Part 22

DROPSY (Oedema) is a condition usually marked by enlargement and swelling of the affected parts, and due to an accumulation of serous fluid in the tissue spaces and cavities of the body. Different names are given to such accumulations in particular areas, thus _anasarca_ refers to accumulations in the limbs and body generally; _ascites_ to an accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity (abdomen); _hydrothorax_ to an accumulation in the pleural cavity (lungs); _hydrocephalus_ to an accumulation in the brain. The commonest cause of dropsy is heart disease, where first the lower limbs, and then the trunk, are affected. It also appears in diseases of the kidneys and liver, and it may be produced in a limb by any obstruction of the veins of the part.

[Illustration: Common Water Drop-wort (_Oenanthe fistul[=o]sa_)

_a_, Cluster of florets. _b_, Single floret.]

DROP-WORT (from the small tubers on the fibrous roots), _Spiraea filipend[)u]la_, nat. ord. Rosaceae, a British plant of the same genus as queen-of-the-meadow, found in dry pastures. The hemlock drop-wort, or water drop-wort, is _Oenanthe fistul[=o]sa_.

DROSERA'CEAE, a nat. ord. of polypetalous Dicotyledons, consisting of insectivorous marsh herbs, whose leaves are usually covered with glands or glandular hairs. It contains six genera, including the sundew (Dros[)e]ra), and Venus's fly-trap (Dionaea). (See _Sundew_ and _Dionaea_.) They have no known qualities except that they are slightly bitter. The leaves are generally circinate in the bud, as in ferns.

[Illustration: Russian Droshky]

DROSHKY, a kind of light, four-wheeled carriage used by the Russians. It is not covered, and in some types there is in the middle a sort of bench placed lengthways on which the passengers ride as on a saddle; but the name is now applied to various kinds of vehicles, as to the common cabs plying in the streets of German cities.

DROUAIS (dr[:o]-[=a]), Jean Germain, French historical painter of considerable repute, born at Paris in 1763, died at Rome 1788. His chief pictures are: _The Canaanitish Woman at the Feet of Jesus_, _Dying Gladiator_, and _Marius at Minturno_.

DROUET (dr[:o]-[=a]), Jean Baptiste, Comte d'Erlon, French general, born 1765, died 1844. He served in the campaigns of the Moselle, Meuse, and Sambre (1793-6), in the Peninsula, and at Waterloo, where he commanded the first _corps d'arm['e]e_. In 1834-5 he was Governor-General of Algeria, and in 1843 was made a marshal.

DROUYN DE LHUYS (dr[:o]-a[n.] d[.e] lw[=e]s), ['E]douard, French statesman and diplomatist, born 1805, died 1881. He entered the diplomatic service in 1831, and was charg['e] d'affaires at the Hague during the events which led to the separation of Belgium from Holland. In 1840 he was head of the commercial department under the Minister of Foreign Affairs. Opposition to Guizot caused his dismissal in 1845. He became Minister for Foreign Affairs in 1848, Ambassador to London in 1849; and again Foreign Minister in 1851, and in 1863. On the fall of the empire he fled to Jersey, but subsequently returned to France.

DROWNING means death by the air being prevented from entering the lungs owing to the mouth and nostrils being immersed in a liquid, the liquid being commonly water. Death may, therefore, occur by drowning in a small quantity of water. Thus a child may fall head downwards into a tub and be drowned, though the tub is not half full of water, sufficient to cover the mouth and nostrils being all that is necessary, and a man overcome by a fit or by drunkenness may fall on a road with his head in a ditch or pool of water, and thus meet death. Death is thus due to suffocation, to the stoppage of breathing, and to the entrance of water into the lungs. When death has been caused by drowning, the skin presents the appearance called goose-skin (_cutis anser[=i]na_), the face and surface of the body generally are usually pale, a frothy liquid is found in the lungs and air-passages, and about the lips and nostrils; water may be found in the stomach, and clenched fingers, holding substances grasped at, may serve to show that a struggle has taken place in the water, and that the body was alive at the time of immersion. Complete insensibility arises, it is probable, in from one or two minutes after submersion, recovery, however, being still possible, and death occurs in from two to five minutes. So long as the heart continues to beat, recovery is possible; after it has ceased it is impossible. Newly-born children and young puppies stand submersion longer than the more fully grown.

For the restoration of the apparently drowned several methods are suggested. Those of Dr. Silvester, recommended by the English Humane Society, and Dr. Benjamin Howard, of New York, will be described.

Whichever method is adopted, the following steps must first and immediately be taken: Pull the body up on to dry ground. Send immediately for medical assistance, warm blankets, dry clothing, brandy and hot water, if any one is at hand to send. No delay must be permitted, however, in treating the drowned, so that if only one person is on the spot he must begin to treat the victim _instantly_, without seeking assistance. Remove all clothing from the neck and chest. Fold the articles of dress removed so as to make a firm pillow, which is to be placed under the shoulders, so that the upper part of the body is slightly raised and the head slightly thrown back. Cleanse the mouth and nostrils, open the mouth and pull forward the tongue. If natural efforts to breathe are made, try to stimulate them by brisk rubbing of the sides of the chest and of the face. If no effort to breathe is made, proceed to produce the entrance and outflow of air from the lungs by Silvester's or Howard's method.

Silvester's method: Stand or kneel behind the person's head, grasp each arm at the elbow, draw both arms simultaneously upwards till they are extended in line with the body, as a man places them when he stretches himself. Let this movement occupy about two seconds. This enlarges the chest and causes the entrance of air to the lungs. Without a pause carry the arms down to the sides, making them overlap the chest a little, and firmly press them on the chest. This movement should occupy other two seconds. It expels air from the lungs. Repeat the movements, and maintain them steadily and patiently at the rate of fifteen times a minute, until breathing has been fully restored, or until medical aid arrives, or until death is certain. An hour is not too long a time to persist, and so long as there seems the least effort to breathe the movements must be persevered in.

[Illustration: Howard's Method for restoring the apparently Drowned]

Howard's method: Place the body on its face, with the roll of clothing under the stomach; the head being supported on the hand as shown in fig. 1. Pull the body over the roll of clothing to expel water from the chest. Then turn the body on the back, the shoulders being supported as shown in fig. 2. Kneel over the body. Place both hands on the lower part of the chest, so that the thumbs hook in under the lowest ribs and the fingers are spread out on the chest. Steadily press forwards, raising the ribs, your own body being thus thrown leaning forward. This enlarges the cavity of the chest and causes air to enter. When the ribs have been raised to the utmost extent, with a slight effort push yourself back to the more erect position, allowing the ribs to recoil to their former position. This expels the air. Repeat the process fifteen times a minute. One person will find it more easy to maintain this method for a prolonged period than Silvester's, especially if the patient be big and heavy.

Meanwhile, if other persons are present they should be occupied rubbing the body and limbs (_always upwards_) with hands or warm flannel, applying hot flannels, bottles, &c., to the limbs, feet, arm-pits, &c. As soon as the person is sufficiently restored to be able to swallow, give small quantities of hot brandy and water, hot wine and water, hot coffee, &c., and use every effort to restore and maintain warmth.

Drowning was formerly a mode of capital punishment in Europe. The last person executed by drowning in Scotland suffered death in 1685. It survived in Switzerland until 1652, and in Austria until 1776. In Russia the punishment was abolished early in the eighteenth century.

DROYLSDEN, a town of England, Lancashire, 3-1/2 miles E. of Manchester, of which it is practically a suburb. Pop. 13,259.

DROZ (dr[=o]), Francois Xavier Joseph, French moralist and historian, born at Besancon 1773, died 1850. In 1806 he published an _Essai sur l'Art d'[^e]tre Heureux_, which was very popular; and in 1823 _De la Philosophie Morale, ou des Diff['e]rents Syst[`e]mes sur la Science de la Vie_, which procured his admission into the Academy. His reputation is, however, founded chiefly on his _Histoire du R[`e]gne de Louis XVI_.

DRUGGET, a coarse kind of woollen felt or cloth, formerly used by the lower classes for purposes of clothing, but now chiefly used as a covering for carpets.

DRUIDS, the priests of the Celts of Gaul and Britain. According to Julius Caesar they possessed the greatest authority among the Celtic nations. They had some knowledge of geometry, natural philosophy, &c., superintended the affairs of religion and morality, and performed the office of judges. They were also well versed in the knowledge of the mysterious powers of plants and animals, and were adepts in the magic arts. They venerated the mistletoe when growing on the oak, a tree which they likewise esteemed sacred. They had a common superior, who was elected by a majority of votes from their own number, and who was appointed for life. They took unusual care to fence themselves round with mysteries, and it is probable that they cherished doctrines unknown to the common people; but that they had a great secret philosophy which was handed down by oral tradition is very unlikely. Of their religious doctrines little is known.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Rhys, _Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by Celtic Heathenism_; D'Arbois de Jubainville, _Les Druides et les dieux celtiques [`a] forme d'animaux_.

DRUIDS, ORDER OF, a secret organization, founded in London in 1781, for the purpose of mutual aid and protection. Their rites somewhat resemble those of freemasons; their lodges are known as 'groves'.

DRUM, a musical instrument of percussion, of Eastern origin, either cylindrical or hemispherical in shape, with the end or ends covered with tightened parchment, which is stretched or slackened at pleasure by means of cords with sliding knots or screws. Drums are of three kinds: (1) the long or bass drum played with stuffed-nob drumsticks, and used only in large orchestras or military bands; (2) the side-drum, having two heads, the upper one only being played upon by two sticks of wood; (3) the kettle-drum, a hemisphere of brass or copper, the end of which is covered with parchment, always used in pairs, one drum being tuned to the key-note, and the other to the fifth of the key, the compass of the two together being an octave. The use of drums was introduced into Europe either by the Moors or the Crusaders.

DRUMCLOG', a moorland tract in Lanarkshire, Scotland, 6 miles S.W. of Strathaven, the scene of a skirmish between Claverhouse and the Covenanters, in which the former was defeated (1679). A graphic description of the battle is given by Scott in his _Old Mortality_.

DRUM-FISH, or DRUM, _Pogonias chromis_, and other species of the same genus, fishes found on the Atlantic coast of N. America, and so named from the deep drumming sound they make, by means of the swim-bladder and its muscles, during the spawning season in April. It is the most powerful sound-producing apparatus known among fishes. They often weigh about 20 lb.

DRUM-MAJOR, in the British army, a warrant or non-commissioned officer whose duty it is to teach and direct the drummers. He marches at the head of the band carrying the regimental baton.

DRUM'MOND, Professor Henry, was born at Stirling in 1851, died in 1897. Educated at the Universities of Edinburgh and T[:u]bingen, he entered the ministry of the Free Church, and having devoted much attention to science, in 1877 was appointed lecturer on natural science in the Free Church College (or divinity hall), Glasgow, becoming professor in 1884. He travelled much, and wrote a popular book on _Tropical Africa_ (1888). His most remarkable work is _Natural Law in the Spiritual World_ (1883), which has passed through many editions and been translated into various languages. He is author, also, of _Travel Sketches in Our New Protectorate_, _The Greatest Thing in the World_, and _The Ascent of Man_ (1894).

DRUMMOND, Rev. James, Unitarian theologian, was born at Dublin in 1835, died 13th June, 1918. After receiving his early education at a private school, he entered Trinity College, Dublin, where he graduated and obtained the first gold medal for classics in 1855. In 1859 he became colleague of the Rev. W. Gaskell in Cross Street Chapel, Manchester, and ten years later was appointed professor of theology at Manchester New College, London, of which institution (now known, since its removal to Oxford in 1889, simply as Manchester College) he was principal from 1885 to 1906, when he retired from his post. His works include: _Spiritual Religion: Sermons on Christian Faith and Life_ (1870); _The Jewish Messiah: a Critical History of the Messianic Idea among the Jews_ (1877); _Introduction to the Study of Theology_ (1884); _Philo-Judaeus_ (2 vols., 1888); _Via, Veritas, Vita_ (the Hibbert lectures for 1894); _The Pauline Benediction_ (1897); _The Epistles to the Thessalonians, &c._ (International Handbooks, 1899); _Some Thoughts on Christology_ (1902); _The Character and Authorship of the Fourth Gospel_ (1904); _Johannine Thoughts_ (1909); _Paul: his Life and Teaching_ (1911).

DRUMMOND, William, of Hawthornden, a Scottish poet distinguished for the elegance and tenderness of his verses, was born at Hawthornden House, 7 miles from Edinburgh, 1585, died 1649. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh; after which he spent four years in foreign travels, residing for a part of the time at Bourges, to study the civil law. On his return to Scotland he retired to Hawthornden and gave himself up to the cultivation of poetry and polite literature, and here he spent the most of his life. He entertained Ben Jonson on the occasion of a visit which the English dramatist made to Scotland in the winter of 1618-9, and took notes of Jonson's conversation, first published in entirety in 1842 (_Notes of Ben Jonson's Conversations with William Drummond_). He was the first Scottish writer to abandon the native dialect for the language raised to supremacy by the Elizabethan writers. His chief productions are: _The Cypress Grove_, in prose, containing reflections upon death; _Flowers of Zion, or Spiritual Poems_; _Tears on the Death of Moeliades_ (that is, Prince Henry); _Poems, Amorous, Funeral, Divine, Pastoral, in Sonnets, Songs, Sextains, Madrigals_; _The River Forth Feasting_ (on King James's visit to Scotland in 1617); _Polemo-Middinia, or the Battle of the Dunghill: a Macaronic Poem_; and _History of the Lives and Reigns of the Five Jameses, Kings of Scotland_. As an historian he is chiefly remarkable for an ornate style, and a strong attachment to the High Church principles of the Jacobites.

DRUMONT, ['E]douard, French journalist and anti-Semitic agitator, born at Paris in 1844, died there in 1917. His work _Mon vieux Paris_ (1879) was crowned by the Acad['e]mie Francaise. In 1886 he published _La France Juive devant l'opinion_. He thus began a violent campaign against the Jews which he continued until his death, especially in his organ _La Libre Parole_, founded in 1892. In 1898 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, retaining his seat till 1902. His other works include: _La fin d'un monde_ (1888), _Testament d'un Anti-S['e]mite_ (1891), _De l'or et de la boue du Sang_ (1896), and _Les Juifs et l'affaire Dreyfus_ (1899).

DRUNKARDS, HABITUAL. The Habitual Drunkards Act of 1879 provided for the licensing of retreats for receiving habitual drunkards, and for the regular inspection of such retreats. An habitual drunkard desiring admission to a retreat had to make a written application, accompanied by a declaration of two persons that the applicant was an habitual drunkard, and attested by two justices of the peace. No patient in a retreat was permitted to leave before the expiration of the term stated in the application, such term not to exceed one year. This Act was to expire in ten years; but another Act, passed in 1888, made it permanent, with some modifications. The Inebriates Act of 1898 introduced several important changes. It transferred the licensing power in counties from justices of the peace to County Councils and their committees, and in boroughs from magistrates to town councillors or police commissioners. The maximum period of detention was extended to two years, and the attestation of one justice was made sufficient for a valid application. It also gave power to the Secretary of State to establish State inebriate reformatories, or to grant certificates to reformatories suitable for such a purpose. If an habitual drunkard, when drunk, commit an offence punishable by imprisonment or penal servitude, the court may, in addition to, or in substitution for, the ordinary sentence, order him to be detained three years in a State or certified inebriate reformatory. The proof that the accused is an habitual drunkard may consist either in his own admission or in the jury's verdict after inquiry. The Inebriates' Act of 1899 was very short, and made no important change in the law. In Scotland habitual drunkenness is now a ground justifying judicial separation of spouses, while under the Matrimonial Causes Bill, 1920, it is proposed that in England, where one spouse has been granted a temporary separation order on the ground of the incurable habitual drunkenness of the other, and such order has been in force for at least three years, a divorce should be granted.

DRUNKENNESS, the state of being drunk or overpowered by alcoholic liquor, or the habit of indulging in intoxication. A similar condition may be produced by numerous agents, but the term is always applied to the act or habit of drinking alcoholics to excess. By the law of Britain drunkenness is an offence against the public economy, and those found drunk are liable to fine or imprisonment. Drunkenness is no excuse for any crime, but it renders a contract invalid if either of the parties was in a state of complete drunkenness when the contract was signed.

DRUNKEN PARLIAMENT, in Scottish history, a name given to the Privy Council who, under their powers as representing the estates between sessions, met at Glasgow and passed an Act (1st Oct., 1662) to remove the recusant ministers from their parishes within a month. All the members were said to have been drunk except Lockhart of Lee, who opposed the measure.

[Illustration: Longitudinal Section of Plum

S, Seed. E, Endocarp, or shell. M, Mesocarp, or intermediate layer. Ep, Epicarp, or skin.]

DRUPE, in botany, a stone fruit; a fruit in which the outer part of the pericarp becomes fleshy or softens like a berry while the inner hardens like a nut, forming a stone with a kernel, as the plum, cherry, apricot, and peach. The stone enclosing the kernel is called the _endocarp_, while the pulpy or succulent part is called the _mesocarp_. In some fruits, as those of the almond, the horse-chestnut, and coco-nut, the mesocarp is not succulent, yet, from their possessing the other qualities of the drupe, they receive the name. See _Berry_.

DRURY LANE THEATRE, one of the principal theatres in London, was established by Thomas Killigrew in the reign of James I. In 1671 it was burned down, and was rebuilt by Sir Christopher Wren between 1672 and 1674, but again destroyed by fire in 1809. On this occasion it was rebuilt by B. Wyatt, and was reopened on 10th Oct., 1812, with an address composed by Lord Byron. It was in connection with this opening that James and Horace Smith wrote the _Rejected Addresses_. Nearly all the great English actors from Betterton and Garrick have been more or less connected with Drury Lane.--Cf. J. Doran, _In and About Drury Lane_.

DRUSES, a curious people of mixed Syrian and Arabian origin, inhabiting the mountains of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, and also the Hauran (south-west of Damascus). In their faith are combined certain Jewish, Christian, and Mohammedan doctrines. They describe themselves as followers of Khalif Hakim Biamr-Allah, whom they regard as an incarnation of deity, the last prophet, and the founder of the true religion. They are nearly all taught to read and write. They maintain a semi-independence, and between 1840 and 1860 they engaged in bloody conflicts with their neighbours the Maronites. Their total number is estimated at 100,000. They are very friendly to the English, and some of them have been converted to Christianity. Cf. E. Sell, _The Druses_.

DRUSUS, the name of several distinguished Romans, among whom were: _Marcus Livius_, orator and politician; became tribune of the people in 122 B.C. He opposed the policy of Gaius Gracchus, and became popular by planting colonies.--_Marcus Livius_, son of the above, was early a strong champion of the senate or aristocratic party, but showed great skill in manipulating the mob. He rose to be tribune of the people, and was assassinated 91 B.C.--_Nero Claudius_, brother of the Emperor Tiberius, born 38 B.C. By a series of brilliant campaigns he extended the Roman Empire to the German Ocean and the River Elbe, and was hence called _Germanicus_. By his wife Antonia, daughter of Mark Antony, he had a daughter, Livia, and two sons, Germanicus and Claudius, the latter of whom afterwards became emperor. He died in 9 B.C.

DRY'ADS, wood nymphs, in the Greek mythology; supposed to be the tutelar deities of trees. Each particular tree or wood was the habitation of its own special dryad.

DRYAS. See _Mountain Avens_.

DRY'BURGH ABBEY, a monastic ruin in Scotland, consisting of the nave's western gable, the gable of the south transept, and a fragment of choir and north transept of an abbey founded in 1150 on the banks of the Tweed, about 5 miles E.S.E. of Melrose. It is celebrated as the burial-place of Sir Walter Scott and his family.

DRY CELL, originally a cell of the Leclanch['e] type, in which the solution of sal-ammoniac was replaced by a paste containing this substance. The formulae or recipes from which dry cells are now made up are numerous, although the electrodes, as a rule, remain the same as in the Leclanch['e] cell. The E.M.F. of the cell is about 1.5 volts, and three dry cells are used to light up a small 'flash' lamp. A battery of dry cells forms a convenient and portable means of supplying a small current at voltages up to 100.