was a completed institution and at the height of its power. Its rise from humble beginnings, by a multitude of explainable causes and forces, to this lofty position is a well-nigh incredible miracle. It was very different from all modern churches whether Catholic or Protestant, yet was the mother of all of them. Both theoretically and legally all persons in western Europe belonged to it and were ruled by it, except those who were expelled from it, and thus formed one mighty religious society, the like of which has not again appeared in Christendom. Unable during subsequent centuries to meet the demands of new and higher phases of civilisation, the mediæval Church broke up into the various Christian sects of to-day.

SOURCES

A.--PRIMARY:

1.--Eales, _Life and Works of St. Bernard_.

2.--Henderson, _Historical Documents of the Middle Ages_.

3.--Lea, C. H., _A Formulary of the Papal Penitentiary in the Thirteenth Century_.

4.--Migne, _Patrologia Latina_.

5.--Morley, _Mediæval Tales_.

6.--Robinson, _Readings in European History_.

7.--Steele, R., _Mediæval Lore_. Lond., 1893.

8.--Thatcher and McNeal, _A Source-Book for Mediæval History_.

9.--Univ. of Penn., _Translations and Reprints_.

B.--SECONDARY:

I.--SPECIAL:

1.--Bethune-Baker, J. F., _The Influence of Christianity on War_. Camb., 1888.

2.--Brace, G. L., _Gesta Christi_. Lond., 1886.

3.--Cornish, _Chivalry_.

4.--Cutts, E. L., _Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages_. Lond., 1872. _Parish Priests and their People._ Lond., 1890.

5.--Döllinger, J. J. I., _Papal Fables of the Middle Ages_.

6.--Fournier, _Les officialités au moyen âge_.

7.--Gautier, _Chivalry_.

8.--Jessopp, _The Coming of the Friars_.

9.--Lea, H. C., _History of Auricular Confession_. 3 vols. Phil., 1896. _History of the Inquisition._ 3 vols. _History of Sacerdotal Celibacy._ _Superstition and Force._ _Studies in Church History._

10.--Luchaire, _Manuel des institutions_.

11.--Maitland, _The Dark Ages_.

12.--Milman, H. H., _History of Latin Christianity_. viii., bk. 14, ch. 1-10.

13.--Prévost, _L'église et les compagnes au moyen âge_.

14.--Rashdall, _History of the Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages_.

15.--Smith, _The Troubadours at Home_.

II.--GENERAL.

Adams, _Med. Civ._, ch. 16, 18. Blunt, i., ch. 10-12. Coxe, Lect. 5-7. Darras, iii., ch. 8-10. Dehorbe, ch. 11, 42. Fisher, pd. 6, ch. 6. Foulkes, ch. 11, 12. Gieseler, iii., ch. 1, 2, 5, and 6. Gilmartin, ii., ch. 5-13. Hardwick, ch. 8, 10, 11, 12. Hase, sec. 192-237. Hurst, i., ch. 50. Jennings, ii., ch. 12, 13. Knight, ch. 14-16. Kurtz, ii., 89-138. Milner, iii., cent. 12, 13. Moeller, ii., pd. 2, ch. 5; iii., ch. 2 and 3. Neander, iv. Robertson, bk. 5, ch. 13; bk. 6, ch. 6-8. Sikes, ch. 17.

FOOTNOTES:

[569:1] Lea, _Hist. of the Inq._, iii., 57.

[570:1] Moeller, ii., 436.

[570:2] Munro, "The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century," in _An. Rep. Am. Hist. Assoc._, 1906, i., p. 45.

[571:1] Munro, "The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century," in _An. Rep. Am. Hist. Assoc._, 1906, i., p. 47.

[571:2] Robinson, _Readings_, i., ch. 17.

[573:1] _Translations and Reprints_, iii., No. 6.

[573:2] See Lea, _Hist. of Inq._, for best discussion of this institution.

[573:3] See Acts. xix. 19, for Biblical authority.

[573:4] Putnam, _Censorship of the Church of Rome_, i., 58-61.

[573:5] _Ibid._, 64-67.

[574:1] Neander, iv., 1-82; Kurtz, i., 120-138.

[575:1] In this century it became customary for Popes to fill many benefices themselves and to receive all or half of the first year's income from those appointed.

[576:1] Examples: permit to cousins to marry; release of a monk from his vow.

[576:2] This is a narrow woollen scarf made by the nuns of St. Agnes in Rome.

[577:1] Lea, _Stud. in Ch. Hist._, 235-286.

[577:2] The ceremony of bell, book, and candle was the most common.

[577:3] Lea, _Stud. in Ch. Hist._, 395, 397, 403, 404, 405, 412.

[577:4] _Ibid._, 442, 448.

[577:5] _Ibid._, 384, 463.

[577:6] Matth. Paris, _Hist. Maj._, an. 1208, 1214.

[578:1] Lea, _Stud. in Ch. Hist._, 427.

[578:2] _Ibid._, 417, 419, 420-421, etc.

[578:3] _Ibid._, 440.

[578:4] _Ibid._, 417.

[578:5] _Ibid._, 418.

[579:1] Lea, _Stud. in Ch. Hist._, 427.

[579:2] _Ibid._, 428; Agnel, _Curiosités Judiciaires du Moyen-Âge_, 26.

[579:3] Lea, _Stud. in Ch. Hist._, 428.

[579:4] _Ibid._, 429.

[579:5] _Ibid._, 433. See _Translations and Reprints_, iv., No. 4.

[579:6] Lea, _Stud. in Ch. Hist._, 435-437.

[579:7] _Ibid._, 451; see Letter of Innocent III. in _Regest._, lib. x., ep. 79.

[580:1] Lea, _Stud. in Ch. Hist._, 455.

[580:2] _Ibid._, 457.

[580:3] Waker, _Kirchliches Finanzwesen der Päpste_.

[582:1] Kurtz, i., 166.

[582:2] Gams, _Series Episcoporum Ecclesiæ Catholicæ_; Lea, _Stud. in Ch. Hist._, 61-109.

[583:1] Some monasteries secured papal exemption from episcopal control.

[583:2] Froude, _Short Stories of Great Subjects_, 54.

[584:1] Smith and Cheetham, _Dict. Chr. Antiq._, i., 353, 355; _Cath. Encyc._

[585:1] Kurtz, vol. i., 168. See Howson, _Essay on Cathedrals_; Freeman, _Cathedral Church of Wells_; Walcott, _Cathedralia_.

[585:2] Emerton, _Med. Europe_, 549.

[586:1] This power had been given to them in the reforms of Gregory VII.

[586:2] Robinson, _Readings_, i., 361.

[588:1] Urban II., Adrian IV., Alexander V., Gregory VII., Benedict XII., Nicholas V., Sixtus IV., Urban IV., John XXII., Sixtus V., were among the many Popes of humble ancestry.

[589:1] Anselm of Milan (9th cent.), Regino of Prüm (10th cent.), Burchard of Worms (11th cent.), Ivo of Chartres (12th cent.), and Algerius of Liege (1120).

[589:2] The best edition is by Richter. Unfortunately there is no English translation.

[590:1] Lea, _Formulary of the Papal Penitentiary_, xxxi. to xxxv.

[590:2] _Ibid._

[591:1] One of the most famous preachers of the 13th century was the German Franciscan, Berthold of Regensburg (d. 1272), who often preached to crowds numbering 100,000.

[592:1] See Robinson, _Readings_, i., 348.

[593:1] John Pegues Assinus, a doctor of Paris University, substituted the word consubstantiation.

[594:1] Kings, at their coronation, and sometimes at the approach of death, were by a special favour given the cup.

[594:2] Alexander of Hales gave the dogmatic justification of this idea.

[595:1] Wasserschleben, _Bussordnung_, Halle, 1851.

[595:2] A journey to the Holy Land took the place of all penance.

[595:3] Mansi, _Coll. Concil._, xviii., 525.

[595:4] Fifth Canon of the Council of Ancyra in 314.

[596:1] _Summa_, supplement, p. 3, qu. 25.

[596:2] _Summa_, p. 4, qu. 23, art. 1, 2, memb. 5, 6.

[596:3] Lea, _Indulgences_, 18 _ff._

[596:4] Pflugh-Harttung, _Acta Pontiff._, iii., n. 408; Potthast, _Regest._ n. 3799.

[596:5] Lea, _Indulgences_, 178.

[596:6] _Ibid._, 314.

[596:7] _Ibid._, 305, 310.

[596:8] _Epist._, I Can., vii.

[597:1] After receiving extreme unction recipients were forbidden to touch the ground again with their bare feet or to have marital intercourse.

[602:1] Read the bull _Unam Sanctam_ of Boniface VIII. (1302). Robinson, _Readings_, i., 346.

[602:2] As late as the thirteenth century, an offender who wished to prove that he was a priest in order to obtain the privilege of trial by a church court had to show that he could read a single line. This was called _benefit of clergy_. See Robinson, _Readings_, vol. i., ch. 16; Lea, _Hist. of Inq._, iii., 57.

[603:1] Milman, _Lat. Christ._, vi., 357.

[604:1] Lea, _Hist. of the Inq._, i., 4.

[604:2] _Ibid._, i., 1.

INDEX

A

Abbots, 217, 218, 421; of Clugny, 429

Abelard, 511, 518, 559

Absolution, 590, 597

Abstinents, 204

Abubekr, 479

Abuses, clerical, 421, 426, 430, 432, 548, 563

Abu Taleb, 479

Acolytes, 63

Acre, fall of, 499

## Actium, battle of, 41

Adalbert, 398, 425

Adaldag, 251

Adalgar, 251

Adelaide, 392, 402

Adelbert, 243

Adelbert of Bremen, 438

Adelbert of Prague, 249, 257

Adelpert, 165

Adhemar, Bishop of Pui, 494

Ærius of Sebasta, 220

African Church, 155

Agents at Eastern court, 299

Agilbert, 239

Agilulf, King, 243

Agnes, Empress, 451

Agobard of Lyons, 283, 364

Agriculture, 198

Aidan, 164

Alaric II., 296

Albertus Magnus, 525

Albigenses, 501, 506, 560, 562, 572

Alcuin, 249, 311, 318

Aldich, 335

Alemanni, 234, 243

Aleontera, order of, 514

Alexander II., 360, 364, 369, 442, 446, 451

Alexander III., 362, 364, 379, 413, 545

Alexander IV., 536

Alexander of Alexandria, 137, 138, 141, 349

Alexander of Hales, 597

Alexander the Great, 199, 318

Alexander Severus, 103, 268, 291

Alexius, Emperor, 493, 495

Ali, 479

Alliance of Church and State, 202, 204

Alliance of Pope and Franks, 302, 304, 305, 307

Alms, 352

Amania, 165

Ambrose, 170, 211, 213, 295, 368, 380

Ammon, 205, 208

Anacletus, 331

Anagni, 545

Anastasius, 174, 365

Andrew, St., 257

Angels, 354

Angles, 235

Anglo-Saxon invasion, 240

Anicetus, 155

Anne, 257

Ansgar, 250, 253, 341

Anthony of Alexandria, 205, 211

Anthony, order of, 514

Anthony, St., 203, 208, 427

Antioch, captured, 495

Antioch, Council of, 178, 348

Anti-Petrine view, 77

Antoninus Pius, 102

Apiarius, 167

Apostles, 56; and monasticism, 201; and the state, 290

Apostles' Creed, 356, 371

Apostolic Christianity, 202

Apostolic Church, 154, 160 _ff._, 202, 375

Apostolic constitutions, 163; canons, 178, 330, 331

Apostolic seat, 61

Apostolic succession, 61

Appeals to Rome, 155, 169, 175, 348, 562, 575

Aquileia, Council of, 171

Aquinas, Thomas, 373, 525, 592, 595, 596

Arabia, in 570, 476 _ff._; under Mohammed, 480

Arabs, 476 _ff._

Archbishops, 61; 22 in Europe, 315, 336; origin of, 348-350; power, 350; in 13th century, 581, 582

Archdeacons, 62

Architecture, 598, 599, 600

Arian controversy, 120, 136 _ff._, 175, 266, 294

Arian princes conquered, 302

Arianism, 143, 145, 189, 232, 233

Arians, 139, 141, 142, 144, 145, 166

Aristotle, 47

Arius, 137, 138, 141, 144

Arles, Council of, 119, 144, 162, 163, 175, 244, 293, 353

Arles, Council of, in 813, 313

Arnold, 16

Arnold of Brescia, 511, 518, 559

Arnoldites, 519

Arnulf, 387

Art, 42, 270

Asceticism, use of, 64, 199; attacks on, 218, 219

Ascetics, 203; none in early Church, 204, 427

Athalaric, 296

Athanasius, 9, 139, 141, 142, 144, 166, 181, 206, 209, 211, 212, 349

Athens, 48

Attila, 184

Augustine, St., 9, 168, 170, 211, 213, 372

Augustine's _City of God_, 318

Augustine, Abbot, 165, 235, 236, 237, 238

Augustine, Rule of, 511

Augustinians, 536, 539

Augustus, 48, 94

Aurelian, 105, 156

Aurelius, 330

Avars, 308, 309

Avis, order of, 514

Aymar, abbot of Clugny, 429

B

Babbio, 243

Baldwin of Bouillon, 494

Baldwin II., 513

Bans, 564

Baptism, 181, 219, 352, 372, 374, 375

Baptisteries, 375

Barbarian invasions, 169, 180, 183, 293, 357, 385; later, 388

Barbarians, conversion of, 230, 231

Baronius, 16

Basil, St., 139, 167, 210

Basil, Rule of, 212

Basil, Emperor, 257

Basques, 308

Baur, 17

Bavarians, 302, 308

Bede, 16, 73, 235, 240

Begging orders, 216, 518 _ff._, 536, 537

Beghards, 519, 520, 538

Beguins, 519, 520

Belisarius deposes a Pope, 297

Bells, 372

Benedict, 187, 213

Benedict VII., 402

Benedict VIII., 368, 407, 408, 420, 426

Benedict IX., 410, 420

Benedict X., 438, 439

Benedictine Rule, 190, 214-216, 428, 431, 432

Benedictines, 199, 248, 434

Benedictus Levita, 335

Berengar, 387

Berengar II., 392, 395

Bernard, St., 368, 369, 402, 491, 496, 511, 513, 516, 518, 570

Bernard of Quintavalle, 528

Bertha, 236

Bible manuscripts, 269

Bishop of Rome, 76, 77, 107, 149, 151, 153, 154, 155, 158; accepted as Peter's successor, 160, 170; claims appellate power, 165; greatest man in Western Europe, 168; settles disputes, 169; primacy of, 172, 175; power approved by Emperor, 178; calls councils, 294; becomes a temporal prince, 302

Bishoprics created in Germany, 247, 249, 253

Bishoprics founded in France, 303

Bishops, 57; equality of, 176; increase their power, 322; subjected to state, 337; election of, 351; duties, 351 _ff._, 421; in the East, 501; in 13th century, 582 _ff._

Bishops, provincial, 158

Björn, King, 253

Black friars, _see_ Dominicans.

Blondel, David, 333

Bogoris, Duke, 256

Bohemia, 449

Bohemian Church, 255

Bohemians, 255, 391, 401

Bohemond, 494, 495

Boleslav the Cruel, 255

Boleslaw II., 369

Bologna University, 545, 579, 589

Bonasus, 220

Bonaventura, 537, 538

Boniface, 165, 305, 309

Boniface, St., 244 _ff._, 330, 333

Boniface I., 295

Boniface IV., 378, 380

Boniface VII., 402

Boniface VIII., 413, 525, 581

Borziway, Duke, 255

Bossuet, 16

Brescia, Council of, 467

Bretons, 308

_Breviarium_, 330

Bridge Brothers, 515

Bridget, St., 240

British Christians, 238

Brotherhoods of the Peace of God, 359

Brothers and Sisters of Penitence, 530

Brothers of the Sword, 514

Bruno, 249, 399, 424, 434 _ff._, 511

Bruno, abbot of Clugny, 428

Bruno of Cologne, 510

Buddha, 199

Bulgarians, 253, 256, 407

Burghers, increase in importance, 570

Burgundian Code, 363

Burgundians, 145, 233, 302

Burgundy united with Germany, 406

Byzantine Empire, 126, 405

Byzantine historians, 16

C

Cæcilius, 95

Cæsar, Augustus, 48, 94, 318

Cæsar, Julius, 48

Cæsar, Tiberius, 48

Cæsarins, 538

Caius, 80, 86

Calatrava, order of, 514

Calendar of saints, 378

Calistus, 358

Calixtus I., 177, 453

Calixtus II., 472

Callistus, 160, 163

Calvin, 333

Camaldolites, 429 _ff._, 445

Candles, 220

Canon law, 143, 246, 370, 549

Canonisation, 379

Canons of the Church, 142, 144, 145, 266, 329

Canossa, 463 _ff._

Canute, 407, 409

_Capitula Angilramni_, 331

Capuchins, 539

Caracalla, 103

Carloman, 216, 304, 307

Carmelites, 520, 539

_Carnales_, 338

Caroline Books, 283

Carolingian Empire, 321, 386, 387, 391

Carolingian policy of division of rule, 320, 348

Carthage, Church of, 449

Carthage, Council of, 171

Carthusians, 510, 570

Cassian, 211, 213, 521

Cassiodorus, 330

Catacombs, 268

Catechists, 63

Catechumens, 374, 375

Catharii, 511

Catharists, 560

Catholic Church, 5, 75, 107, 148; unity of, 156, 157

Cedd, Bishop, 239

Celestine, 168, 174

Celestine III., 362, 364, 551

Celestine V., 512, 538

Celestines, 512, 538

Celibacy, 64, 143, 161, 181, 190, 203, 220, 247, 266, 300, 355, 356, 420, 436, 439, 442, 450, 452, 453 _ff._, 544, 564

Celsus, 95

Celtic missionaries, 164, 246

Celts, 235, 237, 241, 244

Chalcedon, Council of, 172, 174, 184, 194, 218, 294, 297, 349

Chapter, 584 _ff._

Charity, 159, 198, 364, 365

Charlemagne, _see_ Charles the Great.

Charles the Bald, 319, 342, 385

Charles the Fat, 321, 385, 386, 387

Charles the Great, 9, 126, 187, 217, 234, 248, 249, 250, 253, 254, 255, 258; life of, 307-308; controls Papacy, 308; reforms Church, 309; Emperor, 309-312; results of his rule, 312-317; character, 317; successors, 319-320, 331, 334, 339, 341, 348, 354, 363, 366, 372; decline of his empire, 384, 385, 389, 392, 393, 395, 398, 400, 405, 410, 412, 414, 443, 446, 455, 471, 486, 487

Charles Martel, 245, 247, 258, 303, 487

Charles the Simple, 385, 390

Charroux, synod of, 358

Chiersy, synod of, 334

Childeric III., 304

Chivalry, 490, 502, 506

Chosroes II., 484

Christ, order of, 514

Christendom, size in 604, 231; extent in 13th century, 259

Christianity, 46; illegal, 93, 102, 107; spread of, 113, 126, 128, 149, 150; in first and second centuries, 203; spread to Ireland, 240; Scotland, 241; materialised, 270; political philosophy of early, 289; not a "religio licita," 290; compared with Roman religion, 292; compared with Mohammedanism, 426, 481

Christians, number of, 54, 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 99, 102, 104, 105, 106, 107; number in 305, 113; in Rome, 148; number, 259, 268; increase of, 291; refuse to conform, 291

Chrysostom, 139, 167, 232, 271

Church and state, 423, 435

Church, apostolic, compared, 160 _ff._

Church Canons, 142, 144, 145

Church, Christian, sources on, 12; in New Test., 15; contributions of Jews and pagans, 53; organisation, 55, 56; Roman Empire a model, 148; changes in, 149; early evils, 163; unity of, 169; changes in, 180; property, 190; necessary for salvation, 194; secularised, 201; worldliness in, 203; reflects its age, 260; compared with the state, 292; recognises supremacy of the state, 292; union with state not all evil, 293; paganised, 293; rules Europe for 1000 years, 294; ruled by Empire after Constantine, 294, 295; alienation of property forbidden, 296; in 7th and 8th century, 300; receives property from Clovis, 302; Pepin, 303; and Charles the Great, 312; divided into 22 archbishoprics, 315; declines, 322; constitution of, 337; and state, 338; founded on Peter, 343; moral arch of safety, 356; slavery, 356; peace, 358 _ff._; private war, 358; ordeals, 362; charity, 365; discipline, 366; worship, 370; sacraments, 373; above state, 418; corruptions, 422; in 1073, 445; property, sale of, 451; feudalised, 455; wealth of, 501; crusades, 502; attains its claims, 569; extent and wealth, 574; good and evil, 600 _ff._; in 13th century, 602 _ff._

Church Fathers, deplore vices in Church, 180, 191, 201; command asceticism, 203, 216; approve images, 272, 276; and the state, 290, 318, 330, 357, 365, 376

Church government, system of, 60; evolution of, 64, 184; regulated, 297, 446

Church history, study of, 1-10; sources on, 10-11; not theology, 7; revival of interest in, 7

Church officers, 57, 162, 260, 455

Churches, endowed in Rome, 118, 265; decorated, 272; and shrines, 378; erected to Our Lady, 381; erected in Holy Land, 484

Cicero, 41, 42, 93

Cistercians, 249, 511, 570, 591

Civil law, 452

Civilisation, mediæval, 381, 505

Clairvaux, 570

Clarenins, 538

Classical influences, 260

Claudius, 48, 113

Claudius, Bishop of Turin, 283

Clement II., 410, 427, 434

Clement III., 362, 467, 546, 579, 589

Clement VIII., 526

Clement of Alexandria, 80, 86, 269

Clement of Rome, 57, 80, 84, 86, 153, 155, 160, 177

Clergy, houses, 64; reformed, 190; regulated, 297; influence of, 354; incomes, 355; higher, 420-422; under Gregory VII., 448; in 13th century, 517; criticised, 571; cut off from laity, 587 _ff._

Clermont, Council of, 360, 489, 492

Clovis, 234, 302, 303

Clugniacs, 199; reformation, 424 _ff._, 435

Clugny, 428 _ff._, 434, 436, 490

Cœlestius, 173

Coleman, Bishop, 239

College of Cardinals, 439 _ff._, 580

Columba, 164, 241,

Columbanus, 164, 242, 243

Columbus, 253, 505

Commodion, 80

Commodus, 103

Common people, 45

Communism, 64

Concordat of Worms, 472, 473, 545, 582

Concubinage, 451

Confession, 218, 352, 367, 426, 596

Confirmation, 352, 375

Conrad of Franconia, 390

Conrad II., 407 _ff._, 455

Conrad III., 496

Constantia, 141, 271

Constantine, 9, 54, 106; Roman Empire under, 112; life of, 113 _ff._; vision of the cross, 117 _ff._, 125; character, 121 _ff._; successors, 127; Arian controversy, 139 _ff._, 159; legalised Christianity, 160, 162; aid to Church, 175, 219, 232, 269, 270, 271; subjects Christianity to the state, 292, 294, 318, 331, 336, 354, 365, 372, 374, 379

Constantine II., 144

Constantine V., 277, 280

Constantinople, fall of, 286, 449

Constantinople, second Council of, 145, 178, 281, 282

Constantinople, synod of, 277

Constantius, 144, 294

Constantius Chlorus, 113, 114, 115

Constitution of Lothair, 395

Constitution of Otto I., 395

Conte, Le, 333

Conversion, mediæval, 231 _ff._

Converts, pagan, 180

Cornelius, 79

_Corpus Juris Canonici_, 338, 360, 588, 589

Corruptions in the Church in 10th and 11th centuries, 422; 13th century, 563

Council, Reform, of 1074, 450

Councils, 162, 237, 266, 294, 313, 376, 421, 452, 471, 544

Credulity of Western Europe, 487

Creed, Nicene, 171

Creighton, 17

Crescentius, 403

Cross, 269, 271

Cross bearers, order of, 514

Crusades, 249, 258, 377, 404, 450; causes, 483 _ff._; time, purpose, and number, 491 _ff._; first, 493 _ff._; second, 496 _ff._; third, 497; fourth, 498; minor crusades, 498 _ff._; failed, 499; results, 500 _ff._; children's, 492; against heretics, 561

Culdees, 241, 252

Culture, 198

Curia, Roman, 562

Cyprian, 80, 82, 107, 155, 158, 159, 160, 205, 372

Cyril, 139, 168

Cyrillus, 254, 255, 256

Czechs, 253, 388

D

Damascus, 181

Damasus, 295, 330, 434

Damiani, 371, 373, 432 _ff._, 436, 438, 441, 442

Danes, 253, 388, 391, 392, 399, 401, 407

David, Sultan, 493

Deacons, 56, 364

Decian persecution, 203

Decius, 98, 104, 105

Decretals, 173; of Gregory I., 174

_Decretum Gratiani_, 589

Dedication of churches, 352

De Gama, 505

De Moulin, 333

Democracy of Papacy, 300

Denis, St., 74, 164

Denmark, Church in, 250, 251

Deposition of a Pope, 297

"Deposito Martyrum," 81

Devil, 354

_Dictatus Papæ_, 448

Didymus, Blind, 139

Diet of Worms, 434, 460

Dioceses, 349

Diocletian, 98, 105, 112, 114

Dionysius Areopagite, 373

Dionysius Exiguus, 330, 334

Dionysius, Bishop of Corinth, 80, 86

Dionysius of Alexandria, 137

Dionysius of Rome, 137, 156

Discipline, 366, 376

Divorce not permitted, 356, 564

Doctrine of Addai, 81

Doctrines, 591

Doge of Venice, 430

Dogma, 295, 572

Döllinger, 17

Dominic, St., 518, 519 _ff._; youth and education, 521; goes to France, 522; rebukes the Cistercians, 522; founds St. Rouen, 523; order approved by Innocent III., 523; organisation, 524; spread, 525; death, 525, 570

Dominicans, 259, 432, 502, 521, 525 _ff._, 570, 591

Dominicus, St., 429

Domitian, 100, 101

Domitilla, 100

Donation of Constantine, 332, 334

Donation of Pepin, 306

Donatists, 136, 189

Donatus, 212

Dorylæum, battle of, 495

Dryer, 17

Dunstan, St., 427

Duran de Husce, 519

E

East and the West, breach between, 438

Easter, date of, 143, 155, 160, 220, 239, 240, 266

Eastern Church, 155, 184, 231, 266

Eastern Church and Western compared, 286

Eastern Empire, 502; estranged from the Western, 503, 549

Ebionites, 132, 136

Ebo, Archbishop of Rheims, 250, 335

Ecclesia and Jewish kingdom, 56

Ecclesiastical monarchy, 301

Edessa, fall of, 496

Edict of Milan, 119, 174

Edict of 380, 128

Education, under Charles the Great, 317, 356

Ekkehard, 401

Elders, duties of, 59

Election of clergy, 193

Election of Pope, 296, 297, 298

Elias, 210

Elizabeth, 46

Elvira, Council of, 163

Elvira, synod of, 268, 276

Emerton on study of Church history, 1

Emperor, 289, 295; German, 445, 446; Eastern, and crusades, 491

Empire, prosperous, 40; moral condition, 46; union with Papacy, 175; spiritualised, 293; revival under Otto I., 391; and Papacy, 398; distracted, 549

Eon de l'Etoile, 558

Ephesus, Council of, 168, 171, 294

Ephraëm, 139

Episcopal cases taken out of secular courts, 337

Erasmus, 332

Erfurt, Council of, 453

Eric, 251, 252

Eschylus, 43

Esquimos, 252

Essenes, 44, 200, 209

Estates of the Church, 365

Ethelbert, 236, 237, 238

Eucharist, 266, 363, 370, 372, 373, 374, 558

Eudoxia, 167

Eugenius II., 361

Eugenius III., 496

Eusebius of Cæsarea, 15, 54, 71, 81, 102, 106, 117, 118, 139, 141, 211, 271

Eusebius of Nicomedia, 139

Eustace of Bouillon, 494, 495, 496

Eustathius, 210

Evagrius, 15

Ewald, 165, 244, 249

Exarchs, 349

Excommunication, 155, 157, 158, 172, 367 _ff._, 561, 576 _ff._, 597

Exorcists, 63

Extreme unction, 377, 597, 598

F

Fabiola, 365

Fasting, 203, 220, 367

Felix II., 145, 185

Festival of All Saints, 378

Festival of All Souls, 378

Festival of Orthodoxy, 282

Festival of the Annunciation, 381

Festival of the Ascension of Mary, 381

Festival of the Purification of Mary, 381

Festivals multiplied, 161, 193, 375

Feudalism, 217, 389, 503, 505, 515, 574

Filioque, 266, 285

Finances of Rome, 445

Fisher, 17

Flagellants, 432, 506

Flavian, 9, 167

Flavius Clemens, 100

Florence, Council of, in 1439, 285

Fontevraud, order of, 511

Formosus, 386, 387, 419

Fortunatus, 155

Foulques de Neuilly, 519

France, beginnings of, 231

Francis, St., 9, 518, 526 _ff._; early career, 526 _ff._; forms an order, 528 _ff._; confirmed by Pope, 529; labours, 530; death and canonisation, 530; his influence, 531; growth of the order, 532; compared with Dominic, 533 _ff._; later history, 538 _ff._, 570

Franciscans, 259, 432, 502, 524, 526 _ff._, 570, 591

Frankfort, Council of, 369

Franks, 234, 235, 249, 302 _ff._

Fratricelli, 538

Frederick II., Emperor, 498, 550, 577

Frederick Barbarossa, 497

Frederick, Bishop, 252

Frederick the Great, 318

Frederick of Lorraine becomes Pope, 438

Free cities, 503, 505, 506

Freeman, 4

French Revolution, 429

Fridolin, 243

Fulda, monastery at, 248

Fulk of Neuilly, 498

G

Gaius, 93

Galerius, 106, 114, 115

Gall, St., 243

Gallienus, 105

Gallus, 165, 243

Gama, De, 505

Gautbert, 253

Gebhard, 437 _ff._

Gelasius, 167, 174, 573

Genseric, 184

Gerach of Reichersberg, 518

Gerbert, 399, 402, 404, 425, 426

German Church, 247, 394

German cloisters, 429

German kingdom, 391

German Pope, first, 403; Popes, 425

Germanus, 278

Germany, origin of, 321, 244; influences, 260

Geyza, Prince, 257

Geography, 505

Ghibellines, 549

Gibbon, 16, 73

Gieseler, 3, 17

Gilbert, 512, 516

Gilbertines, 512

Gnostics, 132, 136, 202, 268

Goddana, 210

Godfrey of Bouillon, 494, 495, 496, 513

Godfrey of Tuscany, 442

Gontran, King, 242

Goths, 145, 302

Gottschalk, 254

Grammont, order of, 510

Gratian, 128, 167, 171, 368, 434, 589

Grecian religion, 42

Greek, 41

Greek Catholics, 76

Greek Church, 231, 233, 257, 449

Greek Fathers, 170

Greeks, 401

Greenland, 252

Gregory of Tours, 16, 73, 319

Gregory I., the Great, 9, 167, 185, 191, 216, 218, 231, 236, 242, 270, 274, 275, 276, 298, 329, 336, 344, 358, 365, 368, 370, 371, 380, 389, 440, 441

Gregory II., 245, 278, 279, 300

Gregory III., 247, 280, 300, 303

Gregory V., 403, 404, 425, 426, 427

Gregory VI., 410, 420, 434, 455

Gregory VII., 173, 339, 369, 432; election, 446; beliefs, 447 _ff._; reform efforts, 450 _ff._; opposition, 453 _ff._; investiture strife, 457 _ff._; Henry IV., 462 _ff._; driven from Rome, 467; dies in exile, 467; character, 467 _ff._; influence, 470; crusader, 488, 545

Gregory VIII., 546

Gregory IX., 537, 538

Gregory X., 526, 539

Gregory Nanzianzen, 349

Gregory of Utrecht, 248

Grosseteste, 590

Gualbert, St. John, 431

Guelphs, 549

Guericke, 17

Guido of Spoleto, 386

Guilds, 576

Guiscard, 441, 449, 494

Gwatkin, 17

H

Hadrian, Emperor, 102

Hadrian I., Pope, 281

Hadrian II., 355, 418

Hagenbach, 17

Hakam, 485

Hakon the Good, 251

Halimand, Archbishop, 436

Halitgar, 250

Hanseatic League, 506

Harnack, 17, 58

Harold Klak, King, 250

Hase, 17

Hatch on Church history, 4, 58

Hauck, 17

Heaven, 354, 381

Hefele, 17

Hegesippus, 15

Hegira, 480, 481

Helena, 113

Heliogabalus, 103

Hell, 354, 381

Helvidius, 220

Henke, 16

Henry I., 390, 420

Henry II., 241, 406 _ff._, 424, 426, 572, 577

Henry III., 407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 420, 424, 427, 434, 437, 438, 439, 456

Henry IV., 360, 363, 437, 439, 446, 451, 459 _ff._, 461, 463 _ff._, 467, 577

Henry V., 471, 472

Henry VI., 498, 549, 550

Henry VIII., 318

Henry the Fowler, 424

Henry of Lausanne, 559

Heraclius, 484

Heresy, 143, 145, 153, 154, 157, 165, 183, 184, 205, 220, 247, 295, 517, 557 _ff._, 564, 572, 576

Heretics, 173, 268, 293, 368, 501, 539, 560, 561

Hergenröther, 17

Hermits, 199, 206 _ff._

Herod, 79

Herzog, 17

Hieracus, 205

Hierarchy, 176, 198, 260

Hilarion, 208, 210

Hilarius, 61

Hilary, 144, 164

Hildebrand, 9, 191, 363, 424, 426, 429, 434, 435, 436, 437, 438, 441 _ff._; chosen Pope, 500, 545, 548, 565

Hildebrandine reformation, 490

Hincmar, 332, 336, 341, 361, 369

Hippolytus, 80, 177

_Hispania_, 331

Hirshau, 431

Holy Ghost, order of, 515

Holy Roman Empire, 344, 401, 411 _ff._

Holy Water, 372, 572

Honoratus, 164

Honorius, 240, 295

Honorius II., 442, 513, 519

Honorius III., 364, 520, 524

Hosius, 118, 141, 144

Hospitalers, 502

Hospitals, 365

Hottinger, 16

House of Commons in England, 504

Hugh, abbot of Clugny, 429

Hugh Capet, 387

Hugh of Provence, 392

Hugh of St. Victor, 373

Hugh of Vienne, 525

Hugh the Great, 392

Hugh the Long, 494, 495

Hugo, Cardinal, 446, 447

Humbert, Cardinal, 436

Hume, 16

Humiliati, 512

Hungarians, 385, 493

Huodo, Count, 401

Hurst, 17

Hymns, 371

I

Iceland, 252

Iconoclasti, 277

Iconoclastic controversy, 267, 282 _ff._, 300, 304, 309

Iconolatræ, 277

Ignatius of Antioch, 75, 80, 86, 159, 177, 336

Images, not used by early Christians, 268; edict against, 278, 379, 501

Image worship, 161, 267 _ff._, 269, 273 _ff._, 279 _ff._, 302

Imperial theory of church and state, 413, 414

Incense, 220

Independence of Pope, 302

Indulgences, 377, 501, 560, 561, 572, 595, 596

Index, 573

Industry, 198

Innocent I., 167, 170, 171, 172, 181, 452, 596

Innocent II., 362

Innocent III., 9, 191, 287, 339, 362, 364, 369, 389, 413, 436, 498, 500, 502, 510, 515, 519, 522, 544, 545; early life, 545; enters Church, 546; chosen Pope, 547; ideas and reform policy, 547 _ff._; becomes head of Europe, 549 _ff._; asserts supremacy over the East, 555; rules North, 556; champions crusades, 556, 557; sought to crush heresy, 557 _ff._; character and influence, 560 _ff._, 596

Innocent IV., 525, 526, 580

Innocent V., 525

Inquisition, 364, 501, 539, 564, 565, 573

Inquisitors General, 560

Interdict, 369, 370, 577, 578

International peace, 503

Interpreters, 63

Investiture, 436, 442

Iona, 341

Ireland, 240, 241, 250

Irenæus, 57, 80, 86, 107, 151, 157, 177, 268, 291

Irene, 311

Isidore of Seville, 330, 333, 334, 349

Italian monasteries, 429

Italians, 394

Italy, origin of, 321; reunited with East, 296; hated Greeks and Lombards, 300; independence of, 550

J

James, 78, 79, 561

Janitors, 63

Janssen, 17

Jerome, 61, 81, 165, 181, 210, 211, 213, 219, 230, 330, 485

Jerusalem, 48; massacre, 496; capture, 497

Jesus, teachings of, 49, 55, 82, 85, 101, 103; and asceticism, 200; and civil government, 289, 364; and slavery, 356; and baptism, 374

Jewish church, 46, 204

Jewish synagogue, 59; passover, 266

Jews, 189, 260, 276, 277, 358, 501

Joannes, 208

Johannus Turrecrenta, 332

John, 78, 86

John, King of England, 369, 549, 552-555

John I., 296

John II., 179, 296

John VIII., 418

John X., 419

John XI., 429

John XII., 394, 395, 396, 397, 398, 419, 424

John XIII., 398, 401, 425

John XIV., 402

John XV., 379, 403

John XVI., 404

John XIX., 407, 408, 420

John of Damascus, 274, 279, 280

John of Gorz, 399

John the Greek, 402

John of Syracuse, 189

John, St., 237

John, St., order of, 512

Joseph, 46

Jovinian, 219, 220

Judaism, 476, 479

Judas Iscariot, 79

Judgment of God, 361-364

Julian, Emperor, 127, 145, 271

Julian I., 166, 171, 181

Julius Paulus, 93

Julius, Pope, 144

_Jus ecclesiasticum_, 589

Justin II., 185

Justinian, 179, 187, 294, 296, 397

Justin Martyr, 291

Jutes, 235

Juvenal, 46

K

Katerkamp, 17

Keble, 17

Kentigern, St., 241

Kilian, 165

Knights of Emancipation, 515

Koethe, prophecy about Church history, 8

Koraish priests, 479, 480

Koran, 502

Kurtz, 17

Kylian, 243

L

Lactantius, 81, 118, 220

Laity cut off from clergy, 193, 198; in 12th century, 353, 448, 451, 571, 572

Lambert, 386

Lanfranc of Canterbury, 442

Langton, Stephen, 553, 554

Las Casas, 525

Lateran Councils, 360, 408, 439, 557, 562, 563, 564

Latin, 41; used in worship, 371

Latin Christianity, 46, 400

Latin Church, 16, 255

Latin Empire of Constantinople, 498, 502

Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, 502

Laurentius of Amalfi, 434

Law, imperial, controls the Church, 295

Law, study of, 503; under Innocent III., 567

Lawrence, 296

Laws of Charles the Great, 315 _ff._

Lay investiture, 449; origin, 457; opposition, 458; Henry IV. and, 459 _ff._; compromise in 1111, 471; Concordat of Worms, 472, 545

Laying on of hands, 375

Lazarus, order of, 515

Lechfeld, battle of, 393

Lectors, 62

Legatine power, 501

Lent, 266, 370

Leo the Armenian, 282

Leo, King of Armenia, 555

Leo I., 168, 174, 182, 344, 374, 452

Leo III., the Isaurian, 277, 278

Leo III., Pope, 310, 440-441

Leo IV., 340, 364

Leo VIII., 397-398, 424

Leo IX., 424, 436, 438

Leontius, Bishop of Neapolis, 273

_Lex Visigothorum_, 330

Libanus, 219

_Liber Pontificalis_, 330

Liberatus, 349

Liberius, 145

Licinius, 116, 118, 124

Lingard, 17

Literature, bourgeois, 570-571

Liturgy, 254, 352

Lollards, 283

Lombard, Peter, 373, 378, 525, 592

Lombards, 233, 303 _ff._, 308, 549

Lombardy, crown of, 392, 409

Longobards, 145

Loofs, 17

Lord's Prayer, 356, 371

Lord's Supper, _see_ Eucharist.

Lothair, 319 _ff._

Lothair II., 336

Louis the Child, 387, 389, 420

Louis the German, 254

Louis the Pious, 216, 217, 250, 253, 255, 319 _ff._, 335, 363, 378, 395

Louis II., 320, 340, 341

Louis IV., 393

Louis VII., 496, 504

Louis IX., 498, 526

Louis X., 504

Lucifer, 144

Lucius, King, 73

Lucius I., 452

Ludolph, 393, 394

Luitgarde, St., 566

Luitprand, King of Lombards, 302, 399

Lull, 248

Luther, 3, 219, 434, 451, 536, 546

Lyons, 73

Lyons, Council of, 285

M

Macarius, 141, 208, 213

Mæcenas, 94

_Magdeburg Centuries_, 332

Magellan, 505

Magna Charta, 554, 555

Magyars, 256, 391, 393, 399

Majola, abbot of Clugny, 429

Mamno of Cologne, 438

Manichæans, 105, 132, 133, 189

Marcella, 211

Marcellus, 139, 141

Marcia, 103

Marcian, 155, 156

Marco Polo, 505

Marcus Aurelius, 102

Marozia, 419

Marriage, 181, 204, 255, 266, 356, 378, 407, 420, 424, 430, 432, 436, 448, 453, 564

Marsiglio of Padua, 332

Martel, Chas., 302

Martin, St., 164

Martin of Tours, 212

Martin I., 299

Martyrs, 193, 270, 378, 380

Mary, Virgin, 46, 193, 356, 381

Mass, 189, 193, 217, 218, 352, 370, 572, 593, 594

Massacre of Jerusalem, 496

Matthew, 80

Matthias Flacius, 16

Maurice, 299

Maurus, 512

Maxentius, 115, 117, 123, 269

Maximian, 114, 115

Maximus of Salona, 368

Maximus the Thracian, 104

Maximus of Turin, 170

McGiffert, 17

Mediæval Papacy, 5, 183, 201, 234, 293, 389

Meersen, treaty of, 321

Meister Echart, 525

Melania, 210, 211

Melchiades, 331

Mercurius, St., 427

Merovingian kings, 348

Methodius, 205, 254, 255, 256

Metropolitans, 61, 337, 348, 349, 581, 582

Michael III., 254, 284

Middle Ages, 16, 198

Mieczyslav, Duke, 256

Milan, Council of, 144

Mileve, Council of, 171

Milman, 17

Milvian Bridge, 116, 117, 118, 123

Minims, 539

Miracles, 220, 501

Missionary monks, 198

Missionary zeal of Rome, 152, 153, 164, 198, 229 _ff._, 233, 251, 254, 255, 259, 303

Mistiwoi, 254

Moeller, 17

Mohammed, 318, 450, 476 _ff._

Mohammedanism, 258, 277, 278, 293, 476 _ff._, 482 _ff._

Monarchians, 134, 253

Monastery, first walled, 209

Monastic abuses, 407, 427, 516

Monastic orders, decline of, 515

Monastic Rule, 242

Monasticism, Christian, 45, 185, 190, 198, 199 _ff._, 204 _ff._, 209, 210, 211, 212, 217, 218, 220 _ff._, 239, 243, 249, 254, 421, 424, 429, 486, 502, 510, 516

Monk, the ideal man, 198, 199, 217, 352

Monks, 421, 517

Monotheism, 46

Montanism, 135, 136, 177, 202

Montesta, order of, 514

Moors, 514

Morality, 198, 353, 354, 563

Moravians, 254

Mosheim, 16

Moymir, 254

Müller, 17

Muratorian canon, 81

Music in worship, 193, 270, 371, 372

Mysticism, 570

N

Napoleon, 4, 307, 318, 386, 399, 406, 408, 412, 470, 514

Napoleon III., 307

National churches, 322

National states, rise of, 320

Neo-Cæsarea, Council of, 163

Neo-Platonism, 199

Nepotism, 563

Nero, 84, 99, 100

Nerva, 101

Nestorian controversy, 272

Newman, 17

New Testament, 15

Nicæa, 495

Nicæa, Council of, 120, 131 _ff._, 142 _ff._, 153, 155, 162, 171, 175, 176, 178, 232, 281, 282, 293, 331, 380

Nicene Creed, 142, 143, 144, 145, 171, 234, 266, 314

Nicholas I., 255, 256, 283, 322, 332, 333, 334, 336, 340 _ff._, 344, 364, 389, 413, 418

Nicholas II., 360, 439, 441, 442

Nicholas of Cusa, 332

Niedner, 17

Nilus, 272, 427, 429

Nippold, 17

Nithard, 253

Norbert, St., 511

Norman conquest, 241, 362, 408

Normans, 408, 449

Northmen, 251, 385 _ff._

Norway, 251

Norway, King of, 449

Novatianists, 135, 156

Nuns, 352, 421

Nurses, order of, 515

O

Obotrites, 388

Observants, 539

Odilo, abbot of Clugny, 429, 433

Odo, abbot of Clugny, 428

Odo of Eudes, 386, 387

Odoacer, 296

Olaf, 251, 252

Olaf the Saint, 252

Oldratus, John, 512

Old Testament, 48

Olga, Grand Duchess, 257

Oligarchy in Church of fourth century, 169

Optatus, Bishop of Mileve, 9, 73, 169

Ordeals, 361 _ff._

Ordination, 377

Origen, 80, 82, 86, 137, 177, 205

Orosius, 170

Orphanages, 365

Orr, 17

Orthodoxy of the West, 143, 153, 165, 181

Ostrogoths, 232, 296

Oswy, King, 239

Otgar, 335

Otto, Duke of Saxony, 390

Otto I., the Great, 126, 253, 255, 257, 258, 318, 390 _ff._, 420, 421, 424, 425, 443, 487

Otto II., 253, 394, 401 _ff._, 425

Otto III., 402 _ff._, 420, 423, 424, 425, 426, 427, 430

Otto IV., 550

Otto of Brunswick, 550

P

Pachomius, 209

Pachomius, Rule of, 212

Pagan and Christian Rome, 55

Paganism, 113, 120, 127, 128, 149, 180, 190, 247, 252, 501

Palæmon, 209

Palestine creed, 142

Pallium, 576

Palmers, 485

Pammachus, St., 365

Pantheon, 378, 380

Papa, or Pope, 173

Papacy, rise of, 148, 159, 160, 164 _ff._, 169, 175, 176, 177, 182, 189, 193, 259, 284, 295, 296, 297, 299, 300, 301, 306, 309, 320 _ff._, 336, 339, 340, 370, 404, 406, 412-414, 419, 423, 440, 441, 517, 549, 561, 566, 569

Papacy, decline of, 389, 394, 410, 419, 420, 434, 559

Papacy and Empire, 391

Papal constitution, 337, 445

Papal court, 580, 590

Papal hierarchy, 143, 176, 299, 344, 575

Papal penitentiary, 589, 590

Papal theory of relation of Church and state, 316, 413, 569

Papias, 80, 86

Paris, Council of, 334

Parish, 365, 387

Paschal II., 429, 471, 472, 545

Paschal III., 315

Paschasius Radbertus, 372

Pastor, 17

Pastoraux, 506

Patriarch of Constantinople, 296

Patriarch, 61; of the West, 143, 156, 349

Patriarchs of the East, 156

Patrician of Rome, 308, 410

Patrick, St., 240, 241

"Patrimony of St. Peter," origin, 307, 394

Paul, 46, 54, 72, 73, 74, 77, 79, 84, 86, 87, 100, 148, 151, 170, 248, 290, 356, 364, 440

Paul of Nola, 211

Paul of Thebes, 203, 205

Paul II., 581

Paula, 210, 211

Paulina, 365

Peace, international, 503

Peace of God, 358

Peace, universal, 46

Pelagius, 171, 173, 297, 298, 299

Pelagius II., 187, 298

Penalties, 367

Penance, 352, 370, 375, 376, 595, 596

Penitential books, 376

Pepin, 248, 300, 303, 304, 306, 363, 372

Perry, 17

Persecution, 99 _ff._, 108, 116, 119, 152, 157, 203, 560

Persius, 46

Peter, 57, 72, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 87, 100, 151, 153, 159, 166, 170, 237, 239, 246, 259, 284, 290, 336, 343, 433, 440, 448, 451, 561

Peter of Alexandria, 81

Peter Comester, 332

Peter of Corbeil, 545

Peter the Great, 318

Peter the Hermit, 490, 493

Peter and Paul, 151

Peter Waldo, 559

Peter's primacy, 78, 79, 151, 170

Peter's See, 159

Petrine theory, 76, 77, 82, 85, 87, 107, 169, 170, 175, 177, 188, 337, 544

Pharisees, 44

Philip, 61

Philip I., 494

Philip IV., 514

Philip VI., 504

Philip the Arabian, 104

Philip Augustus, 369, 497, 549, 551, 577

Philip of Hohenstaufen, 550

Philosophy of early Christians, 202

Photius, 257, 283, 343

Piacenza, Council of, 489

Pictures, 270

Picts, 241

Pierre de Bruys, 558

Pilgrimages, 161, 193, 270, 367, 484, 485, 486, 501

Pindar, 43

Plato, 43, 48

Pliny, governor of Bithynia, 290

Pluralism, 563, 565

Plutarch, 47

Poitiers, synod of, 358

Poland, 449

Poles, 253, 388

Polycarp, 155, 177

Polytheism, 46

Pontifex Maximus, 149, 152, 160, 289, 292

Poor Catholics, 519

Poor Clares, 530

Poorhouses, 365

"Poor Man," 519

Poor Men of Lyons, 519, 560

Pope favours kingship of Pepin, 304

Popes, 61, 154, 159, 173, 180, 233, 234, 259, 295, 296, 297, 299, 300, 302, 310, 312, 314, 316, 322, 336, 347, 348, 349, 355, 358, 394, 418, 423, 443, 488, 571, 575, 576

Popes, German, 445

Pornocracy, 419

Prayers for the dead, 220

Preaching, 371, 591

Precentor, 63

Prémontré, order of, 511

Presbyter, 57, 60

Priesthood, elevation of, 161; constitutes the Church, 339

Priests, 218; freed from secular courts, 338; duties, 352, 353, 421; in conflict with monks 517, 586

Primates, 348, 581, 582

Prince Edward, 498

Pro-Petrine view, 77

Property of Pope, 306

Property renounced, 204

Protestant historians, 17, 76

Protestant revolt, 131

Protestant revolution, 131, 321

Provinces, 349

Prussians, 249

Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals, 284, 326 _ff._, 389, 418, 436, 448, 544, 548, 567, 589

Purgatory, 266, 352, 381, 560, 596

Puritans, Arabic, 479

Pusey, 17

Pythagoreans, 199

R

Radbert, 593

Radbod, 243, 244, 245

Radislaw, 254

Raimbold, Archb., 360

Ratherius, 399

Rathod, 333, 335, 336, 341, 342

Raymond, Count of Toulouse, 489, 494, 495, 516, 561, 562

Raymond of Puy, 512

Recollects, 539

Reformation, 3, 199, 203, 242, 296, 306, 355, 404, 406, 410, 423 _ff._, 429, 436, 437, 448, 450, 451, 490, 502, 510, 518, 526, 544, 563, 565, 571

Relics, 161, 191, 193, 220, 245, 270, 306, 354, 378, 379, 380, 488, 501, 563, 572

Religion, definition of, 6

_Religiosi_, 217

Remini, Canons of, 294

Renaissance, 505, 526

Remould, St., 429, 430

Resemblances and differences of Eastern and Western Churches, 286

Richard I., 497, 549

Riculfus, 335

Rimbert, 251

Ritual, 161, 254, 255, 449, 591

Robanus Maurus, 372

Robert d'Arbrissel, 491, 511

Robert of Apulia, 459

Robert of Flanders, 494, 495

Robert of Molesme, 511

Robert of Normandy, 494, 495

Robertson, 17

Rochis, 216

Roman bishop becomes Pope, 193

Roman Catholic belief, 76

Roman Church, 77, 107, 150, 152, 153, 160, 164, 176, 231, 233, 239, 251, 257, 266, 295, 296, 300, 301, 344, 347, 365, 560, 574

Roman constitution, 289

Roman Emperor, 161

Roman Empire, 40, 95, 98, 112, 148, 161, 295, 312, 401

Roman hierarchy, 149 _ff._

Roman language, 149, 190

Roman religion, 42

Roman see, 160

Romans, 398

Rome, 40, 48, 55, 148, 150, 159

Rome, Council of, 295

Romould, St., 431, 432

Rothe, 17

Rouen, St., 523

Rudolph of Swabia, 466 _ff._

Rufinus, 211

Russia, 449

Russians, 253, 257, 388

Rutilius, 219

S

Sabbath, 255

Sabellians, 136, 137

Sabinian, 299

Sacerdotal class, 63

Sacramentaries, 372

Sacraments, 352, 370, 371, 372 _ff._, 592 _ff._

Sadducees, 44

Saints, 193, 270, 354, 501

Saint-worship, 378, 379

Saladin, 497

Sallust, 46

Salvation, 366

Samaritans, 45

Saracens, 308, 385, 388, 401, 419, 484

Sardica, Council of, 144, 165, 166, 171, 178, 181

Savonarola, 525

Saxons, 234, 249, 258, 308, 309, 318, 450

Schaff, 17

Schenkel, 17

Schism, 143, 156, 165

Schmidt, 16

Scholasticism, 526

Schools, 247

Schools of Rome, 48

Schroeckh, 16

Scotland, 241

Sebaldus, St., 250

Sects, rise of, 132, 157

_Seculares_, 218

See of Rome, 301

Seligenstadt, Council of, 590

Seljukian Turks, 485

Semi-Arians, 141, 142

Semish, 17

Semler, 16

Senators, 59

Seneca, 47

Separation of clergy and laity, 63

Separation of East and West, 143

Separation of Roman and Greek churches, 265, 285

Septimus Severus, 103

Serfdom, 504, 505

Sergius II., 340

Serviten, 512

Severinus, 244

Severus, 255

Shedd, 17

Sheldon, 17

Shrines, 378

Simeon, 46, 429

Simeon Stylites, 210

Simon de Monfort, 562

Simon Magnus, 81

Simony, 189, 407, 411, 421, 424, 426, 427, 430, 432, 436, 437, 439, 442, 448, 450, 455 _ff._, 545, 564

Siricius, 173, 181, 220

Sirmium, Council of, 144

Sixtus V., 441

Slaves, 119, 190, 290, 356

Slave trade, 190

Slavic Church, 254, 255

Slavs, 253, 258, 308, 385, 388, 392, 399

Socrates, 15, 117

Soldiers of Jesus Christ, 525

Sophocles, 43

Soter, 80

Sources of history, 12-15

Sovereign power of Pope, 306

Spain, 449

Spanheim, 16

Spanish Church, 181

_Spiritales_, 338, 538

Stanley, 17

State and church, 545

States, 290, 423

"States of the Church," 307

Stephanus, King, 257

Stephen, 61, 156, 160

Stephen II., 305, 307

Stephen IV., 440

Stephen VI., 364, 386, 419

Stephen IX., 438

Stephen of Chartres, 494

Stephen of Lisiac, 510

Stephen of Tigerno, 510

Stephen of Tournai, 332

Stolberg, 17

Strauss, 17

Stubbs, 17

Sturm, abbot, 248

Suetonius, 95

Suevi, 232

Suidbert, 249

Sulpicius Severus, 16

Sunday, 120, 237

Superstitions of Europe, 487, 501

Suso, Henry, 525

Sutri, Council of, 410

Swabians, 243

Sweden, 253

Swen, King, 251, 449

Swidbert, 165

Sylverius, 296

Sylvester II., 257, 364, 404, 406, 410, 425, 426, 488

Symmachus, 296

Synods, 162, 352

Syriac Church, 81

T

Tacitus, 46, 73, 95, 99, 101

Tanchelm, 558

Tancred, 494

Tauler, John, 525

Templars, 502

Temporal power of the Papacy, 301, 302

Temporal power subject to papal, 559

Tertullian, 57, 71, 73, 80, 84, 86, 106, 107, 137, 152, 159, 205, 268, 372, 381

Teutonic Knights, 502, 514

Teutonic Order, 250

Teutonic-Roman Church, 233, 234

Theodatus, 297

Theodora, 282, 419

Theodore, 139

Theodore of Canterbury, 377

Theodoret, 168

Theodoric, 296

Theodorus, 239

Theodosian Code, 296

Theodosius I., 128, 179

Theodosius II., 294

Theophano, 399, 401, 402

Theophilus, 331

Theosophists, 45

Therapeutæ, 200, 209

Third Estate in France, 504

Thirteenth century, 569

Thougbrand, 252

Thomas à Becket, 545

Tiberius, 71

Tithes, 574

Tithing, unjust, 436

Titus, 100

Toledo, synod of, 358

Toleration, edict of, in 311, 118

Tonsure, 64, 237, 266

Torres, 333

Tours, battle of, 258, 482

Tours, Council of, 437

Tozer, 17

Trajan, 98, 101

Transubstantiation, 370, 564, 593

Travel, 42

Treaties, 563

Treves, synod of, 591

Tribur, Council of, 463

Trinitarians, 139, 141

Trinity, 246

Trinity, order of the, 514

Troyes, Council of, 471

Truce of God, 359 _ff._, 369, 409, 429, 490, 503

Trudbert, 243

Turks, 286

Tyre, Council of, 294

U

Ulfilas, 232

Ulpian, 104

Ulrich, 379

Union of Celtic and Roman churches, 239

Union of Church and state, 293

Union of Rome and Greece, 265, 266

Unity of belief, 157

Unity of the Church, 564

Universal Church, 185

Unni, 251

Urban II., 360, 429, 470, 489, 490, 514, 545

Urban VIII., 581

Ursinus, 295

V

Valens, 128, 219

Valentinian I., 128, 171, 179

Valentinian II., 128

Valentinian III., 167, 184, 294

Valerian, 105

Vallombrosians, 431

Vandals, 145, 232

Vaughan, 17

Venice, Patriarch of, 449

Verdun, massacre of, 249

Verdun, treaty of, 320, 321

Vespasian, 100

Victor, 155, 157, 160, 331

Victor III., 422, 470

Vienna, 73

Vigilantius, 220

Vigillus, 297, 299

Vincent Ferrier, 525

Vinland, 252

Virgin Mary, 193

Visigothic Code, 296

Visigoths, 232, 233

Visitors in the Church, 296

Vitalian, 371

Viterbo, 560

Vladimir, 257

Vulgate, 181, 237, 330, 331, 372

W

Waddington, 17

Waldenses, 560, 572

Walter of Cologne, 493

Walter the Penniless, 493

Wends, 253, 254, 388

Werenfrid, 244

West Franks, 399

Western Church, 160, 171, 231, 266, 295, 297, 298

Whitby, Council of, 239

Whitsunday, 375

Wiclif, 332, 451

Widows, order of, 204

Widukind, 399

Wilfred, 239

Wilfrid, 165

Willibrord, 165, 243, 245, 250

William of Bavaria, 431

William of Burgundy, 449

William the Conqueror, 450, 494

William of Normandy, 442

Willibald, 248

Worms, synod of, 363

Worship, 352

Wulfram, 244

Y

Yngrin, 250

Z

Zachariah, 46

Zacharias, 304, 305

Zealots, 45

Zeller, 17

Zephyrinus, 160, 331

Zeus, 43

Zosimus, 167

TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES

On page 21, under "3.--Creeds, Liturgies, and Hymns", entry number (9.) is missing in the original.

The outlines of Sources for Chapters VI. and XXI. are not in logical order. The outlines are displayed as printed.

The following corrections have been made to the text:

Page xii: VII.--[emdash missing in original]Nicholas I.

Page 15: III.--Works of art copied from originals.[period missing in original]

Page 19: _Comparative View of the Doctrines and Confessions of Christendom_. Edinb., 1887.[period missing in original]

Page 20: Mirbt, C., _Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums_[original has Papsthums].

Page 21: _Collectio Confessionum in Ecclesiis Reformatis Publicatarum_. Leipz., 1840.[period missing in original]

Page 23: _Rerum Italicarum Scriptores_.[original has a comma] Mil., 1723-51.

Page 24: 14.--[emdash missing in original]Migne, J. P., _Patrologiæ Cursus Completus_.

Page 24: _Bibliothèque de Théologie Historique._ Paris,[original has period] 1906 _ff._

Page 26: see Alzog, i., § 17; Schaff,[comma missing in original] i., 29.

Page 26: wrote a History of the Langobards[original has Langobords]

Page 26: Haymo (d. 853), bishop of Halberstädt[original has Halderstadt]

Page 28: bishop of Meaux, wrote a "_Discourse on Universal History_."[quotation mark missing in original]

Page 31: 10.--Baur (d. 1860),[original has a period] professor in Tübingen

Page 31: Best ed. by Bury.[period missing in original] Lond., 1896.

Page 32: 2.--Shedd[original has extraneous comma] (d. 1894), professor

Page 43: yet were omnipotent and omniscient[original has omniscent]

Page 49: Virgil (70-19 B.C.),[original has a period] _Works_.

Page 65: See Chap. III. of this work.[period missing in original]

Page 66: Cyprian (d. 258?), _Works_. _Ib._, viii.[period missing in original]; xiii., 1-264

Page 66: _Ante-Nic. Christ. Lib._, xvii. Am.[original has a comma] ed., vii.

Page 67: _Apostolical Canons._[original has a comma] Tr. by R. C. Jenkins.

Page 67: In his _Works_, vii.[period missing in original]-ix.

Page 68: Farrar, F. W., _The Early Days of Christianity_. N. Y.,[comma missing in original] 1882.

Page 70: Schaff, i., 187-217,[original has a semicolon] 432-506.

Page 80: named Peter and Paul as Neronian[original has Neroian] martyrs

Page 82: _Eccl.[original has extraneous semicolon] Hist._, v., c. 6

Page 88: xii., 326, 379, 451, 452;[original has a period] Am. ed., ii.

Page 109: Aurelius, _Meditations_[original has extraneous period], xi., 3.

Page 110: Butler, ch. 6[original has extraneous period]-8.

Page 110: Foulks[original has Foulks], ch. 1-3.

Page 111: Robertson, bk. i., ch.[period missing in original] 1-3, 5-7.

Page 113: the daughter of an innkeeper[original has innkeepea]

Page 130: Croke[original has Crake], ch. 12-16.

Page 138: that the Son is Logos[original has Logus] in soul

Page 146: Philostorgius, _Epitome[original has Eptiome] of Ecclesiastical History_.

Page 146: I.--SPECIAL:[semicolon missing in original]

Page 147: _The Arian Controversy._ N. Y., 1889. Ch.[original has ch.] 1, 2.

Page 165: Willibrord[original has Willebrord] around Utrecht

Page 194: Best in _Ante-Nic. Christ. Lib._, vol. 17.[period missing in original]

Page 196: Platina[original has Platnia], B., _Lives of the Popes_.

Page 227: Day, S. P., _Monastic Institutions_. Lond.,[comma missing in original] 1865.

Page 227: Fosbroke, T. D., _British Monachism_. 3d[original has extraneous period] ed.

Page 262: Haddan[original has Haddon], A. W., and Stubbs, W.

Page 263: Pelzel and Dabrowsky, _Rerum Bohemic._[original has Bohemis]

Page 263: Potthast,[comma missing in original] _Regesta_

Page 275: Tertullian[original has Turtullian] (192), quoting the second

Page 275: Minucius[original has Minutius] Felix (220) argued

Page 276: but still justified the use of images.[276:8][FN anchor was numbered 7 in the original]

Page 279: full of the most ludicrous[original has ludricrous] historical blunders

Page 320: By the treaty of Verdun in 843,[original has a period]

Page 323: Mansi, _Sacrorum Conciliorum_[original has Conciliorrum]

Page 324: Mann, H. K., _The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages_.[period missing in original]

Page 324: Pressensé[original has Pressense], E. de, _History of Church and State_.

Page 333: carried to Rome by Rathod[original has Rothod] in 864

Page 340: A sumptuous[original has sumptous] feast was then served

Page 345: Freib.[original has Frieb.], 1884

Page 357: but called Christian[original has Chrstian] slaves brothers

Page 362: Clement III., Celestine[original has Celestin] III., and Innocent III.

Page 363: Hildebrand and Henry IV. at Canossa[original has Canosa]

Page 364: Alexander III., Celestine[original has Celestin] III., Honorius III.

Page 373: Areopagite[original has Areopagita] believed in six

Page 382: Pertz, et al., _Monumenta Germaniæ[original has Germanæ] Historica_.

Page 382: Pflugh-Harttung[original has Pflug-Harttung], J. v., _Acta Pontificum Romanorum Inedita_.

Page 390: curtailment of their prerogatives.[original has a comma]

Page 408: but ten years[original has an extraneous comma] later he was forced

Page 412: or of innumerable[original has inumerable] local contests

Page 413: ideal theory, united[original has untied] the Church and the state

Page 415: _Ausgewählte[original has Ausgewhälte] Urkunden zur Erläuterung der Verfassungsgeschichte Deutschlands im Mittelalter_

Page 415: _Die Geschichtsschreiber[original has Geschictschreiber] der deutschen Vorzeit._

Page 415: _Die Kaiserurkunden[original has Kaiserkunden] des X., XI., und XII., Jahrhunderts Chronologisch verzeichnet_

Page 416: Giesebrecht[original has Giesbrecht], W. V., _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_.

Page 416: 5.--Langen, _Geschichte der römischen Kirche_.[period missing in original]

Page 417: Darras[original has Darrus], ii., 358, 580.

Page 417: Gilmartin, i.[period missing in original], 31.

Page 417: Hallam, ch. 1, pt. 1;[original has a comma] ch. 3, pt. 1.

Page 435: whose bishops and priests[original has persist] were given to luxury

Page 450: account for his simoniacal[original has simonaical] practices

Page 456: King to destroy "[quotation mark missing in original]this heresy so detestable

Page 464: had even persuaded[original has pursuaded] the Countess Matilda

Page 467: Henry IV. laid siege[original has seige] to Rome

Page 478: which rejected polytheism and preached asceticism[original has aceticism]

Page 483: Salerno besieged[original has beseiged] (873)

Page 495: They laid siege[original has seige] to Nicæa

Page 509: Chantrel, per. 4,[comma missing in original] ch. 1, 2.

Page 526: occupied a chair in the University[original has Univeristy] of Paris

Page 529: and to preach the word of God.[period missing in original]

Page 531: even attempted to win the Sultan himself.[original has a comma]

Page 540: There were two entries numbered "16." The second 16 has been changed to 17, and the 17 has been changed to 18.

Page 541: Adderley[original has Adderly], J., _Francis, the Little Poor Man of Assisi_.

Page 542: Alzog,[original has a period] ii., 507-522.

Page 542: Fisher, pd.[original has extraneous comma] 6, ch. 6.

Page 550: When Emperor Otto IV.[original has extraneous comma] ceded all the lands

Page 553: reinstatement of the Bishop of Limoges[original has Limouges]

Page 554: paying therefore[original has therefor] the annual sum of one thousand marks

Page 556: in fulfilment of their bargain[original has bargin] with the Venetians

Page 559: taught asceticism[original has ascetism], denounced the vice

Page 562: war with Simon de Montfort[original has Monfort] as leader

Page 566: left behind him so many results pregnant[original has pregant] with good

Page 568: Gregorovius[original has Gregorovious], bk. ix., ch. 1-3.

Page 609: Bogoris[original has Bogaris], Duke, 256

Page 610: Childeric[original has Childerick] III., 304

Page 610: Church,[comma missing in original] Christian, sources on, 12

Page 610: Pepin,[comma missing in original] 303

Page 611: Clarenins[original has Clarenius], 538

Page 611: Columba, 164, 241[original has 241, 264]

Page 616: Jewish synagogue[original has synogogue], 59

Page 620: Poorhouses[original has Poor-houses], 365

Page 620: Pro-Petrine[original has Pro-Pertine] view, 77

Page 620: Raimbald[original has Raimbold], Archb., 360

Page 621: Semisch[original has Semish], 17

Page 623: Willibrord[original has Willebrord], 165, 243, 245, 250

[40:1] Merivale, i., ch. 1[original has extraneous period]; iv., ch. 39

[41:6] Davidson, _Aristotle_, bk. 1[original has extraneous period], ch. 4

[41:6] _University Life in Ancient Athens_, ch. 1[original has extraneous period]; Newman, _Hist. Sketches_, ch. 4[original has extraneous period]

[43:5] Hatch, _The[original has extraneous comma] Greek Influence on Christianity_.

[44:1] Schürer, _Hist.[period missing in original] of Jewish People_; Milman, _Hist.[period missing in original] of the Jews_

[44:4] Josephus, _Antiq._, XVIII., i.[original has xviii., 1], 4.

[45:3] John iv., 4;[original has a comma] viii., 48

[80:9] Footnote number added by transcriber.

[97:2] Origen[original has Origin], _Against Celsus_

[100:2] _Transl. and Rep._[original has Ref.], iv., 6

[100:5] _Transl. and Ref._[original has Ref.], iv., 6-8

[124:3] Eutropius, _Breviarium_[original has Breviarum], x., 4.

[133:1] Pressensé[original has Pressense], _Her. and Chr. Doctrine_

[134:2] See _History of Doctrine_[italics added for consistency] by Fisher, Shedd, Sheldon, Hagenbach, Baur, Loofs, and Harnack[original has Harnach]

[141:2] Moeller, i., 336, suggests Eustathius[original has Eustachius] of Antioch

[143:1] Cf. Hefele[name in italics in original], i., 355 ff.

[185:1] _Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers_[and is not in italics in original], 2d ser., xii.

[207:3] Evagrius, _Ch. Hist._[period missing in original], i., 13, 21

[231:1] Neander, _Light in Dark Places_, 417.[period missing in original]

[235:2] Haddan[original has Haddon] and Stubbs, i., 22-26

[235:5] Haddan[original has Haddon] and Stubbs, iii., 5

[238:2] Haddan[original has Haddon] and Stubbs, iii., 40.

[241:1] Haddan[original has Haddon] and Stubbs, ii., 103

[252:1] _Heimskringla[original has Hermskringla]: Chronicle of the Norse Kings._

[267:5] Joseph.[period missing in original], _Antiq._ xv., 8, 12

[269:2] _De Cor. Mil._, c. iii.[original reads _De Cor. Mil_, c.. iii.]

[269:3] _Paed._, iii., 11[original has extraneous period], § 59.

[272:1] _Contra Judae. et Gentil._[period missing in original], § 9; see Neander,[comma missing in original] ii., 286.

[276:7] _Ib._, l., xxx.[original has xxxl.], 39.

[278:2] Neander, iii.[period missing in original], 213.

[305:4] (See Smith and Cheetham[original has Cheatham].)

[306:3] Migne, cxxviii.[period missing in original], 1099.

[316:1] _Translations and Reprints?_[original has comma question mark]

[319:1] Louis, the youngest, had Aquitaine[original has Aquataine], Gascony

[332:4] _Defensor[original has Dejensor] Pacis_, ii., c. 28

[358:5] Balmes;[original has a comma] Brace

[367:3] Lea, _Stud. in Ch. Hist._[period missing in original], 236.

[370:3] Moeller, ii., 113.[period missing in original]

[371:2] Wattenbach, _Deutschl.[original has Deutschal.] Geschichtsq._, i., 134.

[397:2] [FN number added by transcriber.] Thatcher and McNeal, No. 55.[original has Th atcher and Mc[2]Neal, No. 55.]

[409:1] Steindorff, _Jahrb.[original has a comma] d. Deutsch. Reichs unter Heinrich[original has an extraneous comma] III._

[410:2] Giesebrecht[original has Giesbrecht], ii., 643

[419:2] Pertz,[original has P] v., 297

[425:2] Olleris,[original has Ollaris and the comma is missing] _Œuvres de Gerbert_.

[432:1] Giseke, _Die Hirschauer während[original has wärend] des Investiturstreites_[original has Investtiurstreites], 1883.

[433:1] Neukirch,[original has a semicolon] _Das Leben des Peter Damiani_

[437:4] _Ibid._;[original has a comma] Bonizo, 806.

[491:1] Potthast[original has Pothast], _Bib. Hist._, ii., 550.

[519:1] Wattenbach, _Geschichtsquellen_,[original has a period] ii., 308, 520.

[546:1] Migne[original has Migni], vol. 217

[546:1] _Mysteriorum Evangelicæ Legis et Sacramenti Eucharistiæ_[original has Sacratnenti Eucharistcæ]

[547:2] _Gesta Inn. III._, sec.[original has extraneous comma] ii.

[556:4] _Ep._[original has Epp.], vii., 164

[561:1] _Ep._,[comma missing in original] vol. ii., 335.

[563:6] Murat, vii.,[comma missing in original] 893

[579:2] Agnel, _Curiosités[original has Curiosites] Judiciaires du Moyen-Âge_

[595:1] Wasserschleben, _Bussordnung_[original has Bussordunung], Halle, 1851.

In the index, where semicolons were used instead of commas between page numbers, the semicolons have been replaced with commas.