X.

OLD WORLD.

O, ON or NO=name of celestial and terrestrial capitals. Hebrew and Egyptian.

OLYMPOS=the breaker or organizer of time (Hewitt, p. 514).

KOLONH=a hill, mound, Greek; Lat. tumulus.

COLONOS=a demos of Attica lying on and around hill sacred to Poseidon.

COLONIA=a colony, the Lat. colonia.

KOLOSSOS=statue in general, _i. e._ column?

OM-EL-KORA=mother of cities. Arabian, see p. 323.

OMPHALE=in Greek mythology, the fire socket, wife of Herakles, the fire drill (Hewitt).

HO=designation for directions in space. China, see pp. 285-288.

HO=acme, taken to mean the best, highest, most showy part of anything. Japanese (Chamberlain).(172)

HO=the land’s acme, or a plain surrounded by mountains. Japan (Motowori).

HOM=date-palm-sacred tree. Babylonia-Assyria (Sir Geo. Birdwood).

NEW WORLD.

HO, or TI-HOO=ancient capital of Yucatan, see p. 277.

HOM=mound. Maya.

HOMTAMIL=belly, _i. e._ omphalos.

INDEX.

Abadiano, Dionysio, 246, 251.

Above (see “Heaven or Above”).

Academia Manuscript, 11.

Acamapichtli, Mexican ruler, having title of “Woman-serpent,” 63, 67, 71.

Acatl, one of the four Mexican year-symbols, 76, 170, 179, 257, 280.

Acolma, 55.

Acosta, 76, 150.

Agave or maguey, juice of, “drink of life,” 188.

Ahau, Maya glyph, chief, lord, 169; figured on gold plaque from Cuzco, 169, 220.

Ahau-ka-tun, 24-year period, 219; literally lord, 20 stone, compared with Copan stelæ, 219, 221.

Ah-cuch-cab, Maya name of ruler or chief of a town or place, 184; title of chief, 220; terrestrial lord, 224.

Ah-cuch-haab, Maya name for four year-signs, 220.

Air, in Mexico, Quetzalcoatl, lord of, 126; name of one of the four eras since the creation of the world, 253.

Air and water design, on sacred edifices in ancient America, 126; union of, 126; emblem of Above, 126; on drinking vessels, 127; on dome of ancient Greek monument, 127; associated with the male region, 249.

Akbal, Maya glyph, 108.

Akkad=the North, 334.

Akkadians, Semitic race of Assyria-Babylonia, 334.

Alexander of Macedonia, 527.

Allen, Richard Hinckley, 448, 451, 525.

Alligator, altar at Copan, 227, 228, 296; totem of Copan tribe, 228; symbol in codices, 504, 518; in India, 505, 519; totem of Mayas and Mexicans, 520.

Altars at Copan, 226, 227, 228, 229.

Amaterasu, Japanese sun-goddess, 311.

Amaytun, painted representation of the 20 and 24-year epoch, 219, 226.

Amen-Ra, the supreme dual god of the Egyptians, 389, 390, 391.

American Association for the Advancement of Science, 510, 545.

American Folk-Lore Society, 510.

American Museum of Natural History, 234.

American peoples, 479-548.

Ammon, 522.

Ammonites, 351.

Anacreon, 453.

Anales del Museo Nacional de Mexico, 86, 93, 98.

Andastes, 196.

Andean art, compared with Mediterranean, 545.

Andree, Richard, 52, 53.

Angrand, Leonce, 150, 151.

Animal form, as totem, 154; associated with Four Quarters by Zuñi, 295; combined with bird, symbol of union of Above and Below, 296; summary of use in symbolism 296; in Chinese calendar, 299, in Buddhist mythology, 318; combined with human in Babylonian symbolism, 335 (see Human form).

Anthromorphites, 530.

Apis, sacred Egyptian bull, 399; cult of, very ancient, 437.

Apollo, worshipped in form of a column, 447, 513.

Arabia, star worship, axial rotation, seven-day period, etc., 322, 324, 448, 482, 495, 556.

Aratos, 453.

Arcadius, 530.

Architecture, ancient, influenced by religious cults of Heaven and Earth, 284; Byzantine, 515; cruciform, 515; symbolism of (see Windows, Cone, Tau, Pyramid, Color, Greek fret, etc.).

Arctos, 452.

Aristotle, 485, 486, 487.

Arizona, 52, 199.

Arriaga, Padre, 134.

Arrowpoint, barbed, used instead of flint knife as symbol of life-producing force, 55, 56.

Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, 366, 369.

Ashurbanipal, Assyrian king, offspring of Heaven and Earth, 346.

Asia Minor, compared with North America in relation to tertiary plants and fungi, 479.

Asiatic contact, 534, 541 (see Pre-Columbian contact).

Asiatic Society of Japan, 565, 575.

Assyria, star-cult, 326; numerical divisions, etc., 328; cult of Polaris, 335; analogies with China and Central America, 349; civilization more recent than that of Babylonia, 353; founded by Semitic Babylonians, 354; rise of pure monotheism, 355; stelæ with seven symbols, seven circles, etc., 358; Pole-star worship, seven-fold division, Four Quarters, etc., 367; summary, 483.

Astarte, Assyrian goddess figured as cow and as moon, 337, 345, 350.

Astronomy, cast of astronomy-leaders, 22; study of, among native races, 42; basis of religion, 43; knowledge of, among Eskimo, 50; and other native peoples, 53; Mexican astronomers, 82; among the Zuñi, 205; astronomer-priests of Mexico 274; in China, 285; Chinese, Babylonian, Hindoo, Chaldean, Egyptian, Thibetan and Indian, 300, 301; in Chaldea, 330; in Babylonia and Assyria, 328, 338; in Egypt, 376, 383; Egyptian zodiac signs, illustrated, 395; the time when there ceased to be a conspicuous pole star, 525-526 (see Polaris, Calendar, etc.).

Atlantis, Island of, 446.

Atlatl or spear thrower, 211; on temple of the Tigers, and on Stone of Tizoc, 212.

Attiwendaronks, 196.

Avila, 132.

Axayacatl, living representative of Huitzilopochtli, 71.

Axial rotation (or wheel) in ancient religion, symbolism and government; in Maya name for Ursa Major, 8-10; title of Mexican supreme divinity, “Wheel of the Winds,” 11, 33; origin of idea was rotation of Ursa Major around Polaris; symbolized by swastika symbol, 18-23; imitated by Mexican game, “Those who fly,” 24; associated with Mexican Calendar system, 25; indicated by name Teo-Culhuacan or Aztlan, 56; represented by Mexican sacred dance, 59; indicated in Vienna Codex by circle of footstep, 90; in Zuñi religious ceremony, 129; in religious ceremony and irrigating canals of Peru, 145, 146; symbolized by Nahuiollin on Mexican Calendar Stone, 251-52; by one-footed man on Mexican “Sacrificial Stone,” 259; in ancient plan of Mexican government, 273; pictured divinity surrounded by circle of footsteps, 279; in plan of ancient Chinese government, 280-291; in calendar systems of China and Mexico, 292; symbolized by spider’s web, 293; in Chinese calendar, 309; the wheel in Hindu religion, 313, 319; in Babylonia and Assyria, 331, 332, 356, 365, 366, 367; “Wheel of the law” and “lord of the wheel” of India, in Egyptian symbolism, 394, 400, 401; centrifugal power and rule indicated by names of capital cities in Egypt and Greece, 413; revolving pillar on Acropolis at Athens, 447; in Arabia, 448; in India, 448; in Plato’s cosmical conception, 449; in Homer’s works, 452; in Sophocles’ work, 453; in ancient Greece, _polos_=a star revolving on itself, 453; Sanscrit god, “the driver of the axle,” 453; Greek “Ixion’s wheel,” 453; indicated by cross symbol and later by swastika, 461; wheel associated with Jove on Roman tombstone, 464; in Scandinavia, the wain wheeled around the throne of Thor, 473; Turanian god of heaven=the pole turned by the revolving days and weeks, 499; symbols of, in Old and New World, 494-544; summary, 544.

Ayllu, Peruvian word for tribe or lineage, 141.

Aztlan, land of light, 56, 57.

Baal, Assyrian god, 345; worshipped under image of bull, 410.

Babylonia, Chinese immigrants from, 299; Middle kingdom, 299; astronomy, 300; star cult, 326; numerical divisions, etc., 328; either a mountain or a star signified a god, 329; astronomical observations of great antiquity, 329; oriented to the Four Quarters, 333; decline of the empire, 347; female ruler, 347; described in Revelations; sevenfold organization, 348; seven-staged tower, 356; sevenfold state, 357; altar of gold, 361.

Babylonia-Assyria, the Babylonia triad, Anu, Ea, and Bel, signify the Above, Middle and Below, 336; compared with gods of China, 336; combined Heaven and Earth cult, 344; seven-fold organization, 360; seven-staged tower (Zikkurat) and the great basin (Apsu) symbolized cosmological conceptions; tree or pole as sacred symbol; fire-stick, 361; worship of Polaris; male and female principles in nature, 363; New Year’s festival, 364; summary and conclusions, 367, 544.

Bacab, title of Maya chief, 86; title of rulers of Four Quarters, 183.

Bailly, 319.

Balam, Maya word for ocelot; title of four lords of Below or Earth; same as chac, 185.

Balboa, 150.

Ball, C. J., 302.

Bandelier, Ad. F., 61, 74, 79, 84, 168, 200.

Baptism, Maya, 225.

Barber, Commander, U. S. N., 159.

Bartholomew de las Casas, Friar, 32.

Bat, symbol of happiness, 277.

Bat-kin-ya-mûh, the Water people, 200.

Bastian, A., 153.

Bead, jade bead, as symbol in Mexico, 81; “gold bead,” used as title; symbolical among the Mayas, 237.

Beard, on stelæ at Copan and Quirigua, 219, 230; on calendar sign; on images of air-god, 231; worn by representatives of Above, 231; not worn by representatives of Below, 231; in pictorial art, 232; on portrait-statue of Stela E, at Quirigua, 232; bearded personages on stelæ were high-priests, etc., 232; beardless effigies indicated different caste, 232; bearded Spaniards regarded, by Mexicans, descendants of founders of their civilization, 266; emblem of sovereignty in Egypt, 426.

Bee, Maya word for=cab; Cab glyph, 110.

Beetle (see Scarab).

Beltram de Santa Rosa, Fray, 89, 101.

Benares, temple of; sacred cow, 316.

Bentham, 476.

Bentley, 300.

Berichten der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft, 478.

Berlin Museum, 380, 417, 423, 424, 426, 427, 457, 460, 507.

Berra, Orozco y, 264, 268, 269.

B. N. MS. (Biblioteca Nationale MS.), same as “Lyfe of the Indians.”

Biblioteca Nazionale Manuscript (in press), 7, 9, 11, 12, 34, 37, 39, 44, 45, 46, 47, 54, 57, 64, 66, 71, 99, 102, 111, 112, 125, 128, 130, 189, 241, 279, 505.

Biot, 298, 301.

Bird, title of Mexican war chief, 25; humming-bird in symbolism, 39; with spider, serpent and cross on shell gorget, 49; Bird-god, borne on litter, 71; ancient Yucatan in shape of bird, 86; illustrated social organization in Mexico, 87; totem of Incas, 157; on arms of Mexico, 157; on sculptures at Tiahuanaco, 167; man-bird represented ruler of upper division of State in Mexico, 185; typical of lords of four provinces in Mexico, 190; blue-bird, Mexican symbol, 190; name of Nahuatl tribe, 206, 214; three most powerful tribes of Yucatan have bird names, 217; on altar at Copan, 228; in sculptures at Palenque, and in Mexican Fejervary chart, 235; mask in Mexican festival, 242; totem of the Air people in Mexico, 254; recapitulation of meaning of symbol, 282; use of as symbol, 296; vulture, symbol of Upper Egypt, 368.

Birdwood, Geo., 314, 575.

Blackfoot Indians, myth about Ursa Major, 511.

Black, Robert, 526.

Black Sun, in B. N. MS., 54.

Blood offerings, meaning of, 98, 99, 442.

Boas, Franz, 147.

Boat, in sculptured bas-relief at Chichen-Itza, 160; in Babylonian symbolism, 366; in Egyptian symbolism, 403; Egyptian, Grecian, Phœnician in early times, 491.

Bochica or Ida-can-zas, culture hero of the Muyscas; personification of the Sun or Above, 171.

Bodleian MS., 44, 90.

Bodleian Library at Oxford, 508.

Boeckh, 488.

Bogota, dual government, calendar, etc., 171.

Bohn, 486.

Book of the Dead, 372, 374, 386, 387, 404, 406.

Book of Manu, 317.

Book of Yu, 296.

Bopp and Pott, 500.

Boturini, 150, 180, 181, 182, 268, 269.

Bourbourg, B. de, 35, 69, 89, 191, 206, 211, 216, 217, 271.

Bournouf, 448, 451.

Bovallius, Dr., 230.

Bowl or vase (see Vase).

Brahmanism, 312, 313.

Brandenburg, spearhead from, illustrating triskelion and swastika associated, 28.

Brandsford, J. F., 50.

Brazil, wooden clubs with Greek fret, 121; symbolism, etc., compared with that of other ancient American civilizations, 224.

Breath, puffs of, conventionalized on Copan slab, 223; on bas-relief at Palenque, 223; at Quirigua, 223; compared with Zuñi symbolism, 223; in Copan, 280.

Brinton, D. G., 60, 69, 72, 82, 88, 93, 100, 107, 109, 110, 111, 112, 164, 171, 175, 178, 181, 182, 191, 192, 217, 235.

Britain, ancient, numerical divisions, middle, central ruler, quadruple organization, 470, 493.

British Guiana, wooden clubs with “Greek fret,” 121.

British Museum, 151, 166, 234, 353, 355, 356, 357, 366, 457, 459.

Brown, Robert, 324, 325, 327, 338, 364.

Brugsch, 370, 376, 377, 378, 379, 382, 385, 387, 390, 393, 395, 397, 398, 399, 400, 401, 402, 404, 406, 407, 418, 419, 423, 424, 425, 429, 431, 432, 433, 436, 437, 438, 439, 440, 441, 442.

Buddhism, 294, 298, 301, 306, 311, 314.

Budge, Wallis, 367, 368, 370, 371, 372, 373, 374, 375, 379, 382, 388, 389, 391, 394, 397, 425, 437, 443.

Bull, winged bulls of Babylonia and Assyria, 336; symbolism of, 337; Yahwe, national god of the Hebrews, represented as man or as bull, 350; astronomical sign in Egypt for Ursa Major, and possibly of Polaris, 385; linguistic reasons why king of Egypt was entitled “the bull,” 385; title of Egyptian supreme deity, 389; cow, bull or ox, in Egyptian zodiac signs, 395; Apis, sacred bull of Egypt, 399; in inscription in temple of Denderah, 401; Baal worshipped under image of, 410; Egyptian _ka_, rebus, signifying Polaris and Ursa Major, 410; title of Amen-Ra, 410; associated with the goose in symbolism, 418; Minotaurus, ruler of Crete, 457.

Burger, George, 486.

Burial urn, emblem of earth mother, 106.

Buschmann, Dr., 153, 155, 158, 165, 172.

Butterfly used as symbol of immortal soul by Mexicans, 39; symbol of Centre and Four Quarters, 47.

Byzantine architecture, 515.

Cab, Maya day sign, word for bee, also earth, 109; honey, 110; associated with female principle, 110.

Cabal, day-sign, on Copan altar, 227.

Caban, Maya day-sign, identical with symbol of earth, 107; figured with leaves of maize, 109; the Below, 227.

Cæsar, called the Son of the Sun, 440, 470, 537.

Cakchiquel Indians of Guatemala, 79; court of, 79; obsidian mirror used as oracle, 80; Annals of, 164; legend suggesting form of government, 172; tribal division associated with calendar, 178, 179; tradition in relation to 7-day period, 182.

Calendar systems, Mexican, 7; suggested by Polaris and circumpolar constellations, 25; Maya, origin of, 35; Mexican, monograph on, 53; origin of, 100; ancient Peruvian, 145; among the Muyscas, 171; connection between calendar signs and divisions of the people, 175; a governmental institution, 179; invention of native system by ancient inhabitants of Chiapas, 182; among the Zuñi, 205; kept profound secret by priesthood, 205; Maya, 220; fixed term of office for ancient American rulers, 221; Mexican, originated from the fixed market-days, 245; signs identified with different parts of human form, 282; instituted by the Chinese emperor, Yaou, 289, 292; comparison of American and Chinese, 297, 298, 299, 309; Chaldean and Hindoo, 300; Japanese compared with Mexican, 311; Hindu with Mexican, 319; Assyrian and Babylonian, 337, 348, 349; ancient Egyptian, 377, 378; lunar and solar, 439; Esne calendar, 440; Canopus calendar, 441; Central American and Mexican, 528; time when first adopted, 529, 530.

Calendar-stone of Mexico, 12; night sun pictured on, 13; symbol of five dots compared with same on recumbent stone figure, 95; market-stone of the City of Mexico, regulated social organization, 245; special work on, by Zelia Nuttall, 246; image of “Great Plan” or Scheme of Organization, 247; figured and described, 248-258; regulated machinery of state, 254; Gama’s, Valentine’s and Chavero’s descriptions, 256; based on observation of Polaris, 257; embodied the idea of a central, dual and quadruple power, etc., 258; contains symbol of union of dual principles of nature, 280.

Calendar-swastika, 9, 18, 41 (see Swastika).

California Indians, use today two symbols in use by ancient Mexicans and Mayas, _i. e._, flint-knife and “stone yoke,” 104, 105.

Calli, Nahuatl for western horizon=the house, 38; one of the four-year symbols, 76; meaning, the house, 253.

Campiña de Puebla, 275.

Can, Maya word for serpent, 38; serpent and numeral four, 50, 110, 112; affix in names of towns, Iroquois, Maya and Mexican, 198; associated with pyramid as Teotihua-Can, 263; in Chinese and Maya associated with fourfold division, 288.

Canaan, account of Hebrew religion, 350.

Canada, Iroquois town, 197; Maya meaning of, 198.

Candace, queen of the Ethiopians, 440.

Capital, Maya word for, homonymous with five=ho, 256.

Caracol, or Round Temple, of Chichen-Itza, built by Quetzalcoatl, representing Middle and Four Quarters, and centre of dominion, 97.

Cardinal points, assignment of colors and parts of human body, 293, 294; associated with form of quadruped among the Zuñi, 295 (see Four Quarters).

Carillo, Crescencio, 85, 86.

Carthaginians, having knowledge of an island in the ocean, 540.

Cartier, 197.

Cary’s translation of Herodotus, 437.

Caryatids, at Chichen-Itza, 212.

Cassiopeia, 22, 25, 26, 29, 40, 49.

Caste, in Peru, 143; in Mexico, 273.

Castelnau, 150.

Cat, sacred symbol in Egypt, 408.

Catari, chronicler of the Incas, 151.

Celi-Ced, the dual power, from which the universe was born (Druidic), 471.

Centipede, Mexican symbol, 186.

Central America, fundamental basis of government and civilization, 15; symbolical form in architecture, 113, 119; carved stone seats or altars, 283 (see Copan, Guatemala, etc.).

Centre (stable centre or middle), in ancient government, religion, and symbolism: Polaris, the centre of axial energy, 22, 30; centre of the Cosmos, among Zuñis, Mayas, Mexicans and Peruvians, 41; symbols of, 46; on shell gorgets, 49; divergence from idea, 52; represented by recumbent stone figure, 96; among Incas, 136, 142, 144; and Four Quarters represented on carved slab from Santa Lucia, 172; in ancient American game, 178; in Féjérvary Codex, 178; in social organization, 180; on sculpture of Lord of Above, 186; colors associated with, 192; among the Zuñi, 202; in Copan Swastika, 222, 224, 225; on Tablet of the Cross at Palenque, 236, 243; union with Four Quarters in Mexican calendar-stone, 250, 258; on Mexican monolith “Divine Twin,” 260, 262, 264; symbolized by pyramid, 273, 274; words and symbols connected with, 277; associated with swastika, 280; expressed by pyramid, 282; typified by cross-legged human figure, 283; expressed in flower symbol, 284; Chinese “Middle kingdom,” 286, 287, 288, 291, 294, 299; in America, symbolized by human heart and navel, in China by stomach, 296; in Chinese religion, 306; Japan called “Centre of the Earth,” 310; represented by statue of Buddha, 314; Nirvana, 315; in Hindu religion, 317; in religion of Arabia, 323, 324; of Persia, 325; of Babylonia, 330, 333; Jerusalem, sacred spot marking the centre of the world, 352; in Babylonia-Assyria 364; in Egypt, 376, 379, 380, 381, 384, 385, 386, 394; expressed by mummy-shaped object, also by cone, 410; by a crown, 412; by a flower, 415; in Egyptian feast, Tekhu, 439; in ancient government of Crete, 457; in ancient Rome, 463; in ancient Ireland, Britain and Wales, 468-471; in Scandinavia, 472; in cross-symbolism, 511; in religious ideas of Old and New World, 517, 535; summary and conclusions, 544.

Century Dictionary, 452, 464.

Cezalcouatl, name for Kukulcan, 69.

Chaac Mool or Lord Tiger, name given by Le Plongeon to the recumbent figure bearing circular vessel, found in Chichen-Itza, 95 (see “Recumbent stone figure”).

Chac (Maya) red color; also rain, storms, thunder and Lightning; title of Lord of Below, 185.

Chac-noui-tan, name for Yucatan, 210.

Chalchihuitl=jade, 34, 91; jade beads, 81.

Chalmers, John, 511.

Chambers’ Encyclopædia, 452, 462, 463, 465, 484, 564.

Chamberlain, Basil Hall, 565, 568, 571, 574, 575.

Chariot, symbolism of, 313, 500, 501.

Chavero, A., 33, 61, 253, 256.

Ché, Maya word for tree; in names of tribes, 199, 234.

Checker-board (or tartan) design, formed by taus, 122, 123, 124.

Ch’en, Maya day sign, 110.

Cheles, one of the Yucatan tribes, 217.

Cherokees, 196.

Chess board, in Egypt, 124.

Chiapas, the present home of the Tzendals; native calendar system, 180, 182; migrations from, 210; numerical divisions, 528.

Chichen-Itza, culture-hero ruled in, 68, 69; recumbent stone figure bearing circular vessel, 93, 185, 214; connection established with Mexico by Kukulcan (Quetzalcoatl), 93; Caracol or Round Temple, 97; bas-relief illustrating navigation by boats, 160; tradition about settlement of, 207; evidence of Aztec influence, 212; classification of ruins, 216; tablet in house of “Tennis-court” 259.

Chichimecs, sacrifices by, 66.

Chicome-coatl, literally, seven-serpents, title of earth mother, 181.

China, cosmical symbol compared with those of Copan and Mexico, 114; symbols of Above and Below, 118; sound of words, in symbolism, 276; pole-star worship, 284; the emperor at Pekin termed the Son of Heaven and the Empress inhabits the palace of Earth’s repose; Yang and Yin; Above and Below, etc., 286; reason of deformation of feet, 287; Chow Dynasty, fourfold plan of cities, linguistic affinities with Mexicans and Mayas, “Quadriform constitution,” 288; calendar system, social and religious organization compared with that of ancient America, 291, 292, 293; tables showing the agreement and divergence in ancient systems of China and America, 293; assignment of colors and of parts of human body to cardinal points, 294; comparative study of symbolism, 296; social organization, etc., 297; calendar and numerical system, 297, 298; origin of civilization, 299; astronomical system, 300, 301; Buddhism, 301, 303, 315; primitive calendar, 301; Taouism, 301; Chinese language said to be the same as Akkadian, 302; civilization not indigenous, emigration into, 303; Dowager Empress Ling, 304; Israelites, 303-306; Christians, 306; fundamental principles of religion identical with that of ancient America, but later, divergent, 306, 307, 308, 309; Heaven and Earth cult practised at the present time, 344; summary of numerical divisions, 483; use of wheel from earliest times, 501-502; use of Cross symbol with idea of central power, 511; resemblances and differences, Chinese and Maya, Mexican, 533, 534; doubt about extreme age of governmental scheme, 533; celestial kingdom dates from first century, 541, 542; summary and conclusions, 546.

Cholula, contains largest pyramid in America, 268; built as place of refuge from inundations, 271, 272; place of sanctity, 275; also called Cholola or Colola, 275; marks site of great and ancient Tollan, 275, 276, 529.

Cholollan, pyramid, a venerated sanctuary, 269; tradition concerning, 270; native name is “tollan,” 275 (see Tullan Cholollan).

Christianity, in China, 305, 306; period of growth, persecution of pagans, 530, 531; St. Augustine states that it has existed from the beginning, 536, 537, 538, 539, 541.

Chuen, Maya day-sign, 112.

Cib, Maya day-sign, 109, 110, 111.

Cibola, seven cities of, 203.

Cicero, 488, 526, 527.

Cieza de Leon, 132, 150.

Cihuacoatl, the earth mother, flint knife in wrappings, symbol of, 55; the Woman serpent (or twin), 60; name of Quilaztli, 60; female ruler, 62, 63, 64; Mexican ruler, 67; personification of Earth, 76; Montezuma’s substitute, 77; duties of, agents of, 78; offered sacrifice to god of Underworld, 79; compared with serpent in Maya Codex, 111; emblem of, 128; female title of lord of the night, 181.

Cipactli, Mexican sign for a “marine monster,” 228.

Circle, symbol of heaven, 260; influence on ancient architecture and symbolism, 284; with dot, Egyptian sign for time, 387.

Circle or ring, symbol of Egyptian “lord of the ring,” Hindu “lord of the wheel,” Persian “god of the ring,” and Mexican “lord of the circle,” 401.

Circle or disk, Egyptian symbol, 402, 412, 444; also in Peru, 444.

Circumpolar constellations, studied by primitive man, 15; in relation to origin of swastika symbol, 15; form triskelion on night of winter-solstice, 27; relation to sacred numbers, 29; associated with idea of death and resurrection, 39; in relation to underworld, 40; four movements of, 54; in connection with cult of Below, 54; worship of in Old World, 383-387 (see Pleiades, Ursa Major, Ursa Minor, Polaris).

Circumpolar region, probable birth-place of cult of Polaris, 475; place where human race probably spent its infancy, 475; fauna and flora, 476, 478, 479.

Circumpolar rotation, represented by swastika and star-symbols on pottery, 50-52; compared to rotation of fire-drill by early peoples, 502 (see Rotation or Wheel).

Clavigero, 24, 25, 58.

Claws (or nails) of the state, title of warriors, 87; in Mexican calendar-stone, 249; on monolith “Divine Twin,” 261.

Cliff dwellers, tau as symbol, 119.

Clubs (wooden) from South America and Peru, with symbolical designs, 122.

Coatl (serpent or twin) in connection with tree symbolism, 188; compared with Zuñi Koa=twin, 201.

Cocomes, Maya tribe, 209, 214.

Codices: Borgian, 27, 36, 55, 91, 95, 98, 103, 116, 189, 504, 505; Chimalpopoca, 270; Chumazel, 85; Cortesian, 111; Dresden, 35, 37, 39, 41, 45, 110, 183; Féjérvary, 9, 10, 44, 107; Fuenleal, 8, 10, 12, 33, 44; Mendoza, 63, 87, 88, 117, 118, 122, 130, 173, 263; Telleriano-Remensis, 10, 11, 240; Troano, 86, 109, 110; Vatican, 11, 44, 55, 50, 78, 80; Vienna, 34, 44, 86, 90, 100, 103, 119, 123, 127.

Cogolludo, 89, 180, 206, 210, 218.

Colebrook and Bentley, 300.

Colhuacan, Mexican local name, 263.

Color, red in Mexico, associated with north, 57; cult of Earth, 185; title, 193; blue, associated with rulership and divinities, 61, 62, 91, 214; black, associated with Tezcatlipoca and with Quilaztli, 62; yellow, color of the west, female region, 64; meaning of, 114, 115; on Moki masks, 119; in tau design, 122; on ancient Mexican temples and sculptures, 128; in Peruvian symbolism, 130; in Zuñi symbolism, 130; in architecture at Uxmal, 131; used to denote social status by Peruvians, Mayas, Mexicans and Zuñis, 192; associated with four Quarters and Above and Below, 192, 251; used for face and body painting, 193; Huaxtecan mantle of five hundred colors, 208; painting of caryatids in Chichen Itza, 212; symbolic at Copan and Quirigua, 233; emblematic, in China, 286; assigned to elements by Mexicans, Zuñis and Chinese, 200, 293; assigned to cardinal points, in China and America, 294; in Buddhist temple; in Quetzalcoatl’s temples in Mexico, 295; in Hindu caste, 313; in Babylonia, 328; in Egypt, red associated with the north and male sex, and white with south and female sex, 369, 373, 425.

Colorado, cliff dwellers, 119.

Column, sacred, in great temple of Mexico, 53; on hill of justice in Guatemala, 79; stelæ at Copan and Quirigua, 220, 230, 512; laws inscribed on, centre of island Atlantis; laws of Solon inscribed on, in centre of Athenian state; of Apollo at Delphi, 447; the cosmical round tower of Ireland, 470; at Mitla, Mexico, 513; symbolism of, in Old and New World, 513, 517.

Confucianism, 115, 289, 298, 306.

Cone, in Mexican ollin-sign, signified the Above, 118; used in native architecture; culminated in pyramid, 118; represented by shape of windows in ancient ruins, 120; on summit of House of the Doves at Uxmal, 131.

Conical stone, on which human victims were sacrificed, 118.

Congress of Americanists, 230, 231.

Congress of Orientalists, 544.

Conquest Stone of Mexico, “Sacrificial Stone,” “Tribute Stone,” 258, 507.

Constantine, 509, 513, 514, 515, 530; his numerical scheme compared with same in India, Mexico and Yucatan, 542, 543.

Copan, lentil-shaped stone altar, from, 113; carved stelæ, 215; purpose of erection, 216; study of the ruins, 219; cult of Polaris illustrated by carved slab in temple, 11, 222; numerical organization illustrated, 222; numerical divisions, symbolism, etc., identical with those of Peru, Guatemala, Mexico, Yucatan, Zuñi, etc., 226, 228, 233; numerical divisions on altar conform with Zuñi clan-organization, 229; bearded effigies, 231; dual rulers, 232; totemic animals and symbolic colors, 233; excavation at Mound, 4, 233; same cult as that of Palenque and Quirigua, 240; carved stone seats or altars, 283; alligator altar, 295; stelæ as memorial columns, 512, 513; remnants of old civilization, 528.

Copan swastika, compared with design on club from South America, 224; compared with tablet in “Temple of the Sun,” 239 (see also Swastika).

Copts, 530.

Cord (Maya kaan), associated with Maya word for Heaven=caan, and with glyph, _can_, 112; meaning of carved gorget worn on a cord, 112; sky represented as a circle composed of a cord to which stars were attached, 113; on lentil-shaped stone altar at Copan, 114; on shield of Mexican god, 128; on Copan stela, 219.

Corinth, coin with swastika, 459.

Cortes, 34, 67, 68, 74, 75, 77, 97, 107, 150, 171, 183, 208, 245, 264, 266, 542.

Cosmos, four-fold and seven-fold divisions of, in Peru, Mexico, Yucatan, Zuñi, 41, 42; in Babylonia, India, Persia, etc., 328; in pagan philosophy, 484, _note_ (see separate headings; also, Quadruple Organization and Numerical Divisions).

Cow, venerated in India, 316; Canaan goddess, Astarte, in form of, 337; Egyptian god Isis (Hathor) worshipped under form of, 406; or bull, cult of Apis in Egypt, 437 (see Bull).

Cox, 289, 451.

Coya, wife or sister of Inca, 134.

Cozumel cross, called symbol of “rain-god,” 280.

Creation myths, ancient Mexican, 54, 55, 56; Zuñi, 105, 200, 223; Peruvian, 138; Hindu, 313-318; Babylonian, 334, 340; Babylonian and Hebrew evidently from same source, 353.

Creator, or “Supreme Being,” in Mexico, 8; title “wheel of the winds,” 11; Polaris, 22; worshipped by ancient Americans, 32, 36; earliest form of; feathered serpent, image of, 70; the four elements regarded as attributes of, 99; belief in, represented by mushroom-shaped stone figure, 115; Inca knowledge of, 135, 149; Quechua title for; Mexican title for, 159; in Peru, identified with Mexican “Lord who guides,” or Polaris; and associated with star and cross, 161; image of at Cuzco, 162; worship of in Texcoco, 163; in Peru, 164; in Tiahuanaco, 168; native title, “Heart of Heaven”, 189; in Mexico represented by rebus of the feathered serpent, 209; Nahuatl title, expressed by an eye and pyramid in picture-writing, 269; Divine Twain, Father and Mother of all, in Mexico, Quetzalcoatl, 270; in China, 302; Akkadian name for symbol, an eight-pointed star, 302, 304; among the Hindu, 312; Brahmanistic conception of, 314; in Persia, 325; in Babylonia, 329, 330; among the Hebrews=Yahwe lord of Heaven, 304, 351, 352; in ancient Egypt, 397, 403, 412, 444; in Plato’s Timæus, 449; the Norse, Thor, 473; the source of the four elements, 510; comparison of names in Old and New World, 532; summary, 548.

Cremation, significance of, 106.

Crete, Greek plan of organization came from, description of symbols on coin 457; ancient philosophy of, 486-488.

Cross-bones, origin of symbol, 184.

Cross-legged seated figures, on Central American stone seats or altars, 283; emblem of stable centre and Four Quarters, 283.

Cross-symbol, Maya and Mexican, figured and described, 37, 38, 45, 46, 47; on shell gorget from Tennessee, 49, 50; on pottery from Mississippi Valley, 51; from Arizona, 52; on Iroquois belt, 198; in symbolical carving from Brazil or Guiana, 224; four-spoked wheel as cross symbol in Assyria, 356; emblem of sovereignty in Babylonia-Assyria, 365; used as symbol at earlier period than swastika, 461; with idea of Central power, 511; emblem of Christian religion, 535, 536; summary, 544 (see Swastika).

Cross-tablets at Palenque, 237, 238, 239.

Cross-worshippers, Chinese name for Christians, 305.

Cruciform structures, vaults under stelæ at Copan and Quirigua, 512; at Mitla, Mexico, 513; at Rome, 514; buildings and churches of later period, 515; at Byzantium, 515; in Syria, 515; in India, 516; summary and conclusions, 544.

Cruz, Alonzo de la, 230.

Cubas, Garcia, 218, 231.

Culin, Stewart, 178.

Cum-ahau, name of divinity of Yucatan, 93, 222, 226.

Cup-shaped depression, on stone altar at Copan, 114.

Cushing, Frank H., 41, 99, 115, 129, 132, 192, 200, 201, 203, 205, 206, 227, 295, 511, 574.

Cuzco, “navel of the earth,” 133; plan of city, Centre and Four Quarters, 136; founded by Manco Capac, 156; temple, facing north and containing gold image of “Creator,” 163; gold plaque from, 168; symbolism analogous to Mexican and Maya, 170.

Dahlgren, E. W., 230.

D’Alviella, Goblet, 19, 459.

Dances, sacred, 57; description of Mexican dance, representing wheel or axial rotation, 58, 59; of Moki Indian, 119; at Cuzco, 145; Sun pole dance of American Indians, 313, _note_.

Davis, J. F., 300.

Day-sign, Maya and Mexican, 75, 107-112; influence of, 177; totem of clan, 178, 179; Cabal, on Copan altar, 227; and year signs of native calendar, 248; in calendar-stone, 253; names of, used as personal and tribal names, 253.

Death, symbol of, 39.

Deer, mask of, 165.

Deities, Aztec, number of, same god under several names, 8.

Demosthenes, lantern of, 127.

Denderah, 400.

Dennis, J. S., 483.

DeRossi, 514.

Desjardins, 150.

Destruction of the earth, Mexican traditions concerning, 270, 271.

Dhruva, 495, 496.

Diaz, Bernal, 71, 72, 75, 77, 80, 96, 97, 245, 265, 542.

Din-gira, Akkadian name for God, 302.

Diocletian, 514.

Divination, in connection with use of mirrors, 83; origin of 177; in China, Thibet and India, 301.

Divine Twin (see Duality).

Documentos ineditos del Archivio de Indias, 77.

Dog, head of, on sculptures from Santa Lucia, 165; Maya word for=men, 234.

Donelly, Ignatius, 374, 516.

D’Orbigny, 150.

Douglas, R. K., 285, 291, 298, 299, 302.

Draconis, observation in Egypt, 384.

Dragon, at Quirigua, 233.

Dragon-fly, employed as cross-symbol, on Algonquin garment, 48.

Druids, 470, 471.

Drums, 58, 59, 60, 213.

Duality or “Divine Twin,” symbol of, 39; conventional representation of, 46; idea of, 47; dual stellar divinity, 56, 57; represented in sacred dance, 59; by male and female ruler, 62; development of idea, 67; twin brothers as rulers in Yucatan, 68; Montezuma, impersonation of, 73, 77, 78; in Peruvian symbolism, 134; the “Beloved Twain” of the Zuñi, 200; Quetzalcoatl and Kukulcan, 223; dual ruler at Copan, 228; in Quirigua, 232; on Palenque tablet, 245; on Mexican Calendar Stone, 249; in Mexican sculpture, 251, 260-262; dual government at time of Conquest, 266; in China, 285; in Hindu religion, 312; in India, 314; in Babylonia-Assyria, 342; in Egypt, 389, 397, 399, 410, 412, 415, 423; in ancient Rome, 463; in ancient Ireland, 468; in Druidic traditions of Wales, 471.

Duemichen, 385.

Duran, Friar, 26, 41, 56, 57, 58, 61, 71, 77, 78, 80, 88, 182, 241, 243, 245, 258, 282.

Eagle (quauhtli), associated with Cassiopeia; title of Mexican war chief, 25, 167; Eagle-woman, 60; among the Incas, 156; on bas-reliefs of Santa Lucia, Guatemala, 156, 157; totem of one or more of the Incas, 157; on bas-relief in City of Mexico, 157; in arms of Mexico, 157; symbol of Above among the Zuñi, 204; symbol of state in Mexico and Central America, 295; summary of use as symbol, 296.

Earth, or “The Below,” in ancient religion and symbolism; in ancient Mexican and Maya cosmos; in secret beliefs of Zuñi priests, 41; female region, 42; lord of, 45; cult of, 54; associated with woman, 60-655; sacrifices to, 66; Cihuacoatl, personification of, 76; sacrifices to god of, 79; in connection with human sacrifices, 91; sacred rites, 97, 98; in Zuñi ceremonies, 100; in connection with cremation, 106; symbol of, in use by California Indians, 106; priestesses of, buried in caves, 107; symbols of, 110; associated with image of serpent, 111; with angular form, 113; composed of fire and water, 113; on altar at Copan, 114; associated with square form and bowl, 115; flat-topped mitre worn by lord of, 116; Chinese symbol, 118; sacrifices 118; tau upright, emblem of, 118, 119; cult of, in Peru, 130, 133, 134, 135, 141, 142; idea prevailed in Tiahuanaco, 166; among the Muyscas, 171; in calendar, 179; in social organization, 180, 181; associated with animal form, 184, 185; color associated with, 192; associated with female principle, 193; votaries of, 195; in Zuñi social system, 202, 203, 204; priests of, represented without beards on sculptures at Copan and Quirigua, 231, 232; moon symbol of cult, 267; cultivation of maize, by daughter of, 276; symbolized by quadruped, 282; vase, emblem of, 283; associated with square form, and darkness; influence on primitive architecture and symbolism, 284; flower used as symbol of, 284; in China, 285, 288, 290, 307; in Hindu religion, cult of Siva, 314; in Persian religion, 325; in Assyrian and Babylonia cult, 334, 336, 338, 339; cult combined with that of Above practised in China at present time, 344; Baal, Phœnician god of Earth, 351; in Egypt, 381; symbolized in Scandinavia by Thor’s hammer, 474; table of countries where traces of cult have been found, 480; summary and conclusions, 544.

Earth-mother, represented by Cihuacoatl, 79; pictured in Borgian Codex, 98; Zuñi symbol of, 100, 200, 201 (see Earth or the Below, also Cihuacoatl).

Earth-work builders of the Ohio valley, 50, 199, 280.

Eddas, written by agricultural people, having knowledge of the fire-drill, axial rotation, etc., 502, 503.

Egypt, crux ansata, 119; checker-board design; basis of chess-board, 124; civilization mainly Euphratean, 327; explanations and illustrations of Egyptian symbols, 367-461; color symbolism; high development of pole-star worship; territorial divisions, 368; Four Quarters; hieroglyph for capital or city, cross symbol with four divisions, 369, 371; pyramid, and square form associated with earth, and round with sky, 371; numerical divisions, 375; seven-fold organization, centre, Polaris, 376; calendar, 377, 378; sky-goddess Nut, 378; lotus flower symbol, 379; Polaris, sphinx, pyramid, Middle, 379; mummy, Polaris, 380, 383; Ursa Major, used as a measurer of time, 384; bull, used as astronomical sign of Ursa Major, king entitled “The Bull,” 385; Amen-Ra, the supreme, dual god; king associated with sun, and queen with moon, 389; hawk-headed god, An, compared with Assyrian, Greek and Mexican gods of the circle or wheel, 401; Egyptian queen analogous in position to Mexican Quilaztli, 428, 429; festival of Tekhu, 439; becomes a Roman province, 440; cult of dual principles of nature, 441; summary, 483; the sacred and tribal tree, 499; the symbolical use of the column, 513; Aha-Mena, first historical ruler, was a builder, 532; summary and conclusions, 544.

Faber, 516.

Fauna and flora of the tertiary period, in Old and New World, 476-479.

Feather, symbol of divinity (Mexican and Maya), 69, 70; names signify something divine, 129; Egyptian symbol, 390, 409, 410.

Feathered serpent, origin of use as symbol, 69; effigies of in Mexico, 70; used as rebus to express Supreme Being and his earthly representative, 208 (see also Serpent).

Feet of Chinese women, deformation of, 287.

Féjérvary Codex, 178, 187, 235, 250.

Ferlini, 427.

Fewkes, J. Walter, 130, 199, 200.

Figueredo, Padre Juan de, 164.

Finger and toe count=20: 175, 295, 296, 297.

Fire, sacred, Pleiades in connection with kindling, 53; new, kindling of, 56; festival of god of, 57; earliest form under which deity was worshipped, 58, 64, 70; in Peru, 83; lighting of, by means of mirror, 83; god of, associated with sceptre having gold disk, 87; kindled on body of human victim, 91, 95; lord of, 127, 128, 214; feast of in Mexico, 240; name of one of the four eras since the creation of the world, 253; symbolical meaning of, 280; means of producing in Mexico and India, 318; in connection with cult of Polaris, 319; worship of in India, 320, 321; in Parsee religion, 326; in Babylonia-Assyria, 362; ceremonial rite, in ancient Egypt, 442; at New Year festival in Scandinavia, 474; (in Old World) sacred fire, fire-drill, fire-socket, fire-altars, lord of fire, 494-504, 519, 520, 521; (in New World) sacred fire, fire-drill, fire-socket, fire-altar, fire-drill god, 504-509; summary and conclusions, 544.

Five elements in China, 293, 301, 309; in India and in Greece, 484, _note_.

Five-day periods, year divided into in Mexico, 292; in Japan, 310.

Five-dot groups, idea of, 256; on monolith “Divine Twin,” 260; on coin found in island of Crete, 457; on the cenotaph of king Midas, 459.

Fletcher, Alice C., 196, 511.

Flint, Earl, 195.

Flint knife, Tecpatl, in wrappings, symbol of earth-mother, used as sacrificial knife, 55, 56; on head dress in B. N. MS., 57; in connection with emblematic vase, 103; sacred among the Hupa Indians of California, 105; on sacrificial stone of Mexico, 258; emblem of generation, 521 (see Tecpatl).

Flood and destruction myths and traditions, 88, 240, 253, 270-275 (see Myths and Traditions).

Flower, as symbol, 101; four petals, two leaves and stalk, 191; on Tablet of the Cross, 236; symbol of Centre and Four Quarters, 278; recapitulation of meaning of, 284; lotus in Hindu religion, 314; or rosette, in Assyrian symbolism, 366; seven petalled flower on Phœnician tablets, 395; Egyptian word for=_ankh_ means also “life,” 413; emblem of Middle, axial rotation and life, 413-420.

Footsteps, in circle, indicating rotation, 90, 279.

Forrer, R., 460.

Förstemann, E., 107, 109, 112.

Four Elements, in ancient religion and symbolism: union of, in sacred rites, 97; regarded as attributes of Supreme Divinity, 99; Mexican and Zuñi beliefs and ceremonies, 99-102; symbolized by calendar signs, 182; symbols of, on Mexican Calendar Stone, 249-251, 253, 254; classification of among the Mexicans, Zuñi, and Chinese, 293, 294; Creator, in Peru and Mexico, named Earth, air, fire and water in One, 494, 510, 529.

Four Quarters, in ancient religion and symbolism: 38, 41, 46; on shell gorgets, 48, 49; colors of, represented on feathered serpent, 70; represented in Mexico by four executive officers, 75, 76; ancient Yucatan divided into, 85, 86; in Vienna Codex, 90, 91; in Borgian Codex, 91; represented in Caracol or Round Temple of Chichen Itza, 97; all things divided into, for an indefinite period, finally subdivided, 99; figured as single sign, 124; in plan of capital and form of government among Incas, 136, 144; represented on carved slab from Santa Lucia, 172; represented by four limbs of human figure, 174; symbolized in ancient American games 176, 178; in Féjérvary Codex, 178; represented by 20-day period, 179, 180; lords of, among the Quiches, 182; colors of, 192; among Zuñi, 201; in pyramid temple at Chichen Itza, 208; idea of, carried out by Quetzalcoatl in the Mexican temples, 209; ruler of, on Copan stelæ, 220; meaning of symbol as used among the Maya, 223; on Copan swastika, 224; on Palenque tablets, 243; in Mexican calendar-stone, 250; designated by colors on monuments in Mexico, 251; symbolized on monolith “Divine Twin,” 260; cult of, in Mexico and Peru, 264; Cortes regarded as Lord of, 266; in connection with pyramid, 273; list of symbols connected with, 278; expressed by pyramid, 282; in flower symbol, 284; in Chinese calendar system, 285, 291; associated with color and the elements, 293; with parts of the body by Chinese, 294; with form of quadruped by Zuñi, 295; in China, 298; in Japan, 311; in India, 313; in Persia, 325; in Assyria and Babylonia, 332, 333, 337, 357; in Egypt, 369, 372, 386, 394, 395, 415; in ancient Ireland, the five kings assigned one to the middle and the others to the cardinal points, 468; in ancient Britain, 470; in ancient Scandinavia, 472; table of countries in which traces of cult have been found, 480-494; in religious ideas of Old and New World, 517, 539; summary and conclusions, 544.

Gage, Thomas, 75, 84.

Gallatin, 196.

Gama, Leon y, 96, 186, 246, 252, 256, 260.

Game of ball, represented idea of perpetual motion of the heavenly bodies, 82; of patolli, description of, 87; tlachtli and patolli in Mexico, 176, 177, 178.

Garcia, 150.

Garcilaso de la Vega, 132, 133.

Gaul, divided into seven provinces, 493.

Gesenius, 518.

Gensler, Dr., 395.

Ghizeh Museum, 427.

Gibbon, 150.

Gilgamesh epic, 366.

Gillies, John, 487.

Globus, 52.

God C, Maya divinity, 108, 111; not identical with Polaris, 112.

God L, Maya divinity, 108.

God M, Maya divinity, 108.

Godman, F. Ducane, 120.

Godman and Salvin, 216.

Gomara, 26, 39, 90, 150.

Goodyear, William H., 314, 395, 413, 414, 415, 418, 420, 424, 460.

Goose, in Egyptian symbolism, 398; in Egyptian, Sanscrit and Hindu religious art, 418; in the prehistoric art of Greece, Italy, Hallstatt, Gaul, Sweden; name for in different languages, 419.

Gordon, G. B., 512.

Gottfriedt, J. L., 63.

Government (see Quadruple organization, and Social organization).

Great Plan, stone of, 506.

Great temple of Mexico, 53, 80; recumbent stone figure on summit of, 96; contains forty high towers to hold effigies of lords of the Above, 107, 225.

Great Turtle at Quirigua, 234, 240.

Greece, use of checker-board design, 124; primitive government of, 445; Athenian culture, 454-459; summary, 484; Greek colonies in Egypt, 491; the symbolic use of the column, 513; summary and conclusions, 544.

Greek fret, evolution of, on the American continent, 121; formed by upright and reversed tau, 121.

Griffis, W. E., 310.

Grote, 484, 485, 486, 491, 492, 527.

Guatemala, cult of Polaris, 44; Cakchiquel Indians, 79, 171; obsidian mirror as oracle, 82; ancient capital of, divided into two and four parts, 85; ancient civilization in, 89; mushroom-shaped stone figures from, 114; sculptured slabs resembling image in Inca fable, 153; Nahuatl language spoken in, 155; caste division associated with left hand, evidence that Nahuatl was spoken in, 165; Nahuatl names of four provinces, 172; stela with symbol of open hand, 184; numerical divisions, social organization, symbolism, 226; summary, in table of countries, 494.

Gubernatis, Angelo de, 318, 544.

Gudea, 357.

Guiana, symbolism, etc., compared with that of other ancient American civilizations, 224.

Guillemin, Amedée, 162, 163.

Habel, Dr., 154, 156.

Hagar, Stansbury, 480, 510.

Hakluyt, 140, 161.

Hale, Horatio, 196, 198.

Haliburton, R. G., 339, 469.

Hammurabi, 349.

Hamy, Ernest, 114, 174.

Hanan-ayllu, upper lineage in Peru, 133.

Hanan Cuzco=the Above, ruled by the Inca, 133; division of Inca capital including those of upper class, 140, 164.

Hathor-Isis, Egyptian goddess of whom the queen was the living image, 429-437.

Hawk god, in Egyptian zodiac, 400; on inscriptions in temple of Denderah, 401; Egyptian god Horus represented with head of hawk, 402; used as image of Amen-Ra, 412.

Heaven, or “the Above,” in ancient religion and symbolism: in conception of cosmos in ancient Mexico, in secret beliefs of Zuñi priests, associated with rising of celestial bodies, 41; male region, 42, 54, 62, 65; sacrifices to, 66; Montezuma living representative of, 71, 72; in Zuñi ceremonies, 100; symbolized as air, light and water, 103; lords of, buried in wooden effigies placed in high towers, 107; associated with rounded form; temples were circular, 113; on lentil-shaped altar at Copan, 114; in mushroom-shaped stone figures from San Salvador and Guatemala, 115; peaked mitre worn by lord of, 116; represented in Mexican ollin-sign by cone, 118; symbolized by conical stone on which human victims were sacrificed, 118; Chinese emblem of, 118; in Moki Indian dance, 119; in ancient architecture, 119-121; on clubs from Brazil and British Guiana, 121; in Peru, 130-146; in Tiahuanaco, 166; in Bogota, 171; represented by human head, 174; associated with human figure, 184, 185; in Mexican tree symbolism, 188, 189; color associated with, 192; priests represented with beards on sculptures at Copan and Quirigua, 231; in Mexican calendar-stone, 249; in “Divine Twin,” 260; list of symbols connected with, 278, 282; in China, 284-290, 298, 299, 301, 306, 307, 344; Hebrew Jehovah called “God of Heaven,” 304, 323, 351; in India, 314; in Persia, 325; in Assyria and Babylonia, 334, 336, 338, 339; in Egypt, 429; in Scandinavia, 474; table of countries in which traces of cult have been found, 480; summary and conclusions, 544.

Heaven and Earth, union of: symbolized by human face, 46, 47; expressed by cross-symbols, 48; illustrated by double tau-shaped figure, 86; in connection with Toxcatl festival, 97; in ancient architecture, 120; in ancient symbolism 130; typified by shape of irrigating canals of Peru, 132; on Copan stelæ, 221; on summits of high mountains, 283; in China, 286; by figure of ocelot and eagle combined, 296; in Babylonia, 330, 334-346; in Egypt, 425, 429-438.

Hebrews, 304, 305, 327, 350, 351, 352, 364.

Heliopolis, seat of learning and monotheism in ancient Egypt, 444.

Heraclitus of Ephesus, 452.

Hercules, twelve labors of, 511.

Herodotus, 300, 328, 329, 361, 375, 399, 412, 437, 442-492.

Herrera, 77, 86, 132.

Hesiod, 453.

Hewitt, 453, 480-482, 494-509, 517-524, 565-575.

Hiawatha, 197.

Hieroglyphs, and symbols, on stone monuments of Central America, 218-233; Yucatan, 234-244; Mexico, 245-275.

Hilavi, 134.

Hipparchus, 452.

Hippodamus, 486, 516.

Historical Exposition at Madrid, 23.

Ho, ancient name for Merida, on ancient map from Codex Chumazel, 86, 90.

Hochelaga, kingdom of, 197; Iroquois central capital, 198.

Holcan, title given to war chiefs in Mexico, signifies literally the head of four, 209; relates to rulership of Four Quarters, 209.

Holmes, W. H., 39-48, 49, 69, 97, 131, 213, 235, 240.

Homer, 451, 452.

Honduras, ancient civilization in, 89, 218; Peabody Museum Expedition, 512 (see Copan).

Hopi, ceremonial having affinities with the Nahuatl and Maya, 209.

Horizon, western, Nahuatl symbol for=calli, the house, 38.

Horse, sacred animal in Egypt, 409.

Horse-shoe symbol, 106, 107, 108.

Horus, Egyptian God identified with Polaris, 402.

House of the Doves at Uxmal, symbolism of, 131.

Huaca, tribal or household “idol” among the Peruvians, origin of, 138, 139, 140.

Huaxtecans, 64, 125; Maya colony on Mexican coast, 160, 207, 208.

Huitzilopochtli, tradition concerning, 12; represented as humming-bird, 26; connected with Above, the male region, 42; the traditional leader of the Aztecs, 57; tradition concerning sister of, 60; associated with blue color, 62; represented by Montezuma, 71; title of, “Heart of the Heaven,” 72; companion idol to that of Tezcatlipoca in great temple of Mexico, 80; monolith in Mexico, 245; statue of, 265.

Human arm, symbol of one of the divisions of state in Mexico, 175.

Human bones, used as rebus, 183; reason of decoration, 184.

Human breath, symbolism of, 9, 10 (see also Breath).

Human face, used symbolically, 47; in centre of ollin sign, 54; on sculpture at Tiahuanaco, 169; in Mexican calendar, 169; in Central American sculptures, 221; in Copan sculpture, 222; in Mexican calendar-stone, 248; summary, 281.

Human faces, of silver and mosaic, on necklace of statue, 265.

Human figure, in sacrifice regarded as symbolic of Middle and Four Quarters, 91; in mushroom-shaped stone figure, 114; in Vienna Codex, 123; statue of man and woman, symbolized duality in Peru, 134; Inca gold image of Creator and of the sun, 135; image of the State in Mexico, 174; associated with Four Quarters of the Above, 184; combined with animal figure, symbol of dual State, 185; on Copan stelæ, 219-227; at Quirigua, 231, 232, 233, 234; in sculpture at Palenque, and in Mexican Féjérvary chart, 235-240; recapitulation of meaning of symbol; image of constitution and calendar system; calendar signs identified with, 282; seated cross-legged, emblem of stable Centre, 283; parts of, assigned to cardinal points in China, 294; in Zuñi, 295; significance of, in sculpture, 295; on stela, represented the chief and his term of office, 295; summary of its use as symbol, 296; statue of Buddha conveys idea of swastika, also of Centre, 315; combined with animal in Babylonian symbolism, 335; winged, bird-headed human figure on Assyrian bas-relief, 366; in Egypt, 378, 379, 400, 437, 438; in the island of Crete, 457, 458.

Human fingers, symbol of four officers, 175.

Human foot, symbol of lower division of State, 175.

Human hand, symbol of supplication, 127, 261; on carved slab from Santa Lucia, 172; meaning of, 174; wooden sceptre in form of, 174; symbol of capital of State, 175; on garment of chieftain at Uxmal; on stela used as name-sign of ruler in Mexico; symbol of ancient capital in Yucatan; sceptre in shape of, 184; symbol of four lords of the Above, 185; the idea of many hands guided by one head or central power, 186; symbol of lord or chief, 190; expressed numeral five, 279; Egyptian symbol of Centre and Four Quarters, 394.

Human head, on Tablet of the Cross, 236; as corn cobs on maize plant, 237; in serpents’ jaws on calendar-stone, 257; portraits or effigies of the dead, 276; used as symbol of Centre, 279; on winged bull, 337.

Human heart, symbol employed by Mexicans, Mayas, Quiches, and Tzendals, 71; extracted from human victim of sacrifice, 91; emblem of supplication, 127; in sacrifice, 173, 296; between 4 squares, symbol for chieftain, etc., 199; on monolith “Divine Twin,” 261; of gold on necklace of idol, 265.

Human eye used as star symbol, 279 (see Eye symbol).

Human mouth and teeth, symbolized earth or Below, 281.

Human nose, mystic union of two streams of breath, consecrated by wearing symbolical nose ornament, 282.

Human sacrifice (see Sacrifice).

Human skull, artificial deformation of, 143.

Human stomach, in China symbol of Centre; death by disemboweling practised, 296.

Human thumb, symbol of central ruler, 175.

Humboldt, 297, 301, 319.

Humboldt Tablet, 506.

Humis-katshina, Zuñi dance, tau symbol used in, 119.

Hunter, Annie, 222.

Hupa Indians, 105.

Hurin-ayllo, lower lineage in Peru, 133.

Hurin Cuzco=the Below, 133; division of the Inca capital including the lower class, 141, 164.

Huron Indians, 196-199, 493.

Huxley, 526, 534.

Hwang-te, Chinese emperor who introduced calendar system, 298, 301.

Idols, represented attributes of divine power, etc., 8; tribal and household, 138, 139, 140.

Ik, Maya glyph, 225.

Illinois, cult of Polaris indicated by emblems on shell-gorget, 44.

Imix, Maya glyph, 108.

Incas of Peru, 133; cult of, 134; Great Temple of, 135; gold images of Creator and of the sun, 135, 136; form of government, based on Centre and Four Quarters, 136; ancestor worship, 137; origin of, 151; use of tree symbolism, 186; record of male and female ancestry, 186; gold associated with male element, silver with female, 187; associated with golden effigy of sun, 264; advent into Peru, 539; summary and conclusions, 546 (see also Peru).

India, divisions of year, 291; astronomical system, 300; swastika abounds in, 312; Mithra, Hindu god of the wheel, 313; Brahmans, Buddhists, 314; marriage custom, 316; numerical divisions, 317; native maps of, 318; ceremonial mode of producing fire, 318; Middle, centrifugal power; quadruple organization, etc., 320; tree worship, 321; worship of Polaris, “the pivot of the planets,” 448, _note_; summary, 480; Pythagoras derived his philosophy from, 484; sacred fire, fire drill, fire altar, 494; marriage, 498; the Maghas and Nahushas compared with the Mayas of Yucatan and the Xahuas of Mexico, 509; the idea of five elements, 526;

## active intercourse with seafarers, 541;

cyclical system of, assigned to same period as Constantine’s numerical scheme and the calendrical schemes of the Mayas and Mexicans, 542; summary and conclusions, 514.

Indra, 312.

Initial scroll, in Central American inscriptions, 221, 233.

Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, 79.

Ireland, numerical divisions; quadruple organization; dual ruler; Middle; Four Quarters; cosmical round tower; Seven Churches; great hall of Tara (midcourt), 468-470; summary, in table of countries, 493.

Iroquois, social organization, 196; wampum belts, 197; numerical divisions, 198; linguistic affinities with Mayas, 198, 199.

Irrigation, in ancient Peru, 146.

Ishtar, cult of, 342-350; ring or circle, symbol of, 359, 360; “axis of the heavens,” female Polaris, 503.

Isis, Egyptian goddess worshipped under form of cow, 406; in sculpture and symbolism, 421-434; called daughter of the sun, 440, 441.

Isokrates, 492.

Israelites, 345; idea of central power; star-cult developing into monotheism, 352, 353, 355.

Itza, tribe who occupied Chichen-Itza, 206.

Ixion’s wheel, 453.

Ixkun, 210, 215, 244; bas-relief at, 259.

Ixtlilxochitl, 33, 66, 84, 163, 255.

Izamal, ruins of, 214, 217.

Iz-calli, Mexican 20-day period, 240; festival of “renovation,” 241.

Iztaccihuatl, giant volcano, 275.

Jade, Nahuatl word for, chalchiuitl, 34, 81; symbol of; emblem of water goddess, 91; placed with dead of upper class in Mexico, 195; jade celts from Nicaragua, 196; ancient name for pyramid of Cholula, “the monument or precious jade stone of the Toltecs, etc.,” 269; Chinese word for, significance of, 563, _note_.

Jaguar, figure of, represented four lords of the Below, 184, 185; skeleton of, in Mound 4 at Copan, 233; compared with ocelot, 233; on Cross tablets at Palenque, 239 (see Ocelot, Puma, Quadruped and Animal form).

Janus, double-faced, probably symbol of double state in Rome, 463.

Japan, junks, 309; organization founded on plan derived from Corea; “great Centre of the Earth;” tradition about North Pole; compared with China, 310; Buddhism, 311; four divisions of population, with Emperor at head; governed by two rulers, celestial and terrestrial, 311; swastika; Shinto religion, 311; quadruple organization, 311, 312; summary, 483.

Jastrow, Morris, 327-344, 348, 350, 354, 357, 361-367.

Jensen, 327.

Jerusalem, temples to Baal and altar to Astarte, 350-352; destruction of, 530.

Jesup expedition to the North Pacific, 534.

Jones, Sir William, 300.

Joyce, 570.

Justinian, 530.

Kaan, Maya word for cord, associated with caan, Heaven, 112.

Kaka or Akaka-kwe, mythic dance drama people, among the Zuñi, 204.

Kan=numeral four, 110; Maya word for serpent, 112; Nahuatl word for serpent, 189; Chinese word for mountain, also for province or ruler, 287.

Kan-asta (Iroquois) frame poles of the council house, 197.

Kanasta-tsi-koma (Iroquois) “the great framework;” name of Iroquois league, 197.

Katun, period of twenty years marked by sculptured stone, 218, 219, 220, 221.

Kingsborough, 11, 57, 62, 78, 240, 246.

Kin (Maya)=sun, 217.

Kin-ich-ahua, one title of Maya supreme divinity, 36.

Kircher, 485.

Knight, 470.

Kukulcan, Maya title for Mexican god Quetzalcoatl, 68; meaning of name=divine serpent, 68, 69; represented by feathered serpent in Yucatan and Mexico, 69; tradition concerning, 69; ruler of Chichen Itza, 69; assumed offices of four rulers, 69; established connection between Chichen Itza and Mexico, 93; compared with culture hero of Bogota, 171; Maya chief or lord, journeyed to Mexico and was there called, Quetzalcoatl, 206; actual person, Maya high priest, Mexican culture hero, 207; brought colony from Yucatan to Mexico, 208; name signified “divine four,” 208; title expressed by serpent on Copan stelæ, 220, 223; represented by monolith “Divine Twin,” 262.

Kulkun, mountain in China, called king of mountains, summit of the earth, etc., 287.

Kushites, myth regarding origin of life, etc., 495.

Kwakiutl Indians, social organization and secret societies, 147; compared with Maya, Mexican and Peruvian, 148.

Lacedæmon, ancient philosophy of, 487.

Lacouperie, T. de, 300, 302.

Land, conventional symbol of, 123.

Landa, Fra Diego de, 35, 69, 86, 191, 192, 206-220, 242, 281.

Language, differed in male and female communities, 193; influence on ancient American symbolism, 284 (see Linguistics).

Laoutsze, founder of Taouism, 298, 534.

Laplace, 319.

Las Casas, 67.

Layard, 360.

Lea, Chinese word for Below, 118.

Left-hand; left-handed was attribute of Mexican god, 12; consecration of, in Mexico and Peru, 163, 164; honorific title, 165; on Copan altar, 228.

Legge, 286, 289, 290, 292, 296, 298, 299.

Lenormant, 566.

Leon, Cieza de, 136, 150.

Le Plongeon A., 93, 95, 184, 214.

Lepsius, 379, 460.

Levier, Emile, 477, 478.

Life of the Indians (same as Hispano-Mexican MS., Biblioteca Nazionale MS., or B. N. MS.).

Linguistics, traces of words associated with archaic set of ideas in Old and New World, 531; comparative tables of words, Appendix I, 549; and Appendix III, 563.

Lion, sacred symbol in Egypt, 408.

Lizard, skin of, in connection with human sacrifice, and with goddess of earth and underworld, 91, 96, 98.

Lizana, 210.

Lloque Yupanqui, third Inca, 133.

Lockyer, Norman, 13, 14, 20, 162, 252, 376, 377, 381, 382, 384, 385, 386, 400.

Lorenzana, 68.

Lorillard City (see Menché), 210; sculpture and art of, 234.

Lotus, as symbol in Egypt and India, 314, 320, 379, 413.

Loubat, Duc de, 230, 504.

Luna, Don Jose, 50.

Lunar year, 254.

Lunar periods, 256.

Lunar calendar in Mexico, 297; in China, 297, 298.

Luschan, Felix von, 332, 356, 357.

Lysicrates, choragic monument of, 127.

Lycurgus, 457, 487.

Maghadas of India, 497.

Maghas of India compared with Mayas, 509; a Finnic race, 519.

Maghi of Persia, 497.

Magnus, P., 477, 478.

Mahaffy, J. P., 417.

Maize, ceremonial, 78; symbol of goddess of Earth, 91, 98; used in ceremonial offerings by Californian Indians, 105; on earth symbol in codices, 109, 117, 123; on sculptures at Palenque and Copan, 237, 239, 243; in Mexican New Year festivals, 241; cultivation of, in very early times, 272, 275; legacy of Corn Maidens and Daughters of Earth, 276; as year symbol, 291.

Maler, Teobert, 184, 212, 213, 214.

Maltaya bas-relief, 359, 360.

Manco, Capac, 133; founder of Cuzco, 156, 161, 186.

Manché, a tribe of Menché and Palenque, 235.

Mandaite pole-star worship, 321, 322, 556.

March, H. Colley, 23, 24.

Marcianus, 530.

Market stone of the City of Mexico, 245 (see Mexican Calendar Stone).

Marinus, 452.

Maritime intercourse between Old and New World, interrupted for many centuries by interregnum of Polaris, 531; equatorial currents favoring migrations to New World, 524, 525; evidence of Græco-Egyptian contact with Mexico, 538 (see Pre-Columbian contact).

Markham, Clements B., 132, 136, 142, 152, 160, 168, 510.

Marriage, in Mexico, sacred rites in connection with, 102; laws governing, 176; among the Hindu, 316; on New Year’s day in Babylonia and Assyria, 331, 346; in ancient Egypt, 441; festivals, in India and in Mexico connected with worship of Pleiades, 498 (see Heaven and Earth, union of).

Marroquin, 80.

Maspero, 437, 518.

Master builders, ah-men, Maya name for; aman-teca, Mexican name for, 234; kinship between those of Central America and Mexico, and the trained builders of cosmical structures in the Old World, 517, 529, 532, 533.

Maudslay, Alfred P., 120, 121, 170, 172, 215, 216, 218, 219, 221, 222, 223, 227, 229, 230, 233, 234, 235, 236, 239, 504.

Mayapan, capital of confederacy of Mayas, 69; ancient capital of Yucatan, 86; Ho, another name for, 206; Ichpa, another name for, 206; ancient chronicles, 209, 211; Cocomes, people of, 211-216.

Mayer’s Manual, 285.

Mazahuas or deer people, of Guatemala, 165.

McGee, W. J., 101.

Mecca, “the mother of cities;” the grave of Mother Eve, 323.

Medhurst, W. H., 285, 289.

Melchites, 530.

Memorial stones, in Copan, 219.

Men, name of dog in Maya calendar; means master-builder, artisan, etc., 234.

Menché, ancient ruins of, 215; “Lorillard City,” 234; ancient civilization of, 244.

Mendieta, 44, 67, 76.

Merida, modern capital of Yucatan, 68; ancient name, “Ho,” 85; figured in ancient map, 86.

Mesopotamia, pole-star worship, 321, 557; quadruple organization, stable Centre, 322; seat of various empires, 334.

Mexican Calendar Stone (see Calendar Stone of Mexico).

Mexican Calendar system (see Calendar Systems).

Mexican MSS. unpublished, 90.

Mexican Sacrificial Stone (see Sacrificial stone).

Mexico, number of deities; same god under several names, 7; idols, 8; worship of supreme Creator, 8; calendar-swastika, 9; calendar-stone, 12, 13, 95, 245-258, 280; system of government, origin of, 15; game, symbolizing axial rotation, 24, 25; calendar system, 25, 35, 53, 100, 145, 176, 179, 182, 221, 245, 282, 297, 528, 529, 530; Great Temple of, 58, 83, 90, 96, 107, 225, 507; City of, divided into four quarters, 83; built on dual island in dual lake, 84; ancient map of, 88; ancient capital of, divided into two halves, 89; recumbent stone figures bearing circular vessel, 93; tribal and household “idols,” origin of, 139; native arms of, 157; caste division associated with left hand, 165; origin of human sacrifice, 173; numerical divisions, social organization, symbolism, etc., identical with Peru, Copan, Guatemala, Yucatan, Zuñi, etc., 226; map of, to be published, 230, 231; compared with other ancient cultures of America, 235-244; sun cult and moon cult existing at same time, 264; dual government at time of Conquest, 266; cradle of American civilizations, 276; names of symbols translated from Maya, 278; swastika symbol found associated with calendar signs, 280; spider’s web as symbol of numerical divisions, 293; summary, in table of countries, 494; the sacred and tribal tree, 499; lighting the sacred fire, 504; symbols and plan of government compared to those of Old World, 506-524; numerical divisions on which the cosmical scheme was based, 528; date when calendar was instituted, 530; ruder forms of culture, 531; civilization at time of Conquest indicative of contact with Old World, 538; period of warfare, pestilence, etc., 539; resemblance between name of capital (Temistitan), and of Greek philosopher, Themistius, 543; summary and conclusions, 546.

Meyer’s Lexikon, 288.

Micmac Indians, myths about Ursa Major, 510.

Mictlampa, Nahuatl name for the North, 8.

Mictlan, land of the dead, 40, 245.

Mictlantecuhtli, identical with Tezcatlipoca, 8; lord of the North, 9, 11; symbols of, 37, 42, 44, 47, 57, 185, 186, 249, 260, 295.

Midas, king of Phrygia, 459.

Migration, from the north, to South America, 224; caused by desire to find stable centre of the earth, 275; in Mexico and Central America in twelfth century, 539 (see Migration myths).

Migration myths and traditions: in connection with cult of Polaris, 43; Peruvian, Mayan, Mexican, 149, 150, 151; motive of, explained by Zuñi, 201, 202; Kukulcan driven out of Chichen Itza and journeyed to Mexico, 206; three brothers came from the West and settled in Chichen Itza, 207; into Yucatan from the South, 210, 211; the Mayas came from Tollan in Zu-iva, 217; the Mexican culture hero came from the East, “the ancient red land,” 525, 528-530 (see Myths and Traditions).

Mikado, 311.

Mill-stone, as symbol, 494-509.

Milne, J. G., 425.

Minotaurus, ruler of island of Crete, 457.

Mirror, of obsidian, 10; used as oracle among the Cakchiquel Indian of Guatemala, 80; in sacred edifices; in great temple of Mexico; eyes of image of Tezcatlipoca, 80; symbol of Tezcatlipoca; oracle of judgment in Mexico and Guatemala; aid to astronomical observations, 82; of obsidian, symbol of star-cult; of polished pyrites, symbol of sun-cult, 83; in connection with symbolical tree and serpent, 110; bowl of water, preceded use of, 225; in Shinto symbolism, 311; in Egypt, 409.

Mississippi valley, cult of Polaris, 44; earth-work builders, 50; early peoples of, in contact with Mayas, 112; names of cities and tribes showing Maya influence, art resembling that of Mayas, 199.

Missouri, cult of Polaris indicated by emblems on shell-gorget, 44.

Mit (Egyptian)=death, or the dead, 381.

Mithra, Aryan god of the wheel, 313.

Mitimaes, Peruvian colonists, 149.

Mitla, 244; recent excavations at, 513.

Moabites, 351.

Mohammedans, 305.

Mol, glyph on Copan altar, 227.

Molina’s dictionary, 8, 93, 132, 138, 139, 141, 145, 146, 147, 152, 154, 158, 165, 168, 186, 189, 192, 553.

Monarquia Indiana, 95.

Mongolia, Buddhists of, 315.

Monkey=Ozomatli, Mexican day-sign, 112.

Monophysite doctrine of Eutyches, 530.

Montagua river, 215, 230.

Montesinos, 146, 150.

Montezuma, 34, 43, 54, 60, 61, 67-75, 83, 106, 125, 150, 183, 208, 231, 245, 265, 266, 540, 547.

Moon, associated with cult of night, Earth Mother, the Below, 104; in Peruvian cult of the Below, 134, 135, 148; in Bogota, 171; astronomical attainments of priests of, 180; in Mexican calendar stone, 250; image in silver on pyramid at Teotihuacan, 264, 267; in China, 286, 287, 292; lunar calendar, 297; in religion of Persia, 325; in Babylonia and Assyria, 332, 344, 347; in Egypt, 389, 424, 438.

Moqui Indians, tau symbol used by, 119.

Morien, 471.

Morse, Edward T., 473, 478.

Mortillet, Gabriel de, 19.

Mortuary customs in Mexico, placing jade with dead of upper class, and texaxoctli with dead of lower class, 195; carried northward from the south, 196; body of Mexican ruler covered with raiment of four principal gods, 209.

Moslems, 324.

Motowori, 575.

Motul, dictionary of, 112.

Mound, symbol of Earth, 110; in symbolic carving from Brazil or Guiana, 224.

Mound-builders (see “Earth-work Builders”).

Mountain, sacred (see “Pyramid or Mountain”).

Mueller, Iwan, 454.

Müller, Max, 459, 484, 564.

Muluc, Maya division of 4 years assigned to the north, 218.

Mummy, in Egyptian symbolism, 380, 394, 403, 404, 410.

Museums: American, of New York, 234; Berlin, 380, 417, 423, 424, 426, 427, 457, 460, 507; Bonn, 464; British, 151, 166, 234, 353, 355-357, 366, 457, 459; Dresden, 129, 155; Ghizer, 427; National, Mexico, 9, 13, 86, 93, 98, 256, 260; National, Washington, 19, 51; New Haven, 507; Peabody, 34, 48, 61, 153, _note_, 195, 218, _note_, 512; South Kensington, 216, 227, 234, 239, 313; Stockholm, 48; Trocadero, 104, 174, _note_.

Mushroom-shaped stone figures, from San Salvador and Guatemala, 114; represent native idea of Above and Below with central ruler of both, 114; indicate belief in one supreme ruler, 115.

Mussulman, 324.

Muyscas of Bogota, 171.

Myths and traditions: _Creation_ myths (see separate heading), 54, 55, 56, 105, 138, 200, 223, 313-318, 334, 340, 353, 495; _flood and destruction_ myths (see separate heading), 88, 240, 253, 270-275; _migration_ myths (see separate heading), 43, 149, 150, 201, 202, 206, 207, 210, 211-217, 525-530; _star cult_ myths,—Mexican, 11, 12, 25, 26; American Indian, 511, _note_; Turanian, 517, 518; _Mexican_, life after death and relative position of man and woman, 38, 39; Tezcatlipoca cast down from Heaven and arose as an ocelot, 44, 45; Quilaztli, “woman serpent,” 60-62; _Maya_, culture hero, Kukulcan, 69; suggesting worship of Polaris, 159; relating to 7-day period among the Cakchiquel Indians of Guatemala, 182; _Peruvian_, concerning the Inca Yupanqui who introduced the worship of the Creator, 152, 153; relating to ancestors of Manco Capac and the “royal eagle,” 156; concerning contest between serpent and eagle, compared with similar Mexican tradition, 159; _Japanese_, concerning birthplace of Japanese race, 310; _Arabian_, Moslem tradition about Heavenly and earthly Kaaba, 324; astronomical, 465; _Assyrian_, relating to planet Venus and god Ishtar, 344; _Greek_, about fire-drill, 496, and Ixion, 500; _Rig Veda_, origin of fire, 521.

Nahr-el-Kelb, bas-reliefs at, 357; Esarhaddon stela, 359.

Nahuas of Mexico compared with Nahushas of India, 509, 519.

Nahui-ollin, Mexican symbol, “four movements,” 170; represents four movements of constellations, 250; summary of the four-fold divisions of which it was a symbol, 251; commemorated the four epochs of the world’s history, 253; common to the various ancient peoples of America, 256, _note_ (see also Ollin).

Nakhunte, king of Susiana, 299.

Naming of children in Mexico and Yucatan, 242.

Navel, name of cosmical centre where human victims were annually sacrificed by Mexican priests=“Navel of the Earth,” 64; Cuzco called “Navel of the Earth,” 133; symbol in ancient American art, 296; in Arabia, 323; in India, “Navel of the heaven,” 520; “Navel of the world,” 521.

Navigation, primitive crafts and charts, Ceylon and Karashee, 159, 160; Peruvian fishing boats of seal skin; Quetzalcoatl’s twin raft of serpent or seal skin; illustrations in native codices and sculptures, 160 (see also Boat and Maritime intercourse).

Nebuchadnezzar, 365.

Necklace of hearts and hands, on Mexican idol, indicative of supplication, 128.

Neo-platonism, 527.

Nepantla, the zenith, 38.

Nest, in Egyptian symbolism, 398.

Nestorian Tablet, 304.

New Year’s Day, in ancient Mexico and Central America, 240-244; in China, 292; in Mesopotamia, 321, 557; in Babylonia and Assyria, 331, 346; in ancient Egypt, 419, 425-437; in Scandinavia, 473.

Nezahual coyotl, ruler of Texcoco who erected temple to “Unknown God,” 33, 163; title, Ome Tochtli=2 rabbit, 180.

Nicaragua, star-symbol on pottery from, 50; ancient occupation by Nahuatl-speaking race, 158; jade celts from, 195.

Niebuhr, 514.

Night, priest of, lord of, 82; sons of, 83; Egyptian symbol of, a star suspended by thread, 387.

Nimroud bas-reliefs, 366.

Nirvana, in Hindu religion, 315.

Nordenskjöld, Baron Gustav, 119, 230, _note_.

Norsemen, Eddas, symbolism, celestial tree, 502, 503.

North, symbols of, 10; sign of, 35; underworld, 39; in Cosmos, associated with Tecpatl=flint, red, fire, warmth, 42; symbol of, 56, 57; color of, red, 57; lord of, 57; female region, 64; symbol of, in Mexican calendar-stone, 250; region of the dead, 267; Maya name and symbol of, 278; Buddha associated with, 316; veneration of, in India, 317; in Egyptian pyramid symbolism, 381; Babylonian word=akkad, 400.

Nose, grotesque, on sculptures at Copan, Quirigua and Palenque, 240.

Nose ornament, religious idea associated with, 103.

Nott and Gliddon, races of men recognized by ancient Egyptians, 373.

Numbers, sacred, 29, 30 (see Numerical divisions).

Numerical divisions, in sociological and calendrical systems: in Mexico and Central America, 29, 62; in Peru, 144, 147, 167; in Guatemala, 164, 171, 179; represented by human figure, 174, 175; in Mexican government, 179, 181; carried northward from the south, 196; in Huron Confederacy, 198; among the Zuñi, 201; in Yucatan, 209, 218, 223; at Chichen Itza, 212, 213; in Copan, 221, 226, 228, 229; in symbolic carving from South America, 224; in Quirigua, 232, 233; in Mexican Calendar stone, 248, 256; on monolith “Divine Twin,” 261; in China, 286, 292, 302; Mexican compared with Chinese, 297; in Japan, 310; in India, 313, 320; in Persia, 325; in Assyria, 328, 348, 358, 360; in Egypt, 368-376; in cyclical systems of Egyptians, Hindus, Chinese, Mexicans, Mayas and Greeks, 450; in ancient Rome, 464; and Greece, 484; in ancient Ireland, 468-470; Britain, 470; Wales, 471; Scandinavia, 471, 472; table of countries in which used, 480-494; Plato’s “divine polities” compared with scheme of organization in Mexico and Peru, 509; summary, as shown in Yucatan and Mexico, 528; chief ruler called “Four in One,” 529; apparent survival in early Christian religion, 536-538; in Plato’s and Inca’s scheme of state, 539; in Constantine’s plan, and in Maya and Mexican calendars, 542, 543; analogies and divergences, American divisions agree with Greek but differ from Chinese, 546.

Nutt, David, 451.

Nuttall, Zelia, work on the Atlatl, 34; on the Mexican Calendar system, 7, 53, 244-247.

Obsidian mirror (see “Mirror”).

Ocelot, Tezcatlipoca took shape of, 8; in Mexican mythical drama, 12; of nocturnal sky, 35; in Mexican codices, 44; at Tiahuanaco, 166; title of one division of Mexican warriors, 167; man with beast (ocelot or jaguar,) symbol of dual State in Yucatan, 185; title of minor rulers in Yucatan, 185; man-ocelot and man-bird, represented rulers of two divisions of state in Mexico, 185; or tiger, warrior-caste of Mexico, 212; skin of, worn by high-priest in Copan and Quirigua, 231, 233; totem of the Fire people in Mexico, 254; symbolized cult of Earth, as opposed to bird, symbol of cult of Heaven, 282; symbol of State in ancient America, 295, 296 (see also Jaguar, Puma and Quadruped).

Ocna, a Maya festival, 242.

Octli, name of native wine, 78; pulque, 101; earth-wine, indicated by figure of rabbit, 103.

Octli-gods, agents of the Cihuacoatl, 78; rain gods, 96; rain-priests, 101; priests of the earth, emblem of=vase filled with rain or earth-wine, 107; monkey intimately connected with, 112.

Odin, Scandinavian king and deity, 471; Norse “ruler of Heaven,” 473.

Ohio valley, ancient earth-work builders in contact with ancient Mexicans, 50; art resembles Maya, 199; swastika symbol associated with serpent symbol, 280.

Ojibway Indians, 511, _note_.

Oldenburg, 484.

Old World, fire-drill, fire altar, sacred fire, oil press, millstone, axial rotation, etc., 494-504; civilizations compared with New World, 504-609, 525; summary and conclusions, 544.

Oliva, Padre Anello, 132, 150, 154, 156, 157, 164.

Oliver, G., 484, 485.

Ollin, in Calendar-stone, 12, 13, 14, 15, 54 (see also Nahuiollin).

Olmos, Friar Andreas de, 54, 189, 190, 195.

Olympic Games, marked cycle or period, 485.

Omacatl, associated with water, 81.

Omaha Indians, measured time by Ursa Major, 511, _note_.

Ome Tochtli Ixtlilxochitl, 163.

Ondegardo, Polo de, 132, 141, 148.

O’Neil, 448, 449, 451, 468, 469, 471, 472, 547, 568, 570, 572, 574.

Oriental Congress, 544.

Orientation, 42; of Copan and Quirigua the same, 230; of temples at Palenque, 235; diagonal, in Egypt and Central America, 372, _note_; Egyptian pyramids faced the north, and the pole-star, 382; temples in Lower Egypt faced to the North; in Upper Egypt to the South, 383.

Origin of American civilizations, 543; summary and conclusions, 544.

Orizaba, giant volcano, 275; ancient name, Citlal-tepetl=Star Mountain, 275, _note_.

Ozomatli, monkey; Mexican day-sign, 112.

Pacha-Yachachi, Inca name for Creator, 135.

Painting, in connection with symbolism, 114; of body and face in Peru, Mexico and Yucatan, 192, 193 (see Color).

Palenque, Palace House with tau-shaped recesses, 121, _note_; character of stelæ, 215; study of monuments, 234-239; same cult as Quirigua and Copan, 240; tablets, tribal registers, 243; tablet, in “Temple of the Sun,” likened to Mexican Sacrificial stone, 259.

Palestine, cult of Astarte and Baal, and monotheism of the Israelites, 345.

Pan, feast of, 442.

Pantheon, 515.

Panuco, Maya colony established at, 125, 207, 208, _note_.

Papa, name of Mexican Priest, 39.

Papakhu, name of inner sanctuary of Babylonian and Assyrian temple, 330, 331.

Papalotl, butterfly, 39.

Parry, Francis, 104.

Parsee religion, worship of fire as outcome of pole-star worship, 326.

Parturition, symbolized by shell, 95; by snail, 111.

Path of the Dead, ancient road leading to Pyramid of the Moon, 267.

Patolli, native Mexican game, 87; symbolized social organization, 176, 177.

Paz Solden, 150.

Peabody Museum, 34, 48, 61, 153, _note_, 195.

Peabody Museum Honduras Expedition, 218, _note_, 512.

Pedregal de San Augustin, ancient lava-field in City of Mexico, 271.

Peking, contains temple to North Star God, 284 (see China and Polaris).

Peñatiel, Antonio, 262.

Perez, 109.

Perrot and Chipiez, 421.

Perry, John, 547.

Persia, ancient religion of; swastika; seven divisions of Cosmos, four-fold rule, 325, 484.

Peru, worship of Pleiades, 53; sacred fire, 83; use of checker board design, 124; light and dark colors used to designate the Above and Below, 130; irrigating canals in symbolic form, 132, 146; outline of civilization, 132; stone monument typifying duality, 134; knowledge of Creator, 135; form of government, 136, 137; tribal and household “idols,” 138, 139, 140; four rulers, 141; classification of people, 142; “white virgins,” title given to upper class maidens; “black virgins,” lower class; caste; deformation of skulls, 143; ceremony for driving out sickness, 144; Above, Below, Centre and Four Quarters, 144; ceremony illustrating rotation, 145; religious festivals, 146, 147; civilization from the north, 150; prehistoric ruins, 151, 156; Inca fable, 152; compared with symbolism of sculptured slabs in Guatemala, 153, 154, 155, 156; linguistic affinities between Quechua and Maya and Nahuatl, 158, 159; Polaris; navigation, 159, 160; worship of “Creator” (Polaris) superseded sun and moon cults, 161, 164; caste division associated with left hand, 165; ruins of Tiahuanaco, 165-169; symbols compared with those of Mexico and Central America, 170; summary, 494; scheme of government compared with Plato’s “divine polities”, 509, 539; summary and conclusions, 546.

Petrie, Flinders, 375, 380, 404, 425, 439, 461, 483, 491.

Pheidon of Corinth, 486, _note_.

Pherecydes, the Phœnician teacher of Pythagoras, 526.

Philolaus, 485, 527.

Phœnicians, cult of Astarte, 345; a northern race, called Turanians, 517; navigators, 519; worshipped serpent, fire-drill and the Pleiades; called the “red men,” 521; tradition indicates their migration to the New World, 524, 525, 528-535; evidence of their influence, 538-541; allied to Semitic race, 540, _note_, 541, 543; summary and conclusions, 546.

Pig, sacred animal in Egypt, 409.

Pigmy races, traditions of, 339.

Pillar, worship of (see Column).

Pilli, Mexican title, 74; meaning “fingers,” title of minor lords, 282.

Pilquixtia, a Mexican festival, 240.

Pinches, Mr., 357.

Plato, 346, 444-451, 467, 486-490, 509, 527, 529, 539, 546.

Plato’s “Divine Polities,” identical with scheme of government in ancient Mexico and Peru, 509, 539.

Pleiades, study of, by primitive peoples, 52; on Society Islands, 52; in Mexico, 53; in southern America, 53, 54; on Mexican Calendar-stone, 252; in Chinese calendar, 296; in Babylonia and Assyria, 338 (see Polaris, Ursa Major and Ursa Minor); worship of, in India and Mexico; in connection with New Year and marriage festivals, 498.

Plotinus, 527.

Plutarch, 441, 452, 488.

Polar constellations, chart of, 16.

Polar regions, both hemispheres originally peopled from, 531.

Polaris, the author’s observation of, 7; primitive man’s study of, 14, 15; Draconis, as pole-star; apparent immovability; means of determining direction; supernatural power, 21; worship of; centre of axial energy, 22; Mexican Calendar system suggested by, 25; numerical value of, 30, 31; centre of cosmic system, 40, 41; changes in relative positions of, 42; ceased to be brilliant and immovable about 500 B.C. to 1200 A.D., 43; cult of; migrations from south to north, 43; spread of cult in Mexico, Yucatan, Honduras, Guatemala, Peru; also, in Mississippi valley, as indicated by carvings on shell gorgets, 44; symbols of, analogous to cross and star symbols on shell gorgets from Tennessee, 48, 49, 50; suggestions of cult among the Eskimo, 50; represented by star symbols and swastika on pottery from Arizona and Nicaragua, 50; in connection with cult of Earth and Night, 54; represented by Montezuma on his throne, 72; not identical with God C, 112; as centre of rotation in Zuñi emblem, 129; as a guide in navigation between Guatemala, Nicaragua and Peru, 159; between Ceylon and Karachee, 159, 160; cult superseded sun and moon cults in Peru, 161; invisible at Cuzco; Inca worship of the invisible Creator, 161; Yoal-tecuhtli, Mexican lord of the Night; title of Polaris, 181; producer of life and regulator of the universe; tecpatl (flint knife) symbol of, 183; in connection with tree symbolism; title, “Heart Of Heaven,” 189; among the Zuñi, 202; at Copan, 222, 224; reflected in bowl of water=Creator, 225; in Shakespeare, 247; represented central face in Mexican calendar-stone, 250; Calendar-stone based on observation of, 257, _note_; in connection with pyramid, 273, 274; in connection with swastika symbol, 276; Maya name, Ek-chuah, patron divinity of travellers and traders, 278; North Star God, temple to, in Pekin; Chinese name=Teen-hwang-ta-tee, literally the great imperial ruler of Heaven, 284-287, 291, 295; in work of Confucius, 298; in Chinese Taouism, 301, 302; Hebrew Jehovah, having same title, “God of Heaven,” 304; in India, 316, 318, 319; in Mesopotamia, 321; in Arabia, 324; linguistic affinity between name of Polaris, and word for capital and for north, in Babylonia, 325; Phœnician name=the serpent, 325; in Persia, 326; in Babylonia, “lord or king”, “Great Mountain,” 329; cult of, in Assyria and Babylonia, 332-339; among the Israelites, 352; in Babylonia, highest form developed into monotheism, and lowest form into cult of Ishtar and Bel, 353; represented in Babylonian temples by a fire in centre of square altar, 362, 363; Euphratean star-worshippers, 364; high development of cult in Egypt, 368, 376-382; Egyptian mummy, image of, 386; Egyptian names for, 398, 401-403; in Egyptian religion and symbolism, 403, 404, 409, 410, 415, 421, 423; in India, called the “pivot of the planets,” 448, _note_; in Arabia, “the hole where the earth’s axle found its bearing,” 448, _note_; in ancient Greece, 450-453; Greek Polos, a star revolving on itself, 453, 454; indicated by cross symbol before the use of swastika, 461; called by early Danes and Icelanders, “throne of Thor” or “smaller Chariot,” 473; called by Finns “Taehti=star at the top of the heavenly mountain,” 473; among the ancient Scandinavians and their descendants the Vikings, 474; circumpolar region, probable birth-place of cult, 475; table of countries in which traces of cult have been found, 480; associated with use of fire-drill in Old and New World, 494; among Hindus, 498; Greek Ixion, 500; Assyrian goddess Ishtar called the “axis of the heavens,” female Polaris, 503; figured by wooden or stone socket from which fire and water flowed to the four quarters, 503; pole-star god of the Hindus compared with fire-drill god of Mexico, 505; the Mexican pole-star god compared with the Hindu, Greek, Norse, Russian, etc., 505; Old and New World, 517; Phœnicians steered by, from earliest times, 523, 525; interval of time when the pole star ceased to be conspicuous, 525; maritime intercourse interrupted, 531; reappearance of, 538; summary and conclusions, 544; Mesopotamian prayer meeting of star-worshippers (Appendix II), 557.

Popocatepetl, volcano, Mexico, 275.

Popol-Vuh, sacred book of the Quichés, 72, _note_, 113, 270.

Popular Science Monthly, 478.

Porto Rico, stone objects from, 118; cult of aborigines, 118.

Powell, J. W., 288, _note_.

Powers, Stephen, 105.

Pre-Columbian contact indicated by same cosmical divisions and scheme of government in Old and New World, 480-504; same symbolism, etc., 509-544; traditions indicate, 525, 528, 529, 530; question of contact between China and America, 534; summary and conclusions, 544.

Prescott, 541.

Pritchard, W. T., 290.

Proctor, Richard A., 162.

Propitiation, origin of, 177.

Ptolemy, 452.

Pueblo Indians, use of tau, 119; associate step pyramid with rain, 132; affinities with Mexican and Maya, 199; corn maidens, 276.

Pullé, Mr., 318.

Pulque, in connection with cult of earth-mother, 193 (see Octli).

Puma, four heads terminating arms of swastika at Tiahuanaco, (see Quadruped, Ocelot and Jaguar).

Putnam, F. W., 50, 196, 199, 545.

Pyramid or sacred mountain: culmination of symbolism of cone, 118; in mountain worship, 132; Maya word for, 191; Lord of the Mountain a sovereign title among the Quiché, 211; origin and significance of, 251; typified numerical divisions, 252; on statue “Divine Twin,” 262; origin attributed to the Maya speaking people; at Teotihuacan, 263; interpretation of affix “can” in names of Mexican and Maya towns, 263, 264, 266, 268; image of central, dual and quadruple power, 269, _note_; of Cholula, ancient name for, means “the monument or precious jade stone of the Toltecs, etc.,” 269; erected as place of refuge from inundations, 272; symbol of Central power, and quadruple organization, 274; same as expressed by swastika, 274; of Cholula, marks the site of great and ancient Tollan, 275; as symbol of Centre in Cosmos, 277; meaning of symbol, 282, 283; in Chinese symbolism and social organization, 287, 288, 333; in Japan, 310; in Hindu religion, 317; in Babylonia, 328; star god called “Great mountain,” 329; identical with god in Babylonia and in Assyria, 333; Hebrew god, Yahwe, worshipped on Mount Sion, 351; Jerusalem founded on Mount Zion, 352; holy mound symbol of god Shamash of Assyria, 356; central deity of Babylonia called “the great mountain,” 367; in Egypt expressed a whole divided into four parts, 371; miniature of cosmos, 379, 380; seven-storied pyramid of Sakkarah, Egypt, 381, 386; of Begerauie, 427; “holy mountain of God” Book of Prophet Ezekiel, 449, _note_; the chief idol of Ireland was called Cenn Craich (mound-chief), 469; form of letter delta in Greek Alphabet, 511; summary and conclusions, 544.

Pyramid temple at Chichen Itza, 207, 208.

Pyrites, mirror of, used as symbol of sun-cult, 83.

Pythagorean philosophy, 484-488, _note_, 515, 526; Neo-Pythagorism, 527.

Quadruped, meaning of use as symbol, 282; represented Zuñi state and subdivisions, 295; illustrated by Alligator altar at Copan and by “Great Turtle” at Quirigua, also by tortoise in China, 296, _note_ (see Ocelot, Jaguar and Puma).

Quadruple organization, in cosmos, and scheme of government: origin of idea, 15; Maya, Mexican, and Zuñi, 41, 42; expressed in cross symbols, 47-54; Mexico divided into four parts, 83; at time of Conquest, 75, 76; in ancient map of Yucatan, 86; in ancient map of Mexico, 88; in Inca empire, 136, 144; in Guatemala, 171, 172; in Bogota, 171; among the Tzendals, 180, 181; Quiché, 182; in Yucatan sculptures, 185, 186; in tree symbolism, 187, 192; carried northward, 196; in Huron Indian Confederacy, 198; among Zuñi, 201; in Maya and Mexican traditions, 208, 209; in Yucatan, 218, 223; at Copan, 226, 228; at Quirigua, 232; at Palenque, 236; Palenque, Peru, Guatemala, Yucatan, Mexico and Zuñi compared, 244; regulated by Calendar Stone, 245, 247, 254; in connection with pyramid building, 272, 273-282; in China, 286, 291; represented by human figure, 296; China and Mexico compared, 297; in Japan, 310-312; in India, 313, 318, 481; in Mesopotamia, 321; in Persia, 325; in Assyria, 332-337, 335; in ancient Egypt, 371, 372, 399; in Greece, 454; indicated first by cross symbol and later by swastika, 461; in ancient Rome, 463; in ancient Ireland, 468; in ancient Britain, 470; in Scandinavia, 472; table of countries where traces are found, 480-494; comparative review, 509, 510; in cruciform structures at Copan and Mitla, 512, 513; chief ruler called “Four in One,” 529 (see also, Numerical Divisions).

Quauh-Cihuatl=the Eagle woman, Mexican title, 60.

Quetquetzalcoa, plural of Quetzalcoatl, title of his successors, 70, 97, 98.

Quetzal, feathers of, carved on feathered serpent, 70; exhibiting colors of Four Quarters, 70; used as Mexican symbol of beloved chief or child, 190; totem at Palenque, 236, 237; totem at Copan, 237; (see also Bird).

Quetzalcoatl, invocation to; Creator and maker, twin lord and twin lady, 32; “wheel of the winds,” 33; the divine twin, centre of cosmos, 42; other names for; myth concerning, 55; an actual person who came from Yucatan, 67; ruled in Chichen-Itza, 68; Maya title=Kukulcan, 68; in Mexico supreme god, also god of fire, and of the four winds, 70; successors to, 71; was driven from Tullan by enemies, 88; established connection between Chichen-Itza and Mexico, 93; recumbent figure of, in temple of city of Tula, 95; sacrifices to, 96; god of the winds, 96; built Caracol or Round Temple at Chichen-Itza, 97; Round Temples in Mexico dedicated to, 97; divine twin, 126; on sculptured slabs from Guatemala, 154, 157; his craft called “serpent or twin raft,” 160; another name for Maya lord, Kukulcan, 206; brought colony from Yucatan to Mexico, 208; important historical person, 208; Tollan abode of, 217; compared with figure on Copan sculpture, and with priest in Zuñi creation myth, 223; figured with beard, in Mexican codices, 231; monolith “Divine Twin,” 260, 262; image of, in temple of Cholollan, 270; temple at Tula, 294.

Quetzalcoatl Totec Tlamacazqui, title of high priest in service of Huitzilopochtli, 71; also title of Montezuma, 71.

Quiché, Supreme Divinity of, 71, _note_; Sacred book of, 72, _note_; totems, 164, _note_; numerical and social system, illustrated by tradition, 182; compared with Zuñi, 182; “Lord of the Mountain” title, 211; affix in name, _ché_, Maya word for tree, 235; used day and year signs as personal and tribal names, 253; traditions of destruction of earth, 270.

Quilaztli, sister of Huitzilopochtli, myth concerning, 60; the mother of all, same as Cihuacoatl, 61, 67; compared with Egyptian queen, 428.

Quirigua, sister city to Copan, 210; ancient monuments, 215, 216, 218, 223, 229; social organization same as that of Copan, 230, 231, 232; totemic animals and symbolic colors, 233; “Great Turtle,” 234, 240, 296, _note_; stelæ as memorial stones of high priest rulers, 512; remnants of old civilization, 528.

Ra, Egyptian word for God, 409.

Rabbit (tochtli), 78; Mexican calendar sign; symbol of earth and reproduction, used to represent sound of word, octli, 78; figure of, indicates sacred octli or earth-wine, 103; in Nahuatl picture writing, 125; the rebus for earth-wine or rain, 506.

Rabinal, 172.

Rain, Tlaloc, god of, 78, 81; figured with scrolls about the eyes, 95; symbols, 96; lords, four hundred in number, sacred vase, emblem of, 102; Zuñi rain-makers, 132; rites practised on summits of pyramids, 283; ancient festival described in the Brahmanas, 496, 497; symbolized by rabbit, 506.

Rattlesnakes, on monolith “Divine Twin,” 261.

Raven, or summer people among the Zuñi, 201.

Rawnsley, 491.

Rays, carved on Calendar stone the idea of, 255.

Read, C. H., 166.

Recumbent stone statues, 93-96, 185, 214.

Recurved staff or sceptre, 34.

Red land, in name of Mexican city Tlapallan, and of Chichen (Itza), 68; “the great ancient red land” in the East, 525.

Red man, origin of title, 193; title of the Phœnicians, 521; in Genesis, 523; Chichimecs of Mexico (literally, Red race), 532.

Rig-Veda, 494, 496, 497, 499, 500, 505, 521, 522.

Riksmuseum of Stockholm, 48.

Ring or circle, in Persia, 326 (see Circle or ring).

Rio Lagartos, 217.

Rios, Padre, 11, 268, 270.

Rivero, 134; and Tschudi, 150.

Roman, 150.

Roman Catholic Church, 537.

Roman Milliarum Aureum, 513.

Rome, sacred fire, Roma Quadrata, 461; duality, middle, quadruple government, 463; numerical divisions, 464; seven-storied tower, 464; seven-day period, 465, 466, 467; summary, in table of countries, 493; Constantine’s plan of state-organization in New Rome identical with the numerical scheme of the Maya and Mexican calendars, 509; the symbolical use of the column, 513; amulet, 514; church built by Constantine in form of Greek Cross, 514.

Rosa, Beltran de la, 181.

Rosny, Leon de, 36.

Rotation (see Axial rotation).

Round form, associated with cult of Heaven or the Above in Mexico, Central America; among Zuñis, 113-115; in ancient architecture, 115; associated with sky in Egypt, 371.

Round Temples of Chichen Itza and Mexico, symbolism of, 97.

Royal Ethnographical Museum of Dresden, 129, 155.

Rust, Horatio N., 104.

Sabæan star-worship, 322.

Sabbath, derivation of name, etc., 327.

Sacrifice, human, sacred rite, in Mexico, 63; symbolism of, in Aztec religion, 66, 77; human victim formed living swastika, 91, 92; human blood used to moisten sacred dough, 98; origin of blood sacrifices, 98; to Heaven and to Earth, 118; in Peru, 147, 148, 151; in Mexico, taking out heart of captive signified destroying life of conquered tribe, 263; in China, 296; Egyptian compared with Mexican, 442, 443.

Sacrificial-stone of Mexico=Tribute-stone, or law-stone recording collection of tributes, etc., 258, 259.

Sahagun, Friar Bernardino de, 8, 11, 32, 33, 34, 38, 39, 47, 53, 56, 61, 66, 70, 72, 73, 75, 77-83, 104, 118, 123, 127, 128, 150, 159, 173, 175, 176, 189, 192, 245, 259, 261, 279, 507, 553, 555.

St. Augustine, 536.

Sakkarah, Egyptian seven-storied pyramid, 381.

Salado, 200.

Salcamayhua, 132, 146, 148, 151, 161, 170, 186.

Salcamayhua tablet, 510, _note_.

Sanchez, Jesus, 44, 93, 95, 96, 157, _note_.

San Fun, ancient Chinese work, 291.

Saniah-ya-kwe: priesthood of the Hunt, among the Zuñis, 201.

San Salvador, mushroom-shaped stone figures from, 114.

Santa Lucia Cozumalhuapa, sculptured slabs at, 153, 154, 163, 172.

Sapper, Carl, 114, 173.

Satow and Hawes’ Handbook of Japan, 570.

Saville, M. H., 513.

Saxo Grammaticus, 472.

Sayce, A. H., 324, 327, 347, 348, 349, 425, 449, 481, 491, 518, 519, 520, 521, 524, 525, 527, 532, 540, 572.

Scandinavia, triskelion associated with swastika, 28, 29; Greek fret, 121; numerical divisions; middle; Four Quarters; Ursa Major called “Thor’s Wagon;” sacred mountain and tree; axial rotation; cult of Polaris; duality; flora and fauna, 471-479; summary, in table of countries, 493; use of wheel in early times, also mill stone, 502, 503.

Scarab, meaning of emblem, secret sign for “hidden god,” 397, 399.

Sceptre, with gold disk, in Mexico, 80, 81; emblem of sovereignty in Assyria and Babylonia, 365; in Egypt, 425.

Schellhas, P., 107, 108, 109, 111, 182.

Schlagintweit, 294, 301.

Schlegel, G., 284.

Schliemann, H., 459, 460, 518.

Schroeder, 526, 568.

Schuchhardt, 518.

Scorpion, Maya Zin-an; symbol of Mictlantecuhtli, 9.

Scotland, use of checker-board design, 124.

Sed festival, 425, 429, 431.

Selden MS., 57, 90, 508, _note_.

Seeds, in symbolism of earth mother, 109; in Maya codices, 111; seeds of life, Zuñi, Mexican, Maya, 223, 225; on Tablet of the Cross, 236; on Copan swastika; among Zuñi, 236; conventionalized maize seeds, 237; idols formed of seeds in Egypt and Mexico, 442, 443.

Seler, E., 109, 129.

Semiramis, temple of, 347.

Semites, 350-352, 521; name of Supreme god=Yahu or Yaho or Yahve, 532; allied to the Phœnicians, 540, _note_, 541.

Sendschirli tablet, 365.

Sepher Hathora, Hebrew book of the law, 361.

Serpent, in ancient religious symbolism: associated with time, 26, 27; Nahuatl name=twin, Maya name=four, 31; symbol of dual or quadruple nature, 31; of eternal life and the Creator, 32; cursive sign for, 38; on shell gorgets from Mississippi valley, 49, 112; origin of symbol, 50; divine ruler of four quarters, 68, 69; feathers with (see Feathered serpent) 70, 71; pertaining to earth-mother, 100; double-headed, forming vase, 101; in connection with tree of life, 103, 110, 189; with burial of woman, 107; with symbol of Earth, 111; associated with air symbol, 126; in ancient Peruvian fable, 152; on sculptured slabs from Guatemala, 154; totem of tribe conquered by Incas, 157; in arms of Mexico, 157; on silver pendant from Cuzco, 170; with seven heads, symbolical of Mexican and Maya seven tribal divisions, 181; of dual ruler, 190; mythological snake among the Pueblo people, 200; symbol of Below among the Zuñi, 204; totemic animal of Uxmal, 214; at Copan and Quirigua, 219, 220, 223, 228; on “Cross Tablets” at Palenque, 236, 238, 239; on Calendar-stone, 255; on monolith “Divine Twin,” 261; of gold and mosaic on statue of Huitzilopochtli, 266; meaning of symbol, 281; in India, 313; in Persia, 325; in Babylonia, 335; worshipped in the temple of Solomon, 351; in Egyptian symbolism, 389, 391, 393, 424; in Old and New World, 522-523.

Serpent-woman, 60, 61, 65; Cihuacoatl, Mexican ruler, 67, 77, 79, 111; emblem of, figured and described, 128.

Seven, sacred number, 29, 56 (see summary, 480-494; also Numerical divisions).

Shakespeare, 247, _note_.

Shamash, temple of, in Babylonia, 331; antiquity of cult of, 332; symbols of, 356; cross and four-spoked wheel of, 355, 365, 495; image of, made by a race of pole star worshippers, 503; compared with “black or night sun” on Mexican Calendar stone, 506.

Shang, Chinese word for Above, 118.

Shang-te, Chinese supreme ruler, whose residence was “Tien”=Heaven, 301.

S-shape, Ursa Minor figured as, 11; bronze brooch from Scandinavia, 29; on native fabrics, in Vienna Codex, 34; in B. N. MS., 34, 38; in Sahagun’s Historia, 34; cakes in shape of, 34; associated with star signs and the North, 35; in Mexican and Maya codices, 35, 36; sign of summer solstice, 36; with cross and rain symbols, 37; breads in shape of, 46; figure on Phœnician tablet, 395, _note_.

Shell gorgets, representing winged human being, 39, _note_; in Illinois, Missouri and Tennessee, showing cult of Polaris, 44; from Tennessee, 48, 49; evidence of identical symbolism from Yucatan to Illinois, 48-52, 112.

Shell, symbol of parturition, 95, 238.

Shell pendant, symbolism of, 112.

Shinto religion, 311.

Shiwana-kwe, priesthood of the priest-people among the Zuñi, 201.

Shoo king, 289, 290, 292, 295, 298, 299.

Shogunate, 311.

Shun, Chinese emperor succeeding Yaou, 292, 298.

Siculus, Diodorus, 329, _note_, 540, _note_.

Sidon, 527.

Siena, Italy, founded by sons of Remus, affinities with ancient Rome, 465.

Silco, 530, 531.

Simpson, Wm., 313.

Sippara, tablet of, 331, 332, 350, 356, 365, 495, 503, 506.

Situa, Peruvian festival when the cults of Above and Below were celebrated, 134.

Siva, cult of, compared with cult of Earth-mother, 314.

Skull, artificially deformed in ancient Peru, 143.

Sky-father among the Zuñi, 201.

Smith, Professor, 522.

Smyth, Piazzi, star-map, 30, 43.

Snail, symbol of parturition, 111.

Social organization in Mexico, at time of Montezuma, myths relating to origin of, 54, 62-75 (see Quadruple organization and Numerical divisions).

Society Islands, study of Pleiades in, 52.

Solomon, built altar to Astarte in Jerusalem, 350; built altars to Kamosh, god of the Moabites, and to Milkom, god of the Ammonites, 351.

Solomon’s temple, 327, 344, 522.

Solon, 445, 447, 448, 455, 526.

Solar or civil year, divisions, 254.

Solstice, summer, 36; winter, 40; lighting sacred fires at time of, 83.

Sommier, Stephen, 477.

Sophocles, 453.

South America, symbolism of, compared with that of Mexico, 122, 224 (see Peru).

Southern Cross, 162.

South, Acatl=cane, blue, Mexican emblem and color of, 42.

South Kensington Museum, 216, 227, 234, 239, 313.

Spamer, 332, 428, 457.

Spear-throwers, on tablet at Chichen Itza, and on Mexican Tribute Stone, 259.

Speed, John, 470.

Sphinx, Egyptian, 373, 379.

Spider, a symbol of Mictlantecuhtli, 37; tradition about Tezcatlipoca’s descent from the sky by a spider’s thread, 44; in Nahuatl=tocatl. In Maya=am; symbol originated in Yucatan, 47; on shell-gorgets from Illinois, Tennessee and Missouri, 47, 49; in ancient MSS., 90, 202; in Zuñi symbolism, 201; Maya symbol of the North, 278; web of, use as symbol of numerical divisions, 293, 535, _note_.

Spindle, as symbol of axial rotation, in connection with cross symbols on terra cotta spinning whorls, 498.

Spinning tops, 547, _note_.

Spinning whorls, symbolic of rotary motion, in Troy, 498; in Mexico, 504, 508.

Square form, associated with Earth in native American symbolism and architecture, 115, 260, 284; in Egypt, 371.

Stadaconé, same as Canada, 197.

Stanley, Dean, 514, _note_.

Star symbol, a black dot, 35; an eye, 36, _note_, 50, 116, 155, _note_, 269, 279; suspended by thread, symbol of night (Egyptian), 387; plain circle in Chinese symbolism, 391; expressed numeral five in Egypt, 398 (see Polaris).

Star-cult (see Polaris).

Star god, in Babylonia, Bel; in Asia Minor, Ah-baal, identified with pole-star, 329 (see Polaris).

Star-map, Piazzi Smyth’s, 20.

Star-names in Maya, 278.

Stelæ, purpose of erection, marked periods of time, 216; at Copan and Quirigua, 219-240; correspond with Ahua-ka-tun, the 20-year memorial stone, 221; of Assyrian kings, having seven symbols, seven circles, etc., 337-360; Esar-haddon of Sendschirli, 342, 359; Bavian, 357, 358, 359; of Sargon, 357, 359; trilingual stela of Canopus, preserved at Gizeh, 378; funeral stela at Bûlâk, 421; at Quirigua and Copan memorial stones of high priest rulers, with title “Divine Four”; built over hidden cruciform vaults, compared with the Egyptian “star of Horus,” 512, 513.

Stevenson, 150.

Stolpe, Hjalmar, 48, 121, 224.

Stoll, Otto, 79, 85, 164, 173.

Stomach, symbolized the Centre or Middle, in China, 296.

Stone, rough or worked, emblem of Earth mother, buried with the dead, 106.

Stone of Tizoc, compared with Altar K of Copan, 226.

Stone collar, from Porto Rico, analogous to stone yokes of Mexico, 118.

Stone figures, recumbent, bearing circular vessels, 93; figured, 94 (see Recumbent stone figure).

Stone knives, flint knife in wrappings, Mexican and Maya symbol of Earth mother, 55, 56; among California Indians, 105.

Stone monuments, of Peru (Tiahuanaco), 164-169; Central America, 154, 218-233; Yucatan, 234-244; Mexico, 245-275.

Stone “seats,” found in Ecuador, analogous to vase or earth symbols, 107.

Stone tiger with human head and depression in back, found in Mexico and Yucatan, 95.

Stone tables, at Chichen Itza, 212; Maya name for=Mayac-tun, 213; used as drums in sacred ceremonies, 213.

Stone tablet at Sippar, 331, 332.

Stone vessels, found in Mexico and Yucatan, 213.

Stone “yokes,” compared with symbolic vase; pertained to cult of earth-mother; in use among Indians of Southern California, 104; in connection with burial of priestesses of Below, 107.

Strabo, 329.

Strebel, Hermann, 104, 153, 156, 157, 165, 172.

Stübel, A., 167, 169.

Sturlesson, Snorri, 471.

Sumerians, inhabited the South=Sumer, 334.

Summary, of study of ancient American symbols,—cross, serpent, tree, flower, etc., 279-284; use of human and animal figure in symbolism, 296; of countries in which are found the “Quadruple Organization,” pole-star worship, etc., 480-494; and Conclusions, 544-562; and tables of words used in the Old and New World in connection with a certain culture based on pole star worship, Appendix I, 548; and Appendix III, 562.

Sun cult, Nahuatl word for sun applies equally to the stars; day sun and night sun; Ollin, symbol of, 13; superseded by star cult, 22; associated with star-cult, 53, 54; Black Sun in B. N. MS., myth concerning, 54, 55; emblem of Montezuma, 72; Montezuma, high priest of, 74; mirror of polished pyrites, symbol of, 83; rival of star-cult, 83; sacrifices to, in Mexico, 117, 118; in Peru, 134; superseded by belief in Creator, among the Incas, 135; temple of, at Cuzco, 138; upper class maidens in Peru, dedicated to, 143, 145, 148, 149, 170; among Muyscas of Bogota, 171; astronomical attainments of priests of, 180; “Virgins of the Sun” and sun-priests in Mexico and Peru, 194; Sun-father of the Zuñi, 200, 201, 204, _note_; on Copan sculpture, 222; in Mexican calendar-stone, 249; four movements of, 252; golden effigy of, associated with Incas in Peru, 264; Enclosure of, name of pyramid at Teotihua-Can, 264, 267; tablet of the sun, in China, 285; temple of, 286; altars, 387; sun-goddess of Japan, 311; among the Hindu, 312; in religion of Persia, 325; in Babylonia and Assyria, 332; in Egypt, 382; king of Egypt associated with, 389, 424; Egyptian goddess Hathor-Isis was called the female sun, 432; development of cult in Egypt, 438; Cæsar called son of the sun, 440.

Supreme being (see Creator or Supreme Being).

Sut-staw-ra-tse, the leader of the “Kingdom of Hochelaga,” 197.

Swastika, in Mexican Calendar, 9, 18, 41; origin of symbol; formed by positions of Ursa Major, 15, 16, 18; various forms of, illustrated, 17, 19; geographical distribution of, 19; date when first used as symbol, 20, 21; sign for a year or cycle of time, 23; suggests axial rotation, 24, _note_; formed by four serpents in Codex Borgia, 27; associated with triskelion, on spearhead from Brandenburg; on bronze brooch from Scandinavia, 28; formed by combination of star groups, 29, 30; suggested by star-symbol on pottery from Nicaragua and Arizona, 51, 52; origin of the idea of dividing everything into four parts, 76; represented by Zuñi idol, 129; rounded and square forms of, at Tiahuanaco, 166; terminating in four puma heads, symbol of central ruler, 209; “The Copan Swastika,” 222, 223, 224; the pyramid, a later development of same idea, 274; in different parts of the world, accompanied with pole-star worship, etc., 276-280; in Mexico and Ohio valley, linked with serpent; in Copan, with Middle and Four Quarters, 280; Christian cross compared with, 305; use of symbol in China, 309; in Japan, 311; meaning conveyed by figure of Buddha 315; in Egypt, 409; on Egyptian seal, 459; on coin from island of Crete, 457; on coin from Syracuse; on coin from Corinth; on vases from Troy, 459; in Greece, 459, 460; on Cyprian and Carian pottery; on Greek vases found at Naukratis; on Coptic grave cloths; on mummy case from Hermopolis; on whorls from Troy, 460; date of its use as symbol, 461; later development of the cross symbol, 461; in Scandinavia, 474; on image found in Troy, 496; identical in significance in Old and New World, 510; symbolized “Four in One,” and stable centre, 511; in some parts of Germany and Bohemia is still the sign of the stone-mason’s guild, 516; or cross-symbol, same meaning in all countries, 534, 538; summary and conclusions, 544.

Sweat house, Nahuatl name of, 124.

Symbolism, in central United States identical with that of Mexico and Yucatan, 48, 49, 50; of Mexico influenced by migration from Yucatan, 67; influenced by sound of word, among the Mayas and Mexicans, 110, 183, 185, 186, 284; in China, 277; showing linguistic affinities between Mayas, and early peoples of the Mississippi valley, 112; same in Peru, Central America, Yucatan and Mexico, 170; resemblances between Pueblo people and Mayas and Mexicans, 199, 200, 236; same in Copan, 226; in Palenque and Quirigua, 240; on Calendar stone explained, 247; symbols connected with Middle, etc., 277; with Four Quarters, Above and Below, 278; names of Mexican symbols often translations of Maya name, 278; recapitulation of important native symbols, 279-284; year symbols in Mexico and China, 291; resemblances and differences, Chinese and American, 293-296; summary of use of human and animal figure, 296; explanations and illustrations of Egyptian symbols, 367-461; Egyptian pyramid and mummy, 379-381; of ancient Scandinavia, 474; symbols denoting axial rotation, 494; in architecture (see window, tau, pyramid, Greek fret, round form, square form, color, etc.); of human form (see separate references under Human); for special symbols, see separate references.

Syracuse, coins from, swastika with human head in centre, 459.

Tabasco, 211.

Tablet, containing ancient map of Babylonia (note following Index).

Talon, of beast of prey, symbol of four lords of Below, 185.

Taouism, 298, 301, 306.

Tarahumari Indians, ceremonies typifying fecundity of earth, etc., compared with those of ancient Mexicans, 101.

Tartan design, 122, 123, 124.

Tau, double, shape of courtyard, 82, 86, 87; signified union of Above and Below; inverted, emblem of Above; upright emblem of the Below, 118; in American ceremonial rite; among the cliff dwellers of Colorado; among the Pueblo Indians; in Scandinavia, called Thor’s hammer; in architecture of Central America, and Palenque; in dance of Moqui Indians; different forms of, figured and described, 119, 122; in checker-board or tartan design, 123; suggested by fire-drill, 280; tau-shaped cross in Mesopotamia, 321; tau-shaped altar in Egypt, 411.

Taylor, E. B., 297, _note_.

Taylor, W. C., 463, 468, 488, _note_.

Tecpan, Mexican council house; meaning of word, 183.

Tecpatl, symbol of the North, 10, 34; flint knife, 45, 46; sacred producer of vital spark, 47; myth concerning, 54; figured as offspring of dual divinity, 55; symbol of Fire, 56; emblem of “supreme pontiffs,” 62; one of the four year symbols, 76; in Borgian Codex, 98; on carved slab from Santa Lucia, 172; possible origin of name, which means “to govern,” 183; on Sacrificial Stone of Mexico, 258.

Teen-hwang-ta-tee, Chinese name for the pole-star, 284, 302.

Temistitan, ancient name for capital of Mexico, 542.

Temple of Mexico, 58, 80, 83, 90, 118.

Temples, of the “Tigers” at Chichen-Itza, 212; “11,” at Copan, 222; of “the Inscriptions” at Palenque, 235, 240; of “the Sun,” 235, 239, 240; of “Cross No. 2,” 235, 243; of Ptah at Memphis, 367; at Abydos, 386.

Tenayocan, name of Mexican town containing the affix “Can,” 263.

Tennessee, cult of Polaris indicated by emblems on shell-gorget, 44.

Tenochtitlan, 63; hieroglyph in centre of ancient Maya and Mexican maps, 88.

Teo-Culhuacan, from _Teotl_, stars, sun, gods, something divine; and _Culhua_, something recurved, and _can_, the place of=name for Aztlan, 56.

Teotihuacan, pyramids of, 140, 199, 263, 264; description of ruins, registry of death by small clay heads, 267; Pyramids show knowledge of “Great Plan;” great antiquity; advanced stage of intellectual development, 268; same civilization as builders of Pyramid of Cholula, 269; two cults, two languages (Maya and Nahuatl) and dual rulership, 274, 529.

Teotl, represented by image of sun; signifies something divine, 13, 65; title of the upper class in Mexico, 102, 140; meaning a divinity or divine lord and applied to all lords or rulers, 279.

Terra cotta heads and figures in Mexico and Peru, 139, 140.

Terrace form, rain symbol, 132.

Tet, Egyptian symbol of eternity, described and analyzed, 394.

Texcoco, 55, 163, 183.

Texoxoctli, stone placed with dead of lower class, 195.

Tezcatl, obsidian mirror, 10.

Tezcatlipoca, meaning of name; identical with Mictlantecuhtli, 8; surrounded by circle of footsteps; myth concerning, 9; symbols of, representations of; fastened to symbol of the North, 10; star-cult connected with, 11; synonymous names, 11; myth concerning, 12, 26, 44, 45; associated with the Below, the female region, 42; with black, 62; title of, means “Heart of the Earth,” 72, _note_; “Shining Mirror,” 79; image of, beside the idol of Huitzilopochtli, in great temple of Mexico, 60, 82, 265; lord of the Nocturnal Heaven, 82; priests of, called “Sons of the Night,” connected with divination, 83; honored jointly with Huitzilopochtli at Toxcatl festival, 97; flint knife, emblem of, 103; compared with Zuñi idol, 128, 129; suggested by symbols at Tiahuanaco, 166; tradition, 208; fire-drill god, 505, 507.

Tezolotlan, termed the land of war, 172.

Tezozomoc, 11, 40, 60, 61, 79.

Themistius of Byzantium, 542.

Theodosius, 530.

Theophrastus, 519.

Thibet, astronomical science, 301; Buddhist of, 315.

Thomas, Cyrus, 109.

Thor, Norse supreme god, 473.

Thor’s hammer, 119.

Thucydides, 457.

Tiahuanaco, place of first appearance of Incas, 133; monolithic doorway, 165; swastika sacred symbol, 166; ruins of, 167-169, 209.

Tiberius Claudius, 440.

Tien (Chinese), Heaven, also Supreme ruler, 301.

Tiger, in stone, with human head and hollow depression in back, found in Yucatan and Mexico, 95; on sculpture from Mitla, 163; “Tiger’s arm,” title of prince in ancient Mexico, 163; head, symbol on monolithic doorway at Tiahuanaco, Peru, 165; heads, at end of swastika; on sculptured doorway, 166; in headdress on sculptures, 167; warrior caste of Mexico; temple of, at Chichen Itza, 212 (see Puma, Jaguar and Quadruped).

Tikal, 210; classification of ruins, 215.

Timæus, 445.

Time, Egyptian sign, circle with dot, 387.

Tinamit, on Usumacinto river, 215.

Tionontaté or Tobacco Nation, 197.

Titicaca lake, as place of first appearance of Incas, 133, 539.

Tititl, name of Mexican feast, 79.

Tizoc, stone of, 9, 172, 212.

Tlacaxipehualiztli, ritual at festival of, 12.

Tlachtli, courtyard in shape of double tau, 87; ancient Mexican game, 176.

Tlaloc, title of god of rain, 78, 99; designated by surrounding his eyes with two blue rings, 81.

Tlatoque, literally, “The speaker” title of chief of clan, 178.

Tlaxcalla, republic of; government of, army of, 75; recumbent stone figures bearing circular vessels, found in, 93; small republic of Mexico, name signifies bread; hieroglyphic sign is maize-cake, 272.

Tloquenahuaque, title of “Creator” in texcoca, 163.

Tochtli, one of the four year symbols, 76; rabbit, 78; tochtli-gods, agents of Cihuacoatl, 78.

Tollan, abode of Quetzalcoatl, 217; native name for Cholollan, 275.

Toltecas, representatives of high civilization of ancient Yucatan, 89; master-builders, 234, 253, 254, 529.

Topiltzin, title of supreme pontiff, of Quetzalcoatl or divine twin, 77, 96.

Torquemada, 54, 55, 60, 67, 77, 95, 96, 150.

Tortoise, among the Iroquois, 197; in Mexico, 279; Maya word for _ac_, 281; in Chinese symbolism, 296.

Totemism, North American Indian, 154, 197; Peruvian, 157, 201; Quiché, 164, _note_; Zuñi, 201, 204; Copan and Zuñi, 227; and Quirigua, 233; Fire people of Mexico,—the ocelot; Air people,—the bird, 254; in relation to signs of zodiac and to the stars, 255; in Babylonia, 348; alligator totem in India and Mexico, 520; among the Semites, 521, 522; serpent totem among Semites, Mayas, Nahuas, and Peruvians, 522, 523.

Toxcatl festival, Tezcatlipoca and Huitzilopochtli, jointly honored, 97.

Traditions (see “Myths and Traditions”).

Tree symbolism, tree of life in Vienna Codex, 103; in Dresden Codex, 110; in ancient America, 186; among the Incas, 186; among the Mexicans, social organization represented by, 187; Above and Below, 188; serpent and Polaris, 189; embodied male and female elements, 188; shape of human figure, 189; used to signify lord or governor, also ancestor, 189, 190; sacred tree of the Mayas, 191; among Peruvians, Mexicans and Mayas, image of social organization, 192; in symbolic carving from Brazil or Guiana, 224; symbol of tribe in America, 235, 236, 237, 242, 213, 507, _note_; symbol of the year in Mexico, 241; ché, Maya word for tree, zin-ché=cross, literally tree of life or of power, 278; quahuitl, Nahuatl word for tree, symbol of Centre; homonymous with _quaitl_, meaning head, 279; recapitulation of meaning of symbol, 281; compared with Chinese symbol of “wood,” 294; in Buddhist religion, 321; in Babylonia and Assyria, on bas-relief at Nimroud, 360; as sacred symbol, 361; tree worship, by Hebrews, Phœnicians, Assyrians, 362-364; celestial tree of life in garden of Paradise, 365; the ash-tree of the Norsemen on the summit of the Hill of Heaven, 472; symbol of star-god, Polaris, 474; tribal trees in India, Egypt, Mexico, Central America and Peru, 499; the celestial tree of the Norsemen and Semites, 503; in ancient America, 506, 507.

Tribute stone, Mexican “Sacrificial” stone, 259.

Triskelion, companion symbol to swastika; formed by polar constellations at winter-solstice, 27; not used in the South but with swastika in the North, 28; on pottery from Arkansas; on spearhead from Brandenburg; on bronze brooch from Scandinavia, 28; formed by combination of star groups, 30; sign of winter solstice, 37.

Trocadero Museum, 104, 174, _note_.

Troncoso, Francisco del Paso y, 13, 82, 250, 252.

Troy, vases from, having swastika or cross symbol, 459.

Troy, spindle whorls with swastikas and allusion to pole-star god, Tur, 498.

Tschudi, 134.

Tuch-pan, name of capital of Maya colony, 125, 207.

Tula, 60; city of, 95.

Tulapan, 210.

Tullan, 173; name of culture hero’s home, 68; meaning of, in Maya language, 68; identity not established; beautiful land of the Aztecs, Mayas, Kiches and Cakchiquels; Cakchiquel legend regarding; Maya migration from, 88, 268.

Tullan Cholollan, ancient seat of civilization; probable place where scheme of organization was evolved, and where traditions of destruction of earth originated, 268, 274, 275.

Turanian, originally a northern race, (see Phœnicians), 517.

Turtle, at Quirigua, 234; in Egyptian symbolism, 398.

Tusayan, ceremonies, symbols and myths compared with those of Central America, 200.

Tuscaroras, 196.

Tutulxius, 211; immigrants into Yucatan, tradition concerning, 210.

Twin, divine (see Dual Divinity).

Twin serpents, on Mexican Calendar Stone, symbolizing dual forces of nature, and quadruplication, 257; on dual statues, on summit of great Temple of Mexico, 266.

Tylor, E. B., 196, 363.

Tyre, destruction of, by the Greeks, 527.

Tzendals, culture hero of, 60, 71, 72; calendar signs, 180; social organization and numerical system, 181, 182.

Tzilan, ancient capital in Yucatan, 234.

Tzitzimi-Cihuatl, name of Quilaztli, 60.

Uhle, Max, 167-169.

Upsala, university of, 230, _note_.

Urhye, Chinese dictionary, 292.

Ursa Major, myths concerning, 8, 11, 12; meaning of name in Nahuatl, 8, 9; four positions of form swastika, 14-22; nearer to pole-star in remote antiquity, 21; rotary motion, 22; positions of, scratched on rocks, beginning of astronomical records, 23; Tezcatlipoca and ocelot associated with, 26; in relation to sacred numbers, 29; resembles s-shape, 34; in relation to idea of Above and Below, 40; ancient Mexicans claimed descent from Ursa Major and Minor, 57; on calendar stone, 246, 250; identified as star-god, “Youal-tecuhtli” mentioned by Sahagun, 279; among the ancient Chinese, 284, 285, 291, 298, 302; in Hindu religion, 319; in Babylonia and Assyria, 358, _note_; in Egypt, 378, 382, 384, 385, 397, 400, 410; Akkadian title, Akanna=the Lord of Heaven, 394; Greek name for Helice, 447; as sailing guide in ancient Greece, 451, 452; became circumpolar about B.C. 4000, time of adoption of swastika symbol, 461.

Ursa Minor, S-shaped figure sign of, 11, 29; connected with Tezcatlipoca, 12; rotation of, 18; suavastika formed by, 19; in relation to sacred number, 29, 33; represented by recurved sceptre, 34; represented by Maya glyph, Hun-Imix, 35; in connection with Polaris, 36; in relation to idea of Above and Below, 40; symbol of; s-shaped breads made in honor of, 46; ancient Mexicans claimed descent from Ursa Major and Minor, 57; in Copan swastika, 224; in Egypt, 382; in Babylonia-Assyria=Kakkabu, 400; in ancient Greece as sailing guide, 451.

Usumacinto river, 235.

Uxmal, House of the Doves, symbolism of, 131; symbolic hand on garment of chieftain, 184; the serpent city of America, 214; ruins in, 216.

Valentini, P. J. J., 256, _note_.

Valera, Padre Blas, 151.

Varuna, name of supreme god in India, 312.

Vase, or Bowl, symbol of earth mother, 100; emblem of the rain priests or Octli gods, 102; worn in nose as emblem; meaning of, 103; containing rabbit or flint knife, 104; as conventionalized serpent jaw, resembles horseshoe-shaped stone “yoke,” 104; considered sacred among Zuñi Indians, 105; reason of vase decoration, 105, 106; grave made in shape of; buried with dead to propitiate earth-mother; used as burial urn, 106; stone “seats” indicate analogous cult of earth-mother south of Mexico, 107; Maya day-sign, Caban, 107; in Maya codices, 107, 108; figured as day sign, ch’en, 110; associated with seeds and germination, by Mayas and Mexicans, 111; in Vienna Codex, 123, 124; sacred bowl among Pueblo Indians, 132; in hand of ruler on Copan sculpture, 222, 224, 225; bowl of water, preceded use of obsidian mirror, in divination, 225; Maya supreme priest called “Lord of the Vase or bowl,” 226; on Tablet of the “Cross 2,” at Palenque, 236; recapitulation of meaning of symbol, 283; used for Astronomical purposes among pigmy races, and in Phœnicia, Assyria and Egypt, 339; large terra-cotta jars found at Nippur, and in temple of Solomon, 344; canopic vases in Egypt, 372; same idea embodied in pyramid, 386; in zodiac signs, 395; symbol of god Amen-Ra, 408; in cult of Egyptian goddess, Isis, 424.

Vedas, 312, 314, 452, _note_, 494, 496, 497, 499, 500, 505, 521, 522.

Vega, Garcilaso de la, 136, 137, 150, 151.

Vega, Nuñez de la, 180, 181, 182.

Venice, compared to Mexico, 84.

Venus, temple of Mexico dedicated to, planet of, 53; on Calendar-stone, 252.

Vikings, cult of Polaris, 474.

Villavicencio, 150.

Virgins of the Sun, in Mexico and Peru, 194.

Vishnu, cult of, 314.

Volcanoes, as probable cause of traditions of destruction of earth, 270-275.

Von Herder, 449, _note_.

Von Luschan, 342, 358, _note_, 359, 360.

Von Schroeder, L., 484, 458, _note_.

Votan, culture hero of the Tzendals, title “the Master of the Sacred Drum,” 60, 71-72, _note_.

Vulture, totem of Quiché chieftain, 164; in Egyptian symbolism, 398, 425, 426.

Wales, Druidic Celi Ced corresponds to Egyptian Amen-Ra; dual power; Central ruler; numeral seven in Welsh legend, 471.

Wampum belts, Iroquois, 197-199.

Wan, Chinese word for swastika, 309.

Warburg, A., 119.

Waring, 459.

Warren, William F., 475, 566.

Water, sacred pool in temple of Mexico, 225; in connection with star cult, 226; associated with fire-drill and socket in Old and New World, 505.

Water era, one of the four eras of the world, 253.

Water goddess, called Chalchiutlycue, 91.

Water and air design, encircling the mitre of the Lord of the Above; on mantles of Montezuma’s predecessors, 125; emblem of cult of Above, 126.

Weaving, art of among the Huaxtekans, 207-208, _note_.

West, Cihuatlampa (in Nahuatl)=place of the women, 38; in Cosmos=Calli=house, yellow, earth, darkness, 42; door of the Underworld, 54; female region, 64.

Webster’s Dictionary, 419.

Wheat, stalk of, year symbol in China, 291.

Wheel, emblem of the Deity and of rotation, among ancient Mexicans, 33; represented by Mexican dance, 59; the four-spoked wheel of Shamash in Babylonia and Assyria, 332, 356, 365; symbol of axial rotation and time in Old World, 500; associated with pole-star in Japan, 501; use of, known in Japan and China from the earliest times, 501-502; in Scandinavia, 502; first religions and their royal symbol—possibly evolved from the stone fire socket, 503 (see Axial Rotation).

Wheelwright, E. M., 514, 515.

Whitney, J. D., 449 _note_, 452, _note_.

Wickersham, James, 288, 292.

Wiener, 132, 146.

Williams, 288.

Wilson, Sir Daniel, 540.

Wilson, Thomas, 19, 23, 28, 50, 318, 459, 460.

Wind-god, symbol of, 34.

Windows, symbolism of, in Mexico, Central America and elsewhere, 120, 121.

Winged disk, in Assyria, 356, 357.

Winter solstice, triskelion sign of, 27, 28.

Woman, origin of idea of inferiority, 65; position of, in Peru and Mexico, 194; “Corn Maidens” and “Mothers” in America, 276; in China, 286, 287; in Babylonia-Assyria, 341; in Greece and Rome, 345 in Egypt, 426-436.

Writing, cursive and ikonomatic of the Old World; picture writing adopted by Spanish missionaries to New World, 534-535, _note_; Egyptian hieratic script, 535, _note_; numerical value of letters in Greek alphabet; Maya calculiform hieroglyphs; geometrical figures used by Phœnicians, 536, _note_.

Wu, Chinese empress, 309.

Wylie, Alexander, 303, 335, 481, _note_.

Xicalango, 211.

Xilomaniztli, another name for the festival “Izcalli;” meaning the birth or sprouting of the young maize, 241.

Xiuhtecuhtli, Mexican lord of the year or of fire; emblem of, figured and described; called the turquoise; or grass-green pyramid, 129, 214, 223.

Xius, tribe of ancient Yucatan, 211.

Xonecuilli, native name for Ursa Minor (see Ursa Minor).

Xoxouhqui-ilhuicatl (Nahuatl)=the verdant or blue sky, a title of Huitzilo-pochtli, 72.

Yang and Yin, in Chinese religion; belief of the modern Chinese concerning, 286.

Yaou, Chinese emperor who divided China into four provinces, 298.

Year symbols, in Mexican calendar, acatl, tecpatl, calli and tochtli, 76; glyphs on Copan stela or katun, 220; Maya name for=Ah-cuch-haab, 220; in Mexican Calendar-stone, 253; in Mexico, bunch of grass or maize shoots; in China, stalk of wheat, 291.

Yoalticitl, mother of the gods in ancient Mexico, 123.

Yop-at, Maya name for “a mitre,” symbol of divine ruler, 118.

Yope or yopi, Mexican peaked headdress or cone 117.

Yopico, name given to temple and monastery in courtyard of Great Temple of Mexico, 118.

Youal-tecuhtli, star-god mentioned by Sahagun, identified as Ursa Major, 279; name signifies, “lord of the night,” also “Lord of the circle or wheel,” 279.

Yuoalahua=lord of the wheel, 71.

Yu, Chinese emperor; divisions of China, 292, 299.

Yucatan, cult of Polaris, 44; Mexican culture-hero, Quetzalcoatl, came from, 67; social organization, older than that of Mexico, 67; Twin-brothers personifying the Above and Below, 68; serpent symbol, more ancient than in Mexico, 70; ancient map of, 85-90; early peoples of, in contact with those of Mississippi valley, 112; traditions about Kukulcan’s journey to Mexico, 206; traditions of tribes who came from the south, 210-214; meeting ground of Maya- and Nahuatl-speaking people, 214; not cradle of Maya civilization, 214; ancient monuments of, 216; fourfold divisions, 218, 494; Mayas compared with Maghas of India, 509, 519; ancient civilization, 528; ruder forms of culture alongside of the perfected social organization, 531; period of warfare and pestilence, 539 (see Chichen Itza, Mayapan, etc.).

Yupanqui, founder of Cuzco, who introduced worship of the Creator, 135, 161, 186.

Zamorra, Fray Geronimo Roman y, 275.

Zarate, 150.

Zeller, Edward, 484.

Zenith, nepantla, 38.

Zigzag or undulated lines, symbol of water, 126.

Zikkurats of Babylonia, seven-staged towers, 327-331; oriented to the four cardinal points, 332; together with “Great basin of Apsu,” formed image of Cosmos, 361.

Zilan, Maya centre of female industry 208, _note_; name signified “embroidery,” 210; stone monoliths, 216; ancient centre of culture in Yucatan, 217.

Zip, glyph on Copan altar, 227.

Zmigrodski, 19.

Zodiac composed of twenty day-signs, 255; in Chinese calendar, 285.

Zumarraga, Bishop, 264.

Zuñi, conception of Cosmos, Above, Below, Centre and Four Quarters, 41, 100; ceremonies typifying the fecundity of the earth, etc., 101; vase used as emblem of earth-mother, 105; cult of Above and Below; swastika symbol in use among; cult of Polaris; Zuñi idol compared with Mexican lord of fire and lord of the under world, 128, 129, 130; twin brothers, war-gods, compared with counterparts in Mexico and Yucatan, 130; colors assigned to cardinal points, 192; creation myth, 200, 223; modern, ceremonies, symbols, etc., compared with those of Mexico, Central America and Peru, 200; Sky-father and Earth-mother; Macaw or winter people, and Raven or summer people, 201; linguistic affinities with Nahuatl and Maya, 201; myth about building the town at the stable middle of the earth, 202; social organization, 203, 205; symbol of seeds of life, compared with Mexico and Maya, 223; numerical divisions, social organization, symbolism, etc., identical with that of Mexico, Yucatan, Copan, Guatemala, Peru, etc., 226, 493; spider’s web as image of numerical divisions; colors assigned to four elements, compared with Mexico and China, 293; use of quadruped to symbolize cardinal points and divisions of state compared with similar symbolism in Mexico and Central America, 295; the pueblo represents a “seven in one,” a counterpart of archaic kingdoms in India, Persia, Babylonia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, etc., 529.

NOTE.

I am indebted to the eminent Prof. Paul Haupt, of Johns Hopkins University, for drawing my attention to the existence of an extremely important and interesting ancient map of Babylonia on an unfortunately broken and mutilated clay tablet also inscribed with cuneiform characters. This tablet is reproduced in photogravure and illustrated by a pencil drawing on pp. 100 and 101 of the Notes on “the Book of Ezekiel” (translated by Prof. C. H. Toy), which forms Part 12 of the monumental polychrome edition of the Bible, which is being edited by Prof. Paul Haupt, with the assistance of Dr. Horace Howard Furness. Although designated as a “Babylonian map of the world” it obviously represents Babylonia as a Middle Kingdom, traversed by the Euphrates and containing Babylon, surrounded by other cities situated in the Euphratean valley.

Babylonia is enclosed in two large concentric circles representing the sea, designated in a cuneiform inscription as the “Bitter stream” or “Salt water river.” Triangles extend beyond the outer circle, recalling the four “rays or spokes” of the image of Shamash (fig. 65). Cuneiform characters, in one of these triangular spaces, designate it as an island. Professor Toy states that “there seem to have been originally seven of these triangles, but most of them are broken away.” In point of fact only one of the triangles is whole, and distinct traces of three others are preserved. As the mutilated condition of the tablet forbids certainty as to the original number of triangles, I venture to point out that it seems more likely that instead of seven there were originally six triangles around the central disc and that the map of Babylonia constitutes an image of a confederated state, like those of India and Persia (see pp. 480 and 484), conceived as formed of “six dependent and allied states surrounding the seventh ruling state in the centre.”

Referring the reader to p. 348 of this work where “the seven kings” of Babylon are mentioned and seven-fold organization is discussed, I merely state that the importance of the Babylonian map can scarcely be overrated as a proof of the application in remote antiquity of the cosmical scheme to territorial divisions. It will be for Assyriologists to determine for us the relative ages of the Sippara tablet (p. 332 and fig. 65, 1), and the Babylonian Map tablet and to define their respective connections with the “four regions” and “seven directions,” or with quadruplicate and seven-fold schemes of organization. It is my hope that their researches will lead to definite knowledge as to the date when these cosmical schemes were employed in the Euphratean valley.

In conclusion I draw attention to the two interesting wheel-shaped maps of the world also published in the “Notes on Ezekiel” (p. 105), and the remarkable diagram (p. 197), showing the allotment of the land of Canaan according to Ezekiel. On p. 204, in the Notes of Chapter 48 of Ezekiel, there are valuable details concerning the geographical distribution of the tribes of Israel, and the position, in the centre, of the sacred reservation and the symmetrical arrangement of the gates of Jerusalem, which were associated with the cardinal points and tribal representatives.

Z. N.

FOOTNOTES

1 The Swastika. Report of the U. S. National Museum, 1894. Washington, 1896. During the preparation of this paper I also consulted the following works, from which some forms of swastika are likewise reproduced on pl. II: Le signe de la Croix avant le Christianisme. Gabriel de Mortillet. Paris, 1866. Zur Geschichte der Swastika. Zmigrodski, Braunschweig, 1890. La migration des symboles. Comte Goblet d’Alviella. Paris, 1891.

2 I would insert here that it was only when the present investigation was almost completed, that my attention was arrested by a reference in Professor Wilson’s work, already cited, to a short article on the Fylfot and the Futhorc tir by H. Colley March, M.D.

Having succeeded in obtaining a copy of the Transactions of the Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society (vol. 4, pp. 1-12, 1886), in which it appeared, I had the extreme satisfaction of finding that a specialist working in another field and approaching the problem from another direction had come to two of the identical conclusions that I had reached in a totally different manner. This fact constitutes, in my opinion, the most powerful support of the correctness of the views we hold in common after having formed, expressed and worked them out in such a different way, as can be verified by a comparison of our two works.

Referring the reader to his valuable and suggestive communication to which I shall revert, I shall merely mention here that Dr. March recognizes, as I do, that the “essential suggestion [of the swastika and fylfot] is of axial rotation.” He attributes the original of the swastika to the nocturnal (not as I do, to the annual) rotation of the Ursa Major around Polaris, and likewise refers to the fact that about four thousand years ago, the circular sweep of the circumpolar constellations was far more striking than at present. After meeting on this common ground our lines of investigation part company and go wide asunder, nor am I able to follow some of Dr. March’s conclusions such as, for instance, his opinion that the fylfot was a sign of a “diurnal rotation” suggested by “the rising and setting of the sun and moon when the spectator looked at them with his back to the north.” On the other hand I am indebted to him for much valuable information relating to the rune or futhorc tir, to which I shall refer later.

3 Besides the word _coatl_=twin, the Mexicans had another term to express some thing double, in pairs. A plant with two shoots was named xolotl. Double agave plants, or maize when occasionally met with, were regarded with superstition and named me-xolotl. The pretty little parroquets, popularly known as “love-birds” from their habit of constant association, in pairs, were named xolotl. The circumstance that the term for birds’-down was also xolotl may explain why the down-feathers of eagles and other birds were employed and played a certain rôle in ritual observances. They expressed and conveyed the sound of a word which meant something double and could therefore be used to symbolize a variety of meanings relating to multiplication or propagation. That the Mexicans figuratively connected birds’-down with generation is proven by the well-known myth of the birth of Huitzilopochtli from the union of a ball of birds’-down and a goddess named “she with the petticoat of serpents” (Sahagun, book III, chap. I).

Tufts of birds’-down figure, in the B. N. MS., on the shield of the female ancestress of the human race, one of whose numerous titles was toci,=“our grandmother,” to express which the figure of a citli or hare was sometimes employed in pictography. Of her it was said, that she bore only twins, a figure of speech meaning great productiveness, just as the female divinity is also termed “the woman with 400 breasts” (text to p. 29, Vatican Codex, Kingsborough, vols. II and V). In the text to the Telleriano-Remensis Codex (Kingsborough, vol. I, pl. 24), we find Xolotl, a deity wearing the shell-symbol of Quetzalcoatl, directly named “the god of twins.”

4 The full meaning which may have been attached to the eye-symbol in both Nahuatl and Maya languages is set forth in the following notes which I give merely for the suggestion they convey of a deep meaning having been attached to the eye-symbol. The Nahuatl word for eye is _ix-telolotli_, but in pictography it represented the phonetic value of _ix_ only. It may, therefore, have been employed as a cursive sign for face=_ixtli_ and the fact that it figures in the centre of the symbol _ollin_, where a face sometimes occurs, confirms this surmise. In the Maya language the word for eye is _ich_, which is practically identical with the Nahuatl _ix_, and this enters into the composition of the following words, the meanings of which are worth considering in connection with the fact that the eye is shown to have been employed to convey the meaning of star, in both languages: Ix-machun=eternal, without beginning, ix-mayam=forever, continuously, without interruption. ix-maxul=perpetual, without end. The fact that each of these Maya words exhibits the prefix _ix_ and that an eye is employed to express this sound and stands for star, is certainly interesting, since it suggests that the natives associated the idea of eternity with the stars.

5 This native belief is beautifully illustrated by the two “highly artistic shell-gorgets representing winged human beings,” which are described and figured by Mr. Wm. H. Holmes, in Part II of his instructive and extremely useful “Archaeological Studies among the Ancient Cities of Mexico,” which I have received just as this paper is going to press. I am much pleased at the possibility of drawing attention, by means of a footnote, to the interesting fact that in one gorget the human head is figured with butterfly wings, whilst in the other it is accompanied by conventionalized feathers and a butterfly wing. There can be no doubt that both gorgets are attempts to represent the resuscitated souls of departed warriors, according to the native ideas concerning them. It is nevertheless very remarkable to see actually that the ancient Mexicans employed the butterfly as a symbol of an immortal soul and had also evolved the idea of a winged head, analogous to that of a cherub, to represent a blest spirit, dwelling in celestial regions.

It is noticeable that the name of the Mexican priests was papa, which syllables are the first in the word papalotl=butterfly. It may be that a distinction was made and that the souls of the dead priests were supposed to assume the shape of butterflies or moths, whilst the warriors became celestial humming-birds.

6 In connection with Montezuma’s use of a litter it should be noticed that, in the picture-writings, only the culture-hero Quetzalcoatl and the bird god Huitzilopochtli are represented as seated on litters. The two bars of Quetzalcoatl’s litter, figured in Duran’s atlas (Tratado 2, cap. 1 a) terminate at each end in a serpent’s head. The pair of twin serpents thus rendered, evidently convey an allusion to his name, which would be equally comprehensible in the Maya or Mexican languages. In another portion of Duran’s Atlas (Trat. 2, chap. 2), Huitzilopochtli is figured as seated on a litter masked as a bird, and a finely-executed native picture of the bird-god, being borne on a litter, is in the B. N. MS. where he is named “the precious lord” and is represented with a sceptre in his hand surmounted by a heart. This latter detail is of special interest, since it indicates that the Mexicans employed the heart with the same symbolical and metaphorical meaning as the Maya-Quiches and Tzentals. The latter had named their culture-hero “Votan”=“the Heart” (of the people). (Brinton Hero-myths, p. 217.) In the Popol-Vuh, the sacred book of the Quiches, the supreme divinity is named “the Heart of the heaven, whose name is Hurakan.” He is also named the “Heart of the Earth,” a title whose equivalent in Mexico=Tepe-Yollotl, was applied to Tezcatlipoca and associated with the bodiless voice, the echo, which was supposed to proceed from the “heart (or life) of the Mountain.” The above data undoubtedly prove the important point that Huitzilopochtli and Tezcatlipoca were respectively entitled “the Heart of the Heaven” and “the Heart of the Earth.”

7 Short triangular capes are worn to this day by the Mexican women, and are called quechquemitl=shoulder capes. It is curious to find in Molina’s dictionary, the following: tzimpitzauac=something figured, which is wide above and pointed below, and tzimmanqui=something figured which is pointed above and wide below, words which seem to indicate that they refer to triangles and that these had different meanings according to position.

8 The production of this drink was limited to the area in which the agave plant could be cultivated. As set forth in my commentary on the “Lyfe of the Indians,” the natives employed many other kinds of fermented liquors, made from different fruits and plants.

9 The sacred symbols and numbers of Aboriginal America in Ancient and Modern times. (Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, no. 2, 1894.)

10 Tribes of California, Stephen Powers. Contributions to North American Ethnology. Washington, 1877. vol. III, p. 79.

11 Fourth Annual Report Bureau of Ethnology, p. 518. Washington.

12 Republicas de Indias, Fray Jeronimo Roman de Zamorra 1569-1575, ed. Suarez. Madrid, 1898.

13 Pilz-foermige Goetzenbilder aus Guatemala und San Salvador, Carl Sapper, Globus. band LXXIII, nr. 20.

14 For other examples see Borgian Codex, pp. 2, 5, 64, 66, 74.

15 Note on the Ancient Mexican Calendar System. Stockholm, 1894.

16 Biologia Centrali-Americana. Archæology, edited by F. Ducane Godman, London.

17 The most striking example of this is in the Palace House, at Palenqne, all wall-holes of which are tau-shaped. An elaborate stucco ornamentation, richly colored, encloses two upright taus surrounded by raised borders. One is a deep opening in the wall; the other, next to it, is filled in and exhibits a horizontal line resting on a vertical one. There can be no doubt that a profound symbolical meaning was expressed by the entire motif, which has been admirably reproduced by Mr. A. P. Maudslay (Biologia Centrali-Americana, Archæology, part VI, pl. 18).

18 Veröffentlichungen aus dem Königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde, IV band, I heft. 1895. p. 5.

19 Garcilaso de la Vega, Comentarias Reales, Lisbon, 1609; also translation by Sir Clements B. Markham, issued by the Hakluyt Society. Rites and Laws of the Incas (accounts by Molina, Salcamayhua, Avila and Ondegardo), translated by Sir Clements B. Markham; also Cieza de Leon, Herrera, etc. and MS. of Padre Anello Oliva.

20 Attention is called to a curious error in the original text by Arriaga, quoted by Rivero and Tschudi. Arriaga states that the two statues stood back to back, but he makes the woman look toward the “poniente” and the man to the “occidente,” thus making both figures face the west. As “poniente” is the current Spanish phrase for the west, it is evident that the author made a slip in the use of the classical term, and intended to say that the man faced the “oriente.”

21 The Terra-cotta Heads of Teotihuacan, American Journal of Archaeology, Baltimore, 1886.

22 For this valuable list I am indebted to the kindness of Sir Clements B. Markham, the President of the Royal Geographical Society of Great Britain, who generously allowed me to study some of his MS. notes on Ancient Peru.

23 “From what can be gathered and conjectured in considering the traditions of the present time, it is not more than 350 to 400 years since the Incas only possessed and ruled over the valley of Cuzco as far as Urcas, a distance of six leagues and to the valley of Yucay, which is not more than 5 leagues.... The historical period cannot be placed further back than 400 years at the earliest” (Polo de Ondegardo 1550-1600).

24 Lettre sur les Antiquités de Tiahuanaco, 1866, pp. 9, 17, 19.

25 Blas Valera, apud Garcilaso de la Vega, Comentarios Reales, Lisboa, 1609, lib. I, cap. XI, pp. 13, 14; lib. II, cap. VI, p. 42. See also Garcia, Origen de los Indios. Madrid, 1729, lib. IV, cap. XV, p. 313.

26 Narratives of the Rites and laws of the Incas, translated by Clements B. Markham, C. B., F. R. S., ed. Hakluyt Society, pp. 10-13.

27 It is the merit of the late distinguished philologist Dr. Buschmann, in his invaluable work on Aztec names of localities to have pointed out that although the Cakchiquel language is now spoken at Cozumalhuapa or Cotzumalguapan, its name is unquestionably Nahuatl (Cozamalo-apan). Ueber Aztekische Ortsnamen, VII, p. 34.

The largest number of illustrations of the beautiful bas-reliefs found in the above locality have been published by M. Herman Strebel of Hamburg, whose valuable publications and splendid collections of ancient Mexican antiquities, preserved at Berlin and Hamburg, are well known. Die Steinsculptures von Santa Lucia Cozumalhuapa (Guatemala) in Museum fur Volkerkunde. Hamburg, 1894. Jahrbuch der Hamburgischen Wissenschaftlichen Austallen, XI.

Three of these remarkable bas-reliefs are figured in the valuable publication by Geheimrath A. Bastian: Steinsculpturen aus Guatemala, Berichte der Königlichen Museen zu Berlin, 1882. Dr. Habel’s drawings were published in 1878, in the 22d vol. of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.

Casts of these bas-reliefs are on exhibition in the Peabody Museum.

28 “The skins of lions, with the heads, had been prepared, with gold ear-pieces in the ears and golden teeth in place of the real teeth which had been pulled out. In the paws were certain rings of gold. Those who were dressed or invested with these skins put on the head and neck of the lion so as to cover their own and the skin of the body of the lion hung from the shoulders.” _op. cit._ p. 45.

The wearing of puma and ocelot skins by one of the two highest grades of warriors in Mexico is too well known to need further mention here.

29 In connection with the three points proceeding from the eye, the Mexican symbol for star, I would draw attention to the fact that in the latitude of Santa Lucia only three equidistant positions of Ursa Major, and, possibly, of Ursa Minor, would be observable, the constellations being below the northern horizon when lying between it and Polaris. The symbolical three points could have thus originated in the same way as the triskeles in other countries, from observation of the identical phenomenon.

30 This bas-relief is reproduced in vol. III of the Anales del Museo Nacional, p. 302, and is discussed by Señor Sanchez.

31 Article Peru, Encyclopaedia Britannica.

32 Garcilaso de la Vega, The Royal Commentaries of the Incas, Hakluyt ed. vol. I, p. 270.

33 Rites and Laws of the Incas, ed. Hakluyt, p. 86.

34 Rites and Laws of the Incas, ed. Hakluyt, pp. 77, 84.

35 The Heavens ... London. Richard Bentley and Son. 1883. pp. 287-289.

36 Historia Chichimeca, chap. XIX.

37 In Quechua the left hand was named lloque maqui and the right, pana maqui. In the Chinchaysuyo dialect of Quechua the left hand was hichoc maqui and the right, allaucay maqui (Vocabulario Padre Juan de Figueredo).

38 Annals of the Cakchiquels. Library of Aboriginal Literature, vol. VI, D. G. Brinton, p. 71. It is a striking coincidence which further excavations may however destroy, that seven similar upright slabs were found at Santa Lucia, six complete ones of which exhibit individuals whose left hands bear special marks. What is more, these figures are accompanied by animals which agree with a native chronicle quoted by Dr. Otto Stoll (_op. cit._ p. 6). According to this some of the totems or marks of dignity worn by certain Quiché chieftains were representations of pumas, ocelots and vultures. It is, perhaps, permissible to advance the hypothesis that the personages on the slabs are representatives of the seven tribes and display their totemic devices.

I would add a couple of observations which seem to indicate that the language of the people who sculptured and set up the Santa Lucia slabs was Nahuatl. In the first case on the long slab, figured by M. Herman Strebel as No. 11, a chieftain in a recumbent position is conferring with a personage masked as a deer. The date is sculptured on this slab, recalling the Mexican method of figuring numerals and indicates that a historical event is being recorded.

The Nahuatl word for deer is mazatl and we know that the Mazahuas, or “deer-people” is the name of a native tribe which inhabits to this day the coast region of Guatemala. A town named Mazatenango=the capital or mother-city of the Mazahuas lies between the lake of Atitlan and the coast (tenan=mother of somebody; tenamitl=walled city). A small village named Mazahuat also lies farther south and inland on the Lempa river, in San Salvador. On one of the upright slabs two sculptured heads resembling dogs’ heads are enclosed in circles. The Nahuatl name for dog is itzcuintl; and a town of the same name, corrupted to Escuintla, lies between the latitude of Amatitlan and the coast of Guatemala, at about the same distance inland as the town of Maza-tenango. As both places were within easy reach from Santa Lucia, it seems possible that the slabs may refer to some conquest or agreement made with the “deer and dog people.” At all events the agreement is worth noting as a hint for future research.

39 Ed. Brinton. Library of Aboriginal literature, p. 13.

40 It is to the superior authority of my distinguished and highly esteemed colleagues Drs. Otto Stoll and Carl Sapper that I submit the above considerations. It may be possible for the latter enthusiastic explorer and for Dr. Gustavo Eisen, who is continuing his valuable researches in Guatemala, to determine the locality of the ancient Tullan, which should, I imagine, be sought for in a region where the land inhabited by the Four Nations would converge and at a point almost equidistant from the Four Tecpans.

41 In the Mexican collection at the Trocadero Museum in Paris, there is a curious wooden sceptre in the form of a hand, which has been figured by Dr. Ernest Hamy in his splendidly illustrated work on this Museum.

42 See Brinton. The Native Calendar of Central America and Mexico, p. 49.

43 Bulletin of the Museum of Science and Art, University of Pennsylvania, no. 3, vol. I.

44 Idea de una nueva historia general, Madrid, 1746, p. 117.

45 Native Calendar, p. 50.

46 Vergleichende Studien. Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, bd. III, 1890, and the Native Calendar, p. 19.

47 See Molina’s dictionary for further meanings of verb yuli, which accounts for another form of primitive native symbolism.

48 See D. G. Brinton (American Hero-myths, p. 155) who, like other authorities, has not recognized the difference between native cross-symbols, denoting the four quarters celestial and terrestrial and the tree of tribal life.

49 Dr. Hale states that these squares remind us of the similar Chinese character which represents the word “field” (p. 241).

50 A Central American ceremony which suggests the snake dance of the Tusayan villagers. Reprint from The American Anthropologist, vol. VI, no. 3, July, 1893. _cf._ Bandelier, Final Report of Investigations among the Indians of the Southwestern United States. Archaeol. Inst. Papers, Am. series, IV, pp. 586-591.

51 Thirteenth Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. Washington, 1896.

52 In abbreviated form I note here, inviting special comparison with Mexico, that the Zuñi Upper world was symbolized by the sun, eagle and turquoise; the Lower world by the rattlesnake, water and toad.

53 Landa states that Mayapan signified “the banner of Maya,” the latter being the name of the “tongue of land” on which the capital was situated. This explanation is, however, scarcely satisfactory, for pantli is Nahuatl. If the entire word be regarded as Nahuatl, we obtain “the banner of the hand.” As another Maya name for the capital was Ho and this means five it seems possible that this numeral and sound were actually expressed by an open hand and that the Nahuatl name thus arose.

54 As throughout America four brothers are always found associated, in consequence of the general spread of the quadruple organization, the fact that three rulers only are mentioned here and that three powerful tribes were found in possession of Yucatan, indicates that these must have separated themselves from their original State. The subsequent reduction of their number to two shows further dissension.

55 It seems reasonable to refer to this date the expulsion of the Maya tribe, the Huaxtekans, who founded their colony at Panuco, named their capital Tuch-pan and carried with them their execrable practices and ideas. At the same time they possessed and handed down such a proficiency in the art of weaving that at the time of Montezuma the most beautiful textile fabrics, furnished to him as tribute, were the Huaxtecan “centzon-tilmatli” or mantles of four hundred colors, “finely woven and covered with intricate and artistic designs.” This circumstance points to a possible connection with Zilan, the reputed Maya centre of female industry. It has been stated by good authorities that the only antiquities thus far found in America, which testify to the existence of a degraded and obscene cult, are from the region of Panuco.

56 It is interesting to note in the above description absolutely no mention of woman in the organization of Mayapan. It is therefore to be presumed that they were excluded from this capital, and inhabited, as in Mexico, their own town, under female rulership and that of the “lords of the Night.”

57 See the Atlatl or Spear-thrower of the Ancient Mexicans. Peabody Museum Papers, vol. 1, no. 3. Cambridge, 1891.

58 Relacion. ed. Brasseur de Bourbourg, p. 52. In a note the Abbé states that the above description recalls the monoliths of Copan and Quirigua.

59 We are told that the Cheles inhabited a province named Ah-bin-chel, and that their capitals were Tikoh and Izamal (literally, Ah=they who are of, kin=sun, chel=sort of bird and the ancient name of a sacerdotal lineage in Yucatan). Thence the title Chelekat=holiness, highness, grandeur, given to the head of this lineage (Brasseur de Bourbourg). Ix-chel=the woman-bird, was the high-priestess or medicine-woman and midwife. The Cheles, Tutul-xius and Cocomes were the three most powerful tribes at the time of the Conquest. It is noteworthy that they all had bird names and that the word chel, the totemic bird of the Cheles, so closely resembles ché=tree, that the combination of a ché or tree as a symbol of the tribe and the chel-bird would have been suggested by the language.

60 According to Señor Garcia Cubas, “this peninsula of Yucatan must have been united at one time, to the island of Cuba, the determining cause of their separation being the impetuous current of the Gulf of Mexico” (Atlas Metodico, Mexico, 1874, p. 32).

61 For a general account of the ruins of Copan and for a plan on which the position of the different structures, stelæ, altars and prominent sculptures are given, I refer to the Memoirs of the Peabody Museum vol. I, no. 1, containing a preliminary report, of the Explorations by the Museum. Cambridge, 1896.

62 Historia de la Provincia de Yucathan, by Friar Diego Lopez Cogolludo, Madrid, 1688.

63 It seems to me that this statement establishes once and for all the order in which these sculptured glyphs are to be read. It is evident that in fastening them to the walls the idea was that of building up the calculiform record by placing the stones above each other, in the same manner that a stone wall would be raised. Accordingly, the earliest records would form the base and the last be at the top.

64 See Biologia Centrali Americana, pt. I, Copan “a” pl. 9. Casts of this sculpture and of two others nearly identical, from Copan, are in the Peabody Museum.

65 It is my intention to reproduce these plans of Copan and Quirigua and of other ancient American capitals in the publication I have undertaken to make in co-editorship with Mr. E. W. Dahlgren of Stockholm, of the beautiful map of the City of Mexico and its surroundings, painted by Alonzo de la Cruz, the cosmographer of Philip II of Spain. Mr. Dahlgren published an interesting account of this map, which is preserved in the library of the university at Upsala, in 1889, with its uncolored reproduction on a reduced scale. In his monumental work on ancient cartography, Baron Nordenskjöld also published an uncolored production of this map and, with Dr. Bovallius, exhibited a beautiful facsimile of this precious document, at the Historical Exposition in Madrid, in October, 1892. During the previous summer at Stockholm, I had personally superintended the painting of a perfect facsimile copy of the map which I exhibited in the Anthropological Building of the World’s Columbian Exposition in 1893. The original map was exhibited in Stockholm during the meeting of the Congress of Americanists at Stockholm in 1894, and I suggested that it ought to be published in exact facsimile and in colors, particularly on account of the many hieroglyphic names of localities it exhibits. It was thereupon agreed by Mr. Dahlgren and myself that we should jointly publish the map with an accompanying text in English, my share of the work being principally the decipherment of the hieroglyphs of localities, the classification of the tribes inhabiting them, as well as the presentation of all historical facts connected with them that I could obtain from the native and early Spanish chronicles. With characteristic liberality the Duc de Loubat most kindly supported the proposed publication by subscribing to twenty copies of it in advance and depositing the payment for these at the Academy of Sciences. The reproduction of the map has been facilitated by this generous action and I take great pleasure in expressing here our grateful appreciation to the Duc de Loubat, who has been patiently awaiting the achievement of our undertaking. Both Mr. Dahlgren and I have been prevented from completing this up to the present, by work planned previously to the publication of the map. The present publication will prove, however, that the social organization of the Mexicans has been the object of my painstaking study and that, until I had satisfactorily set forth the fundamental principles which influenced not only the distribution of the population, but the ground-plan of the capital itself, any text I could publish with the map would be incomplete. As matters now stand, I propose to treat of the City of Mexico as a type of an ancient American sacred city, to compare its ground plan with those of other native capitals and to trace, as far as possible, the localization of the various tribes and classes of the ancient population, so that we can form an adequate idea of the topography and machinery of the great state known as the Empire of Montezuma. I hope and expect to complete this publication in a reasonable period of time but dare not define its limits, as all scientific research demands more time and strength than can be determined upon in advance. In conclusion I would state that, at the Congress of Americanists which took place at the city of Mexico in 1895, the distinguished Mexican cartographer, Señor Garcia Cubas, whose splendid maps of Mexico are well known, made an interesting communication on this map, of which he had seen a copy.

66 It has been surmised that the name Palenque is of Spanish origin and means “a palisade;” but it seems far more likely to be the approximate rendering of the sound of the old native word by a Spanish word, in the same way that the Nahuatl Quauh-nahuac became the Spanish Cuerna-vaca, literally cow’s horn.

67 Brasseur de Bourbourg’s Maya Vocabulary contains an interesting instance of a native tribe or lineage bearing the name of a bird: “Chel: name of a kind of bird; ancient name of a great sacerdotal family reigning at Tecoh (near Izamal, Yucatan). Thence the title ‘Chelekat,’ which meant holy, exalted, great, and was applied to the head of this family.”

68 On a large tablet at Ixkun, the cast of which is now in Mr. Maudslay’s collection at the South Kensington Museum, similarly placed figures support on their bent backs and shoulders standing personages, facing each other, and surrounded by glyphs. In this case, however, the men who serve as footstools, are bound and distinctly show a difference of type and costume, so that there can be no doubt that the tablet commemorated the conquest of an alien tribe.

69 Estudio arqueologico y jeroglifico del Calendario o gran libro astronomico.... Mexico. 1889.

70 Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, III, 1, 60.

71 A somewhat disheartening consideration concerning the Stone of the Great Plan deserves mention. The probability is that it was originally painted with the colors of the four quarters and that some of the records thus made are irretrievably lost. On taking the first impressions with gelatine, in order to make his admirable cast of the monolith, Señor Abadiano discovered many traces of color, lodged in small crevices and corners of the carvings. Moreover, the use of the symbolical colors on stone monuments is vouched for by the great painted monolith which was, strange to say, re-interred after having been discovered in the City of Mexico some years ago. The reproduction of an obviously incorrect drawing made of this stone during its uncovered state, has been published in vol. II of the Annals of the National Museum of Mexico.

72 Relacion, p. 339, Kingsborough, vol. IX.

73 Leon y Gama advanced the opinion that the stone, supplemented by a gnomon, served as a solar clock or dial, to mark the hours of the days and the seasons, etc. He added that the stone may have served further purposes than those he enumerated and hints that it may have also recorded lunar periods. This distinguished scholar concludes by acknowledging that the ancient Mexicans possessed enlightened knowledge of the movements of the principal planets and methods of observing them, in order to divide time for the purposes of civil and religious government (Description de las dos Piedras. Mexico, 1852, p. 110).

The late Doctor Philip Valentini, in a learned discourse on the Calendar-stone, read at New York in 1878, expressed his view that it contained a complete and plastic representation of the division of time employed in ancient Mexico.

The distinguished Mexican scholar, Señor Alfredo Chavero, has published the most elaborate treatise which has been written on the subject and discusses the views of Gama and Valentini with much erudition. Referring the reader to his publications in the Annals of the National Museum of Mexico I shall but mention his views that the four symbols, contained in the quadruplicate central figure, record four epochs of the native cosmogony, that the central head is an image of the sun and that the monument itself is a votive tablet which was erected to the Sun in historical time, two conclusions to which I cannot subscribe. It is impossible to discuss fully the valuable publications of Señores Troncoso and Chavero in these cursive remarks, but I shall do so on another occasion. Meanwhile there is one point upon which both of these authorities agree, namely, in admitting the possible connection between the civilization of Mexico and Peru and in recognizing that various ancient people of America had the nahui-ollin in common. A passage in Señor Chavero’s work claims moreover special mention, as it contains his supposition that the sign nahui-ollin may have symbolized not only the four movements of the sun, but also those of the moon, which the writer seems to regard as the nocturnal or dark sun. I am quite ready to agree with the above authorities on some of the points mentioned, conflicting as their views appear to be at first sight. Inasmuch as I regard the monument as the image of a plan or theoretical scheme which colored and influenced all native thought, I hail any recognition made by other students of its all-pervading presence in the Calendar and in the cosmogony of the ancient Mexicans. On the other hand I maintain a view which materially differs from those of previous writers, namely, that the entire plan was originally based on the primitive observation of Polaris and in the conception of a stable centre: the seat of a power extending over the Four Quarters and the Above and Below.

74 In the text, as published, Bernal Diaz states that this statue had a face like that of a bear “un rostro, como de osso,” but goes on to say that it was decorated according to the same mode as the other “del otro.” I am inclined to think it more than probable that instead of “de osso ” the text should also read “del otro,” as among the many images of Tezcatlipoca that are extant, none show him connected with the bear in any form or shape.

75 In Tullan we seem to find the Maya equivalent to the Mexican Itzacual=enclosure, by which the Teotihuacan pyramids are popularly designated, as may be verified by the discussion of the Maya word in the preceding pages (_cf._ tulum, tulul, tuliz, tulacal), which conveys the idea of something enclosed, entire, whole and universal and will be reverted to. Cholol-lan seems to be connected with the verb cholol-tia=to escape (like game from a snare or net) to fly, or to spring away. According to this, Cholol-lan would mean “the place of escape or flight” and it will be seen that this designation will be found to agree with the native tradition concerning the purpose of the pyramid, which will be cited presently. It is not impossible, however, that Cholol-lan may be bilingual and also be a corrupt rendering of the Maya _ho_ or _hool_=head, also capital. This supposition receives a certain support from Padre Rios’ statement that “the inhabitants of Cholula, in their sacred festivals, performed a solemn dance around the pyramid chanting a song which began with the words Tulanian Hulaez.” These, he states, “belonged to none of the languages now spoken in Mexico” (Orozco y Berra _op. cit._ p. 363). The name Tlachiuhaltepetl is translated by Orozcoy Berra by “mountain made by hand,” _i. e._ artificial mountain or pyramid; from tlachiuhaliztli, the act of accomplishing some work forming or creating something. As the origin of primitive symbolism is a question of such deep interest I shall mention here some curious data in connection with the pyramid. The word Tlachiuhale was a title or name applied to the “Creator or Former of living creatures.” In order to express the sound of this word in the picture-writings, it is obvious that a pyramid could have been employed, since it graphically and phonetically conveyed the desired sound tlachiual-tepetl. At the same time a complementary sign would be necessary so as to obtain a symbol which would specially apply to the Creator alone. The word tlachia=to look, see, watch, naturally suggests itself, as a complement to the sound tlach; and to express, in a cursive way, the action of seeing, an eye sufficed. We thus see that an artificial mountain or pyramid and an eye formed a hieroglyph which expressed the sound “Tlachiuale” and signified the “Creator.” As the eye by itself was the sign for star, and the idea of a central star, as frequently depicted in the nahui-ollin sign, was an emblem of the creative and central power, it is evident that, besides its literal meaning, _i. e._ an artificial or created mountain, a “tlachiuhaltepetl” would have been regarded by the initiated as the Mountain of the Creator, the sacred pyramid, which was the image of central, dual and quadruple power.

76 The testimony of early Spanish missionaries established the fact that in ancient Mexico a caste of master builders and masons existed, whose name, Tulteca, identified them with the ancient centre of civilization and integral state of Tullan. “Whenever the natives were asked who had constructed certain edifices, passes and roads, etc., they invariably answered the ‘tultecas,’ a Nahuatl word in current use, which signified ‘the skilled artificers or workers in stone, etc., the master-masons or builders.’ ”

77 The ancient native name of this volcano was Citlal-tepetl, literally the Star Mountain, from which it may, perhaps, be inferred that, from the plains, its high and sharp peak served as a means of registering the movements of certain stars and planets.

78 China, Prof. Rob. Douglas, p. 259.

79 The Chinese designation ho, applied to the limits of space, is

## particularly interesting in connection with the Maya ho and its

homonyms.

80 “The Mongol-Mayan Constitution,” The American Antiquarian, May and June, 1898. It is with all the more genuine appreciation that I point out how Mr. Wickersham, anticipating my publication of the same conclusion, has recognized that the Zuñis, Mexicans and Peruvians as well as the Chinese, were ruled by what he aptly terms the “Quadriform Constitution,” since it has taken me years of hard study to perceive this common basis. I likewise draw attention to his study in primitive law, “The Constitution of China (Olympia, 1898),” but must remark that I strongly differ from his conclusions in the recently published Answer to Major Powell’s inquiry “Whence came the American Indians?” (Tacoma, 1899.)

81 Shu King. The Chinese Classics, Legge. Book I, p. 37.

82 Sacred Books of the East, Legge, vol. III, Shû King; also W. H. Medhurst, Shanghai, 1846.

83 An interesting note in connection with the assignment of color to the cardinal points in Asia, is given by Schlagintweit (Buddhism in Thibet, 27, 3), who relates that “the walls of the temples look towards the 4 quarters of heaven and each side should be painted with its particular colour, viz.: north=green, east=white, south=yellow, west=red, but this rule is not strictly adhered to; most, indeed, are painted red.” As a parallel to this I refer to Sahagun’s description of the temple of the high-priest Quetzalcoatl at Tula, which held four chambers facing the cardinal points; “The east chamber was termed the golden house and was lined with plates of gold; the west chamber was termed the house of emeralds and turquoises; the south chamber was inlaid with silver and mother of pearl and the north chamber with red jasper and shells.” Sahagun describes also a second building of the same kind, in which the decoration of the four rooms was carried out in the same colors, in feather-mosaic (_op. cit._ Book X, chap. XXIX).

84 The alligator-altar of Copan and the “Great Turtle” of Quirigua, on which four limbs may be discerned, are the most remarkable examples of the native employment of the quadruped figure as a symbol of clan-organization and the great Quadruplicate Plan. An interesting instance of the association, in China, of the form of a four-footed animal with numerical divisions is furnished by the following passage from the Book of Yu, Shoo-King, ed. Legge. Khung-she has said that “Heaven conferred on Yü the divine tortoise bearing a book out of the river; on its back were various numbers, up to nine. Yü arranged them and completed the 9 species. On the head of the tortoise was 9, on the tail 1, on the left side 3, on the right 7. The shoulders were formed by 2 and 4, the thighs by 6 and 8.”

85 As Prof. E. B. Taylor has aptly pointed out: “By accident the [Mexican] Calendar may be exactly illustrated with a modern pack of cards laid out in rotation of the four suits, as an ace of hearts, 2 of spades, 3 of diamonds, 4 of clubs, 5 of hearts, etc.... This system [of combining signs with numerals] is similar to that of central southwestern Asia where, among the Mongols, Tibetans and Chinese, etc., series of signs are thus combined to reckon years, months and days.... Humboldt makes this comparison in his Vue des Cordillères, p. 212”.... (Article “Mexico,” Ency. Brit.).

86 The following passages contain interesting evidences of the ancient application of the number seven to tribal organization in China. “In the time of the Suy dynasty Manchuria went by the name of Mo-ho in China ... the people being _then divided into seven tribes_.... Towards the end of the eleventh century one Yang-ko was elected as their chief ... and he organized something of a regular government throughout the various tribes of Jou-tchi or Niô-tchi’s and collected taxes from them. The highest of his officers were all styled po-k-eih-lee and _were distinguished by the names of the sun, planets and 28 constellations of the Zodiac_. Every five, every ten and every hundred men had their special officers.... From the chief of five to the chief of ten thousand, each trained his dependents in military art....” Wylie: On the origin of the Manchus (Chinese Researches, p. 244).

87 The Nestorian Tablet in Si-ngan-foo (p. 24, Chinese Researches. Shanghai, 1897).

88 (The Religion of Japan, Wm. Elliott Griffis. London, 1895, p. 67 and note 9.) This curious agreement between the Japanese and other ethnic traditions, in locating Paradise, the origin of the human family and of civilization at the north pole, has not escaped the attention of Dr. W. F. Warren, President of Boston University, who makes extended reference to it in his suggestive book, “Paradise Found, The Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole. A Study of the Prehistoric World. Boston, 1885.”

89 An interesting parallelism in the development or evolution of the idea of rotation around a central pole was brought to my notice by a model in the Indian Department of the South Kensington Museum. It represents the Hindu fanatical religious rite known as the “Churruck Puja.” Four individuals are suspended by cords, with hooks drawn through their flesh, to a movable wooden structure like a wheel surmounting a high pole, similar to that used by the Ancient Mexican “flyers” (see p. 24) which likewise served as a pivot for the circling motion of the performers. The torture voluntarily endured by the latter recalls that accompanying the sacred sun pole-dance of certain North American Indian tribes. It is interesting to contrast the ancient Mexican refined and intellectual symbolization of circumpolar motion with the fanatical and hideous self-torture associated with the North American and Hindu modes of representing the same phenomena, as it throws much light on the development of certain sides of human nature.

90 Mr. Wm. H. Goodyear, from whose admirable work, the Grammar of the Lotus, the above quotations are taken, remarks that “the myth of Horus rising from the lotus, as found in the Egyptian texts, is the exact counterpart of this idea and as far as Brahmanism is concerned, is much the older;” also that “it is possible that the lotus symbolism of Egypt and India dates from a race which divided into separate branches; it is also possible that the people of India experienced the influence, direct or indirect, of Egypt.”

91 Researches into the origin of the primitive constellations of the Greeks, Phœnicians and Babylonians (Robert Brown, jun., F. S. A., M. R. A. S., vol. I, 1899, p. 357).

92 In Assyria we find one of the oldest temples bearing the name E-kharsag-kurkura, that stamps the edifice as the reproduction of the “mountain of all lands” and there are other temples that likewise bear names in which the idea of a mountain is introduced.... The zikkurat or “mountain-house”=E-kur was at Nippur, Sippar, Uruk, Ur and Larsa, “the centre of a considerable group of buildings; while at Babylon ... the temple area of E-sagila must have presented the appearance of a little city of itself, shut off from the rest of the town by a wall which invariably enclosed the sacred quarter.” The name E-kur was used at Nippur, by extension, to denote the entire sacred precinct which contained the zikkurat or staged tower, the great court where worshippers assembled, shrines and other minor structures. The excavations at Nippur have afforded us, for the first time, a general view of a sacred quarter in an ancient Babylonian city. The extent of the quarter was considerable. Dr. Peters’ estimate is eight acres for the zikkurat and surrounding structures.... “A factor that contributed largely to the growth of the sacred precinct in the large centres was the circumstance that the political importance of such centres as Nippur, Lagash, Ur, Babylon and Nineveh led the rulers to group around the worship of the chief deity, the cult of the minor ones who constituted the family or court of the chief god.” A “list of temples in Lagash, recently published by Scheil, ... furnishes the name of no less than thirteen sacred edifices, and we are certain that as many as four or five smaller chapels surrounded the precinct in which stood the great temple E-ninnu ...” (Jastrow, _op. cit._).

93 These facts shed additional light and interest upon the Mt. Meru of India, where the Brahmans sought union with their god Brahma.

94 “Diodorus Siculus maintains that the E-kur was employed as an astronomical observatory. The antiquity of Babylonian astronomy is indicated by the testimony of Simplicius and Porphyrius who relate that Callisthenes, the companion of Alexander the Great during his campaigns, brought back from Babylon and communicated to Aristoteles a series of observations which had been made there for a period of 1,903 years. Accordingly, the Chaldæans must have begun to make astronomical notes more than 2,200 years before the Christian era. It stands indeed to reason that they must have made observations during countless centuries, since they discovered the Saros, known as the Chaldæan period of 6583-1/3 days, which served for the prediction of eclipses and were also acquainted with the precession of the equinoxes.”

95 Professor Jastrow tells us that the name Shamash merely signifies vassal or servitor. I venture to point out what is doubtlessly a fact familiar to Assyriologists, that the name closely resembles the Babylonian-Assyrian name Shame=heaven, the equivalent of the Sumerian an, a word of which the most ancient cuneiform signs were four crossed lines, forming eight lines proceeding from a common centre.

96 A striking corroboration of the view that China derived its civilization from Asia Minor is afforded by the resemblance between the Assyrian Anu and the Chinese Shang, both signifying Heaven, and the Assyrian Ea and Chinese Lea, both applied to “the Below.”

97 An analytical study of the Babylonian and Assyrian divinities enumerated in Professor Jastrow’s hand-book enables us to detect some of the natural associations of ideas that influenced the formation of one artificial theological system after another, all springing from a single root.

The fundamental realization of the antithesis of light and darkness giving rise to the division of the universe into two distinct parts, the conception of an eternal antagonism between both followed and led to the stage of thought set forth by Mr. Robert Brown who tells us (_op. cit._) that “the original twins were the Sun and Moon” and that an archaic cosmogonic legend attached to the third month of Kas (twins) is that of two hostile brethren and the building of the first city. The great twin-brethren who join together to build the city are the Sun and Moon, engaged in preserving cosmic order yet also constantly antagonistic to each other and who constantly chase each other, one being up when the other is down. Mr. Brown also relates the myth of antagonistic satraps Namaros and Parsondas and states that, in the twin stars, Castor and Pollux, named by the Euphrateans the great Twins=Mastab-bagal-gal, the Sun and Moon were re-duplicated. The Euphratean abbreviation is mas=twin or mas-mas, and Pollux is equated with the fourth antediluvian king Ammenon, a name derived from Akkadian: umun=offspring, an=heaven _i. e._ the Sun, “the son or offspring of heaven.”

98 “There are reasons for believing, however, that Sarpanitum, the offspring-producing goddess once enjoyed considerable importance of her own; that, prior to the rise of Marduk to his supreme position, a goddess was worshipped in Babylon, one of whose special functions it was to protect the progeny while still in the mother’s womb. A late king of Babylon, the great Nebuchadnezzar, appeals to this attribute of the goddess. To her was also attributed the possession of knowledge concealed from men.... A late ruler of Babylon, Shamash-Shumu-kin, calls her ‘the queen of the gods’ and declares himself to have been nominated by her to lord it over men” (Jastrow, _op. cit._ p. 122).

The following extracts from Assyrian prayers addressed to Ishtar further define her position at one time: “The producer, queen of heaven, the glorious lady. To the one who dwells in E-babbara.... To the queen of the gods to whom has been entrusted the commands of the great gods. To the lady of Nineveh.... To the daughter of Sin, _the twin-sister of Shamash_, ruling over all kingdoms. Who issues decrees, the goddess of the universe.... _Besides thee there is no guiding deity_....”

99 As an illustration of the ideas connected with Astarte it is interesting to note that fish and doves, inhabitants of the sea and air, became her sacred emblems. The horns which she is sometimes represented as wearing seem to be not only symbolical of the moon, but also to be a remnant of a more ancient form of symbolism which associated the goddess with the cow. It is stated that, in Canaan, Astarte was represented under the form of a cow and it will be shown that, in the Egyptian zodiac Polaris and Ursa Major were represented under the form of a bull or cow or its thigh. The eye painted on the prow of the ship was also a symbol of the goddess, an interesting fact considering that the eye expresses a star among other primitive people.

100 Book V, Chaps. VIII-X.

101 “That the Hebrew and Babylonian traditions [of the Creation] spring from a common source is so evident as to require no further proof. The agreements are too close to be accidental. At the same time the variations in detail point to an independent elaboration of the traditions on the part of the Hebrews and Babylonians.... It is in Babylonia that the thought would naturally arise of making the world begin with the close of the storms and rains in the spring. The Terahites must, therefore, have brought those cosmological traditions with them upon migrating from the Euphrates Valley to the Jordan district.... The intercourse, political and commercial, between Palestine and Mesopotamia was uninterrupted.... The so-called Babylonian exile brought Hebrews and Babylonians once more side by side.... A direct borrowing [of traditions] from the Babylonians has not taken place and while the Babylonian records are in all probability much older than the Hebrew, the latter again contain elements, as Gunkel has shown, of a more primitive character than the Babylonian production. This relationship can only satisfactorily be explained on the assumption that the Hebrews possessed the traditions upon which Genesis narrative rests, long before the Babylonian exile, when the story appears, indeed, to have received its final and present shape.... Yahwe is assigned the rôle of Bel-Marduk, the division of the work of creation into six days is definitely made and some further modifications introduced ...” (Jastrow, _op. cit._ pp. 452-453).

102 Dr. von Luschan (_op. cit._ p. 22) translates this cuneiform sign, which exists in Babylonian and Assyrian forms, as “Siebeneinigkeit” and emphasizes the fact that it is employed in the singular form. The inference that it may designate not only the Pleiades but more probably Ursa Major corroborates the view that the mystic number seven impressed itself upon the human mind by its association with the Septentriones.

103 The fact that the mountain was the symbol of the centre of the earth and of Bel, throws light upon the meaning of the clay cones which were “very common votive objects in Babylonia especially in the earlier periods.” They would have been appropriately used in the cult of Baal, the personification of the male principle, and are indeed usually represented as offered by male worshippers. That the cones in some cases represented the conical bunch of the male blossom of the palm tree may also be conjectured.

104 An interesting complement to this is furnished by the texts of oracular messages sent by the goddess Ishtar to King Ashurbanapal who seems to have been a fervent disciple of the theological school of Arbela. On one occasion, when the king’s army was in a predicament, Ishtar appears at night and declares: “I walk in front of Ashurbanapal, the king, who is the creation of my hands.” On another occasion the oracle-giving medium reports to the king: “Ishtar, dwelling in Arbela, came with quivers hung on her right and left sides with a bow in her hand and girded with a pointed unsheathed sword. Before thee [_i. e._ the king] she stood and like the mother that bore thee [with maternal kindness] Ishtar, supreme among the gods, addressed thee commanding: ‘Be encouraged [literally, look up] for the fray. Wherever thou art, I am.’ ” The images of Ashur aiming his arrow and Ishtar with an unsheathed pointed sword recall the biblical description of the flaming sword which turned every way, to keep the way of the tree of life (Genesis III).

105 It is interesting to trace to the same origin the “quadriga” which may well have been associated with the “primitive sun”=Polaris, before supreme sovereignty was transferred to Phœbus, the diurnal sun, by the votaries of the cult of Light.

106 I am pleased to be able, at the last moment, to insert the following interesting points personally communicated to me by Dr. Wallis Budge: In remotest antiquity two mythical mountains marked the two divisions of the land: Bakhan, situated to the southeast, and Manu, situated to the northwest. The latter, like the mountain Meru of India, was the abode of the blessed, towards which the souls of the dead set out from Abydos and where eternal rest was to be found. The curious connection between the north=mehta and the west=amenta, which I have shown to have prevailed in ancient Mexico where the north is named Mictlan and in Yucatan where Aman signifies north, is

## particularly interesting in connection with the exclamation or

exhortation to the soul, constantly met with in the Egyptian Book of the Dead: Er-amentet=to the hidden land! _i. e._, the northwest.

107 Thesaurus Inscriptionem Ægyptiacarum II, p. 212.

108 First Steps in Egyptian, London, 1898. I am mainly indebted to this useful book and other publications by the same author for the Egyptian words cited in the following pages. An interesting point, personally communicated to me by Dr. Wallis Budge, is that the cardinal points in Egypt were located diagonally, a method which is shown to have also existed in Central America by the diagonal orientation of numberless pyramids and buildings.

109 A History of Egypt, Vol. II. London, 1896.

110 Reference is made to another translation of the hymn in the “Records of the Past,” Vol. II, pp. 127-136, and to Grébaut, Hymne à Ammon Ra.

111 First steps in Egyptian, Mr. Wallis Budge, p. 235.

112 An extremely interesting instance of the hand being actually figured between the sun and the moon, _i. e._ as the symbol of the Middle, is to be seen on the Phœnician tablet to Baal Hamman and Tanitla, from Carthage, preserved at the British Museum and figured by Mr. Goodyear, fig. 64, 1. Above the hand is a group of symbols consisting of two S-shaped signs, resembling the Mexican picture of Ursa Major. Between these is a pyramid and above this a seven-petalled conventionalized flower, which should be compared with fig. 64, 3, a copy of the familiar flower on the sacred tree of the Assyrians. In fig. 64, 2, copied from another Phœnician tablet (Goodyear), the flower occupies the central position between two hands; the latter taking the places of sun and moon in the tablet 1, an interesting detail considering the instances cited, showing that dual rulership was indiscriminately associated with “right and left hand” or “the sun and moon.”

113 It is remarkable that the sound of the Latin word for ram=aries, so closely resembles the Egyptian symbols for Amen-Ra (see fig. 63, 1-4) and that the am and ar syllables occur in the following names for ram or sheep, applied to the zodiacal constellation:

Al Hamal=the sheep (Arabic). Bara=the ram (Persian). Amru=the ram (Syrian). Varak=the ram (Parsi).

114 The inscription on this monument, which also exhibits the portrait statue of Amenophis III, is of particular interest as it states that the temple of Saleb, built by the king, was “very wide and large ... its towers reached to the sky, and _the flagstaffs united themselves with the stars of heaven_” (see official catalogue of the Berlin Museum, p. 122). This appears to indicate that the flagstaffs were employed for purposes of astronomical observations.

115 The ideas associated with the form of a lion couchant are best learned from the following passages from the Bible: “He couched, he lay down as a lion and as a great lion; who shall stir him up?” (Numbers XXIV, 9, see also Genesis XLIX, 9). It is only by the light afforded by such insights into eastern contemporaneous thought that the meaning of the Egyptian sphinx can be in some measure understood.

116 I address the query to Egyptologists: whether there are any indications of a common identity of sound in the Egyptian word for beard and same name, denoting rule or power, similar to that existing in the Maya language between “ah-meex”=bearded man and “ah-mek-tan” governor, ruler (see p. 232).

117 The somewhat perplexing allusions to the “divine marriage” of Isis to her father or brother and to her giving birth to her own mother, as in the above text, are very naturally explained by the fact that the successive officiating king-high-priest always personified Ra-Osiris or the Sun and the queen Isis-Sothis-Hathor and the Moon or Sirius. The female child to whom the queen gives birth was destined to be her successor and another personification of Isis, therefore she could be said to have given birth to her own mother, since, like the latter, the child would be an Isis. In the same way the queen could be said to marry her father and brother, as, like herself, the king was the offspring of a divine union and bore his father’s title. In connection with the custom of the male Horus naming the “young sun” and the female Horus the young star or moon, it is noteworthy that the son and daughter of Anthony and Cleopatra, who used to assume the insignia of Isis on state occasions, were given the Greek surnames of Helios and Selene.

118 It is extremely curious and interesting that the Incas, the civilizers of Peru, also set up a disk of gold as the image of the Creator and placed it between images of the sun and moon. We also find the Inca Ccapac Yupanqui, like Amenhotep, deploring the spread of idolatry and image-worship as a misfortune to his vassals and a sorrow to himself. It is recorded of another Inca that, as a wise measure he destroyed all writing, presumably picture and rebus writing, as calculated to mislead his people by a multiplication of symbols. It is an interesting reflection which our increased knowledge of the primitive civilization of Egypt enables us to make, that the organization of Peru, under Inca rule, must have closely resembled that of Egypt in remotest antiquity, at its primitive stage of development, when simplicity, harmony and equilibrium existed throughout the “celestial kingdom.”

119 The following detached extracts, partly from Mr. Richard Hinckley Allen’s valuable work, should be carefully studied in connection with the above text, as they throw further light upon the ideas associated with the sacred centres of heaven and earth by nations with whom the Greeks were in touch.

“To the whole Arabian nation, heathen or Mahommedan, Polaris was Alfass, the hole in which the earth’s axle found its bearing” (p. 451).

The following important material pertains to the chapter on India, of whose insufficiency I am painfully aware. “In earliest Northern India the star nearest the pole was known as Grahadhara, ‘the pivot of the planets,’ representing the great god Dhruva, and Al Biruni said that among the Hindus of his time it was Dhruva himself. It was an object of their worship” (p. 456).

In Bournouf’s Bhagavata-pûrana (chap. IV) it is said that “Dhruva, meditating on Brahma, stood on one foot, motionless as a post; while he did so half the world, wounded by his big toe, bent over under his weight like a boat which, bearing a vigorous elephant, leans at each step he takes, from left to right.” O’Neil, citing the same source continues: “In consequence of his austerities Bhagavat said ‘I grant thee virtuous Child, a Spot which has never yet been occupied by any being, a Spot blazing with splendor, of which the ground is firm, where is fixed the circus of the celestial lights, of the planets, constellations and stars; which turn all around like oxen round their stake, and which [the Spot] subsists motionless even after the Dwellers of a Kalpa [a day and night of Brahmâ _i. e._ 4,320,000,000 years] have disappeared. Around this Spot there turn with the stars and leaving it on their right, Dharma, Agni, Kasyapa and Sakra and the Solitaries who live in the Forest’ ...” (p. 801). According to the Vishnu-purâna: “As Dhruva turns, he causes sun, moon and other planets to turn round also, and the lunar asterisms follow in his circular course, for all the celestial lights are in fact bound to the Polar star by aërial cords” (Vishnu-purâna, see O’Neil, p. 503). It is instructive to compare these descriptions of Dhruva with the Akkadian-Sumerian hymn to Ishtar, whom I have identified as the female form of Polaris (p. 342). According to Professor Sayce it begins: “Thou who as the axis of the heavens dawnest. In the dwellings of the earth her name revolves” (O’Neil, p. 715).

O’Neil further notes that “Dhruva is named the sun of Uttâna-Pâda” and that this name is connected with uttarat=north and also signifies outstretched, supine. He also states that “Uttara and Uttarâ was the dual god of the north, the son and daughter of Virâta, and expresses the opinion that the age of the Dhruva legend is unutterable” (p. 503).

According to another Sanscrit legend: “At one time in the history of the creation an attempt was made by Visvamitra to locate a southern pole and another bear in positions corresponding to the northern, this pole passing through the island Lumka or Vadavāmukha (Ceylon)” (Allen, p. 436). Professor Sayce writes: “In early Sumerian days, the heaven was believed to rest upon the peak of ‘the mountain of the world’ in the far northeast, where the gods had their habitations (_cf._ Isa. XIV, 13) [the mount of congregation in the uttermost parts of the north], while an ocean or ‘deep’ encircled the earth which rested upon its surface.” Von Herder referred to it as “Albordz, the dazzling mountain on which was held the assembly of the gods, and identified it with the holy mountain of God,” alluded to in the Book of the Prophet Ezekiel XXVIII, 14; and Professor Whitney quoted from the sixty-second verse of the first chapter of the Surya Siddhanta, “the mountain which is the seat of the gods” and from the thirty-fourth verse of the twelfth chapter: “A collection of manifold jewels, a mountain of gold, is Meru, passing through the middle of the earth-globe, and protruding on either side;” commenting on which he says: the “seat of the gods” is Mount Meru, situated at the North Pole (p. 452).

120 I likewise deeply regret that it is only since the last pages of the present investigation have been in proof, that a remarkable work, full of valuable material relating to the universal spread of pole-star worship and symbolism, was particularly recommended to me by a distinguished fellow archæologist. Had I realized before this the great value of the late John O’Neil’s “The Night of the Gods” (David Nutt, London, 1897), as a compendium, the result of years of conscientious and painstaking labor, I should have made extensive use of it and should have been able to make my survey of the ancient civilizations of the Old World far more complete and my material more convincing. As it is, I can only warmly recommend the work to all interested in the present investigation, who will see for themselves the widely different points of view from which our respective researches have been carried out but will probably be struck with the identity of some of our views. I should like to express here my keen realization of the many blunders and omissions I have probably made in the course of the present investigation, which carried me, reluctantly, into fields of research where I felt myself to be a stranger. In view of the disadvantages under which I have labored, under pressure of time and a frequent inability to obtain all the books I wished to consult, I rely upon the leniency of specialists and upon their kindly communicating to me the faults they detect, so that I may avoid them in future publications.

121 “The Century Dictionary has a theory as to the origin of the idea of a Bear for the seven stars, doubtless from its editor, Professor Whitney, that seems plausible, at all events scholarly. It is that their Sanscrit designation, Riksha, signifies, in two different genders, ‘a bear’ and ‘a star,’ ‘bright’ or ‘to shine;’ hence a title, the Seven Shiners,—to that it would appear to have come, by some confusion of sound of the two words, among a people not familiar with the sound” (p. 424). “Later on Riksha was confounded with Rishi, and so connected with the Seven Sages or Poets of India. Al Biruni devoted a chapter of his work on India to the seven stars [of Ursa Major] known as Saptar Shayar, the seven Anchorites” (Allen). I draw attention here to the curious fact that the Sanscrit verb to see=iksh is nearly homonymous with riksha and that therefore, in Sanscrit, the association of a star with the eye=akshan, that sees=iksh, must have been a very close one and suggested the employment of the eye as a symbol for star. In connection with the Sanscrit riksha it is curious to note that, in Japanese, riki means power, viz., jin-riki-sha=man—power-wagon; and hasha or rinsha=wagon or wain. The following extract from one of the hymns in the oldest Veda, the Brahmâna, which “mark the beginning of the philosophical creed of the Vedic period,” is particularly significant when compared, not only with the preceding association of Ursa Major with the seven sages of India, but also with Plato’s cosmological doctrines: “I have beheld the Lord of Men,” one poet writes, “with seven sons, of which delightful and benevolent [deity] who is the object of our invocation, there is _an all-pervading middle brother_ and a third brother.... They yoke the seven to the one wheeled car; _one horse named seven_ bears it along; the three-axled _wheel is undecaying, never loosened and in it all these regions of the universe abide_.... Immature, undiscerning in mind, I inquire of those things _which are hidden from the gods_ [_cf._ Hymn to Amen-Ra, p. 388, where the same expression is used], the seven threads which the sages _have spread to envelop the sun in whom all abide_” (Chambers’ Encyclopædia, article India).

122 Fig. 72, 1, is referred to on p. 319.

123 The original name for Phrygia is said to have been Askanios, from Askanios its first ruler. The cenotaph of Midas is built in the rock at Jazylykaia, in the vicinity of Kumbet, where other similarly decorated royal tombs exist.

124 It would be interesting to learn whether the Arabian title Om-al-kara, “the mother of cities,” has ever been connected with Roma by investigators.

125 It is recalled here that the twin brothers Romulus and Remus are supposed to have been the issue of the union, in the temple of Mars, of the vestal virgin Rhea Silvia with a personification of the god Mars.

126 The recurrence of the square plan, employed in Babylonia and Egypt (see pp. 333 and 369), is noteworthy.

127 In course of time each Roman civitas, or political canton or community, possessed such “a centre, which was termed capitolium, _i. e._ the height, from being originally fixed on a height or hill-top, corresponding to the Greek akra. Round this stronghold of the canton, which formed the nucleus of the earliest Latin towns, houses sprang up, which were in turn surrounded by the oppidum or the urbs (ring-wall connected with urbus, curvus, orbis); hence, in later times, oppidum and urbs became, naturally enough, the recognized designations of town and city.”—Chambers’ Encyclopædia.

128 Diocletian (A.D. 292) revived dual rulership and quadruplicate organization by instituting the quadruple hierarchy of two Augusti and two Cæsars. The prevalence of quadruplicate division with current cosmical conceptions is shown by the following text: “The usual form of taking an augury was very solemn; the augur ascending a tower, bearing in his hand a curved stick called a _litus_. He turned his face to the east and marked out some distant objects as the limits within which he would make his observations and _divided mentally the enclosed space into four divisions_.... He next ... prayed and offered sacrifices....” “We learn from ... the augur Cicero that while the Romans only had four divisions to their heavens-templum, the Etruscans had sixteen, obtained by bisecting and rebisecting the four angles” (O’Neil, p. 433).

129 The cult of Ishtar=Isis, associated with mystery and of Serapis=Osiris, had been instituted in Rome by Domitian (A.D. 82) who caused temples to be built for them. Curious instances of the spread of the cults of other countries throughout the Roman empire have come under my personal notice. In the Museum at Bonn, Germany, there is a Roman tombstone the inscription on which consists of a wheel above the name Jovis, the association of Jove with the wheel, being very remarkable and significant in connection with the present subject.

At Nîmes in the South of France, a curious statue of Mithra was found in the ruins of the Roman city. It consists of a Hermes, surmounted by a hairy, dog-like face. A great serpent is wound around the Hermes, the signs of the zodiac being sculptured between the coils. In the light of the present investigation the meaning of the symbolical statue seems too obvious to require explanation. It is strange that the recollection of seeing this statue at the age of nine with my father, who pointed out and explained the signs of the zodiac to me, is one of the most vivid of my childhood.

130 The curious association of the number seven with Stonehenge in gypsy folk-lore, which possibly contains vestiges of Druidical folk-lore, is brought out by R. G. Haliburton in his paper on “Gypsy folk-lore as to Stonehenge,” to which I refer the reader.

131 In the case of Mayapan, Yucatan, the practical use of analogous council-houses is described (p. 209). The Irish tower and seven houses are remarkably in accord with the scheme of organization used in ancient Greece where, at Tenos, each gens was known as “a tower” and each gens, as well as its town, was divided into at least seven parts (p. 456).

132 John Speed relates that one of the kings of Kent, named Catigera, “was interred upon a plain where his monument vulgarly called ‘citscotehouse,’ consisted of four stones pitched in the manner of the stonehenge.” It is tempting to see in the four stones “pitched” around the grave, the underlying thought of a resting-place in the cosmical centre, of the symbolized four quarters, and to view the prehistoric crosses of Ireland and Scotland as emblematic of the Middle and Four Quarters, associated with secret pole-star and cosmical cult and employed as symbols of time and of quadruplicate government.

133 Celi-Ced and the cult of the wren. Theosophical review, June 15, 1900.

134 Light is thrown upon the possible conception of Ursa Major as Thor’s wagon and the most primitive form of chariots in general by the archaic chariot of state used, to this day, in Corea and formerly in Japan. It is one-wheeled and the seat, destined for one person, is placed high above the single wheel and rests upon two long poles, the ends of which project in front and behind. Four men are required to support and push this chariot of state, a fine example of which has lately been secured for the Museum of Salem, Mass., by Prof. E. S. Morse.

135 It is with keenest interest that I look forward to learning, from the distinguished archæologists of Sweden, among whom I have the honor of having highly-esteemed, personal friends, how far their observation and deeper knowledge lead them to entertain views I have advanced concerning the origin of the swastika and the influence of pole-star worship upon the development of primitive religion and social organization. It is from them that I expect information as to the relation of the prehistoric inhabitants of Scandinavia to the ancient centres of civilization which have been discussed.

136 Hewitt states (p. 90) that, “it was successively immigrating races from the North ... who placed a king at the head of the confederated provinces formed from their confederated villages.... The confederate form of these kingdoms is shown in such names as Chuttisgurh which means the 36 gurhs or united provinces. But the final consolidated form of the pre-Aryan Indian village was that framed by the Kushites. It was they who placed the royal province in the centre of the kingdom.... It was on these principles that the government of the Ooraon village of Chota Nagpore was constructed. The Ooraon form of village government is that which has been preserved with less alteration from subsequent invaders than that of any other part of India, for the Ooraons, Mundas, Ho-kals and Bhuyas have always been able, under the protection of their mountain fastnesses, their political organization and their natural love of independence, to keep their country free from the interference of the hated Sadhs, the name by which they call the Hindus. But these people, who repelled and held themselves aloof from later invaders were of no less foreign origin than those who succeeded them, for they were all formed by the union with the matriarchal Australioids _and patriarchal Mongols or Finnish and other Northern stocks_, most of whom were formed into confederated tribes of artisans and agriculturists in Asia Minor and it was from the southern part of Asia Minor or Northern Palestine, that the Ooraons came. They themselves say that they came from Western India, from the land of Ruhidas [the land of the red men], but this means Syria, the country whose people were called Rotou by the Egyptians, and they were the race who introduced barley and plough-tillage into India and Chota Nagpore.”

## Particular attention is drawn to Wylie’s statements, quoted on p.

303, concerning the migration of Israelites to China, via Persia (about A.D. 58-75) and the native record that Christianity was the ancient religion of Ta-Tsin=Syria. Hewitt’s identification of Syria as the “red land” causes the Ooraon and Chinese traditions to agree in assigning it as the common source of origin of their civilization. According to Professor Sayce it was “about B.C. 600 that the Phœnicians penetrated to the northwest coast of India,” and “tradition brought them originally from the Persian Gulf” (Ancient Empire of the East, p. 183).

137 The recent discovery, by Prof. Flinders Petrie, of the mummy of Aha-Mena, and of six other kings of the first dynasty, suggests the possibility that they may have reigned simultaneously and constituted a heptarchy(?). Although it would materially affect Egyptian and Babylonian-Assyrian chronology as it now stands, historians may yet find it necessary to make a revision taking into deeper consideration the existence of tetrarchies and heptarchies in which a number of kings and subrulers reigned simultaneously.

138 To assist these four principal secretaries are two under-secretaries, one Manchu and one Chinese, and a board of ten assistants. Together, these sixteen secretaries divided between two races, constitute a grand secretariat, which acts as nearly as possible as the cabinet of the Emperor. (Missions in China. Jas. S. Dennis, D.D.)

139 This association of Tenos with seven-fold division is particularly suggestive because, in Pythagorean philosophy, the number seven was named Parthenos, Athene, also Apollo, Hermes, Hephaistos, Heracles, Dionysius, Rex, etc. These divinities, the second and third of which are specially known as patrons of cities, appear in a new light when it is realized that they were personifications of the number seven and, by extension, of the seven-fold cosmos, state and city. On p. 449, Plato’s division of the Cosmos is cited. Reference to the history of Greek philosophy shows, however that the spurious existence of four or five elements had not always been accepted in Greece, that Thalês (640-550 B.C.) had laid down the doctrine of a single eternal, original element, water or fluid substance, and “assimilated the universe to an organized body or system.” Xenophanës (570-480 B.C.) conceived “nature as one unchangeable and indivisible whole, spherical, animated ... penetrated by or indeed identical with God.” It is usually accepted that it was Empedocles (444 B.C.) who first formulated the elements, earth, air, fire and water, to which later philosophers added a fifth, the all-embracing æther.

In a luminous monograph (Pythagoras und die Inder, Leipzig, 1884.), Professor L. von Schroeder, of Dorpat, Russia, quoting the authority of Professor Max Müller, Edward Zeller and Oldenburg, has conclusively shown that the five elements, earth, fire, water, air and æther (Sanskrit ākaçā) already occur in the Brahmanas; were taught in the Sāmkhya philosophy of the Kapila and were therefore known in India at least as far back as in the seventh century B.C. The idea of the five elements is so familiar to the Hindus at the present time that death is usually spoken of as “a dissolution into the five elements,” or a “going over into the Five.” Professor von Schroeder’s conclusion is that Pythagorean philosophy derived the elemental divisions from India as well as its doctrine of transmigration, etc., and its science of geometry and of number, mentioning, in support of the latter assertion, the fact that Sâmkya, the name of the ancient Indian school of philosophy, signifies “number,” that its followers were therefore designated as “philosophers or teachers of numbers.” At the same time I point out that, according to Oliver, “a large portion of Egyptian philosophy and religion was constructed almost wholly upon the science of numbers and we are assured by Kircher (Oedip. Egypt, II, 2) that everything in nature was explained on this principle alone.”

Returning to Professor von Schroeder’s work I refer the reader to pp. 59 and 65, and notes for an extremely interesting discussion of the Greek name of the fifth element that figures in the work of Philolaus, the first who wrote a treatise on the Pythagorean system of philosophy. The name employed has been deciphered by different authorities as ὅλχας, ὁλχας, χυχλάς, ογχος, ὁγοτας, or ὅλας. The interpretation given is that the name (the first syllable of which recurs in the word Olympus) signified “that which moves or carries with it the universe.” Professor von Schroeder suggests that the name may be a corruption of the Sanscrit name for æther, the all-embracing element, âkâça. I venture to recall here the curious fact that, in ancient Mexico, the symbol, enclosing the four elements, is always designated as the ollin, a word associated with the idea of “movement” and of life=yoli.

In his work on the “Pythagorean Triangle,” the Rev. G. Oliver gives an extremely clear account of the Pythagorean philosophy and tells us that its central thought is the idea of number, the recognition of the “numerical and mathematical relations of things....” “The Pythagoreans seem,” says Aristotle, “to have looked upon number as the principle and, so to speak, the matter of which existences consist;” and again “they supposed the elements of number to be the elements of existence, and pronounced the whole heaven to be harmony and number.”

Concerning the universe, like many early thinkers, as a sphere, they placed in the heart of it the central fire to which they gave the name of Hestia, the hearth or altar of the universe, the citadel or throne of Zeus. Around this move the ten heavenly bodies ... the earth revolved on its own axis....

They developed a list of ten fundamental oppositions: 1, limited and unlimited; 2, odd and even; 3, one and many; 4, right and left; 5, masculine and feminine; 6, rest and motion; 7, straight and crooked; 8, light and darkness; 9, good and evil.... The union of opposites in which consists the existence of things is harmony; hence the expression that the whole heaven or the whole universe is harmony. Pointing out that it is only by a combination of odd and even numbers that a harmonious cycle is created, I continue to cite from Mr. Oliver’s work: “The decade, as the basis of the numerical system, appeared to them to comprehend all other numbers in itself, and to it are applied, therefore, the epithets quoted above of number in general. Similar language is held of the number ‘four’ because it is the first square number and is also the potential decade (1+2+3+4=10). Pythagoras is celebrated as the discoverer of the holy ‘Tetraktos’ the fountain and root of ever-living nature, or the Cosmos consisting of Fire, Air, Earth, Water, the four roots of all existing things.

“Number,” says Philolaus, “is great and perfect and omnipotent, and the principle and guide of divine and human life. Number then is the principle of order, the principle on which cosmos or ordered world exists.” Without number and the limitation which number brings, there would only be chaos and the illimitable, a thought abhorrent to the Greek mind.

140 “The four Ionic tribes were abolished by Kleisthenes (510 B.C.) who created, in their place, ten new tribes founded on a new principle, independent of the gentes and phratries. Each new tribe comprised a certain number of demes or cantons with the enrolled proprietors and residents in each of them. Each tribe had a chapel, sacred rites and festivals and a common fund for such meetings, in honor of its eponymous hero, administered by members of its own choice; and the statues of all the ten eponymous heroes, fraternal patrons of the democracy, were planted in the most conspicuous part of the agora of Athens.... The demes taken altogether, included the entire surface of Attica. Simultaneously Kleisthenes divided the year into ten portions called Prytanies,—the fifty senators of each tribe taking by turns the duty of constant attendance during one prytany and receiving during that time, the title of The Prytanes. The order of precedence among the tribes in these duties was annually determined by lot.... Moreover, a further subdivision of the prytany into five periods of seven days each and of the fifty tribe-senators into five bodies of ten each, was recognized; each body of ten presided in the senate for one period of seven days, drawing lots every day among their number for a new chairman called Epistates, to whom, during his day of office were confided the keys of the acropolis and the treasury, together with the city seal.” The remaining senators, not belonging to the prytanizing tribe, might of course attend if they chose, but the attendance of nine among them, one from each of the remaining nine tribes, was imperatively necessary to constitute a valid meeting and to insure a constant representation of the collective people. During those later times—the ekklesia or formal assembly of the citizens, was convened four times regularly during each prytany ... (_op. cit._, vol. IV, p. 138). Special attention is drawn here to the intimate association of the system of government and the calendar, analogous to the ancient Mexican system.

“The number of inhabitants an ideal state should contain and their numerical organization were evidently subjects of supreme interest to Greek statesmen and philosophers. The great work by Aristoteles (384-322 B.C.) on Politics, ‘according to Grote,’ was based on a collection made by himself, of 158 different constitutions of states, which collection has, unfortunately, been lost.” “The purpose of comfortable subsistence for which commonwealths are instituted, requiring a minute subdivision of labor,” Aristotle says, that “in this particular view, the more populous the community its end will be the more completely attained.... All things considered he declares in favour of what would be now deemed a very small commonwealth, consisting of 15,000 or 20,000 citizens....”

“In his ‘Book of Laws’ Plato intended to delineate a more practicable scheme of government than that of his first.... His two republics nearly agree in form, though they differ in magnitude; the first containing one thousand and the second five thousand and forty men bearing arms.... In his second republic he equalizes estates but leaves population unlimited.... A regulation directly the reverse of this is introduced by one of the most ancient writers on the subject of politics, Pheidon of Corinth, who limits population, but does not equalize possessions.... The republic, planned by the architect Hippodamus, consisted of ten thousand men, divided into the three classes of artificers, husbandmen and soldiers. The territory he likewise divides into three portions: the sacred, destined for the various exigencies of public worship; the common, to be cultivated for the common benefit of the soldiers; and the private, to be separately appropriated by the husbandmen. His laws were also divided into three kinds....” (Aristotle’s Ethics and Politics, John Gillies, LL.D., London 1804).

The knowledge that a republic was actually planned on the scheme of three-fold division naturally suggests the possibility that the Sicilian coat of arms, the triskeles, may be a survival of a period when a similar republic existed in Sicily and the year was divided into three seasons only. (For interesting details concerning the employment and spread of a year of three seasons in ancient times, see Hewitt, _op. cit._ Preface XVI, vol. I.)

In Grote’s history we learn that after the establishment of the first Athenian democracy by Kleisthenes and the victory they gained over the Bœotians and Chalkidians, the Athenians _planted a body of four thousand_ of their citizens as kleruchs (lot-holders) or settlers upon the lands of the wealthy conquered Chalkidians. This is a system which we shall find hereafter extensively followed out by the Athenians in the days of their power; partly with a view of providing for their poorer citizens, partly to serve as garrison among a population either hostile or of doubtful fidelity. These Attic kleruchs did not lose their birthright as Athenian citizens: they were not colonists in the Grecian sense and they are known by a totally different name—but they corresponded very nearly to the colonies formally planted out on the conquered lands by Rome. The increase of the poorer population was always more or less painfully felt in every Grecian city ... the numerous kleruchies sent out by Athens, of which this to Eubœa was the first, arose in a great measure out of the multiplication of the poorer population, which her extended power was employed in providing for ... (_op. cit._ vol. 4, p. 171). The number “four thousand” specially designated is of particular interest because the letter of the Greek alphabet expressing it was the delta, in the form of a triangle or pyramid, which also signified “the fourth” or “a quarter.” The ideas suggested by these facts are: that the foundation of such a colony would have been commemorated by the building of a pyramid by the conquered race, the division of labor amongst them preparing the way for the institution of a social organization on the familiar plan (_cf._ p. 273). It is only when we reflect what an admirable means of establishing communal life and activity the mere act of building under direction and guidance must have been, that we appreciate the fine wisdom of the ancient kings, civilizers and culture-heroes, who were, first of all, master builders, architects and masons and who began the work of rearing an empire by directing the erection of a monument which, by its form, expressed the all-pervading plan of organization.

141 “Taylor says that the reason Plato adopted this division is because the number 12, the image of all-perfect progression, is the product of 3 by 4, both of which numbers, according to the Pythagoreans, are images of perfection. On the other hand, Ast conceives that Plato had in mind the division of the country in twelve parts found in Egypt and elsewhere, and which seems, as may be inferred from other portions of his work, to have been connected with the division of the year into twelve months, each under the superintendence of one of the twelve greater gods.” To this note I add the remark that, in B. VI, C. 8, Plato distinctly refers to the twelve tribes as “the thrice four tribes, recommending that they should appoint thrice four interpreters,” one for each tribe. It should also be recalled that Cecrops is said to have employed the division into twelve and is supposed to have brought it from Egypt. In the present summary the employment of the same division in other countries can be verified.

It may be of interest to note here that, like the Egyptians, the Greeks divided their month into 3 decades. The year consequently contained 3×12=36 decades+5 days.

142 Considering that the employment of silver or gold currency among the nations of antiquity has been regarded, by some, as a proof of advanced culture, it is interesting to learn, from the following passage, that, as a result of experience and with wisdom and foresight, Plato recommended the adoption of different forms of currency in each different state, in order to avert the dangers resulting from the accumulation of riches. “A law ... that no private person be permitted to possess any gold or silver; but that there be a coin for the sake of daily exchange, which it is almost necessary for handicrafts to change and for all who have need of such things to pay the wages due to hired persons, be they slaves or domestic servants. On which account we say that _they must possess coin which is of value to themselves, but of no worth amongst the rest of mankind_.” It is curious to note how closely the employment of the cocoa bean, in ancient Mexico and of wampum in North America, as the staple currency, fulfilled the purpose recognized as desirable, by Plato.

143 At the last moment I learn that fragments of Ægean pottery lately found at Abydos in tombs of the Egyptian kings of the first dynasty, by Prof. Flinders Petrie are considered to prove that, “Grecian merchants sailed the seas in 4500 B.C., ... a conclusion further borne-out by the pictures of vessels with 60 oarsmen, vessels quite large enough for crossing the Mediterranean, which have been seen on prehistoric memorials of the oldest inhabitants of Egypt” (Rawnsley). In this connection it is interesting to learn, from Professor Sayce, that the Phœnician galley was the model of the Greek one, that it was at Carthage that a ship, with more than three banks of oars, was first built, and that its pilots steered by the pole star, not, like the Greeks, by the Great Bear (Ancient Empires of the East, p. 205).

144 An interesting interpretation of this somewhat obscure sentence is obtained by collating it with the conception of “the revolving eye of the Norse world mill-stone which was directly above Oergelmer and through which the waters flowed to and fro from the great fountain of the Universe mountains” (p. 472). The analogy is strengthened by the fact that the mountainous region in which Kyrênê was situated has always been noted for its fertility, the water, from the mountains enclosing its plains, settling in pools and lakes, affording a constant supply, during the summer months, to the Arabs who frequent it. The feature of Kyrênê, most renowned in antiquity, was its inexhaustible Fountain of Apollo, and travellers describe how, to this day, the Bedouin Arabs flock to it when their supply of water and herbage fails in the interior. Grote states that the same circumstance must have operated in ancient times to hold the nomadic Libyans in a sort of dependence upon Kyrênê (Grote, _op. cit._ vol. IV, p. 37).

The realization that an inexhaustible fountain of water meant life to primitive nomadic people, enables us to understand the expression “fountain of life” and the constant associations of the sacred central mountain with pools of water and streams flowing in four directions. It is remarkable and highly suggestive how closely the following topographical details, given by Grote, of the original seat of the Macedonians (which were in the regions east of the chain of Skardus, north of the chain which connects Olympus with Pindus and which forms the northwestern boundary of Thessaly), coincide with the conception of Mt. Meru, for instance.

“Reckoning the basin of Thessaly as a fourth, here are four distinct inclosed plains on the east side of this long range of Skardus and Pindus,—each generally bounded by mountains which rise precipitously to an alpine height, and each leaving only one cleft for drainage by a single river,—the Axius, the Erigōn, the Haliakmōn and the Peneius respectively. All four plains ... are of distinguished fertility ...” (Grote, _op. cit._ vol. IV, p. 10). The close vicinity of Olympus, the Grecian “divine mountain,” is particularly suggestive, inasmuch as it proves to be geographically associated with four remarkable plains and rivers.

145 “This metaphorical name (the Krittakas) was derived from the vocabulary of the Northern races, who had learned in Asia Minor and the neighborhood of the Caspian Sea to spin thread and weave cloth from the flax of Asia Minor, and the hemp of the shores of the Caspian Sea, and who had taken their knowledge with them when emigrating to the villages of the Neolithic life in Europe and to the Kushite Empire in India, where they divided the people into guilds or trade unions, founded on community of function, and discovered how to use cotton thread for weaving. The reverence of the Ashura Kushika for the Pleiades, whose mother star is Amba, also proves them to be connected with the southwestern Semites, the Himydritic Arabs of Southern Arabia, the land of Sheba, meaning _seven_, meaning the seven stars of the constellation of the Great Bear, called by the Arabs Al-suha, who first worshipped the Pleiades with its 6 stars, the sacred number of the Ashura, as their mother constellation, under the name of Tur-ayya, or children of the father-pole (tur, of the Turanian race) ...” (Hewitt).

146 Various writers have observed and pointed out the close resemblance in form and decoration, between the terra-cotta whorls found, in profusion, in Mexico and those of Troy.

147 There is, however, a wide difference between Hewitt’s views and mine concerning the stars associated with the year wheel and the origin and meaning of the primitive cross-symbols and swastika, although at times they partially agree. As Hewitt gives several totally distinct and different explanations of the origin and significance of crosses and swastikas, it is difficult to understand clearly his standpoint. On p. 9, vol. II, he makes an interesting differentiation between a diagonal or transverse and upright cross, respectively designating them as rain-cross and fire-cross, and states that their superposition forms the eight-rayed star, the Akkadian and early Indian sign of Anu=god. On p. 145, vol. II he names the transverse cross a sun-cross and says it describes the track of the sun across the heavens, on solstitial days and distinctly describes the swastika in the centre of the triangle on the Hindu altar, as “a symbolic picture of the sun rising at midsummer in the N. E. and setting in the N. W., and at the winter solstice rising in the S. E. and setting in the S. W.” On the other hand Hewitt associates the right-angled cross with the fire-god and the pole-star (p. 191, vol. II), and the five-rayed star of Horus as the rain or meridian pole, or mountain standing in the midst of the four stars marking the four quarters of the heavens (p. 9, vol. II and p. 17, vol. I). I recommend a careful re-perusal of all of Hewitt’s interpretations of cross-symbols and swastika and a close comparison of these with my views, as set forth in the beginning of the present publication, to Mr. Stansbury Hagar who, somewhat hastily, upon hearing my brief communication to Section H of the A. A. A. S. in New York, June 1900, stated (in the October number of the Folklore Journal) that my view concerning the origin of the swastika was the same as that suggested by Hewitt.

148 Referring the reader to pp. 186-192 for details concerning native tree worship, I shall but add that to this day, among certain North American tribes, the planting of the sacred tribal pole in the hallowed earth socket is accompanied by curious ritualistic marriage rites, and the ceremonial kindling of the sacred fire of the fire drill. For the association of four Mexican tribes with four tribal trees and totemic birds, see fig. 53, and note that the central figure, enclosed in a square, is represented as though four streams of blood, flowing from the four angles, converged in his person, constituting him the “Four in One.”

149 The only mention of a movable axle or hub that I know of in Mexican chronicles is the cylinder of wood, described on p. 24 as being shaped like a mortar. The only native illustration I have met which suggests the native employment of some kind of revolving press or axle is the curious and clumsy apparatus figured on pp. 11 and 12 of the Selden MS. preserved at the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and reproduced by Kingsborough. An examination of this strange mechanical contrivance apparently associated with a monkey=ozomatli, and the sacrifice of two prisoners, will be found as interesting as it is puzzling.

150 In a paper read to the Section of Anthropology of the New York meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Mr. Stansbury Hagar communicated the interesting results of his study of the Salcamayhua tablet which has been alluded to on p. 162 of the present publication. With his kind authorization I take pleasure in citing here his interpretation of the name of the Peruvian Creator, an abbreviation of which is inscribed on the plate or tablet. It will be found to accord with that given by Sir Clements B. Markham (History of Peru, p. 20), but to be more explicit. According to his view the name should be analyzed as follows: illa=light, lightning=fire; ticci=foundation, brick=earth; uayra _i. e._ huaii=air, wind; cocha=lake=water.

“Illa ticci uayra cocha would thus mean: the universal spirit defined by naming what seemed to a people unacquainted with scientific chemistry to be the four ultimate elements.”

Referring to the cognate Aymara language, Mr. Hagar interprets the name pachaya chachic as “source, lit. male ancestor, grandfather of all things,” and states that the opening inscription on the tablet should therefore read: “Spirit of Fire, Earth, Air and Water, source of all things” ... that is to say “image of the source whence heaven and earth have emanated.” Mr. Hagar states that this source seems to be appropriately figured by the oval form which he interprets as an egg (see fig. 28, _c_). On the other hand I point out that the flat plate of fine gold, which was set up by the Inca Manco Capac between images of the sun and moon, is figured as circular in shape (fig. 28, _b_).

I draw attention to Mr. Stansbury Hagar’s interesting and suggestive paper on “The Celestial Bear,” which appeared in vol. XIII, no. XLIX, of the Journal of American Folk-lore, in July, 1900. In this he relates the legend connected with Ursa Major by the Micmac Indians, that “this group of stars served to mark the divisions of the night and the seasons for the Micmacs.” A point of particular interest in connection with the Micmac legend is the fact, so clearly distinguishable, that the story was suggested to the minds of the Indians by the different positions assumed by the constellation in its annual circuit around Polaris.

“The Micmacs say,.... In all things as it was and is in the sky, so it is on earth.... In midspring the bear does actually seem to be climbing down out of her [celestial] den [_corona borealis_], which appears higher up to the northern horizon. In midsummer ... the bear runs along the northern horizon.... Soon after the bear assumes an erect position she topples over on her back [is slain] in the autumn. In midwinter she lies dead on her back, ... but the den [_corona borealis_] has re-appeared, with the bear of the new year lying therein, invisible. But this does not end the story of the bear, ... through the winter her skeleton lies upon its back in the sky, but her life spirit has entered another bear who also lies upon her back in the den, invisible and sleeping the winter sleep. When the spring comes around again, this bear will again issue forth from the den to be again pursued by the hunters, to be again slain, but again to send into the den her life-spirit, to issue forth yet again when the sun once more awakens the sleeping earth. And so the drama keeps on eternally.” Reasoning by induction, I am strongly tempted to assign the origin of the Egyptian myth of Osiris and of the “child in its cradle,” to the same source of inspiration—possibly also other myths of antiquity, such as the twelve labors of Hercules (held by O’Neil to be a pole-star god) may be assigned to the same source. At all events, the Micmac example is extremely instructive and suggestive.

The following extracts from Mr. Hagar’s paper establish that Ursa Major was known as the Bear to several North American tribes, and generally served to mark time and seasons. “In a Blackfoot myth we read: The seven Persons slowly swung around and pointed downward. It was the middle of the night,” showing that they too marked the time at night by the position of these stars. So the Zuñis tell, when winter comes, how the bear, lying, sleeps, no longer guarding the West land from the cold of the Ice gods, etc., a story which demonstrates that in Zuñi mythology there was a marked association between the terrestrial bear [the “great white bear of the seven stars,” Cushing] and the seasons.

The Ojibways mention the constellation in connection with the four quarters in heaven, showing that they, at some time, were accustomed to mark their seasons not only by the position of the stars of the Bear, but also by the rising and setting of various fixed stars.

In conclusion I would state that Miss Alice Fletcher has informed me that, among the Omaha Indians, time is measured by Ursa Major, and that the pole-star is named the “Star which never travels.”

151 “The amulet is of finely wrought silver, with magic inscription, the seven-branched candlestick of Jerusalem and the usual Christian monogram. The inscription is in Greek, mixed with barbarous and unintelligible forms. It contains however express allusions to Christianity and states that whoever wore it would be sure to please gods and men.” It is well known that Constantine had on the reverse of his coin the inscription Sol Invictus and on the obverse the monogram of Christ. “This has been interpreted as a proof that the sun was his own guardian deity,” but I venture to explain the adoption of the sun as analogous to the ancient Egyptian mode of designating the sovereign as the son of the sun, the sacred representation of Heaven. Dean Stanley (Eastern Church, p. 193) refers to Constantine’s “mode of harmonizing the discordant religions of the empire under one institution and retention of the old Pagan name of Dies Solis or Sunday, for the weekly Christian festival,” which was recommended by Constantine to his subjects, Pagan and Christian alike, as “the venerable day of the Sun.”

152 “No country in the world can compare with India for the exposition of the pyramidal cross.... The body of the great temple of Bindh madhu (formerly the boast of the ancient city of Benares ... demolished in the seventeenth century) was constructed in the figure of a colossal cross, with a lofty dome at the centre, above which rose a massive structure of a pyramidal form. At the four extremities of the cross there were four other pyramids.... A similar building existed at Mhuttra.... By pyramidal towers placed crosswise the Hindoo also displayed the all-pervading sign of the cross. At the famous temple of Chillambrum, on the Coromandel coast, there were _seven_ lofty walls, one within the other, round a central quadrangle, and as many pyramidal gateways in the midst of each side which forms the limbs of a vast cross” (Faber, quoted by Donelly in Atlantis, p. 335).

153 “The Tur-vasu, or people whose creating god (vasu) was the pole (tur), when united with the traders of the south, became the mercantile mariners of the Indian Ocean, who had imposed their rule and traditions both on the lands of Northern India and on those of the twin rivers, the Euphrates and Tigris.... From India, the only land on the Indian Ocean where they could build sea-going ships, they extended their trade, forms of government and national myths, first to the Euphratean kingdoms and afterwards to Egypt and Syria, where they were known to the Greeks as the Phœnicians” (p. 356).

“These people had seven parent stars whose names are preserved. Professor Sayce has identified the first of these, Sugi, with ‘the star of the Wain’ and states that it means the ‘creating-spirit-reed’ or the northern khu=bird, the ‘reed of the bird, the mother of life.’ Sugi is therefore an additional name for the Bear to that of Bel, distributor of waters.... In both names the metaphor is the same, for it is from the reeds at the source of the rivers, their point of distribution, that the rivers are born.... Both names denoted the star that led the year and it was the Great Bear, as Sugi, that led the earliest year, opening with the week of creation” ... (p. 357). ... “The sons of the Tur or pole were the Indian Tur-vashu, the Zend Turanians, the mariners of Asia Minor called by the Egyptians Tour-sha (Maspero), the sea traders of the Mediterranean called the Tur-sene of Lydia, the Tur-sena or Tyrrhenians of Lemnos and Etruria, who spoke a language closely allied to that of the Akkadians. That their god was worshiped in Cyprus and Asia Minor is proved by the _terra-cotta whorl_ found in one of the settlements on the site of Troy, dedicated in Cypriote characters to Patori-Turi, the father Tur, who gave his name to the Phrygian city of Turiaion. The great antiquity of the settlement is proved by the fact that though some bronze knives and instruments were found in it, by far the greater number of implements were of stone and the pottery, though similar to that of Mycenæ, is of a more archaic type” (Schuchhardt’s Schliemann’s Excavations, App. I, 331-332 and 334).

“They were also the first spinners, weavers, makers of pottery and built canoes and worked in mines.... They grew wheat, barley, peas, flax and fruit trees.... These men covered the whole of Europe and Southern Asia ... and the Indian Dekhan with cromlechs and stone circles, which were certainly in some cases roofed over, dolmens, meaning stone tables, shrines, altars, tumuli and memorial stones or pillars and all of these, whether found in Western Europe or Southern Asia, are completely identical in character. These people had, in their migrations, established an active and widespread foreign trade...” (p. 178).

“These maritime Tursena were intermingled with the matriarchal Amazonian tribes who preceded them, and who seemed to have founded the ancient ports of Asia Minor and Palestine, especially the Ionian cities of Smyrna and Ephesus and that of _Askelon_. It was in the land of Phrygia, the mountain countries of the Caucasus range and the snowy heights whence the Euphrates rose, that the earliest shepherds met the matriarchal races, the immigrants from the southeast, the Hindu village communities, who are called by the Greeks Amazons, and are described as the earliest ruling races of Asia Minor and Greece (p. 175).”

“... The Great Naga is the Akkadian god Ner-gal, and the Phœnician god Sarrahu, or the Great Sar. His name among the Shuites, or the worshippers of Susi-nag on the west of the Euphrates, is Emu, a name which is letter for letter the same as that of the national god of the Ammonites, Amun” (Sayce: Hibbert Lectures, 1887, III, p. 196, note 1. “Amun means the builder, or architect, and is, like that of the Egyptian god, formed of aman, to sustain” (Gesenius, Thesaurus, p. 115). “He was the god of the house pole, who became in Egyptian Thebes, Amen-Ra, the hidden, and it was the people who made the house-pole the symbol of their ancestors, ... who brought to Egypt as well as to Assyria and India, the custom of having cities for the dead apart from those for the living.... It was from the rains of the summer-solstice ... generated from the Naga snake that the Phœnician sons of Kush were born, whose kings, like those of Egypt, wore the Uræus snake as a sign of royal authority. Their original settlement, according to a tradition recorded by Theophrastus, was at _Tulos_ or Turos, in the Persian Gulf, the modern Bahrein. This was the holy island of Diloun, called Dilmun by the Akkadians.... It was the settlement of Hindu navigators in the holy island of Dilmun in the Persian gulf, and at Eridu, which first brought them in contact with the Arabian star-gazers and merchants, and it was the union, in the ancient city of Ur, of these races with the Hebrew tribe of Gad (who built, not only the cities of Bashan, but also those of Assyria and were the great builders of the ancient world), which first formed the Semite race. It was the meridian pole, the heavenly, revolving pole, the Tur of the Akkadians, which the Dravidian traders of India brought with them to Eridu” (p. 292). “It was these Tursena who, by developing the ancient organization of the village and province in India, divided all the countries they occupied into confederacies of cities, such as we find among the Euphratean nations, the Egyptians, Canaanites and the people of Asia Minor, Greece and Italy. It was they who were the fathers of Greek and Latin civilization.” (p. 296). “It was these people who brought from India their village institutions, their holy groves and seasonal dances.... Among them the Finnic mining races descended.... It was in Phrygia that they were mixed with the Daktuloi, or race of handicraftsmen and artificers, the sons of Dak, the showing or teaching god, the god Daksha, the father of the Kush race.... They were the carpenters and builders of the Stone age.”

Prof. Sayce’s “Ancient Empires of the East” furnishes further interesting details concerning the Phœnicians. According to this eminent authority, at an early date, in order to relieve the pressure of population, they sent out organized colonies to the recently discovered lands of the West. Accordingly commercial marts were established at Thera and Melos,.... Colonies were established at Attica, on the coast of Africa, in Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, and beyond the columns of Herakles, in Gadeira. The three cities of Rhodes were planned by Phœnician architects.... The Assyrian character of early Greek art is due to its Phœnician inspiration.... It was about “B.C. 600 that these people penetrated to the northwest coast of India and probably to the island of Britain as well.... They were the intermediaries of ancient civilization ... and the chief elements of Greek art and civilization came from Assyria through the hands of Phœnicians.... Phœnician art was essentially catholic ... it assimilated the art of Babylonia, Egypt and Assyria superadding something of its own.... Their chief deity was Yeud or Ekhad=the Only One ... they worshipped the Kabeiri ... originally seven stars ... who were the makers of the world, the founders of civilization, the inventors of ships.... The cities of Phœnicia were the first trading communities the world has seen.... Their colonies were originally mere marts and their voyages of discovery were taken in the interests of trade. The tin of Britain, the silver of Spain, the birds of the Canaries, the frankincense of Arabia, the pearls and ivory of India, all flowed into their harbours.... Many of their colonies were wholly independent, and governed by their own kings and benefiting Phœnicia only in the way of trade.... In Phœnicia ... the king seems to have been but the first among a body of ruling ... princes and ... chiefs. In time the monarchy disappeared altogether, its place being supplied by suffetes or ‘judges,’ whose term of office lasted sometimes for a year, sometimes for more, sometimes even for life.... At Carthage there were two suffetes, who were merely presidents of the senate of thirty ... whose power was subsequently checked by a board of one hundred and four.... By providing that no member of the board should hold office for two years running, Hannibal changed the government into a democracy.”

154 Evolution and Ethics. Appleton ed. New York, 1896, p. 104.

155 “Death no Bane,” translation by Robert Black, M. A., Sampson Low, Marston & Co., London, 1889, p. 121, note.

156 Merely as affording a glimpse of the troublous period during which Plotinus lived, I recall the fact that Caracalla, visiting Egypt, caused a large number of young men to be massacred at Alexandria (A.D. 211). Between A.D. 248 and 268, Alexandria was the seat of civil war for twelve years, and through war, famine and pestilence, in a few years, about half of the population, not only of Alexandria, but of Rome, perished. A general persecution of Christians was also carried on at this period, and in A.D. 268 Zenobia invaded Egypt.

157 To those of my fellow-workers who have made a special study of the most ancient forms of cursive and ikonomatic writings of the Old World, I should like to submit some facts concerning the ancient Mexican method, which may carry a fresh suggestion and be an aid to future research.

When the first Spanish missionaries who reached Mexico found themselves confronted by the barrier of language and wished to teach the native converts the Lord’s Prayer in Latin, they adopted the method of picture writing employed by the aborigines. By painting a banner=pantli, a stone=tetl, a cactus=nochtli and another stone=tetl, they conveyed the words Pa-te-noch-te, which, approximately, represented paternoster. The consequence was that the Indians were able to memorize prayers in a language unknown to them, by referring to pictures of objects and naming these in their own tongue. A number of curious documents exist, which exhibit a great difference and variety in execution and are more or less cursive, according to the artistic sense and ability of the missionary or converted Indian who drew them. The fact that Spaniards, possessing our mode of writing, should have found picture-writing the most effective means of teaching primitive people speaking an alien tongue has always appeared to me as most instructive and suggestive.

As the natives suggested this method to their instructors, it is obvious that it was their habitual mode of memorizing a foreign language. The possibility that words recorded in native pictography may belong to an alien tongue, opens out a new field for future research. A curious result is obtained when Tenoch-Titlan, one of the ancient names of the capital of Mexico is studied from this point of view. In the well-known rebus now employed as the arms of Mexico, the syllables Te and Noch only are actually expressed in picture-writing by the stone=tetl, from which a cactus=nochtli is growing. This group is, however, surmounted by an eagle holding a serpent in its talons and the meaning of this animal group appears symbolical merely. It may be a curious coincidence that the eagle holding a serpent in its talons was employed by Mediterranean people as an emblem of victory and occurs on ancient Greek coins with this significance, and that the recorded name, Tenochtitlan or “the land of Tenoch,” curiously resembles Tenos, the name of a Greek heptarchy, founded by seven tribes just as the adjacent town of Chalco, in Mexico, resembles Chalcis, the town in Eubœa, where Aristoteles died.

On p. 418 and in my discussion of Egyptian hieratic script, I have pointed out that some signs employed express the sounds of words in another tongue, that the syllables am and an, for instance, seem indissolubly and universally linked to pole-star worship and symbolism. It does not seem unreasonable to endeavor to explain this by imagining that individuals, wishing, in each case, to teach the word _Sama_=the revolving heaven _i. e._ the North, to people speaking different languages, should make a picture of a tree or boat named am in one tongue, and in another country, draw a spider, named am, by its inhabitants. In the first country the tree, or boat, and in the second, the spider, would, in time, become the symbols of the north, and though different, signify the same thing. In time, each sign might be employed to express the syllable am in general and in this way isolated systems of ikonomatic writing would evolve and, in course of time, native artists would more or less skilfully produce conventionalized and distinctly characteristic forms and methods.

At the same time the colonizing race might be employing and perfecting a totally different form of cursive writing for their own purposes of registration, etc. For instance: in Athens, where Euclid held an archonship in 403 B.C. and, during centuries, Pythagorean philosophers identified “earth with a cube, fire with a pyramid, air with an octahedron, water with an icosahedron, and _the Sphere of the Universe_ with a dodecahedron,” and also taught that a point corresponds with the monad, both being indivisible; a line with the duad, etc., it is obvious that points, lines and geometrical figures must have been employed for the cursive registration of ideas. In a state, firmly established on fixed principles of numbers, the cursive registration of its subdivisions, by means of numbers only, was rendered possible and in such a community the necessity for cursive writing would be limited and perhaps be confined to the registration and identification of individuals, the reports of quantities of produce, etc.

The facts that the letters of the Greek alphabet possess fixed numerical values, and that the initial letters only of their tribal names were inscribed on the shields of Lacedæmonian, Sicyonian and Messenian warriors, for instance, appear to indicate that, at one time, each Greek tribal division possessed its cursive mark, a letter, which may have indicated, at the same time, a numerical division of the confederacy. To understand such cursive records it is evident that a knowledge of the numerical basis of the state would be indispensable and imperative and that this would be confined to the rulers only. My opinion that the Maya calculiform hieroglyphs constitute cursive notation relating entirely to the calendrical and governmental cyclical system and absolutely unintelligible without a knowledge of this, has already been

## partially referred to on pp. 242 and 244. From Mexican manuscripts,

where individuals, by means of a number and a calendar sign, are linked to a division of the state, I hope yet to be able to clearly demonstrate the practical harmonious working of a machinery of state, established on a perfected numerical scheme, the cursive notation of which was extremely simple.

Meanwhile I offer the foregoing remarks as suggestions for future research and as an expression of my opinion that people, using geometrical and numerical cursive methods of notation in their own country, may have systematically employed the pictographic method in teaching their language to strangers and in establishing their civilization in foreign lands.

158 It is particularly interesting to learn from Professor Sayce (_op. cit._ p. 188), not only that Phœnician culture had been introduced among the rude tribes of Israel, but that the temple of Jerusalem was built by Phœnician artists after the model of a Phœnician one, the main features of which were the two columns or cones at the entrance and the brazen sea or basin, which rested on _twelve_ bulls, this number agreeing with the number of Israelitic tribes and with tribal or caste divisions in other ancient centres of civilization. It is thus certainly suggestive to find the number twelve associated with the Phœnicians, to whom the spread of civilization in the Old World is attributed and whose predecessors, at the period of Babylonian culture, were, according to Professor Sayce, “solitary traders, who trafficked in slaves, in purple-fish ... and whose voyages were intermittent and private.”

... “Diodorus Siculus assigns to the Carthaginians the knowledge of an island in the ocean, the secret of which they reserved for themselves as a refuge to which they could withdraw should fate ever compel them to desert their African home. It is far from improbable that we may identify this obscure island with one of the Azores, which lies 800 miles from the coast of Portugal. Neither Greek nor Roman writers make any reference to them, but the discovery of numerous Carthaginian coins at Carvo, the northwesterly island of the group, leaves little room to doubt that they were visited by Punic voyagers.”—Sir Daniel Wilson. The lost Atlantis and other ethnographic studies. New York, 1892.

159 Address of the retiring President of the A. A. A. S., Columbus meeting, 1899. Proceedings of the A. A. A. S., vol. XLVIII, to which the reader is referred for valuable data.

160 “Professor Perry, F. R. S., in his admirable monograph on Spinning Tops, (Romance of Science: Spinning Tops, by Professor John Perry, M. E., D.Sc., F. R. S., 1890, pp. 107-110, 12-13, cited by O’Neil, _op. cit._, p. 540.) shows how a spinning gyrostat whose spinning axis is compelled by the experimenter into a horizontal plane is then constrained by the earth’s motion alone to direct its spinning axis due north and south and so to indicate mathematically the lie of the true meridian of its spot. If the spinning gyrostat be next shut off from all other motion except a vertical one in the plane of this meridian, its spinning axis will point its north end up to, and continue to point truly up to, the celestial pole.” Then, adds Professor Perry, in terms strangely suitable to my purposes: “It is with a curious mixture of feelings that one first recognizes the fact that all rotating bodies, fly-wheels of steam-engines and the like, are always tending to turn themselves towards the Polestar; gently and vainly tugging at their foundations, all the time they are in motion, to get round towards the object of their adoration.”

161 The Incas claimed to have descended from three windows. See Rites and Laws of the Incas, p. 77.

162 It is noteworthy that the Zuñi name for village in general is ti´-na-kwin-ne. Tina=many sitting around and kwin-ne=place of.

163 The accuracy and value of the above article are vouched for, in an interesting way by the Rev. Samuel M. Zwemer, F. R. G. S. (a missionary who spent ten years in Arabia), who refers to it as follows, and quotes it in his recent publication: “Arabia, the cradle of Islam. New York, 1900,” p. 289. “An anonymous article in the London Standard, Oct. 19, 1894, entitled, ‘A prayer-meeting of the Star-worshippers,’ curiously gave me the key to open the lock of their silence. Whoever wrote it must have been perfectly acquainted with their religious ceremonies, for when I translated it to a company of Sabeans at Amara, they were dumfounded. Knowing that I knew _something_, made it easy for them to tell me more.”

164 I point out the remarkable fact that the Chinese name for jade=yu, is homonymous with the word for source or origin, hence, perhaps, its sacredness and employment as a secret symbol of the hidden source of all things. See p. 277 for Chinese choice of symbols influenced by sound of name.

165 The Hindu Yama and Yami were twin brother and sister, and have been respectively identified by Prof. Max Müller as night and day. Yama, the inseparable duality, is entitled law and justice, etc. and was represented with four arms, riding a buffalo, with a crown on his head, accompanied by “two four-eyed watch dogs, which are probably the eight or twice-four regions of the compass”... (Chambers’ Encyclopædia). Of the originally cosmical character of Yama there can be no doubt. It is curious to find, at the epic and Puranic period, the account of “Yama” marrying the thirteen daughters of Daksha (north-people, white), becoming the regent of the south and residing in Yamapura, a town in the lower regions; details which appear to indicate the actual establishment of a kingdom on the familiar plan by an earthly representative of the cosmical deity.

166 This was the first god of the divine triad of whom it is recorded that “they hid their persons;” see Translation of the Ko-ji-ki or Records of Ancient Matters, Basil Hall Chamberlain, vol. X, supplement, Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, Sections I and II from which this and the following names of gods are taken.

167 The Akkadian Sumerian Cosmos is thus described: “Above the earth extended the sky, ana, spangled with its fixed stars (mul) revolving around the mountain of the east (Kharsak Kurra) the column which joins the heaven and the earth and serves as an axis to the celestial vault. The culminating point in the heaven, the zenith (Paku), was not this axis or pole; on the contrary, it was situated immediately above the country of Akkadia [Kalama] which was regarded as the centre of the inhabited lands, while the mountain which acted as a pivot to the starry heavens was to the northeast of this country. Beyond the mountain, also to the northeast, extended the land of Aralli, which was very rich in gold and was inhabited by the gods and blessed spirits” (Lenormant, quoted by Warren _op. cit._ p. 166).

168 This is the Ka of Egyptian theology ... he is the Sek-Nag, the god of the Rāj, or royal race of Gonds, born (ja) of Rā, that is, the sons of Ra-Hu, the begetting (Hu) creating fire-god (Ra). His festival is held every seven years and is attended only by males who are bound to secrecy as to its rites.... This god, the great Nag, is the soul of life in the rain cloud, the heavenly snake ... the other being the Ahi or Echis, the snake of earth. “To the present day the Jains, who are the great trading race of India, call themselves Ka-ya=the sons of Ka. This name they must have brought with them to the holy island (Dilmun), from thence it must have travelled to Egypt with the race who established the Kushite rule there” (Hewitt).

169 The titles “Middle king,” “Great Middle princess,” are cited by Chamberlain, _op. cit._ pp. 265 and 267.

170 Madhu=the inspiring intoxicating honey mead used in the sacred ritual, substituted by a Northern people for the barley liquor offered in the manthin or creating, churning cup. The names given to the drinkers of madhu=“madhuya,” madhu-pā and Madhvi; also madhu-varna, the men of Madhu’s caste, are curiously homonymous with the word for Middle Madhyias and appear to designate them as the “Middle caste,” naturally associated with the North.

171 Quoted by O’Neil from Satow and Hawes’ Hdbk. of Japan, 2nd ed. p. 39.

It is interesting to compare the following Japanese words with Miyauken:

MIYO=wonderful, admirable, secret, mysterious, holy.

MIYA=Shinto temple where the kami are worshipped. Japan.

MIYUKI=travelling, going, only applied to circuit of provinces performed by Mikado.

KEN=imperial domain, or that territory which is under the direct government of the Mikado, _cf._ Chinese k’an=land.

172 Transactions of Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. X, p. 245, note 2.