Part 13

different codes of laws as grounds for the modification or entire dissolution of the marriage contract, as well as the description of tribunal which has jurisdiction of the proceedings, and the form of the proceedings, are various. Divorce was permitted by the law of Moses, but forbidden in the New Testament, except for adultery. The early laws of Rome permitted the husband to divorce his wife for adultery and many other alleged offences. The facility of divorce continued, without restriction, under the Roman emperors, but as the modern nations of Europe emerged from the ruins of the Roman Empire, they adopted the doctrine of the New Testament. Marriage, under the Roman Church, instead of a civil contract, came to be considered a sacrament of the Church, which it was unlawful to dissolve. The ecclesiastical courts could indeed annul a marriage, but only for a cause that existed at the time the marriage was contracted, such as prior contracts or impotency. For any cause arising after marriage they could only pronounce a divorce _a mens[^a] et thoro_, which did not leave either party free to marry again, except by Papal dispensation. A divorce _a vinculo matrimonii_, for any cause arising subsequent to marriage, could formerly be obtained in England only by an Act of Parliament, and the ecclesiastical courts must have previously pronounced a divorce _a mens[^a] et thoro_. The Act passed in 1857, however, established a new court for trying divorce causes, called the Court for Divorce and Matrimonial Causes, since absorbed into the Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty Division of the High Court of Justice. According to present practice the husband may obtain a divorce for simple adultery; but if the wife is the petitioner, she must show that her husband has been guilty of certain kinds of adultery, or of adultery coupled with desertion or gross cruelty. Either party may marry again after divorce. A divorce cannot be obtained if it appear that the petitioner has been guilty of the same offence, or has been accessory to or has connived at the offence, or if there has been collusion between the

## parties to obtain a divorce, or if they have condoned the offence by living

together as man and wife after discovery. The husband may claim damages from the adulterer, and the court may also order the adulterer to pay the costs of the proceedings, in whole or in part. The Act also abolished divorces _a mens[^a] et thoro_, substituting, however, judicial separations. (See _Judicial Separation_.) A decree for a divorce is always in the first instance a _decree nisi_ (q.v.). A Matrimonial Causes Bill, introduced in the House of Lords in 1920, proposes to abolish the legal disabilities of a wife in this matter, and to grant divorce to husband or wife on any of the following grounds: (_a_) adultery; (_b_) desertion for at least three years; (_c_) cruelty; (_d_) incurable insanity coupled with at least five years' confinement under the lunacy laws; (_e_) incurable habitual drunkenness coupled with three years' separation under a temporary separation order granted on the ground of habitual drunkenness; and (_f_) imprisonment under a commuted death sentence. In Scotland, from the time of the Reformation, divorce might be obtained by either party on the ground of adultery, marriage being held to be only a civil contract, and as such under the jurisdiction of the civil courts. Condonation, or connivance, or collusion is sufficient to prevent a divorce from being obtained on the ground of adultery, but not recrimination, that is, a counter charge of adultery. Wilful desertion for at least four years is also held a valid reason for divorce. The action is carried on before the Court of Session. In other countries, including British colonies, the law relating to divorce varies greatly. In the United States of America, marriage, though it may be celebrated before clergymen as well as civil magistrates, is considered to be a civil contract, and the laws as to divorce, and the facility or difficulty of obtaining it, differ greatly in the several states. In France divorce was legalized in 1884, with conditions, after having been prohibited for many years.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lehr, _Le mariage, le divorce et la s['e]paration de corps dans les principaux peuples civilis['e]s_; Stephen, _Commentaries on the Laws of England_; Bryce, _Marriage and Divorce_.

DIXMUDE, a town of Belgium, in Flanders. It was the scene of severe fighting during the European War. Captured by the Germans, it was retaken by the Belgians on 29th Sept., 1918. Pop. 4040 (1911); 450 (1919).

DIXON, William Hepworth, miscellaneous writer, born at Manchester, 1821, died in London, 1879. In 1849 he published a memoir of Howard the philanthropist, which was followed by the _Life of William Penn_ (1851), and by a work on Admiral Blake (1852). In 1853, after having been a contributor, he became chief editor of _The Athenaeum_, a post which he retained till 1869. During this period he published several very popular works, including the _Personal History of Lord Bacon, The Holy Land_, and _New America_, the last being followed by _Spiritual Wives_. After his retirement from _The Athenaeum_, and in the last ten years of his life, he gave to the world about twenty-five volumes of history, travel, and fiction, among others, _Free Russia; Her Majesty's Tower; The Switzers; History of Two Queens, Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn; Diana Lady Lyle_, and _Ruby Grey_ (both novels); and his last work, _Royal Windsor_.

DIZFUL, a town of Persia, near the western boundary, on the River Dizful; a place of great trade and manufactures. Pop. about 25,000.

DJAVID BEY, Hussein, a Turkish Jew, one of the leaders of the Committee of Union and Progress, and Minister of Finance from 1914 to 1918. His advice that Turkey should adhere to strict neutrality during the European War was, unfortunately for his country, not followed by his colleagues, who decided to join Germany.

DJEMAL PASHA, Turkish soldier and politician, and one of the leaders of the Committee of Union and Progress. Minister of Marine in 1914, he commanded the Turkish forces in Palestine from 1915 to 1917, and became notorious on account of his oppression of and cruelties against the inhabitants of Syria and Palestine, and by his hatred of Zionism. Accused in 1918 of various crimes, such as misappropriation of funds, and compelled to flee from Constantinople, he was condemned to death in his absence in 1919. He was nevertheless one of the Turkish delegates who signed the Peace Treaty on 11th May, 1920.

DJOKDJOKARTA, a Dutch residency in the Island of Java, on the south coast, with a capital of the same name. Its forests abound in teak. Its natural fertility is great, and rice, coffee, and tobacco are extensively cultivated. It is ruled by a sultan who is dependent on the Dutch. Pop. 441,800. The town is large and regular, and contains the sultan's water-palace, and the seat of the Dutch Resident, which is a fort commanding both the palace and the town. Pop. 97,058.

DNIEPER (n[=e]'p[.e]r; Russ. _Dnjepr_, dnyepr; anciently BORYSTH[)E]N[=E]S, or DANAPRIS), a great river of Russia which rises in the government of Smolensk, flows first south-west, then south-east, and again south-west to the Black Sea. It begins to be navigable a little above Smolensk, and has a total length, including windings, of 1230 miles. Among its tributaries are the Beresina, the Pripet, the Desna, and the Psiol. In its lower course there are important fisheries. The region watered by the river in its lower course is famous for its great fertility, and is known as the _black-soil_. Between Kiev and Alexandrovsk it forms a series of cataracts. Since 1838 there have been steamboats on the river, and the trade carried by it is considerable. Through the Beresina Canal the Dnieper communicates with the Baltic Sea.

DNIESTER (n[=e]s't[.e]r; Russ. _Dnjestr_; ancient TYRAS), a large river of Europe (Poland, Roumania, and Ukraine), which has its source in the Carpathian Mountains, in Austrian Galicia, enters Russia at Chotin, and empties itself into the Black Sea, after a course of about 750 miles. Its navigation is difficult on account of frequent shallows and rapids.

DOAB' (that is, _Two Waters_), a name in Hindustan applied indiscriminately to any tract of country between two rivers, like the Greek _Mesopotamia_. The tract between the Ganges and the Jumna is usually called _the_ Doab; other similar tracts have their distinctive names, the Punjab being divided into five districts of this kind.

DOBELL', Sydney, English poet and man of letters, born in 1824, died 22nd Aug., 1874. His first poem, _The Roman_, appeared in 1850, and was favourably received by the critics. Among his other works are: _Balder_, _Sonnets on the War_, and _England in Time of War_.

D[:O]BELN (d_eu_'beln), a town of Saxony, about 40 miles south-east of Leipzig, with a great trade in grain, and manufactures of cloth, yarn, leather, and lacquered wares. Pop. 17,920.

D[:O]BEREINER'S LAMP, a contrivance for producing an instantaneous light, invented by Professor D[:o]bereiner, of Jena, in 1824. The light is produced by throwing a jet of hydrogen or a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gases upon recently prepared spongy platinum, when the metal instantly becomes red-hot, and then sets fire to the gas. The action depends upon the readiness with which spongy platinum absorbs both oxygen and hydrogen. The intimate contact of the two gases leads to chemical combination with evolution of heat. Coal-gas may be employed instead of hydrogen, and this has led to the application of the principle to self-lighting devices for igniting gas flames.

DOBRITCH, or BAZARJIK, a town in Roumania, was, till the end of the second Balkan War, the chief town in Bulgarian Dobrudja. It is situated on a small tributary of the Danube, and is on the Cernavoda-Constanza railway. At one time it was famous for its panair or great annual fair, but it is now no longer an important centre. Pop. 10,000.

DOBRUDJA, or DOBRUD'SCHA, THE (anciently SCYTHIA MINOR), a territory forming part of the kingdom of Roumania, included between the Danube, which forms its boundary on the west and north, the Black Sea on the east, and Bulgaria (to which it belonged before 1878) on the south. Its area, formerly 6000 sq. miles, was increased by the Treaty of Bucharest of 10th Aug., 1913, and is now 8969 sq. miles. During the European War the Dobrudja was invaded in 1916 by an army of Germans, Bulgarians, and Turks, under General von Mackensen. In 1918 Roumania was compelled by the Treaty of Bucharest to cede the Dobrudja to Bulgaria, but it was restored to her in 1919. There are some fertile spots, but on the whole it is marshy and unhealthy. The population is of various nationalities, Roumanians, Bulgars, Greeks, Turks, and Jews. The inhabitants engage in tillage and stock-rearing. The principal towns are Kustendje and Tultcha. See _Roumania_. Pop. 381,306.

[Illustration: Curly or Yellow Dock (_Rumex crispus_)]

DOBSON, Henry Austin, poet, born at Plymouth in 1840. He was educated at Beaumaris, Coventry, and Strasbourg; in 1856 obtained a clerkship under the Board of Trade, where he rose to be one of the officials known as principals. His earliest verses first appeared in book form under the title _Vignettes in Rhyme and Vers de Soci['e]t['e]_ (1873). His other volumes of verse include: _Proverbs in Porcelain_ (1877); _Old World Idylls_ (1883); and _At the Sign of the Lyre_ (1885), which _The Athenaeum_ pronounced to be "of its kind as nearly as possible perfect". Among his prose works may be mentioned his lives of _Hogarth_, _Fielding_, _Steele_, _Goldsmith_, _Horace Walpole_, _Richardson_, and _Fanny Burney_; _Thomas Bewick and his Pupils_; _Four Frenchwomen_, a study on Charlotte Corday, the Princesse de Lamballe, and Mesdames Roland and de Genlis; three series of _Eighteenth Century Vignettes_; _A Paladin of Philanthropy_; _Sidewalk Studies_; _Old Kensington Palace_; _At Prior Park_; _A Bookman's Budget_; and several editions of standard works. His collected poems were published in one volume in 1897. Many of Mr. Dobson's poems are written in various French forms, such as the rondeau and ballade, and all are marked by gracefulness and ease. He died in Sept., 1921.

DOCE'TAE (from Gr. _dokein_, to seem or appear), the name given, in the earlier ages of the Church, to those who denied the reality of the human form of Christ, maintaining it to be merely a phantom or shadow. In the sense of regarding Christ's body as a heavenly and ethereal, instead of a human one, docetism had its partisans even among the orthodox.

DOCK, a name applied to different plants of the genus Rumex, belonging to the rhubarb family (Polygonaceae). These are large herbaceous plants, with stout roots, alternate and often entire leaves, and bearing panicles of small greenish flowers. They are very troublesome as weeds, but the roots of some of them are used medicinally as astringents.

DOCKET, or DOCQUET (dok'et; from _dock_, to shorten; Icel. _dokr_, stumpy tail), in law, a term variously used, as for a summary of a larger writing; a small piece of paper or parchment containing the heads of a writing; an alphabetical list of cases in a court, or a catalogue of the names of the

## parties who have suits depending in a court.

DOCKS, are artificial enclosures for the reception of shipping, for the purpose of loading, discharging, or repairs. They may be divided into four types, viz. tidal docks or basins, wet docks, dry or graving docks, and floating docks.

_Tidal Docks or Basins_ are open permanently to the main channel or river, and the water-level therefore varies with the rise and fall of the tide. This variation of level is a serious hindrance in the work of loading or discharging cargo, unless the tidal range be small. It should be noted that this form is more properly termed a tidal basin.

[Illustration: Dry Dock, Tilbury, Essex]

_Wet Docks_ have a water entrance normally closed by gates or caissons, which permit the water-level of the enclosed area being maintained at high-water level. This uniformity of level is of great service in dealing with cargo, but this type has the disadvantage of only permitting traffic in and out of the dock at high water. This disadvantage may be modified by the provision of a lock at the dock entrance.

_Dry or Graving Docks_ are used for the purpose of examining and repairing ships. The entrance is controlled by either gates or caissons. The ship having entered, the gates are closed, and the water pumped out, allowing the vessel to settle down gradually upon a row of keel blocks, running up the centre line of the dock. The sides of the docks are built in the form of large continuous steps or 'altars', which support the ends of the timber shores which serve to keep the ship in an upright position. The floor is graded to channels, leading to powerful pumps, usually of the centrifugal type, and capable of emptying a large dock in one hour.

_Floating Docks_ fulfil the same functions as dry docks. In their modern form, they consist of a hollow steel box or pontoon, carrying hollow longitudinal walls at each side. These walls contain the pumps and controlling machinery, the pontoon portion being capable of being filled with or emptied of water, thus raising or sinking the dock. This lower portion is subdivided into a great number of compartments, all of which may be filled separately, so that errors of trim can be corrected. In making use of this type the dock is lowered by flooding the lower compartments. The ship is then floated into position and shored.

[Illustration: The Medway Floating Dock lifting H.M.S. _Lion_, 30,000 tons]

The initial cost of these two latter types is in favour of the floating dock, the annual maintenance charges of which, however, may be five to ten times those of an ordinary masonry dock. The mobility of a floating dock may be considered an advantage, allowing it to be easily removed to another locality to meet changing conditions, but this adaptability should not be overvalued.

The average life of a steel dock may be assumed to be 40 years, whereas a masonry dock may be said to last indefinitely, subject only to the fact that it may outlive its usefulness.

The first wet docks constructed in England were those now called the Commercial Docks, in London, which existed in a much less extensive form so early as 1660. In 1800 the West India Docks were constructed, and were followed by the East India Docks, Millwall Docks, London Docks, the St. Katharine Docks, and the Victoria Docks, affording, together with those at Tilbury, more than 600 acres of water accommodation, besides wharf and warehouse grounds, where all kinds of appliances and machinery for the speedy and convenient transfer of goods and cargoes are in use. Some of the warehouses are extremely capacious, the tobacco warehouse of the London Docks being itself nearly 5 acres in extent. Next after the London docks come those of Liverpool, which extend more than 6 miles along the north bank of the Mersey, and cover, together with the Birkenhead docks, nearly as large a total acreage as those of London. The other important British docks are those at Southampton, Bristol, Cardiff, Hull, Great Grimbsy, Newcastle, Shields, Barrow, Leith, Glasgow, Dundee, &c. A floating dock at Hamburg has a length of 728 feet, inside width of 123 feet, and a lifting capacity of 46,000 tons.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Shields, _Principles and Practice of Harbour Construction_; L. V. Harcourt, _Harbours and Docks_; Kempe, _Engineer's Year Book_.

[Illustration: Plan of PRINCE'S DOCK, GLASGOW.]

DOCK-WARRANTS, orders for goods kept in the warehouses connected with a dock. They are granted by the proper officer at the dock to the importer in favour of any one that he may name. These warrants are held to be negotiable, so that they may pass from one holder to another, the property of them being always vested in the holder.

DOCK-YARDS, establishments supplied with all sorts of naval stores, materials and conveniences for the construction, repairs, and equipment of ships of war. In England the royal dock-yards are at Chatham, Sheerness, Portsmouth, Devonport, and Pembroke, besides the Deptford and Woolwich store-yards. There are also royal dock-yards or naval victualling yards at Haulbowline in Cork Harbour, Rosyth, Invergordon, at the Cape of Good Hope, Gibraltar, Malta, Bermuda, Bombay, Calcutta, Hong-Kong, Sydney, and Wei-hai-wei. Others in the colonies have been given up. The dock-yards are under the direct control of the Admiralty. The chief officer of the greater or home dock-yards is generally an admiral, with a considerable staff of officials under him, professional and other. Since the introduction of steam the engineering department has become an important one in such establishments.

DOCTOR, a term literally signifying teacher. In the Middle Ages, from the twelfth century, it came into use as a title of honour for men of great learning, such as Thomas Aquinas (Doctor Angelicus) and Duns Scotus (Doctor Subtilis). It was first made an academical title by the University of Bologna, and emperors and Popes soon afterwards assumed the right of granting universities the power of conferring the degree in law. The University of Paris followed in the footsteps of Bologna, and in 1145 the title was bestowed on Peter Lombard. The faculties of theology and medicine were soon included, but for a long time the faculty of arts retained the older title of _Magister_, till the German universities substituted that of Doctor. In England the Doctor's degree was introduced into the universities during the reign of John or Henry III. The title of Doctor is in some cases an honorary degree, and in other cases (as in medicine and science) conferred after examination. The title of D.C.L. (Doctor of Civil Law), for example, at the Universities of Oxford and Durham, is frequently an honorary degree, and so also are those of D.D. (Doctor of Divinity) and LL.D. (Doctor of Laws) at various universities. The Popes and the Archbishops of Canterbury exercise the right of conferring the degree of Doctor both in law and divinity. Oxford and Cambridge, and many other universities, create doctors of music (Mus.D.).

DOCTORS' COMMONS was a college founded in 1567 for the Doctors of the Civil Law in London, and was at one time the seat of the Court of Arches, the Archdeacon's Court, and the Court of Admiralty. The practitioners in these courts were called advocates and proctors. In 1857 an Act was passed empowering the college to sell its property and dissolve, and making the privileges of the proctors common to all solicitors.

DOCTORS OF THE CHURCH, a name given to four of the Greek Fathers (Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, and Chrysostom) and five of the Latin Fathers (Hilary, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, and Gregory the Great). The Roman Catholic Church, however, recognizes eighteen 'Doctors of the Church', including, besides those already mentioned, Chrysologus, Leo, Isidore, Peter Damian, Anselm, Bernard of Clairvaux, Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventura, and Alphonsus of Liguori. The title is conferred only after death.

DOCTRINAIRES, a section of French politicians, represented by the Duc de Broglie, Royer-Collard, Guizot, and others, who became prominent after the Restoration in 1815. They favoured a constitutional monarchy similar to that which then existed in Britain. In the Chambers they thus occupied a place between Radicals and ultra-Royalists. They received the name of _doctrinaires_ because they were looked upon more as theoretical constitution-makers than practical politicians, and the term is now used with a wider application to political theorists generally.

[Illustration: Dodder

1, Pistil. 2, Corolla.]

DODDER, the common name of the plants of the genus Cusc[)u]ta, a group of slender, branched, twining, leafless pink or white annual parasites, nat. ord. Convolvulaceae. The seeds germinate on the ground, but the young plant speedily attaches itself to some other plant, from which it derives all its nourishment. Four species are common in England--_C. europaea_, found on nettles and vetches; _C. Epithymum_, on furze, thyme, and heather (these two being natives); _C. trifolii_, on clover; _C. Epil[=i]num_, on cultivated flax (both introduced from abroad).

DODDRIDGE, Philip, D.D., an English Dissenting divine, born in London in 1702, died in 1751. He was an earnest pastor, and the author of many hymns and devotional treatises. _The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul_ and _The Family Expositor_ are amongst his best known works. Many of his hymns are still sung, such as _O God of Bethel, by whose hand_; and _O happy day that fixed my choice_.

DODECANESE (Gr., twelve islands), a name applied since the Turko-Italian War of 1912-3 to a group of islands lying off the south-west coast of Asia Minor, the base of the Italian troops. The group, consisting of the Southern Sporades, includes the Islands of Patmos, Cos, Lipsos, and others near Rhodes. Italy agreed to restore the islands to Turkey, but was prevented from carrying out the agreement by the breaking out of the Balkan War. The Treaty of Peace with Turkey (11th May, 1920) allotted these islands to Italy, who ceded them again to Greece (with the exception of Rhodes).

DODGSON, Charles Lutwidge. See _Carroll, Lewis_.

[Illustration: Dodo, from painting in the Belvedere, Vienna]

DODO (_Didus ineptus_), an extinct genus of birds once abundant on the Island of Mauritius, and assigned by naturalists to the ord. Columbae or pigeons, though an extreme modification of the type. It was a massive clumsy bird, larger than a swan, covered with down instead of feathers, with short ill-shaped legs, a strong bulky hooked beak, and wings and tail so short as to be useless for flight. Its extinction was due to its organization not being adapted to the new conditions which colonization and cultivation introduced. It probably became extinct soon after 1681.