Part 27

DUPONT (d[.u]-p[=o]n), Pierre, French poet and song-writer, born at Lyons 1821, died at St. ['E]tienne (Loire) 1870. He was educated by his godfather, a priest, and began to write and compose songs at an early age. After issuing a volume of poems in 1844, he went to Paris and obtained a place in the office of the secretary of the Institute. Some of his songs, such as _Song of Bread_ and _Song of the Workers_, had a Socialistic ring which proved obnoxious to the Government which came into power in Dec., 1852. He was arrested, imprisoned, and condemned to be banished for seven years; but his release was soon procured. His poems have been collected under the titles _Cahiers de Chansons_, _La Muse Populaire_, _Chants et Chansons_, _Po['e]sie et Musique_, and _['E]tudes Litt['e]raires_.

DUPONT DE NEMOURS (d[.u]-p[=o]n d[.e] n[.e]-m[:o]r), Pierre Samuel, French political economist, born at Paris, Dec., 1739; died in America 1817. He early gained a reputation for his writings on commerce, and his exposition of the theories of the physiocrats, and was employed by Turgot and Vergennes in the public service. During the ministry of Calonne he became Councillor of State, and in 1787 was secretary to the Assembly of the Notables. He was twice president of the National Assembly. During the Revolution he opposed the extreme republicans, and narrowly escaped the guillotine at the downfall of Robespierre. From 1798 to 1802 he was in America, and on his return to France he refused all public office. He finally returned to America in 1815. Among his writings are: _Philosophie de l'Univers_, _Vie de Turgot_, and a translation of Ariosto.

D[:U]PPEL (d[.u]p'l), a fortified village in Schleswig-Holstein, on the coast of the Little Belt. The place is of considerable strategical importance, and has been the scene of some severe struggles between the Danes, to whom it formerly belonged, and the Germans. It was captured by the Prussians in 1864, after a siege and bombardment which lasted nearly two months.

DUPUY, Charles Alexander, French statesman, born at Le Puy, Haute-Loire, in 1851. Educated at the Lyc['e]e of Le Puy and the Lyc['e]e Charlemagne in Paris, he was professor of philosophy at the colleges of Nantes and Aurillac, and afterwards vice-rector of the Corsican College at Ajaccio. He entered the Chamber of Deputies in 1885, was Minister of Public Instruction in 1889, and succeeded Ribot as Premier in 1893, but resigned and became President of the Chamber of Deputies. He was again Premier from 1894 to 1895, and from 1898 to 1899, and was elected to the Senate in 1900. He was Minister of Labour from 1912 to 1914.

DUPUYTREN (d[.u]-p[.u]-i-tr[:a]n), Guillaume, Baron, French surgeon and anatomist, born in 1777, died at Paris 1835. In 1812 he became professor of surgery, and in 1815 first surgeon to the H[^o]tel Dieu, Paris. In 1823 he was appointed first physician to Louis XVIII, and retained the same situation under Charles X. He was considered the first French surgeon of his day, made important discoveries in morbid anatomy, and invented several useful surgical instruments.

DUQUESNE (d[.u]-k[=a]n), Abraham, French admiral, born 1610, died 1688. In his seventeenth year he was in the sea-fight off Rochelle, and distinguished himself during and after the year 1637 in the war against Spain. In 1647 he commanded the expedition against Naples. In the Sicilian War he thrice defeated the combined fleets of Holland and Spain, under the renowned De Ruyter. After he had reduced Algiers and Genoa, Louis XIV conferred upon him the fine estate of Bouchet, and made it a marquisate, with the title of Duquesne. He was a Protestant, and the only person exempted from the banishment of his sect, occasioned by the repeal of the Edict of Nantes.

DURA'MEN, the name given by botanists to the central wood or heart-wood in a tree trunk. It is harder than the newer wood that surrounds it, and is often dark-coloured from being impregnated with tannin and other antiseptic substances.

DURANCE (d[.u]-r[:a]ns), a river of France, which rises in the Cottian Alps, and, after a course of about 180 miles, joins the Rhone about 4 miles below Avignon. Marseilles is supplied with water from the Durance.

DURAN'GO, a town in Mexico, capital of the state of Durango, about 500 miles N.W. of Mexico, on an elevation 6845 feet above the sea. It is well built, has a cathedral, a mint, manufactures of cotton and woollen goods and leather. Pop. 34,085.--The state (area, 42,272 sq. miles) is partly mountainous and unproductive, but has valuable gold-, silver-, and iron-mines, and also fertile tracts. Pop. 436,147 (1910); estimated pop. in 1919, 509,585.

DURANTE (d[:o]-r[.a]n't[=a]), Francesco, Italian musician, born 1684, died 1755. He attained a high degree of eminence in vocal church music, and he trained the most celebrated musical masters of the eighteenth century in Naples--Pergolese, Sacchini, Piccini, Guglielmi, and Jomelli.

DURAZZO (d[:o]-r[:a]t's[=o]; ancient DYRRHACHIUM, or EPIDAMNUS), a seaport of Albania, on the Adriatic, 50 miles south by west of Scutari. It is fortified, and has a good harbour. For four centuries the town remained under Turkish rule and lost all importance, but in 1912, during the Balkan War, it came again into prominence. It was occupied by the Serbians on 28th Nov., 1912, and in 1913 was incorporated in the newly created Principality of Albania. During the European War Durazzo was captured by the Austrians in Feb., 1916, but was reoccupied by the Italians on 14th Oct., 1918. Pop. 5000.

DUR'BAN, chief port of Natal, on a land-locked bay (Port Natal). It is well laid out, has a fine town hall, handsome churches, post office, hospital, electric tramways, and parks and gardens, and is connected by railway with Maritzburg and the interior. The harbour now admits large vessels. Founded in 1834, it was named after a governor of the Cape. Pop. 48,475.

DURBAR (d[u:]r-b[:a]r'; Pers. _dar_, door, and _bar_, court, admittance), a term signifying the court, council-chamber, or audience-room in the palaces of the native princes of India; hence, a general reception by a ruler in British India or by any officer of rank. Durbars were held on a ridge at Delhi on the proclamation of Queen Victoria (1877), of King Edward VII (1903), and of King George V (1911).

D[:U]REN (d[:u]'ren), a town in the Rhine province, on the right bank of the Roer, 16 miles E. by N. of Aix-la-Chapelle. It has important manufactures of woollens, paper, leather, rails, and hardware, and an extensive trade. Pop. 32,511.

D[:U]RER (d[:u]'r[.e]r), Albrecht, German painter, designer, sculptor, and engraver on wood and metal, born at N[:u]rnberg 1471, died there 1528. His father was a skilful goldsmith of Hungary. In 1486 he left his father's trade and became an apprentice of Michael Wohlgemuth, then the best painter in N[:u]rnberg. Having finished his studies, he entered upon his 'wanderjahre', the usual course of travels of a German youth. On his return to N[:u]rnberg he married Agnes, the daughter of Hans Frey, a mechanic, who has been falsely accused for centuries of embittering his life and bringing him to his grave. In 1505 he went to Venice to improve himself in his art. His abilities excited envy and admiration. He painted the _Martyrdom of Bartholomew_ for St. Mark's church, which painting was purchased by the Emperor Rudolph and removed to Prague. He also travelled to Bologna, to improve his knowledge of perspective. On his return to N[:u]rnberg his fame spread far and wide. Maximilian I appointed him his court-painter, and Charles V confirmed him in this office. All the artists and learned men of his time honoured and loved him, and for many years he was one of the chief burghers of his native town. Profound application and great facility in the mechanical part of his art were the characteristics of D[:u]rer, and enabled him to exert a great influence on German art. He was the first in Germany who taught the rules of perspective, and of the proportions of the human figure. He not only made use of the burin, like his predecessors, but was also among the first to practise etching. He also invented the method of printing woodcuts in two colours. Among his masterpieces in painting are a _Crucifixion_, _Adam and Eve_, an _Adoration of the Magi_, and portraits of Raphael, Erasmus, and Melanchthon, who were his friends. Among his best engravings on copper are his _Fortune_, _Melancholy_, _Adam and Eve in Paradise_, _St. Hubert_, _St. Jerome_, and _The Smaller Passion_, in sixteen plates. Among his best engravings on wood are _The Greater Passion_ (so called), in thirteen plates; _The Smaller Passion_, with the frontispiece, thirtyseven pieces; _The Revelation of St. John_, with the frontispiece, fifteen plates; _The Life of Mary_, two prints, with the frontispiece. D[:u]rer has also much merit as a writer, and published works on _Human Proportion_, _Fortification_, and the _Use of the Compass and Square_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Thausing, _D[:u]rer, Geschichte seines Lebens und seiner Kunst_ (2 vols.; English translation by F. A. Eaton); L. Cust, _Albrecht D[:u]rer: a Study of his Life and Works_; F. N[:u]chter, _Life and Selection from Works_.

DU'RESS (Lat. _duritia_, severity, from _durus_, hard), in law, restraint or compulsion, is of two kinds: _duress of imprisonment_, which is imprisonment or restraint of personal liberty; and _duress_ by menaces or threats (_per minas_), when a person is threatened with loss of life, or with some kind of injury. An act done under duress is voidable or excusable.

D'URFEY (dur'fi), Thomas, an English poet and wit, the grandson of a French Protestant refugee, was born at Exeter in 1653, and died in 1723. He abandoned law for literature, and wrote a large number of comedies of a licentious character. His bombastic tragedy _The Siege of Memphis_ appeared in 1676. D'Urfey's name is now principally remembered in connection with his _Pills to Purge Melancholy_, a collection of songs and ballads, partly his own, and many of them coarse or licentious. His society was generally courted by the witty, and he enjoyed the favour of four successive monarchs.

[Illustration: Durga]

DURGA (d[u:]r'g[:a]), a Hindu divinity, one of the names given to the consort of Siva. She is generally represented with ten arms. In one hand she holds a spear, with which she is piercing Mahisha, the chief of the demons, the killing of whom was her most famous exploit; in another a sword; in a third the hair of the demon chief; and in others, the trident, discus, axe, club, and shield. A great festival in her honour, the _Durga puja_, is celebrated annually, lasting for ten days.

DURHAM, SIMEON OF, English chronicler of the twelfth century; wrote _Annals of England to the Reign of Henry I_, particularly valuable for events connected with the north of England. They were continued by John of Hexham.

DURHAM (du'ram), an ancient city, capital of the county of the same name, on the River Wear, which is crossed here by four bridges, 14 miles S. of Newcastle. The principal public buildings are the ancient castle--now appropriated to the uses of the university--the cathedral and other churches, the town hall, county prison, and grammar-school. The educational institutions comprise the university, opened in 1833, the grammar-school, a training-school for school-mistresses, and other schools. There are manufactures of carpeting and mustard. The cathedral occupies a height overlooking the Wear. The larger portion of it is Norman in style, with insertions in all the English styles. Three magnificent and elaborately ornamental towers spring up from the body of the building, one from the centre 212 feet high, and two together from the west end each 143 feet high; the entire length is 420 feet. It was founded by William de St. Carilef, assisted by Malcolm, King of Scotland, in 1093. A parliamentary borough until 1918, Durham returned two members to the House of Commons from 1673 to 1885, and one member from 1885 to 1918. Pop. 17,500.

DURHAM BOOK, a Latin text of the gospels written by Bishop Eadfrith of Lindisfarne, with an interlinear Saxon gloss, finished in the year 720; now in the British Museum.

DURHAM, COUNTY OF, a county on the N.E. coast of England, having on the E. the North Sea, on the N. Northumberland, from which it is divided by the Rivers Tyne and Derwent, Cumberland on the W., and Yorkshire on the S., the River Tees parting the two counties. Its area is 647,592 acres, of which two-thirds are under cultivation. The western portion of the county is hilly, enclosing fertile valleys, the eastern portion is more level, and the centre contains extensive coal-fields. Durham is the chief coal county in England, and also produces fire-clay. The chief crops are wheat, oats, turnips, and potatoes. The cattle are esteemed both for the dairy and for fattening. In connection with the commerce of the county may be noticed its foundries, ironworks, potteries, glass-houses, iron-shipbuilding, engine and machine works, and chemical works. For parliamentary purposes it is divided into eleven divisions, each of which sends one member to the House of Commons. It was formerly one of the three counties called counties _palatine_. The chief towns besides Durham are Sunderland, Gateshead, South Shields, Stockton, Darlington, and Hartlepool. Pop. 1,369,860.-- Cf. _Victoria History of the County of Durham_.

DURHAM UNIVERSITY, founded in 1832, opened in 1833, incorporated by royal charter in 1837. It is connected with the bishopric of Durham, the office of warden being annexed to the deanery of Durham, and a canonry in the cathedral being annexed to each of the professors of divinity and classical literature. There are also professors of mathematics, Hebrew, medicine, &c. The students mostly reside within the university buildings, but in 1870 a regulation was passed dispensing with the necessity of residing in any college, hall, or house connected with the university in order to be admitted as a member. The management of the university is entrusted, under the Bishop of Durham as visitor, to the dean and chapter of the cathedral as governors, and to the warden, senate, and convocation, the last including all persons regularly admitted since the opening of the university to the degrees of Doctor in Divinity, Civil Law, and Medicine, and to the degree of Master of Arts. The academical year is divided into three terms--Michaelmas, Epiphany, and Easter. For the degree of B.A., or a licence in theology, a residence of two years (of six months each) is necessary. The M.A. degree may be obtained by a graduate who is of the standing of nine terms since taking his degree of B.A. Armstrong College, founded in 1874, and the College of Medicine, both at Newcastle-on-Tyne, form part of the University of Durham.

[Illustration: Durian and Section of Fruit]

DURIAN, or DURION (_Durio zibeth[=i]nus_), a large and lofty tree growing in the Malayan Archipelago. The largish flowers, of a yellow-green colour, are produced on the stem or main branches, and are followed by the large fetid fruit, which is of the size of a man's head, and is a favourite food of the natives during the time (May and June) when it is in season. There is usually a second crop in November. The smell is offensive, like putrid animal matter, but with this is associated the most delicious flavour, which places it, notwithstanding the odour, in the opinion of many, in the foremost place among tropical fruits.

D[:U]RKHEIM (d[.u]rk'h[=i]m), an old town in Rhenish Bavaria (the Palatinate), 14 miles W.S.W. of Mannheim, well known for its mineral water. The town was destroyed by the French in 1689. Pop. 6523.

DURKHEIM, ['E]mile, French philosopher and sociologist, born at Les Vosges 15th April, 1858, died in Paris 15th Nov., 1917. Educated at the ['E]cole Normale Sup['e]rieure, he travelled in Germany, where he studied social conditions. In 1887 he founded the first French chair in sociology at the University of Bordeaux. Durkheim's merit consists in having separated sociology from mere psychology, and in having made a distinction between individual mental phenomena and Folk-psychology. In 1898 he founded and published annually _L'Ann['e]e Sociologique_. His other works include: _De la division du travail social_ (1893); _Les r[`e]gles de la m['e]thode sociologique_ (1894); _Le Suicide_ (1897); _Les formes ['e]l['e]mentaires de la vie r['e]ligieuse; Sociologie et sciences sociales_ (1910); _Le syst[`e]me tot['e]mique en Australie_ (1912); _La Sociologie_ (in _La Science Francaise_, 1915); _Qui a voulu la guerre?; Les Origines de la guerre, d'apr[`e]s les documents diplomatiques_ (1915).

DURLACH (d[u:]r'l[.a]_h_), a town in Baden, 4 miles E.S.E. of Carlsruhe, at the foot of the Turmberg, with manufactures of machinery, chemicals, and leather. Pop. 13,896.

DURMAST, a species of oak, _Quercus sessiliflora_, or according to some, _Q. pubescens_, so closely allied to the common oak (_Q. robur_) as to be reckoned only a variety of it. Its wood is, however, darker, heavier, and more elastic, less easy to split, not so easy to break, yet not so difficult to bend. It is highly valued, therefore, by the builder and cabinet-maker.

DUROC (d[.u]-rok), Michel G['e]raud Christophe, Duke of Friuli, a distinguished general under Bonaparte, born at Pont-[`a]-Mousson in 1772, killed, 1813, at the battle of Bautzen. He served as aide-de-camp to Napoleon in the Italian and Egyptian campaigns. In 1805 he was made grand-marshal of the palace; and was frequently employed in diplomatic missions, though he still took his full share in the wars of France till the time of his death. He was a great favourite of Napoleon, and was killed by his side.

DURRA, or DHURRA, Indian millet, the seed of _Sorghum vulg[=a]re_, after wheat the chief cereal crop of the Mediterranean region, and largely used in those countries by the labouring classes for food. Varieties are grown in many parts of Africa, one of them being known as Kaffir corn.

D[:U]RRENSTEIN (d[.u]r'en-st[=i]n), a village in Lower Austria, on the Danube, 41 miles west by north of Vienna. Here are the ruins of the castle in which Leopold, Duke of Austria, imprisoned Richard Coeur-de-Lion on his return from Palestine, 1192.

DURUY (d[.u]-r[.u]-[=e]), Victor, French historian and educationist, born at Paris 1811, died in 1894. His father was a workman in the Gobelins tapestry works, and the boy did not begin his education until he was grown up. He was admitted to the ['E]cole Normale Sup['e]rieure in 1830, graduated in 1833, and was appointed successively teacher of history in the Lyc['e]e Henri IV, then at the Normal School and the Polytechnic School, inspector of the Academy of Paris, inspector-general of secondary education, and Minister of Public Instruction (1863-9). He is author of _G['e]ographie Politique de la R['e]publique Romaine et de l'Empire_, _G['e]ographie Historique du Moyen Age_, _Histoire Romaine_, _Histoire de France_, _Histoire Grecque_, _Histoire Populaire Contemporaine_, &c. Some of these are simply school-books, but his _Histoire des Romains_ (translated into English) and his _Histoire de la Gr[`e]ce Ancienne_ (translated into English) are extensive and important works, the former especially.

DUSE, Eleonora, Italian actress, born at Vigevano, near Venice, in 1859. At the age of thirteen she made her first appearance on the stage, and in 1883 she acted at Rome, when she was recognized as one of the greatest Italian, and even one of the greatest living actresses. From that time her career was one of uninterrupted success, and she gained a world-wide reputation. Duse is one of the dramatic artists who discard the customary mannerisms of the stage, and all that is conventional but unreal in modern acting. Some of d'Annunzio's best plays were specially written for her. Among her most remarkable impersonations are those of Francesca da Rimini, Marguerite Gautier in _La Dame aux Cam['e]lias_, Magda, La Tosca, Paula in _The Second Mrs. Tanqueray_, and Nora in Ibsen's _A Doll's House_. She appeared for the first time in London in 1897.

D[:U]SSELDORF (d[.u]s'sel-dorf), a town of Germany, in the Rhine province, beautifully situated among villas and gardens on the right bank of the Rhine, 22 miles N.N.W. of Cologne, one of the handsomest towns in the valley of the Rhine. It is a great focus of railway and steamboat communication, and has a number of handsome public buildings, and several remarkable churches. Among the public institutions particular notice is due to the Academy of Art, founded in 1767, by the Elector Theodore, and afterwards directed by Cornelius, Schadow, and Bendemann. It has the honour of having founded a school of painting, which takes the name of D[:u]sseldorf, and has had a large number of distinguished pupils. The industries embrace iron, machinery, railway plant, cotton, leather, chemicals, and beer, and the trade is large. Pop. 358,728.

DUST, solid matter in a fine state of division. Spores of plants, bacteria, &c., are found in the atmosphere, but in general organic particles are numerous only over thickly populated districts. Inorganic particles are derived from various sources. Where the soil is dry, dust is whirled aloft by the winds, this cause giving rise to the great sand-storms of tropical desert regions. Volcanoes in eruption eject large quantities of dust. It is estimated that millions of meteors are encountered by the earth per day. Most of these are excessively minute. They are speedily disintegrated, and generally entirely reduced to dust at high levels. Evaporation is almost always proceeding over seas and oceans, and from foam thrown up and swept along by the winds the dissolved salts are liberated as solid particles. Again vast quantities of dust are produced in the consumption of fuel.

The late Dr. John Aitken, F.R.S., of Falkirk, Stirlingshire, contrived a means of gauging the dust contents of the atmosphere. This consists of a glass box about a centimetre in thickness. Two pieces of wet filter paper inside serve to keep the contained air damp. The bottom of the box is a micrometer plate, divided rectangularly in millimetres. It can be examined from above by a lens. An air-pump can withdraw definite volumes of air as desired. When the air is partially withdrawn, the expansion of the remainder produces cooling. The dust particles form nuclei for condensation of the vapour. They are thus precipitated on the plate, and counted, leaving the air dust-free. A measured quantity of the air to be tested is next drawn in and shaken up. Further operation of the air-pump causes its expansion, and the deposition of its dust particles, which can then be counted. Dr. Aitken found the proportion of dust on Ben Nevis to vary at different times from under 100 particles to over 14,000 per cubic centimetre. Over oceans the numbers were from about 500 on the Indian to 2000 on the Atlantic. But over cities 100,000 per cubic centimetre are frequently present. A puff of cigarette smoke was estimated to contain 4,000,000,000 particles.

Many phenomena are connected with the existence of dust in the atmosphere. As a result of Dr. Aitken's discoveries the belief largely prevailed that the formation of fog, of rain, and other varieties of precipitation, was necessarily dependent on dust particles as nuclei of condensation. Though they certainly function to a preponderating extent, it has been shown that gaseous particles can act similarly, particularly when air is ionized. Dust is the main cause of the scattering of the sun's rays which produces twilight, the blue of the sky, the gorgeous red and golden hues of sunrise and sunset, and the purple lights of advancing dusk. After the great Krakatoan eruptions of 1883, dust was carried in the upper atmosphere several times round the earth, and caused extraordinary colour effects. To a lesser degree similar phenomena followed the West Indian eruptions of 1902. The unusual sunlessness of the summer of 1912 was attributed to dust expelled in the preceding great eruptions at Katmai, Alaska.

DUTCH CLOVER, _Trifolium repens_, commonly called white clover, a valuable pasture plant. It has a creeping stem; the leaflets are broad, obovate, with a horse-shoe mark in the centre; the white or pinkish flowers are in a globular head.