CHAPTER V

. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

[b] F. C. SCHLOSSER, _Weltgeschichte_.

[c] JULES LE LASTEYRIE, _Le Portugal depuis la Révolution de 1820_.

[d] WILLIAM BOLLAERT, _The Wars of Succession of Portugal and Spain from 1820-1840_.

[e] A. BUCHOT, _op. cit._

[f] H. M. STEPHENS, _op. cit._

[g] CESARE CANTU, _Gli ultimi trenta anni_.

[h] E. SILVERCRUYS, _Le Portugal_.

APPENDIX A. THE INQUISITION

[b] PHILIPPUS VAN LIMBORCH, _Historia Inquisitionis_.

[c] GOSSELIN, _The Power of the Pope during the Middle Ages_.

[d] J. C. L. GIESELER, _Compendium of Ecclesiastical History_.

[e] J. L. VON MOSHEIM, _Institutes of Ecclesiastical History_.

[f] VON EIN, Editor of Mosheim.

[g] H. MILMAN, _History of Latin Christianity_.

[h] AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS, _History of Rome_.

[i] LUDORICUS A PARAMO, _De Origine et Progressie officii sanctæ Inquisitionis_.

[j] JOHN FOXE, _Actes and Monuments_.

[k] J. A. LLORENTE, _The History of the Inquisition_.

[l] SPRENGER, _Mallens Maleficarum_.

[m] W. H. PRESCOTT, _Ferdinand and Isabella_.

[n] HENRY C. LEA, _A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages_.

[o] REGINALDUS GONSALVIUS MONTANUS, _Sanctæ Inquisitionis Hispanicæ artes alujot detectæ_.

[p] NICHOLAUS EYMERICHUS, _Directorium Inquisitorum_.

[q] MICHAEL GEDDES, _Tracts against Popery_, 1714.

[r] ARISTOTLE, _Rhetoric_.

[s] BACON, _Novum Organum_.

[t] B. V. MACKENNA, _Francisco Moyen, or the Inquisition in South America_.

[u] JOANNES A ROYAS, _De hæreticis corumquli impia intentione et credulitate_.

[v] JULIUS CLARUS, _Practica Crimina Finalis, 1637_.

[w] WM. LITHGOW, _Travels_, 1632.

[x] PABLO GARCIA, _Orden de Processar en el Santo Oficio_, 1628.

[y] W. H. RULE, _History of the Inquisition_.

[z] CHR. G. NEUDECKE, article on “Inquisition” in Philip Schaff’s _Religious Encyclopædia_ based on Herzog’s _Real-Encyclopædia_.

[aa] MONTESQUIEU, _Esprit des Lois_.

[bb] L. MARINEO, _Cosas memorables_.

[cc] ANDRÉS BERNÁLDEZ, _Reyes Católicos_.

[dd] VOLTAIRE, _Essai sur les mœurs_.

[ee] PUIGBLANCH, _The Inquisition Unmasked_.

[ff] _Pragmaticas del Reyno._

[gg] GARIBAY, _Compendii_.

[hh] PULGAR, _Reyes Católicos_.

[ii] J. G. RODRIGO, _Historia verdadera de la Inquisicion_.

[jj] J. M. ORTI Y LARA, _La Inquisition_.

[ll] DEAN KITCHIN’S article on the Inquisition in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_.

[mm] LEOPOLD VON RANKE, _History of the Popes_.

[nn] F. GUIGOT, _Histoire de la Civilisation en Europe_.

[oo] CARL JOSEPH HEFELE, _Der Cardinal Ximenes und die kirchlichen Zustände Spaniens_.

[pp] P. B. GAMS, _Kirchengeschichte Spaniens_.

[qq] JAIME L. BALMES, _Protestantismus und Katholicismus_.

[rr] OSKAR PESCHEL, _Das Zeitalter der Entdeckung_.

[ss] HEINRICH BRÜCK in Wetzer und Welte’s _Kirchenlexikon_, begun by JOSEPH, CARDINAL HERGENRÖTHER, continued by DR. FRANZ KAULEN.

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

A BRIEF RÉSUMÉ OF SPANISH HISTORY (711-1902 A.D.)

THE KINGDOM OF ASTURIAS; AFTERWARDS CALLED OF OVIEDO, AND THEN OF LEON (711-1037 A.D.)

711 Battle of the Guadalete and downfall of the Visigothic kingdom in Spain. The Moors spread over the peninsula.

718 =Pelayo (Pelagius)= elected king by Spanish fugitives who had taken refuge in the mountains of Asturias. The Moors invade the district but are defeated at the cave of Covadonga and driven back. The Christians are left in peace to found the kingdom of Asturias.

722 Leon taken by Pelayo.

737 =Favila=, son of Pelayo, succeeds him.

739 =Alfonso I=, the Catholic, son-in-law of Pelayo, greatly extends his territory; acquires towns in Galicia, Lusitania, Leon, and Castile, and rules over Biscay and Navarre.

757 =Fruela I= makes Oviedo his capital. The harshness of his rule rouses his subjects to revolt and they put him to death.

768 =Aurelio= or =Aurelius=, nephew of Alfonso I, succeeds, and is followed by

774 =Silo=, his brother, who removes his court to Pravia.

778 Battle of Roncesvalles, in which the Spaniards ascribe the defeat of Charlemagne to Bernardo del Carpio, nephew of Alfonso II.

784 =Mauregato the Usurper=, to whom was ascribed the promise to pay the Moors a tribute of one hundred damsels.

788 =Bermudo (Veremundo) I the Deacon= is persuaded to accept the crown, but after three years resigns it.

791 =Alfonso (II) the Chaste= establishes his court at Oviedo, and firmly establishes his kingdom. The stories of the exploits of his nephew, Bernardo del Carpio, are probably mere fables with a slight foundation of truth.

842 =Ramiro I.= Revolts of the counts Nepotiano and Aldrete suppressed. The Northmen land at Corunna and ravage the district. Ramiro defeats them and burns seventy of their ships.

844 Supposed battle of Clavigo or Clavijo, in which Ramiro was said to have defeated the Moors with great slaughter by the aid of Santiago, who appeared in person on a white horse.

850 =Ordoño I= fortifies his frontier cities and defeats the Moors in several conflicts, notably at Albelda, and successfully asserts his authority over his own nobles. Northmen defeated in Galicia.

866 =Alfonso (III) the Great.= The beginning of his reign is disturbed by pretenders and other rebels.

873 Navarre, which had maintained towards Asturias a fitful allegiance constantly disturbed by Frankish intrigue, is conferred on Count Sancho Iñigo. Mohammedans frequently defeated by Alfonso, who advances his borders to the Guadiana. Leon becomes the capital. Battle of Zamora and defeat of the Mohammedans.

907 Rebellion of Alfonso’s son Garcia Nuño Fernandez, count of Castile, and other nobles. The prince is imprisoned. Revolt in his favour. Alfonso abdicates and divides his territories amongst his three sons, Ordoño receiving Galicia, Fruela Oviedo, and

910 =Garcia= the kingdom of Asturias. Alfonso successfully invades Mohammedan territory. He dies soon after. Garcia makes Leon his capital and assumes the title of king of Leon.

914 =Ordoño II= reunites Galicia with Leon.

917 Alhange stormed and the garrison massacred by Ordoño. Merida purchases peace. Further victories won by Ordoño over the Mohammedans.

918 Abd ar-Rahman III defeated at San Pedro de Gormaz.

921 Battle of Val de Junquera. Ordoño and his Navarrese allies are defeated by Abd ar-Rahman, owing to the defection of the counts of Castile. They are seized and put to death. Ordoño suppresses the rebellion to avenge them and defeats the Moors at Rioja.

923 =Fruela II=, brother of Ordoño, elected to the throne.

925 =Alfonso IV.=

930 Abdication of Alfonso. He retires to a monastery.

931 Attempting soon after to recover the throne, he is taken and blinded by his brother, =Ramiro II=.

939 Battle of Simancas. Ramiro defeats Abd ar-Rahman III. Fernan Gonsalez and Diego Nuñez, counts of Castile, revolt. They are subdued and imprisoned, but then restored to office. Fernan’s daughter Urracais married to Ramiro’s son, who succeeds his father as

950 =Ordoño III.= His brother Sancho and Fernan Gonsalez revolt, and are aided by the Navarrese. Ordoño triumphs over them and quells a Galician revolt.

955 =Ordoño IV= makes himself king by gaining over the troops of

956 =Sancho (I) the Fat=, who recovers his rights with the help of Cordovan troops.

967 =Ramiro III.=

968 The Northmen under Gundered invade and waste Galicia and great part of Leon during two years, till they are finally overthrown and destroyed by the count of Galicia and their vessels are burned.

979 Almansor, regent of Cordova, collects an army against Leon and defeats

981 Ramiro at Zamora and Simancas.

982 Indecisive battle of Monterroso between Ramiro and the pretender Bermudo who, on the death of Ramiro, succeeds as =Bermudo= or =Veremundo (II) the Gouty=. His reign is occupied by continuous rebellions under Rodrigo Velasquez, Conancio, Gonzalo Bermudez, and others, while Almansor constantly increases his territory, taking city after city, including Coimbra, which he destroyed, Leon, whose fortifications he razed, Compostella, whence he carried off the gates and bells of the shrine of St. James.

999 =Alfonso V= (under the regency of Gonsalvo).

1002 Death of Almansor after his defeat at the perhaps fabulous battle of Calatanazar. Order restored in the kingdom of Leon. The capital is rebuilt. Beneficial laws proclaimed. Sancho Garces, count of Castile, rebels.

1021 Garcia succeeds Sancho as count of Castile.

1026 Murder of Garcia at his marriage with the princess of Leon. The northern part of Castile annexed to Navarre. Alfonso invades Portugal and is killed at the siege of Viseu.

1027 =Bermudo III.= Sancho the Great of Navarre conquers part of Leon. Bermudo wins several fortresses from the Mohammedans.

1037 Battle of Carrion. Bermudo slain in battle with =Ferdinand I=, king of Castile, who is recognised as king of Leon, Galicia, and Asturias, in right of his wife, Bermudo’s sister.

RISE OF CASTILE (739-1037 A.D.)

739-757 Alfonso I of Leon erects fortresses (_castella_) in the ancient province of Cantabria, called in the eighth century Bardulia, and then Castile.

860 =Rodrigo=, count of Castile.

866 =Diego Rodriguez, Porcellos=, count.

882 Burgos founded.

=Gonzalo Fernandez.=

=Nuño Fernandez.=

932 =Fernan Gonsalez= revolts against Ramiro II of Leon and is defeated and captured by him, but is restored to office. His daughter Urraca marries Ramiro’s son Ordoño (III).

950 Revolt of Fernan against Ordoño III with whose brother Sancho he invades Leon, but is repulsed. Ordoño repudiates Urraca. She marries the son of Alfonso IV of Leon, afterwards Ordoño IV. Fernan Gonsalez is credited by the older writers with great achievements in the struggle with the Moors.

970 =Garcia Fernandez=, count. His son Sancho Garces rebels against him. The story of the infantes De Lara, their betrayal to the Moors, their murder and the vengeance taken by their half-brother Mudarra, belongs to this reign.

995 The Cordovans defeat and capture Garcia. He dies of his wounds. =Sancho Garces=, count.

1021 =Garcia=, count.

1026 Birth of Ruy, or Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar, called el Cid Campeador (the Lord Champion). Garcia betrothed to the daughter of Alfonso V of Leon with the promise of the title of king. Garcia murdered at the wedding. Sancho the Great of Navarre annexes the northern part of Castile and assumes the sovereignty of the whole in right of his wife, Muña Elvira, Garcia’s sister; and on his death his son

1035 =Ferdinand (I) the Great= becomes king of Castile with the district between the Pisuerga and the Cea, which had been conquered from Leon by Sancho the Great and which Bermudo III attempts to recover, but is slain in the

1037 Battle of Carrion. Ferdinand, as the husband of Bermudo’s sister, succeeds to the kingdom of Leon, after a slight resistance from the population.

KINGDOMS OF CASTILE AND LEON (1037-1156 A.D.)

1037 =Ferdinand (I) the Great=, king of Leon and Castile. He establishes his capital at Leon; confirms and adds to the laws of Alfonso V; subdues the rebellious barons, and engages in a war with his brother Garcia III of Navarre, who at the

1054 battle of Atapuerca is defeated and slain.

1055 Ferdinand takes Cea and other fortresses from the Mohammedans. Viseu and Lamego taken (1057), and

1064 Coimbra. The king of Toledo becomes a vassal of Leon. Valencia and Andalusia invaded by Ferdinand. On his death

1065 =Sancho II= becomes king of Castile. Alfonso VI king of Leon and Garcia king of Galicia. Ferdinand’s daughters, Urraca and Elvira, receive Zamora and Toro.

1068 Battle of Golpejara on the Pisuerga. Alfonso defeats Sancho, but on the arrival of the Cid is in his turn defeated by Sancho.

1071 At the battle of Valpellage Sancho defeats Alfonso VI and imprisons him in a monastery, whence he escapes to Toledo. Garcia then seizes the lands of Urraca,

1072 but is attacked at Santarem by Sancho, who is at first defeated and taken prisoner, but afterwards released by the Cid. The Castilians in their turn defeat and capture Garcia, who is either held prisoner or made tributary. Sancho now besieges his sister Urraca in Zamora, but is assassinated before the walls.

1073 =Alfonso VI= returns, is elected at Burgos, and acknowledged by Leonnese, Castilians, and Galicians, but an oath is exacted of his innocence of Sancho’s death. The oath is administered by the Cid, who incurs Alfonso’s lasting enmity. Garcia kept prisoner.

1074 Expedition of Alfonso to aid the king of Toledo in resisting the king of Cordova. Alfonso invades Portugal, and makes several Mohammedan governors tributary. Marriage of the Cid and Ximena.

1077 The Council of Burgos declines to accept the Roman ritual, but the supremacy of Rome is acknowledged by Alfonso.

1081 The Cid banished for waging independent war against the king of Granada. He takes service with the Mohammedan ruler of Saragossa.

1084 Toledo is taken by Alfonso from Yahya ben Ismail after a siege of two years, and becomes the capital of the kingdom. Alfonso in return for its surrender promised to maintain Yahya in possession of Valencia, but failed to do so.

1086 Battle of Zallaka. Yusuf, king of the Almoravids, comes to the aid of the Spanish Moors, and defeats the forces of Castile, Aragon, and Barcelona. Alfonso resumes the offensive. The Cid is said to have been active in all these wars: after being banished by Alfonso he carried on hostilities on his own account, and after his restoration to favour was foremost in the great siege of Toledo, after which he again waged war on his own account, subduing many Moorish chiefs, including the kings of Saragossa and Valencia. The latter being deposed and slain by a rival,

1094 the Cid laid siege to the city and took it after a long and famous siege. He was in

1100 his turn twice besieged there, and after his death (1099) the Moors regained possession.

1108 Yusuf’s successor Ali inflicted a severe defeat on Alfonso in the battle of Ucles or Urcesia.

1109 =Urraca=, daughter of Alfonso VI, succeeds to Castile and Leon. Her second husband Alfonso I of Aragon, el Batallador, is recognised as Alfonso VII of Castile and Leon, and assumes the title of emperor of Spain. Alfonso Raymond, Urraca’s son by her first marriage, inherits Galicia. Domestic quarrels and war between Urraca and her husband. A party declares for Alfonso Raymond, and after a long period of civil war and anarchy he is recognised on Urraca’s death as

1126 =Alfonso (VII) Raymond= (also called Alfonso VIII). Peace arranged between him and his stepfather.

1134 On the latter’s death at Fraga the king of Castile protects Aragon from the Moors, and occupies several Aragonese fortresses, which he only restores to Aragon as fiefs.

1135 The rulers of Navarre, Barcelona, and Toulouse do Alfonso homage. He assumes the title of emperor of all Spain. War with Navarre and the count of Portugal.

1140 Tourney of Valdevez. The Castilian knights defeated by the Portuguese. Alfonso Henriques of Portugal assumes the title of king. Alliance between Castile and Aragon for the partition of Navarre fails.

1143 A formal treaty between Alfonso Raymond and Alfonso Henriques of Portugal recognises the latter as king of Portugal.

1146 Castile and Aragon come to the aid of the Almoravids against the Almohads and

1147 aided by the fleets of Pisa and Genoa take Almeria. The Christian frontiers are advanced to the Sierra Morena.

1156 The knightly order of San Julian del Pereyro, afterwards called of Alcantara, founded to resist the Moors.

TEMPORARY SEPARATION OF CASTILE AND LEON (1157-1230 A.D.)

1157 =Sancho III= inherits Castile, and =Ferdinand II= Leon.

1158 =Alfonso (VIII)= (III of Castile) =the Noble= succeeds Sancho III at the age of three. His minority is occupied by quarrels for the regency leading to civil war between the noble houses of Lara and Castro. Ferdinand of Leon also claims the chief power and invades the country, while the Navarrese seize several border fortresses.

1169 Cortes of Burgos. The cities send representatives.

1170 Anarchy finally ended by Alfonso’s assuming the government himself when he concludes an alliance with Raymond, regent of Aragon, and marries Eleanor, daughter of Henry II of England.

1175 Order of the knights of Santiago founded.

1188 =Alfonso IX= of Leon succeeds Ferdinand II. Disputes and hostilities between him and the king of Castile.

1195 The two Alfonsos make an alliance against the Moors, but are severely defeated at Alarcon, whereupon they make war on each other.

1197 Peace between Leon and Castile consolidated by the marriage of Berengaria, daughter of Alfonso of Castile, to Alfonso of Leon. Pope Innocent III, who had already dissolved the king of Leon’s marriage with Teresa of Portugal, excommunicates the sovereign of Leon, and lays the kingdom under an interdict. After a struggle of six years the king and queen separate, but their children are recognised as legitimate. War between the two Alfonsos.

1212 Innocent III, aided by Alfonso of Castile, brings about an alliance of the Christian states in the peninsula and, in the great battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, they unite and inflict a crushing defeat on the Mohammedans. On this occasion the Spanish Christians were reinforced by large numbers of crusaders from abroad.

1214 =Henry I=, a minor, succeeds Alfonso VIII of Castile. Berengaria is appointed regent, but Alvaro Nuñez de Lara contrives to supplant her, and rules in tyrannical fashion till the death of Henry in 1217, when Berengaria succeeds, but immediately abdicates in favour of her son, the heir of Leon.

1217 =Ferdinand (III) the Saint.= His father, Alfonso of Leon, supported by Alvaro Nuñez, invades Castile. The nobles rally round Ferdinand; Alvaro is taken, and peace made with Alfonso.

CASTILE AND LEON FROM THEIR PERMANENT REUNION TO THE ACCESSION OF FERDINAND THE CATHOLIC (1230-1479 A.D.)

1230 Murcia is invaded by Ferdinand, who is besieging Jaen when he hears of his father’s death. Berengaria persuades his half-sisters to waive their pretensions, and Ferdinand reunites the kingdoms of Castile and Leon. He continues his victorious career against the Moors, takes Cordova, occupies Murcia and part of Andalusia (1235), and

1248 takes Seville.

1252 =Alfonso (X) el Sabio= (the Learned). Xeres de la Frontera, Medina Sidonia, and Cadiz pass into his hands.

1254 Eleanor, the king’s daughter, marries Prince Edward (Edward I) of England.

1257 The king claims the duchy of Swabia, and having wasted large sums in fruitless endeavours to secure election to the German Empire, he replenishes his coffers by debasing the coinage, persecuting the Jews, and other arbitrary measures.

1263 The Castilian rights over Algarve ceded to Portugal on the marriage of the Portuguese king with Beatrice, daughter of Alfonso el Sabio. Certain Castilian nobles make this an excuse to revolt, and demand redress of grievances and extraordinary privileges, which Alfonso weakly concedes.

1275 Death of the king’s eldest son, the infante Ferdinand de la Cerda. The cortes declare Ferdinand’s brother Sancho the next heir, to the exclusion of Ferdinand’s sons, the infantes de la Cerda, whose cause is espoused by their uncle, the king of France.

1281 War between Alfonso and Sancho. The nobles rally round Sancho, who makes alliance with the kings of Aragon and Portugal, and declares himself king. The war is only concluded by the defeat of Sancho a few months before Alfonso’s death. Alfonso is best known for the encouragement he gave to learning, and the important literary productions which bear his name--some of his own work, and others compiled by his order. They include the code of laws called _Las Siete Partidas_ (promulgated in 1258); the astronomical work called the _Alfonsine Tables_ (drawn up in 1253); the _Crónica General de España_, a translation of the Holy Bible, and some poems.

1284 =Sancho the Great and the Brave= (or =Bravo=). The reign is disturbed by the constant rebellions of the Laras and the king’s brother Don Juan, and the infantes de la Cerda, aided by Aragon, and supported by France.

1292 Alonzo Perez de Guzman the Good takes Tarifa from the Moors, and maintains it against the emperor of Morocco and Don Juan, refusing to surrender even to save his son whom Juan murders before the walls.

1295 The accession of =Ferdinand (IV) el Emplazado= (the Summoned) at the age of nine, gives fresh impulse to anarchy. The Hermandad or brotherhood of citizens is formed to resist the lawless depredations of the nobles. The queen-mother, Maria de Molina, recognizes it, and opposes a bold resistance to rival pretenders and domestic and foreign enemies.

1301 She obtains the papal recognition of her marriage, and of the legitimacy of Ferdinand IV, but nevertheless the struggles with turbulent barons continue during the remainder of the reign.

1305 Treaty of Campillo puts an end to the struggle for the succession. Ferdinand begins to reign in his own name.

1310 Trial of the Templars at Salamanca. Their solemn acquittal does not prevent the suppression of their order in Castile as elsewhere.

1312 Mysterious death of Ferdinand, as was said, by the judgment of God. =Alfonso XI=, an infant, succeeds. Return of anarchy in the struggle for the regency.

1315 The regency divided between the infantes Pedro and Juan, the king’s uncles.

1319 Both regents slain in battle with the Moors.

1320 Don Juan Manuel assumes the regency. Civil wars with rival claimants.

1324 The king assumes the government, but fails to restore order. He murders his cousin, Juan el Tuerto, and by repudiating his own wife, daughter of Don Juan Manuel, provokes the latter to rebellion.

1328 Right of the cortes to a voice in important affairs of state recognised by the king. He undertakes for himself and successors to impose no tax without the consent of the cortes.

1339 Abul Hakam, emir of Fez, arrives in Spain with a large army. Alfonso aided by troops from Aragon and Portugal defeats him in the great

1340 Battle of Salado. Abul Hakam flees to Africa.

1344 Algeciras taken by Alfonso after a long siege.

1350 Death of Alfonso by the Black Death at the siege of Gibraltar. It was to pay for this war that the _alcavala_, a tax of one-twentieth on all sales of real property, was first granted. Alfonso XI patronised letters, and ordered the continuation of the _Crónica_ of Alfonso X which was intrusted to a royal chronicler. The code of Alfonso X was also brought into use in this reign. =Pedro the Cruel.= Leonora de Guzman, the late king’s mistress, imprisoned and her sons driven into exile.

1351 Murder of Leonora de Guzman and of Garcilasso de la Vega, adelantado of Castile.

1352 Henry of Trastamara and Don Tello, Leonora’s sons, revolt and form a league against

1353 Pedro. The king marries Blanche de Bourbon, a French princess, but immediately forsakes her for Maria de Padilla, retaining Blanche a prisoner.

1354 Ferdinand Perez de Castro revolts in revenge for the king’s false marriage with his sister Juana. The citizens of Toledo take arms for Blanche. Meeting at Toro between Pedro and his barons. Pedro consents to reinstate Blanche.

1355 Pedro takes Toledo, imprisons Blanche at Siguenza, executes several rebels, and massacres the Jewish merchants. The kingdom laid under an interdict.

1356 Toro taken by Pedro from his mother. He massacres her

## partisans before her eyes. Pedro engages in a war with

Portugal, in which many Castilian nobles join the foreigner.

1358 Don Fadrique, grand-master of Santiago and son of Leonora de Guzman, slain by Pedro’s own hand and his partisans murdered. Murder of Don Juan, infante of Aragon.

1361 Portuguese refugees delivered up to Pedro I of Portugal in exchange for Castilians who had fled to Portugal, and execution of the persons surrendered. Blanche de Bourbon poisoned.

1362 Maria de Padilla dies. Pedro declares her son his lawful heir. Abu Saïd, king of Granada, comes to ask Pedro’s assistance and is robbed and murdered by him.

1363 The Black Prince (of Wales) concludes an alliance with Pedro the Cruel to meet a threatened invasion of Castile from France. The French, under Du Guesclin, unite with the party of Henry of Trastamara, who, supported by Aragon, claims Pedro’s throne.

1366 Battle of Borja. Sir Hugh Calverley, commanding the English Free Company under Du Guesclin, defeats the Castilians, and Henry is proclaimed at Calahorra. Flight of Pedro. Henry takes peaceful possession of Burgos and is crowned. Edward the Black Prince receives Pedro at Bordeaux and makes a treaty with him which includes Charles the Bad of Navarre. Edward engages to restore Pedro in return for the surrender of certain seaports. Charles promises the army a free passage through Navarre. The English advance guard cut to pieces at Ariñez.

1367 Battle of Navarrete, or Najera, and complete triumph of the English. Henry escapes to Aragon. Pedro celebrates his restoration by a series of murders. He evades his engagements with the Black Prince, and the latter withdraws his troops much reduced by famine and disease.

1369 Henry returns, is welcomed by some cities and reduces others. Pedro makes alliance with Muhammed V of Granada. The united troops fail to retake Cordova, and Muhammed retreats. Pedro on his way to relieve Toledo is invested in Montiel by Henry. In an interview between the brothers, a struggle ensues in which Henry stabs Pedro to death. =Henry II.= The king of Portugal claims the throne of Castile, which is also threatened by Navarre, Aragon, and Granada.

1371 A new _Ordinance concerning the Administration of Justice_ regulates criminal procedure. John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, claims the throne in right of his wife, Constanza, daughter of Pedro the Cruel.

1372 Battle off La Rochelle. Henry wins a naval victory over the English.

1373 Lisbon besieged by Henry, and the king of Portugal forced to make peace.

1379 =Juan I= makes alliance with France.

1380 The Castilians sail up the Thames and destroy the English shipping. Ferdinand of Portugal offers John of Gaunt his alliance.

1381 The earl of Cambridge arrives in Portugal with a few followers, but after some fighting in Castile returns to England.

1382 Beatrice, heiress of Portugal, marries Juan of Castile, but on the death of her father Ferdinand, her uncle João I usurps the Portuguese throne

1385 and defeats Juan of Castile in a great battle at Aljubarrota, where the Castilians lose ten thousand men.

1386 John of Gaunt lands in Galicia, is proclaimed king at Santiago, and with the

1387 help of the king of Portugal takes several fortresses, but is driven to retreat by an outbreak of plague in his army. John of Gaunt resigns his claims in return for fiefs and money and the marriage of his daughter with Juan’s eldest son, who receives the title of prince of Asturias, now first assigned to the heir of Castile.

1390 =Henry (III) the Sickly= succeeds at the age of eleven. Disputes for the regency.

1392 Persecution of the Jews.

1393 Henry assumes the government himself. He has some success in restoring order, and ranges himself on the side of the people against the nobles.

1401 The cortes of Tordesillas passes measures for reform of the judicial system. Embassy to Tamerlane or Timur.

1404 Conquest of the Canaries by Jean de Bethencourt, a Norman adventurer, with assistance from Henry, who grants him the title of king.

1406 =Juan II=, one year old, succeeds under the guardianship of his uncle Ferdinand the Just. Ferdinand restrains the turbulence of the nobles.

1408 Alvaro de Luna comes to court as a page and begins to exercise his influence over Juan.

1412 Ferdinand accepts the crown of Aragon, but maintains his influence in Castile till his death (1416).

1420 Henry, brother of Alfonso V of Aragon and Juan II of Navarre, desiring to marry Juan’s sister Catalina, seizes the king and keeps him prisoner till he consents to the marriage.

1425 Alvaro de Luna, the king’s favourite, made constable of Castile.

1427 The nobles, jealous of his unbounded influence, league against him. He is exiled, but soon recalled.

1429 New league against Alvaro. The kings of Navarre and Aragon invade Castile.

1431 Battle of Higueruela and the defeat of the Moors by De Luna. His vigorous rule brings prosperity to Castile.

1439 New league against De Luna, and civil war in which the kings of Aragon and Navarre join,

1445 but are defeated by Juan in the battle of Olmedo.

1453 The king, prompted by his second wife Isabella of Portugal, resolves on De Luna’s death. He is seized, tried, and executed.

1454 =Henry (IV) the Impotent.= His extravagance and neglect provoke the barons to unite against him and, after several unsuccessful attempts, compel him to set aside the infanta Juana, called La Beltraneja, and recognise his brother Alfonso as his heir.

1465 Not content with this, at a solemn ceremony on the plain of Avila, they declare Henry deposed and set up Alfonso as king.

1468 A destructive civil war continues till Alfonso’s death (1468), when his sister Isabella (the Catholic) refuses to take his place, and contents herself with recognition as Henry’s heiress.

1469 Isabella refuses to marry the heir of Portugal, and marries Ferdinand prince of Aragon. Henry’s endeavours to secure Juana’s succession produce further bloodshed. He bequeaths Castile to her in his will.

1474 Henry IV dies, and =Isabella (I) the Catholic= has herself proclaimed queen of Castile. Ferdinand endeavours to assert his own claims as representative of the male line, but is induced to accept a carefully defined share in the government. The cause of Juana la Beltraneja is espoused by many Castilian nobles and by her uncle Alfonso V of Portugal, who proposes to marry her and invades Castile.

1476 Battle of Toro and complete victory of Ferdinand and Isabella. The rebels submit.

1479 Treaty with Portugal. Alfonso renounces Juana and she retires to a convent. Death of Juan II of Aragon. Ferdinand succeeds him as Ferdinand II.

THE KINGDOM OF NAVARRE (711-1515 A.D.)

=Garcia Ximenes=, first legendary king. Elected after the battle of Guadalete (711) to defend the country against the Moors, from whom he recovers considerable territory. From him the Navarrese writers derive a series of kings who reigned during the eighth and ninth centuries, but they seem, like Garcia Ximenes himself, to be purely fictitious personages. During this period the district seems to have been subjected either to Asturias or the Frankish empire, probably the latter.

778 Charlemagne invades Navarre and seizes Pamplona. On his return to France, after failing before Saragossa, his rearguard under Roland is attacked by troops from Spanish Gascony, including Navarre and other Spanish states, both Christian and Moor, and totally destroyed in the pass of Roncesvalles.

806 Pepin, son of Charlemagne, receives the submission of the Navarrese and organises the government of the country.

836 =Sancho Iñigo=, count (called by some, king) of Navarre.

885 =Garcia I.=

891 Moorish invasion. Garcia I is slain. =Fortuño Garces= rules during the minority of Garcia’s son, Sancho Garces Abarca.

905 =Sancho (I) Garces Abarca.=

907 Pamplona besieged by the Moors during Sancho’s absence in Gascony. Sancho relieves it after a rapid winter march across the Pyrenees and wins a great victory. Many victories won by Sancho over the Moors and the kingdom extended southwards.

920 Sancho retires to a monastery.

921 Abd ar-Rahman III invades Navarre and routs the combined forces of Navarre and Leon at the Val-de-Junquera. The Navarrese under Sancho defeat Abd ar-Rahman’s forces on their return from a raid into Gascony.

925 =Garcia (II), El Tembloso= (the Trembler).

951 The king of Navarre in alliance with Fernan Gonsalez, count of Castile, unsuccessfully supports Sancho, prince of Leon, against the latter’s brother, Ordoño III of Leon.

956 Castile invaded by Garcia, and Fernan taken prisoner.

970 =Sancho (II), El Mayor= (The Great). This king was the most powerful sovereign of Christian Spain at this period. Besides being master of Navarre, Sobrarbe, and

1026 Aragon he conquered Castile after the murder of his brother-in-law, the Count Garcia

1034 and won the eastern portion of Leon as far as the river Cea from Bermudo III. His second son Ferdinand married Bermudo’s sister and heiress, and eventually became sovereign of Leon and Castile (1037). The lordship of Ribagorza was also among Sancho’s acquisitions.

1035 =Garcia III= inherits Navarre and a small district on the south bank of the Ebro, while the rest of the dominions of Sancho the Great are divided among the latter’s other sons. Ramiro, to whom Aragon had fallen, invades Navarre as Garcia is on a pilgrimage to Rome, but is driven back. Garcia then aids Ferdinand, who has succeeded

1037 to Castile, to triumph over Bermudo III of Leon. But when the latter’s defeat and death give Ferdinand the kingdom of Leon, Garcia turns against his brother and allies himself with the emirs of Saragossa and Tudela.

1054 Battle of Atapuerca. Garcia and his allies defeated and Garcia slain by Ferdinand, who annexes the Navarrese possessions south of the Ebro. =Sancho III.=

1076 Murder of Sancho by his brother Raymond and his sister Ermesinda. The murderers expelled from the kingdom. The kings of Aragon and Leon dispute for the crown of Navarre. The king of Leon annexes Rioja. The king of Aragon becomes king of Navarre under the name of =Sancho (IV) Ramirez=.

1094 =Pedro= (Pedro I of Aragon).

1104 =Alfonso= (Alfonso I of Aragon). On his death without issue the Navarrese refuse to recognise his will bequeathing his kingdom to the knightly orders of St. John and the Temple, and elect

1134 =Garcia (IV) Ramirez=, a member of the old royal house of Navarre, while the Aragonese prefer Alfonso’s brother, Ramiro (I) the Monk. Alfonso (VII) Raymond of Castile and Leon, who assumes the title of emperor of all Spain, receives the homage of Garcia and Ramiro. Garcia becomes a feudatory of Ramiro. Alliance between Garcia and Alfonso, count of Portugal, against Alfonso Raymond. Alfonso Raymond invades Navarre. Garcia acknowledges his supremacy.

1140 Alfonso Raymond makes alliance with Aragon for the

## partition of Navarre and again invades it, while Garcia invades

Aragon. After both have won successes, Alfonso and Garcia make peace.

1150 =Sancho (V) the Wise.= This king’s reign is occupied with obscure and frequent hostilities with the neighbouring states of Aragon, Barcelona, and Castile.

1176 The kings of Castile and Navarre refer their differences to Henry II of England. His

1179 decision is not acted upon, but a later peace between them embraces the same terms.

1191 Berengaria, daughter of Sancho V, marries Richard I of England.

1194 =Sancho (VI) the Infirm.= He makes alliance with Castile and Leon against the Moors.

1195 Battle of Alarcon. Alfonso VIII of Castile defeated by Yakub Al-mansur. Quarrels amongst the allies. Sancho concludes an alliance with the Almohads. Alfonso of Leon takes Guipuzcoa, Alava, and Biscay. Alliance of Navarre, Leon, Aragon, Castile, and Portugal against the Moors, which leads to the defeat of a Moorish army under Muhammed an-Nasir in the

1212 Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa.

1234 =Thibaut I= (Theobald or Teobaldo), count of Champagne, elected king.

1239 Seventh Crusade led by Thibaut to Syria. On the defeat of a portion of the army he and the other French princes desert their comrades and return to Spain.

1253 =Thibaut II.=

1270 Eighth Crusade. Thibaut accompanies St. Louis to the Holy Land and dies on his way home. =Henry Crassus.=

1274 =Joan= or =Jeanne I= succeeds at the age of four. The country reduced to anarchy by disputes between native factions and foreign princes respecting the disposal of her hand.

1284 Joan marries Philip IV of France.

1305 =Louis Hutin= (Louis X of France) succeeds Joan.

1316 =Philip I= (V of France) succeeds, to the prejudice of the daughter of Louis Hutin.

1322 =Charles I= (IV of France), brother of Philip I. The Navarrese protest against this reassertion of the Salic law and on Charles’ death the crown passes to Louis Hutin’s daughter,

1328 =Joan II=, with her husband, =Philip II= (count of Évreux), who at their coronation sign a convention securing the independence of Navarre. Massacre of the Jews.

1334 War with Castile.

1343 Philip joins Alfonso XI of Castile in besieging Algeciras and dies during the siege.

1349 =Charles (II) the Bad.= His endeavours to recover the lordships of Brie and Champagne and his murder of the constable of France lead to his imprisonment by the French king. He escapes and is subsequently pardoned.

1361 Return of Charles to Navarre. He promises to aid Pedro the Cruel of Castile against Aragon.

1366 Alliance of Charles with Edward the Black Prince of Wales to restore Pedro the Cruel. Charles plays fast and loose with the rival kings of Castile and seizes Salvatierra and Logroño for himself.

1370 On the accession of Henry II Charles invades Castile.

1371 Claims of Navarre to Champagne, Brie, etc., ceded to France in exchange for Montpellier. Charles makes peace with Henry II.

1377 Charles accused of plotting to acquire domains in Gascony. His French possessions declared forfeited. The Castilians invade Navarre and besiege Pamplona. Charles makes alliance with the English and on their approach the Castilians retreat.

1385 Charles accused of plotting to poison the French royal family. The last remains of his French possessions are seized.

1387 =Charles (III) the Noble.=

1403 Dukedom of Nemours granted to the king of Navarre.

1425 =Blanche=, daughter of Charles the Noble, succeeds with her husband =Juan of Aragon=. He interferes constantly in the internal troubles of Castile, while Blanche governs peaceably during his absence.

1432 Juan appointed regent of Aragon in the absence of Alfonso V.

1442 =Charles of Viana= succeeds to Navarre as regent on the death of his mother Blanche. The kingdom is distracted by two parties, the Beaumonts, partisans of Charles, and the Agramonts, partisans of his father Juan.

1447 Juan marries Juana Henriquez and appoints his wife co-regent of Navarre. She quarrels with Charles.

1452 Revolt of Charles. Birth of his half-brother Ferdinand (the Catholic). Battle of Aybar. Juan defeats and captures Charles. Charles is released and returns to Navarre, but finding his enemies too strong for him he withdraws to Naples.

1458 Juan succeeds to the throne of Aragon as Juan II. Misunderstanding between father and son continues till

1460 Charles negotiates for the hand of Isabella of Castile which was desired for his half-brother Ferdinand of Aragon. Charles is arrested by his father when Catalonia revolts in his favour, and Juan is obliged to

1461 recognise him as his heir. The prince dies immediately afterwards.

1464 Blanche, Charles’ eldest sister, dies, probably poisoned at the instigation of her father by her sister Eleanor, countess of Foix. The country continues to be distracted by the wars of the Beaumonts and Agramonts.

1479 =Eleanor de Foix= becomes queen on the death of Juan and dying immediately afterwards is succeeded by her grandson, =Francis Phœbus de Foix=.

1483 =Catherine de Foix.= Ferdinand and Isabella endeavour to secure her hand and kingdom for their eldest son, but she marries =Jean d’Albret=.

1512 Ferdinand the Catholic demands the cession of six Navarrese fortresses and a free passage through Navarre to facilitate his invasion of Guienne. Treaty of alliance between France and Navarre signed at Blois. Ferdinand’s general, the duke of Alva, takes Pamplona and occupies the whole of upper Navarre. Ferdinand’s English allies refuse to co-operate with him for the reduction of the rest of the country, and on their withdrawal Jean d’Albret with a French army besieges Alva in Pamplona, but for lack of provisions is compelled to retreat.

1513 Treaty between Ferdinand and Louis XII of France by which the latter abandons Navarre. Ferdinand restores order and conciliates the Navarrese towns by confirming their privileges.

1515 The cortes of Burgos formally incorporates Navarre into the kingdom of Castile.

CATALONIA (470-1150 A.D.)

470 Gothalania (Catalonia) was the name bestowed on the northeastern section of Hispania Tarraconensis in consequence of its occupation by the Goths and Alans (470).

712 Berbers take possession of the whole Catalonian territory. At the end of the eighth century Charlemagne’s troops, under command of Louis le Débonnaire, invade Catalonia, and conquer a district including Barcelona, Lerida, Tarragona, and Tortosa which they call the Marca Hispanica or Spanish Mark. =Bera=, a native of Gothic Gaul, becomes count of Barcelona and the Mark, and tyrannises over the country. Counts of Rosello, Ampurias, Besalu, Cerdagne, Pallars, and Urgel appointed. Frequent conflicts with the Moors in which the Frankish armies join and waste the southern districts.

814 Death of Charlemagne. Septimania becomes united with the Spanish Mark.

826 Bera, being deposed for treasonable dealings with Al Hakim of Cordova, is succeeded as duke of Septimania, by =Bernhard=, son of William of Toulouse, who plays an important rôle in Frankish history.

832 Bernhard aids Pepin, king of Aquitaine, in rebellion against Louis le Débonnaire and is deprived of his dignities.

836 Bernhard reinstated in his duchy.

840 Charles the Bald succeeds to Catalonia on the death of Louis le Débonnaire. Bernhard at first refuses and then offers his allegiance; but afterwards aiming at independence is murdered by Charles. William, Bernhard’s son, seeks refuge with Abd ar-Rahman.

846 =Aledran= made count of Barcelona by Charles. William wages successful war against him, but is finally murdered. Frankish dominion restored. Narbonensian Gaul is taken from the Spanish Mark and added to Toulouse.

852 Barcelona retaken by the Moors. They retain possession during twelve years.

858 =Wilfrid I= (Wilfredo or Hunfrido I) count of Barcelona. He takes possession of Toulouse, etc. Summoned to Narbonne to justify himself, he is there slain in a petty fray and is succeeded by

872 =Salomon=, who is murdered in revenge for Wilfrid’s death by the latter’s son.

874 =Wilfred (II) the Hairy=, who successfully repels the Moors, makes himself independent of France and leaves his territory to his son

907 =Miro=, who bequeaths it to his three sons, =Seniofredo=, =Oliva=, and =Miro=, under the regency of their uncle Suniario, count of Urgel.

950 =Seniofredo.=

967 =Borello=, son of Suniario.

984 Almansor takes Barcelona, slaughters the inhabitants, and burns a great part of the city. Borello recovers Barcelona and expels the invaders.

993 =Raymond I= repels a Moorish invasion and wins a battle against Suleiman of Cordova

1009 which places the usurper Muhammed I on the throne. The Catalans take the lead in an unsuccessful crusade against the Moorish pirates of the Balearic Islands.

1017 =Berengar I= organises the country and grants privileges to Barcelona and other towns.

1035 =Raymond II= wins victories over the Moors of Saragossa and becomes sovereign of all Catalonia. He abolishes the old Gothic laws, substituting the

1068 _Usages of Catalonia_, and institutes the Peace of God in an assembly of the Estates which is the earliest occasion in European history on which deputies are summoned from the towns. By marriage and purchase he acquires Conflans, Carcassonne, Narbonne, Toulouse, and other French possessions. Bequeaths his dominions to his two sons as joint rulers.

1076 =Raymond (III) the Hairy= quarrels with his brother =Berengar=. The nobles effect a settlement whereby each is to reign alternately for six months. Raymond is murdered, probably at Berengar’s instigation. Berengar governs alone as guardian for Raymond III’s son.

1082 =Raymond IV.= Bernard Atto, vicomte de Béziers, usurps the lordship of Carcassonne. The people appeal to Raymond from his oppressions. He becomes a vassal of Raymond. By marriage and inheritance Raymond acquires Besalu (1111), Provence, and Cerdagne (1117), and conquers Majorca. Provence passes on his death to his son Berengar.

1131 =Raymond V.=

1137 On Raymond’s betrothal to Petronilla, daughter of Ramiro the Monk, king of Aragon, he is declared heir to the throne of Aragon and assumes the administration of that kingdom.

1150 Marriage of Raymond and Petronilla confirms union of Catalonia and Aragon.

KINGDOM OF ARAGON FROM ITS RISE TILL ITS UNION WITH CASTILE (1035-1479 A.D.)

1035 On the death of Sancho el Mayor of Navarre his territories are divided among his sons, and =Ramiro I= succeeds to a small Pyrenean district called Aragon in the northwestern corner of the modern province in the territory of the ancient Vascones. Ramiro by his wars with the Moors extends his borders, absorbing Sobrarbe and Ribagorza, and reducing several Moorish governors to the condition of tributaries. He consents to adopt the Roman ritual and to send tribute to the pope.

1067 =Sancho Ramirez.=

1076 On the murder of Sancho III of Navarre, Sancho Ramirez and Alfonso VI of Castile invade Navarre, and Sancho becomes king of Navarre as Sancho IV. He conquers several cities from the Moors, commences a war with the emir of Saragossa, and dies while besieging Huesca.

1094 =Pedro I.=

1096 Battle of Alcoraz. Pedro wins a decisive victory over the Moors of Saragossa and their Castilian allies, and takes Huesca.

1104 =Alfonso (I), el Batallador= (the Fighter), and =the Emperor=.

1109 Death of Alfonso VI of Castile. His daughter Urraca, the wife of Alfonso I, el Batallador, succeeds, and her husband is acknowledged as Alfonso VII of Leon and Castile. He quarrels with his wife, and constant civil war is the result to Castile.

1118 Saragossa taken by el Batallador after a five years’ siege. It becomes the capital of Aragon.

1120 Battle of Daroca. El Batallador defeats an Almoravid army, takes Tarragona and Calatayud, and invades Andalusia.

1126 Death of Urraca. Castile is definitely separated from Aragon under Alfonso VII (Raymond) of Castile and Leon, Urraca’s son by her first husband.

1130 Bordeaux besieged and taken by Alfonso I. He resumes his war against the Moors.

1133 Representatives of the cities summoned to the cortes.

1134 Alfonso is defeated at Fraga and dies soon after, bequeathing his dominions to the knights of the Temple and St. John. His subjects refuse to recognise his will and his brother, =Ramiro (II) the Monk=, is persuaded to leave his monastery and accept the crown of Aragon, while the Navarrese choose Garcia (IV) Ramirez as king.

1137 =Petronilla=, Ramiro’s infant daughter, betrothed to =Raymond=, count of Catalonia, who is appointed regent of Aragon. Catalonia thus becomes absorbed in Aragon, and Ramiro retires to a cloister.

1140 Navarre invaded by Raymond in conjunction with Alfonso VII of Castile, but without success, and on the conclusion of peace the three sovereigns make alliance against the Moors and capture various cities, Raymond acquiring Fraga, Lerida, and Tortosa.

1150 Marriage of Raymond and Petronilla.

1162 Death of Raymond. Petronilla abdicates in favour of her son =Alfonso II=, who acquires Roussillon by inheritance and wins Teruel and other fortresses from the Moors. In this reign cortes were held and attended by the four estates of the realm (1163, 1164).

1196 =Pedro II.=

1203 Coronation of Pedro by the pope. Aragon is constituted a papal fief, and Pedro promises to pay tribute to the holy see, but

1205 the estates of Saragossa repudiate the transaction.

1208 The Albigensian crusade. Pedro refuses to declare for either party, but turns his arms against the Moors and shares the glory at the great Christian victory of

1212 Las Navas de Tolosa.

1213 He endeavours to mediate between the Albigensians and the crusaders, but fails and lays siege to the latter’s city of Muret, when he is slain in a battle with Simon de Montfort. =James (I) the Conqueror=, known as Don Jayme of Aragon (in Catalonian En Jacme, lo Conqueridor), succeeds at the age of six. The usual civil wars occupy his minority, but finally he triumphs over all rebels.

1228 Balearic Islands, the haunt of Moorish pirates, attacked and subdued after a four years’ war.

1232 Valencia invaded.

1238 Conquest of Valencia completed. The Moors are guaranteed security and religious liberty.

1264-1266 Murcia reconquered by James for his son-in-law, Alfonso X of Castile.

1268 By the execution of Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen, Constanza, wife of James’ son, Pedro (III), and daughter of Manfred, king of Sicily, becomes heiress of Sicily, now in the hands of the usurper, Charles of Anjou.

1269 Preparations for a crusade to the Holy Land headed by James. The king is turned back by a storm, but his son, Fernan Sanchez, proceeds to Acre. Like Alfonso X of Castile, James left a chronicle or commentary of his reign (afterwards continued by Raymond Muntaner), as well as a book of aphorisms called the _Libre de Saviesa_, both written in the Catalan language.

1276 =Pedro (III) the Great.= The Balearic Islands with Roussillon. Montpellier, etc., are converted by the will of James I into a separate kingdom of Majorca for his younger son, James I of Majorca. Pedro prepares to invade Sicily.

1282 The Sicilian Vespers, in which the native population massacre twenty-eight thousand Frenchmen. Charles of Anjou lays siege to Messina. Pedro of Aragon comes to its relief and is proclaimed king of Sicily. Roger de Lauria, Pedro’s admiral, with a few ships destroys the French fleet.

1283 The Aragonese cortes protest against the king’s wars and exact the _General Privilege_, the Magna Charta of Aragon, confirming their liberties. The pope excommunicates

1284 Pedro. De Lauria takes Malta and destroys the fleet in the Bay of Naples. The pope, Martin IV, proclaims a crusade against Aragon and bestows the kingdom on the French prince, Charles of Valois. The Aragonese are reluctant to oppose Rome.

1285 The crusaders invade the kingdom, but after taking and sacking several cities the army breaks up. Charles of Anjou dies, leaving his claims to his son Charles II. Pedro dies, leaving Sicily to his younger son James and Aragon to =Alfonso III=. Majorca subdued by Alfonso.

1287 The “Privilege of Union” granted, authorising armed rebellion against the sovereign who shall infringe his subjects’ liberties.

1291 As a result of negotiations conducted by Edward I of England, Alfonso is reconciled to the pope and Sicily is abandoned by James, who immediately after, on the death of Alfonso, succeeds to Aragon as =James II=. He makes his brother Frederick (Fadrique) his lieutenant in Sicily.

1295 Alliance between James and Charles of Anjou.

1296 The pope invests James with Sardinia and Corsica, occupied at the time by the Genoese and Pisans. The deserted Sicilians give the crown to Frederick. The king of Aragon assists Charles in his attempts to recover Sicily, but abandons the enterprise after several successes.

1302 Peace between Frederick and Charles by which the former retains Sicily, the latter Naples.

1303 The Catalan Grand Company is formed by Roger di Flor from the disbanded mercenaries (chiefly Aragonese and Catalan) of Frederick and takes service with the Greek emperor Andronicus II.

1319 Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia declared inseparable.

1324 Sardinia invaded by James. With the aid of the grand justice of Arborea, Marian IV, the Pisans are expelled. The grand justice turns his arms against the Aragonese and the war is continued under

1327 =Alfonso IV=, when the Genoese assist the islanders and ravage the coasts of Catalonia.

1336 =Pedro IV= refuses to recognise the claims of his stepmother, Leonora of Castile, and her sons, Juan and Ferdinand, to the appanages assigned them under Alfonso’s will, and thus involves himself in civil disputes and a war with Castile. He offends the clergy by crowning himself instead of being crowned by the archbishop of Saragossa.

1343 Invasion of Majorca by Pedro. The islanders welcome him, deserting James II of Majorca. Pedro conquers James’ French possessions.

1344 Balearic Islands formally annexed to Aragon.

1347 Attempt of Pedro to secure the succession to his daughter Constanza in preference to his brother James, in defiance of the Salic law as established by James I. League of nobles and cities in a union in favor of James. The Sardinians backed by the Genoese and Pisans seize the occasion to revolt. A second union formed in Valencia under the infante Ferdinand. At the cortes of Saragossa Pedro is compelled to promise to hold annual meetings of the estates, to select his advisers with their approval, and to recognise James as his heir. Death of James. Pedro wins over the Catalans and at the

1348 battle of Epila defeats the union. He annuls the “Privilege of Union” of 1287, but enlarges the powers of the justiciar. Leonora and her son Juan take refuge in Castile, where both are subsequently murdered by Pedro the Cruel.

1349 James of Majorca attempts to recover the Balearic Islands, but fails and dies soon after. Pedro defeats the Sardinian rebels, and allies himself with Venice against Genoa.

1350 The era of Spain ceases to be used in Aragon.

1352 The Venetian and Catalonian fleets defeated by the Genoese, who renew their encouragement of the Sardinians. The Genoese fleet defeated in the Thracian Bosphorus by the fleets of Catalonia and Venice.

1354 The Sardinian estates are convoked by Pedro at Cagliari, but fail to pacify the belligerents.

1356 War with Castile. The king of Aragon supports Henry of Trastamara and the other Castilian rebels.

1363 A peace concluded with Castile in accordance with which Pedro of Aragon murders his own brother Ferdinand. War with Castile renewed.

1368 The justice of Arborea defeats the Aragonese in Sardinia and maintains himself till the Genoese come to his aid (1373). After his death the struggle is continued with less vigour by his son, and when the latter is put to death by his own people the war is prosecuted by his sister Leonora with whom Pedro effects an agreement in 1386.

1377 Death of Frederick king of Sicily. Pedro claims the throne, but is eventually satisfied with the marriage of the heiress Maria with his grandson Martin.

1387 =Juan I.= Trial of the king’s stepmother Sybilla for witchcraft. Some of her friends executed.

1392 Aragonese troops under the king’s brother Martin sent to Sicily to quell a revolt against Queen Maria and her husband, Martin’s son, the younger Martin.

1395 =Martin= succeeds to Aragon. The count de Foix, husband of the late king’s eldest daughter, invades the kingdom to assert her rights, but finds no supporters. Martin, having pacified Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, returns to Spain. Pope Boniface IX,

1397 in revenge for the recognition by Aragon of the anti-pope Benedict XIII (Pedro de Luna), confers Sardinia and Sicily on the count de Molinets.

1401 Death of Maria of Sicily. She is succeeded by her husband, the younger Martin, who,

1402 the following year, marries Blanche, heiress of Navarre.

1409 Martin of Sicily suppresses the rebellion in Sardinia. He dies without issue. Blanche becomes regent of Sicily.

1410 =Interregnum=, consequent on the death of Martin of Aragon without direct heirs. During two years the country is distracted by the conflicts of rival claimants to the throne till, at the instance of the justiciar Juan de Cerda, a commission is selected from the cortes of the three provinces of Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia which names the infante Ferdinand, regent of Castile, and he receives the crowns of Aragon and Sicily as

1412 =Ferdinand (I) the Just.= He subdues a rebellion of the count of Urgel and maintains tranquillity in the kingdom till his death in

1416 when he is succeeded by his son =Alfonso (V) the Magnanimous=.

1417 Reduction of Corsica attempted by Alfonso without much success.

1420 Joanna, queen of Naples, adopts Alfonso on condition of his defending her dominions against the duke of Anjou, which he does with success.

1423 Joanna quarrels with Alfonso and adopts Louis of Anjou in his place.

1425 Death of Charles III of Navarre. He is succeeded by Blanche and her husband Juan, brother of Alfonso of Aragon.

1432 Juan appointed regent of Aragon. Alfonso sets out to recover Naples.

1435 Joanna of Naples dies, bequeathing her kingdom to René of Anjou. Alfonso besieges Gaeta, but is defeated in a naval battle. Himself, the king of Navarre, and his brother Henry become the prisoners of the duke of Milan, who immediately releases them. Don Pedro of Aragon takes Gaeta. In the next few years Alfonso makes himself master of the kingdom of Naples.

1442 The office of justiciar declared tenable for life. Blanche of Navarre dies. Juan retains the title of king of Navarre, while her son, Charles of Viana, becomes ruler.

1443 Ferdinand, Alfonso’s illegitimate son, recognised as heir of Naples by Pope Eugenius IV.

1447 Juan of Navarre marries Juana Henriquez and subsequently appoints her co-regent of Navarre. She quarrels with Charles of Viana.

1452 Battle of Aybar. Juan defeats and captures Charles. Reconciliation of Juan and Charles. Birth of Juan’s younger son, Ferdinand the Catholic.

1458 Death of Alfonso V. Aragon, Sicily, and Sardinia pass to the king of Navarre, =Juan II=. Charles of Viana refuses to supplant Ferdinand of Naples.

1461 Charles imprisoned by his father. The Catalans revolt in his favour and compel his recognition as Juan’s heir. Death of Charles.

1462 The Catalans declare a republic and besiege the queen and Ferdinand in Gerona. Roussillon and Cerdagne pledged to Louis XI of France, who comes to the help of Juan; whereupon the rebels offer the Catalan crown first to Henry IV of Castile and then to Pedro, constable of Portugal.

1466 Pedro dies. The Catalans offer the crown to René of Anjou who

1467 sends his son John of Calabria to Barcelona.

1468 Ferdinand declared king of Sicily and associated with his father in the government of Aragon.

1469 Marriage of Ferdinand with Isabella of Castile.

1470 Death of John of Calabria. Catalonia is gradually reduced.

1472 Barcelona submits.

1473 The inhabitants of Roussillon revolt against the French and massacre them. Roussillon occupied by Juan. The French besiege him in Perpignan, which is relieved by Ferdinand. By a treaty with Louis the king of Aragon promises to pay within the year the sum for which Roussillon was pledged.

1474 The French invade Roussillon.

1475 Perpignan surrenders to the French. The inhabitants compelled to emigrate.

1479 Death of Juan II. =Ferdinand (II) the Catholic= inherits his dominions which are henceforth united with those of Castile.

ANDORRA (805-1882 A.D.)

805 The valley of Andorra appears in history as a neutral country, Charlemagne founding the free state and placing it under the lordship of Urgel.

1170 Suzerainty of Andorra ceded by the counts of Urgel to the counts of Castelbo. The heiress of Castelbo marries the count de Foix.

1278 Suzerainty of Andorra divided between the counts de Foix and the bishops of Urgel.

1512 On the extinction of the house of Foix by the death of Count Gaston at the battle of Ravenna, the suzerainty of Andorra passes to Henry d’Albret, titular heir of Navarre,

1553 and on the accession of the latter’s grandson to the throne of France as Henry IV, becomes the prerogative of the French crown.

1790 Independence of Andorra recognised. The republic voluntarily returns to the French allegiance.

1866 The general council, hitherto composed of the aristocracy, becomes elective.

1882 A permanent delegate appointed to represent French authority in Andorra.

SPAIN AFTER THE UNION OF CASTILE AND ARAGON (1479-1902, A.D.)

1480 Cortes of Toledo. Recall of illegal grants by which in Henry IV’s reign the public revenues had been alienated in pensions and annuities. The nobles forbidden to erect castles or assume the insignia of royalty. Duelling prohibited.

1481 The Inquisition issues an edict requiring the accusation of heretics. _Autos da fé_ in Andalusia. Epidemic of plague. Emigration of Jews.

1482 Alhama after being captured from the Moors by the marquis of Cadiz is besieged by the king of Granada and relieved by Ferdinand. Zahara seized and its inhabitants enslaved by Abul Hassan, king of Granada. Bull of Pope Sixtus IV promising the appointment of Castilians to church dignities in their country. Loja unsuccessfully besieged by Ferdinand.

1483 Thomas de Torquemada inquisitor-general in Castile and Aragon to reconstitute the holy office. An insurrection makes Abu Abdallah (Boabdil) king of Granada. Ferdinand’s ambassadors assist in negotiating a peace between Ferrara and Venice. The pope declares a crusade against Granada. Rout in the Axarquia; a small Spanish force is destroyed by the troops of Abul Hassan. Boabdil invades the Christian territory. He is defeated and taken at the Jenil, released and becomes a tributary of Ferdinand. Ferdinand and Isabella begin a series of successful campaigns against Granada and capture one fortress after another.

1484 Inquisition revived in Aragon. Columbus arrives in Spain.

1485 _Ordenanças Reales_, a code of Castilian laws, promulgated. _Autos da fé_ in Saragossa. Murder of the inquisitor, Arbues, by Jewish converts. Sanguinary punishment of all implicated.

1486 Catalan peasantry, called vassals _de remenza_, released from serfdom under the obligation of an annual payment.

1487 Velez Malaga, Malaga, and other cities capitulate to Ferdinand. He enslaves the Malagans.

1488 Alliance between Spain and Maximilian, king of the Romans, against France.

1489 Baza besieged and taken. Almeria submits.

1491 Law to prevent the export of the precious metals. Siege and capitulation of Granada. Boabdil confined to a narrow district in the Alpujarras. The Granadans guaranteed the preservation of their religion and their liberty.

1492 Expulsion of the Jews from Spain. Columbus persuades Isabella to grant him assistance. He is made admiral, viceroy, and governor-general of all territories he may discover. An expedition is fitted out and he starts on the 3rd of August with three vessels. Treaty with France. Charles VIII engages to restore Roussillon and Cerdagne to Aragon.

1493 Return of Columbus reporting the discovery of Hispaniola. Pope Alexander VI issues a bull confirming the sovereigns of Spain in possession of all their discoveries, past and future, in the west. A second bull divides the area for Portuguese and Spanish discoveries by a line drawn one hundred leagues west of the Azores. Second expedition of Columbus with seventeen vessels.

1494 Agreement with Portugal at Tordesillas by which the boundary of the Portuguese area of discovery is removed 370 leagues west of Cape Verd Islands. The pope confers the epithet of “Catholic” on Ferdinand and Isabella.

1495 League of Venice between Spain, Austria, Rome, Milan, and Venice for the expulsion of the French from Italy.

1496 Spanish troops under Gonsalvo de Cordova, the Great Captain, restore Ferdinand II of Naples to his throne and expel the French. Juana, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, marries Philip, son of the emperor Maximilian. Militia ordinance requiring one-twelfth of the male population between the ages of twenty and forty-five to enlist for the military and police service of Spain. Santo Domingo founded. Columbus returns from his second voyage.

1497 Death of Juan, only son of Ferdinand and Isabella.

1498 Third voyage of Columbus. He lands on the South American continent. The Santa Hermandad, having restored order in Spain, reduced to the position of an ordinary police.

1499 Ximenes de Cisneros, archbishop of Toledo, sets about the conversion of the Moors of Granada. He burns their books. Insurrection in Granada. Many Moors quit Spain. The remainder forcibly converted.

1500 Francisco Bobadilla sent out to investigate affairs in Hispaniola. He imprisons Columbus and sends him home in irons. Revolt of the Moors in the Alpujarras severely repressed. Treaty with France for the partition of Naples. Gonsalvo de Cordova recovers St. George in Cephalonia which the Turks had wrested from Venice. A navigation act prohibits the exportation of goods in foreign ships when Spanish are procurable, and forbids the sale of ships to foreigners. Columbus restored to his honours.

_Sixteenth Century_

The Moors of Ronda revolt and

1501 destroy a Spanish force under Alonso de Aguilar. On Ferdinand’s approach they submit and are granted the alternative of exile or baptism. Gonsalvo de Cordova conquers Calabria.

1502 Expulsion from Spain of all unconverted Moors. Nicholas de Ovando sent to replace Bobadilla. Tarentum occupied by the Great Captain after a long siege. Fourth voyage of Columbus. The French declare war against the Spaniards and conquer all Calabria.

1503 Treaty of peace with France signed at Lyons. Battle of Cerignola. Gonsalvo defeats the French and occupies Naples. The French invade Roussillon, but are forced to retreat by Ferdinand, who takes several frontier fortresses. Gonsalvo defeats the French at the Garigliano.

1504 Peace of Lyons. The French abandon Naples to Spain. Death of Isabella. =Philip I= and =Juana la Loca= or =the Mad= proclaimed her successors in Castile. Ferdinand assumes the administration in accordance with Isabella’s will and on the ground of Juana’s mental incapacity. Columbus returns from his last voyage.

1506 Death of Columbus. Ferdinand resigns the government of Castile to Philip, who excites discontent by his extravagance and his Flemish favourites. The proceeding of the Inquisition excite disturbances in Andalusia. Death of Philip. Ferdinand receives the homage of the Neapolitans.

1507 Ferdinand resumes the government of Castile. Ximenes appointed inquisitor-general of Castile.

1508 Ferdinand joins the league of Cambray formed by the French king and the emperor against Venice and retakes five Neapolitan cities pledged to Venice.

1509 An expedition led to Africa by Ximenes conquers Oran.

1511 Holy League between Pope Julius II, Ferdinand, and Venice to drive the French from Italy. Conquest of Cuba.

1512 Battle of Ravenna. The allies defeated by the French under Gaston de Foix. Gaston slain; the French retreat from Italy. Venice makes peace with France. Ferdinand demands a free passage through Navarre for the invasion of France. Alliance between France and Navarre. Pamplona taken by the Spaniards. Jean d’Albret, king of Navarre, fails to recover it.

1513 Navarre submits to Ferdinand. Florida discovered by Ponce de Leon. Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean.

1515 Navarre formally incorporated with Castile.

1516 Ferdinand dies. Ximenes regent of Castile, and the archbishop of Saragossa regent of Aragon. =Charles I= (afterwards the emperor Charles V) proclaimed king in Castile. French invasion of Navarre repulsed. The Inquisition is established in Oran, the Canaries, and the New World. Las Casas obtains the sending of a commission to inquire into the ill-treatment of the Indians in Hispaniola. It effects little. Peace of Noyon. France abandons her claims to Naples.

1517 Charles lands in Spain and dismisses Ximenes.

1518 The Castilian cortes acknowledge Charles as joint ruler with his mother. Aragon and Catalonia delay to do this. The favour shown his Flemish favourites and their exactions disgust the Spaniards.

1519 Ferdinand Cortes begins the conquest of Mexico. Several leading Castilian cities form a confederation to defend their privileges. Death of the emperor Maximilian. Charles elected emperor of Germany.

1520 The citizens of Valencia revolt against the oppressions of the nobles and are authorised by Charles to continue in arms. They form an association called the Germandada (Germania) or brotherhood. Luther burns the papal bull excommunicating him. The Castilian cortes with difficulty induced to grant a subsidy. Charles, having appointed Cardinal Adrian of Utrecht his viceroy, leaves Spain without redressing the grievances submitted to him. Several of the cities of Castile, under the leadership of Juan de Padilla, revolt against their deputies, appoint their own magistrates, levy troops, and league together as the “holy junta.” Padilla goes to Juana at Tordesillas. The junta acts in her name. The royalists rescue Juana. The Germandada in Valencia carries on a successful and desolating war against the nobles.

1521 Battle of Villalar. Padilla defeated, taken, and executed. Valencia taken and the leaders of the Germandada executed. Charles opens the Diet of Worms. Treaty of Charles with the pope for the expulsion of the French from the Milanese. The junta breaks up; Toledo holds out for a time under Padilla’s widow. Its fall signalises the end of the freedom of the Castilian cities. Conquest of Mexico completed by Cortes. Navarre occupied by the French. They invade Castile. The Castilians recover Navarre. The populace of Majorca, having revolted against the nobles, are subdued after a long struggle. Treaty with Henry VIII of England. Charles agrees to invade France from Spain. The emperor’s troops drive the French from Milan. Death of Leo X.

1522 Adrian of Utrecht elected pope as Adrian VI. The French fail in an attempt to recover the Milanese. League between Charles, the pope, Venice, and other Italian cities against France.

1523 The cortes grant supplies before presenting their petitions. Adrian VI dies. Clement VII pope. Ferdinand Cortes empowered to conquer all New Spain.

1524 The council of the Indies formed for the administration of the Spanish colonies. The Moors of Valencia request permission to exercise their own worship. On being refused many emigrate, and others revolt and are not finally subdued till 1526. Expulsion of the French from the Milanese. Francis I of France attempts to recover it and is defeated and taken by the imperial troops at the

1525 battle of Pavia.

1526 The Moors of Granada permitted to purchase freedom from the worst penalties of the Inquisition. Treaty of Madrid. Francis resigns his claims in Italy, Flanders, and Artois and concludes a perpetual league with Charles. Holy League of Cognac between the pope, France, England, Venice, and Sforza, duke of Milan, to restore Sforza to the Milanese. The pope and the French attack Naples.

1527 Charles’ troops ravage the papal territories and take Rome. Sack of Rome. Clement taken prisoner. The cortes refuse a grant to Charles.

1528 The French besiege Naples, but are driven by disease to retreat.

1529 Battle of Landriano. Spaniards defeat the French. Francis Pizarro commissioned to conquer and govern Peru. Treaty of Cambray called “The Ladies’ Peace.” Francis I agrees to ransom his sons and resign his pretensions to Flanders, Artois, and all places in Italy. Charles goes to Italy, makes peace with Venice, and with the dukes of Milan and Ferrara.

1530 Charles receives the iron crown of Lombardy and is crowned emperor by the pope. Florence taken. Charles makes Alessandro de’ Medici its absolute ruler. He summons the Diet of Augsburg to settle religious questions and prepare for war with the Turks.

1531 Ferdinand, brother of Charles, elected king of the Romans.

1533 Pizarro establishes his authority in the capital of Peru.

1535 Expedition to Tunis in conjunction with Portugal, Genoa, the pope, and the knights of Malta. The usurper Barbarossa is expelled and the king Mulei Hassan restored as a vassal of Spain. Ten thousand Christian slaves released. Francis I invades Savoy. Its duke appeals to Charles. Death of the duke of Milan. Charles takes possession of the duchy. Colony of Buenos Ayres founded by Pedro de Mendoza.

1536 Francis occupies Piedmont. Provence invaded by Charles, who finds it already desolated by the French, and retreats in disorder.

1537 French invasion of the Netherlands. Truce with France.

1538 It is extended for ten years (Truce of Nice). Mutiny amongst Charles’ troops in Milan, Sicily, and Africa. Their generals borrow money to pacify them. Cortes of Toledo. The deputies protest against the extravagance of Charles’ foreign wars, and the nobles claim their privilege of exemption from taxation. Charles dismisses the estates. This was the last occasion on which nobles and prelates were summoned. The cortes was henceforth reduced to a meeting of the deputies of eighteen cities.

1539 Revolt of the citizens of Ghent.

1540 Charles marches to Ghent and represses the rebellion with great severity. Order of Jesuits, founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1534, is confirmed by the pope.

1541 The ambassadors of France murdered by Charles’ governor of the Milanese. Francis I demands reparation and prepares for war. Expedition led by Charles against the pirates of Algiers. Great part of the fleet destroyed in a storm. The army returns, having accomplished nothing. Conquest of Chili begun and Santiago founded by Pedro de Valdivia.

1542 Perpignan besieged by the French and successfully defended by the duke of Alva.

1543 Alliance with Henry VIII. War between Charles and Francis in the Netherlands.

1544 Battle of Cerisole in Piedmont. The imperialists are defeated by the French. Charles invades France in conjunction with Henry VIII. Peace of Crespy. Charles renounces all claim to Burgundy and Francis to Naples, Flanders, and Artois.

1545 The pope grants Charles half the ecclesiastical revenues of Spain.

1547 Battle of Mühlberg. Charles defeats the Smalkaldic League.

1551 League between Henry II of France and the Protestant princes of Germany.

1552 Charles compelled to fly from Innsbruck. The French seize Toul, Verdun, and Metz. By the Peace of Passau, Charles grants religious liberty to the German Protestants. Charles besieges Metz but fails to take it.

1554 Charles cedes Naples to his son Philip. Philip marries Mary, queen of England.

1555 Philip invested with the sovereignty of the Netherlands.

1556 Philip invested with the sovereignty of Spain as =Philip II=. His possessions embrace Spain, Naples, Sicily, Milan, Franche-Comté, the Netherlands, Tunis, the Barbary coast, Canaries, Cape Verd Islands, Philippines, Spice Islands, West Indian colonies and territories in Mexico and Peru. Truce of Vaucelles arranges five years’ peace with France. Charles resigns the empire to his brother Ferdinand and retires to San Yuste. Pope Paul IV persuades Henry II of France to break the truce of Vaucelles and excommunicates Charles and Philip. Alva invades the papal states.

1557 Philip visits England and persuades Mary to declare war on France. St. Quentin captured by Spaniards and English. Peace with Paul IV.

1558 Spanish victory of Gravelines. Death of Charles V. Death of Mary of England.

1559 Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis between Spain and England and France. Philip marries Elizabeth of France. Margaret of Parma regent of the Netherlands. Philip assembles a force to recover Tripoli for the Knights of Malta.

1560 It captures Los Gelves in the Gulf of Khabes. A Turkish fleet routs the Spaniards, and takes sixty-five vessels.

1561 A new fleet, collected to oppose the Turks, dispersed and

## partly destroyed by a storm. Turks ravage the Spanish coast.

1563 The Castilian cortes protest in vain against the Inquisition. The Moriscos forbidden to carry arms.

1564 The pirate stronghold of Peñon de los Velez in Fez captured.

1565 Siege of Malta by the Turks. The Spanish fleet relieves Malta.

1566 The Flemish nobles band together under the name of the “Gueux” to resist the Inquisition. Tumult and wrecking of Catholic churches. The rebellion suppressed.

1567 The prince of Orange goes over to the Protestants. The duke of Alva succeeds Margaret of Parma as regent of the Netherlands and institutes a reign of terror. The Spanish Moriscos forbidden their distinctive costume, language, and customs.

1568 The Aragonese cortes wring from Philip an act limiting ecclesiastical interference in civil causes. Death of Philip’s only son Don Carlos. The “Gueux” defeated at Jemmingen. Revolt of the Moriscos in the Alpujarras. They devastate Granada and are defeated by the governor, Mondejar, in the

1569 pass of Alfajarali; massacre of the rebels. The English seize the Spanish treasure ships. Don John of Austria, son of Charles V, commissioned to end the Morisco war.

1570 He takes Golera. Moriscos expelled from Andalusia.

1571 League of Spain, Rome, and Venice against the Turks. Battle of Lepanto. The allies under Don John crush the naval power of the Turks.

1572 Briel and Mons captured by the Gueux. The states of Holland declare the prince of Orange stadholder of Holland, Friesland, and Zealand. Successes of Alva.

1573 The supplies furnished by the Castilian cortes declared a tribute legally due to the sovereign. Defeat of Alva’s fleet. Alva recalled. Tunis captured by Don John. He adds to the fortifications.

1574 The Turks recover Tunis and massacre the garrison.

1576 “Spanish fury” or sack of Antwerp by the Spaniards. By the pacification of Ghent, the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands agree to unite to defend their liberties and expel the Spaniards. Don John sent to govern the Netherlands.

1577 By the Perpetual Edict Philip recognises the Pacification of Ghent. The southern provinces of the Netherlands withdraw from the union.

1578 Battle of Gembloux. Don John and Alessandro Farnese defeat the revolted Netherlanders. Death of Don John. Death of Sebastian, king of Portugal. Philip claims the throne.

1579 Union of Utrecht between the seven northern provinces of the Netherlands.

1580 Death of Henry of Portugal. Portugal conquered and reduced to a province of Spain. Spaniards join a papal invasion of Ireland and are massacred at Smerwick.

1581 The Netherlands declare their independence.

1584 Farnese takes Ghent.

1585 The Catholic party in France, headed by the Guises, forms a league with Philip for the extirpation of heresy in France and the Low Countries. Farnese reduces Antwerp. England sends help to the United Provinces.

1587 Drake burns the shipping at Cadiz.

1588 The Spanish Armada sails, is defeated by the English, and dispersed by storms.

1589 Farnese repulsed from Bergen-op-Zoom. An expedition from England under the Portuguese claimant Don Antonio invades Portugal, pillages Corunna, and retreats. Perez arraigned for the murder of Escovedo. He escapes to Aragon and appeals to its _fueros_ (privileges). His prosecution abandoned.

1590 Increase of the excise on food, termed “the millions.” Battle of Ivry; Henry IV of France defeats the league and its Spanish auxiliaries. Philip claims the French throne for his daughter by Elizabeth of Valois. A Spanish force under Farnese is sent to the relief of Paris, but quarrels with the league.

1591 Perez arrested by the Inquisition. The mob rise against it. Perez escapes to France. Philip punishes the rioters who had attacked the Inquisition. Its power increases. Part of _fueros_ of Aragon abolished.

1592 Farnese relieves Rouen, is deserted by the league, and escapes from Henry IV with heavy loss.

1594 Groningen, the last stronghold of the Spaniards in the United Provinces, taken by the stadholder.

1596 Cadiz sacked by Essex.

1597 The stadholder defeats the Spaniards at Turnhout. Philip repudiates his debts.

1598 Peace of Vervins with Henry IV. Death of Philip. The Netherlands pass to his daughter Isabella, and the rest of his possessions to his son =Philip III=.

1599 A second armada sails for England and is beaten back by a storm.

_Seventeenth Century_

1601 Increase of “the millions.” An expedition sent to assist Tyrone in Ireland fails.

1602 Persia joins Spain in a war against Turkey. Plundering of the coast and islands in the Mediterranean.

1604 Peace with England. The “archdukes” (Isabella and her husband Albert) capture Ostend after a three years’ siege.

1605 First part of _Don Quixote_ published.

1607 Spanish fleet destroyed in a fight with the Dutch off Gibraltar. Eight months’ truce with the United Provinces. Spain and the “archdukes” resign their claims to the provinces.

1609 Twelve years’ truce with the United Provinces. The Moriscos expelled from Spain with the loss of all property save what they could carry with them. With them Spain loses her most industrious inhabitants. Henry IV of France organises a league against Spain in conjunction with the Italian states, England, the German Protestants, and the United Provinces.

1610 Murder of Henry IV.

1612 Philip’s daughter Anne married to Louis XIII and his son Philip to Elizabeth de Bourbon. The princesses renounce their respective claims to the kingdoms of Spain and France.

1615 The duke of Savoy invades Lombardy and is defeated by Hinojosa, viceroy of Milan. The war continued to 1617, when peace was signed at Pavia. Second part of _Don Quixote_ published.

1617 Alsace ceded to Spain by Ferdinand of Austria.

1618 Battle of Gravosa. The duke of Osuna, viceroy of Naples, defeats the Venetian fleet. Fall of Lerma, Philip’s favourite. The war with Venice continues till the recall of Osuna.

1620 Battle of the White Hill. Spanish troops aid the imperialists to defeat the elector palatine. The Spaniards under Spinola overrun the Palatinate and expel the elector.

1621 =Philip IV= succeeds his father. Olivares becomes all-powerful. The cortes of Castile calls attention to the extravagance of the administration, the appalling misery in the country, and the ruinous system of taxation. Attempts to curb official corruption. Expiration of the truce with the United Provinces. Spinola sent to conquer the Netherlands. He takes Juliers.

1622 Negotiation with England for the marriage of the infanta Maria to Prince Charles. James I asks for a Spanish army to assist the elector palatine. Charles arrives in Madrid.

1623 Enormous subsidy demanded by Olivares. The cities resist. Increase of taxation. Marriage-treaty signed. Charles leaves Spain.

1624 Franco-Dutch alliance. The French drive the Spanish garrisons from the Valtelline. Spain allied with Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and Genoa.

1625 Spinola takes Breda. Genoa threatened by the French and saved by Spain.

1626 Peace of Monçon between France and Spain. The Valtelline relinquished to the Grisons.

1628 Spanish treasure fleet captured by the Dutch.

1629 Peace with England. France and Spain support rival candidates to the duchy of Mantua. French successes. Spinola sent to Lombardy.

1630 He lays siege to Casale. Death of Spinola. The Buccaneers seize the island of Tortuga and make it the headquarters of their pirate bands.

1631 Treaty of Cherasco with France.

1632 Frederick Henry of Orange expels the Spaniards from the United Provinces. The archduchess Isabella resigns in favour of Philip IV. Orange captures Maestricht. Philip makes a treaty with the duke of Orléans, in rebellion against France.

1633 A Spanish army sent to aid the emperor.

1634 Battle of Nördlingen. The Spaniards under the cardinal infante, brother of Philip, aid in defeating the Protestant Swedes and Germans. Treves attacked and the elector carried off by the Spaniards. France declares war on Spain and forms an alliance with the United Provinces. Joint invasion of the Spanish-Netherlands repelled by the cardinal infante. The Milanese invaded by the French.

1636 The French expelled from the Milanese.

1637 Leucate unsuccessfully besieged by the Spaniards. Breda captured by Orange.

1638 The French under Condé invade Spain and are totally defeated before Fuenterrabia. The Spaniards take Bremi and Vercelli and ravage Piedmont.

1639 Alsace falling to France on the death of Bernard of Saxe-Weimar, the communication between Italy and the Netherlands is interrupted. Salsas in Roussillon taken by Condé and recovered by the Spaniards. The Spanish fleet takes refuge in the Downs under the neutral flag of England but is attacked and destroyed by Van Tromp. Spaniards expelled from Piedmont.

1640 Troops billeted on the Catalans and levies demanded from them. Revolt in consequence. The insurgents seize Barcelona. Revolution in Portugal. João of Braganza assumes the crown. He enters into relations with France, Holland, and the rebels in Catalonia. Los Velez sent to subdue the Catalans. He takes Cambrils and Tarragona, but is repulsed before Barcelona.

1641 Discovery of a plot of the duke of Medina Sidonia and the marquis de Ayamonte in concert with the king of Portugal to erect Andalusia into a separate sovereignty. The revolted Catalans swear fealty to France.

1642 French troops sent to aid the Catalans invade Aragon, take Perpignan and occupy Roussillon. Indecisive battle of Lerida.

1643 Disgrace of Olivares. Luis de Haro succeeds him. The Spaniards invade Champagne and are severely defeated at Rocroi. The Spaniards victorious at Lerida.

1646 Failure of a plot to deliver Barcelona to Philip.

1647 The Neapolitans revolt under Masaniello who is assassinated. Don John of Austria sent to quiet the city. Fresh revolt. The duke of Guise aims at the crown but is captured and the insurrection suppressed.

1648 Lerida successfully resists the French. The French defeat the Spaniards at Lens. On the termination of the Thirty Years’ War by the Peace of Westphalia, Spain concludes peace with the United Provinces, acknowledging their independence and leaving them their conquests in Brabant and Flanders, with Maestricht and Breda and their acquisitions in America and the Indies.

1651 Battle of Iviza. Don John of Austria destroys the French fleet and besieges Barcelona.

1652 Barcelona capitulates. Catalonia returns to her allegiance to Spain. The Great Condé goes over to the Spaniards and leads their armies in the Spanish Netherlands against France.

1654 Spaniards defeated before Arras. The buccaneers sack New Segovia in Honduras and Maracaibo and Gibraltar on the Gulf of Venezuela.

1655 Jamaica captured by the English.

1656 Valenciennes, besieged by Turenne, is relieved by Don John and Condé.

1657 Oliver Cromwell sends troops to aid Turenne. The English exiles join the Spaniards.

1658 Battle of the Dunes. The Spaniards defeated. Dunkirk, Furnes, Gravelines and Oudenarde surrender to the French.

1659 Battle of Elvas. The Portuguese defeat De Haro. Devastating war on the frontiers. The treaty of the Pyrenees ends the French war. Louis XIV is to marry the infanta Maria Theresa, who renounces her claims to the Spanish crown. Spain abandons Roussillon, Cerdagne, Artois, and several border fortresses. Burgundy, Charolois, and Franche-Comté restored to Spain. France abandons the Portuguese.

1661 Don John invades Portugal. Death of De Haro.

1662 Don John occupies Alemtejo and

1663 takes Evora. Spaniards defeated at Amegial.

1664 Portuguese capture Valencia de Alcantara and defeat the Spaniards at Villaviciosa. Don John disgraced.

1665 Battle of Montes-Claros won by the Portuguese. They invade Andalusia. Revolt in Valencia and other provinces. Philip dies and is succeeded by his son =Charles II=, a child of four years, under the regency of his mother Maria Anna of Austria. The Jesuit Nithard becomes supreme.

1666 Louis XIV lays claim to Franche-Comté, Hainault, Brabant, Artois, etc., in right of his wife.

1667 He invades the Netherlands, and takes several fortresses.

1668 Treaty with Portugal. Spain recognises the house of Braganza. Franche-Comté conquered by France. England, Sweden, and the Dutch form a triple alliance to preserve the Netherlands to Spain. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen). Spain abandons to Louis his Flemish conquests. Louis restores Franche-Comté.

1669 Disputes between the regent and Don John. Aragon and Catalonia declare for Don John. Nithard dismissed. The queen forced to share the government with Don John.

1671 Panama sacked by the buccaneers.

1672 Louis XIV invades Holland. Spain joins Germany in sending troops to Holland.

1674 Louis reconquers Franche-Comté. Indecisive battle of Seneffe between the allies and the French. Spanish victory in Roussillon. The victorious troops proceed to the siege of the revolted city of Messina. The French relieve Messina.

1675 Indecisive action off Messina between the French and the Spaniards and Dutch under De Ruyter. De Ruyter is killed. The French defeat the allied fleet off Palermo and rout a Spanish army in Sicily.

1677 Valenciennes and Cambray taken by the French. The Prince of Orange (William III of England) defeated at Mont-Cassel. Catalonia invaded by the French. Charles II declared of age. Don John contrives the disgrace of the queen-mother and her favourite Valenzuela. He suppresses the Council of the Indies, and introduces a few reforms.

1678 Cerdagne occupied and Ghent and Ypres taken by the French. They evacuate Sicily. Peace of Nimeguen. Spain surrenders Franche-Comté and fourteen fortresses of the Netherlands.

1679 Death of Don John.

1680 Eighty-five persons suffer at an _auto-da-fé_. Raiding expedition of buccaneers on the isthmus of Darien and the coast of Peru.

1683 The French renew the war.

1684 They are repulsed before Gerona and take Luxemburg. Truce with France. Plague in Andalusia.

1685 Oropesa replaces Medina-Celi as prime minister. Cadiz blockaded by France to enforce payment for goods confiscated from French merchants. Earthquakes in various places.

1686 League of Augsburg between Spain, the empire, England and Sweden against France.

1689 Revolt in Catalonia. Villa-Hermosa defeats the rebel army under Antonio de Soler. French invasion of Catalonia repulsed.

1690 Battle of Fleurus. The French defeat the allies.

1691 Melgar succeeds Oropesa. Attempt to reform the finances. Mons and Namur taken by the French. Barcelona bombarded by Noailles. Urgel taken by Noailles.

1693 The allies defeated at Neerwinden and Marsaglia. Charles appoints the elector of Bavaria hereditary governor of the Netherlands.

1694 Noailles takes Gerona.

1695 German mercenaries arrive in Catalonia, but are defeated at Llobregat.

1697 Cartagena de las Indias sacked by the French and buccaneers. Peace of Ryswick. Spain recovers Luxemburg, Mons, Courtrai, and the towns lost in Catalonia. Charles’ declining health draws the attention of Europe to the question of his successor.

1698 Secret treaty between France, England, and Holland for the

## partition of the Spanish dominions. Spain, the Netherlands,

Sardinia and the colonies to go to the prince of Bavaria; Naples, Sicily, Finale, and Guipuzcoa to the dauphin; Lombardy to the archduke Charles, second son of the emperor Leopold I. Charles appoints as his heir the prince of Bavaria, who dies immediately afterwards. French intrigues rouse Spanish opposition to the archduke.

1700 Second partition treaty between France, England, and Holland for the division of the Spanish dominions. Spain, the Netherlands, Sardinia, and the colonies to go to the archduke Charles. To the dauphin, Naples, Sicily, Finale, Guipuzcoa, and the Milanese. Charles appoints as his heir, Philip, duke of Anjou, a grandson of Louis XIV. Death of Charles II. Anjou succeeds as =Philip V=.

_Eighteenth Century_

1701 Philip arrives in Spain. The emperor protests against his accession. The nobles alienated by attempts at financial reform. Philip marries Maria Louisa of Savoy. The princess Orsini obtains supreme influence over Philip and Maria. _Fueros_ restored to Catalonia.

1702 Philip goes to Naples. Indecisive battle of Luzzara between Philip and Prince Eugene. Grand Alliance between England, Holland, Denmark, Austria, and Prussia, against Spain and France. The allies fail before Cadiz, but destroy the Spanish plate fleet at Vigo.

1704 The archduke Charles lands at Lisbon, and in union with the king of Portugal declares war on Spain. A French army under Berwick invades Portugal. Charles lands at Barcelona, but effects nothing and retreats. Gibraltar taken by Sir George Rooke. Indecisive battle off Malaga.

1705 An attempt to recover Gibraltar fails. The allies take Barcelona. Catalonia, Valencia, and Murcia declare for Charles.

1706 Philip fails at the siege of Barcelona. Portuguese invasion. Marlborough’s victory at Ramillies leads to the loss of nearly the whole Spanish Netherlands. Charles enters Madrid. Aragon declares for him. The French driven from the Milanese and Charles proclaimed. The allies expelled from Castile.

1707 Berwick defeats the allies at Almansa. The Austrians conquer Naples; Valencia and Aragon recovered for Philip. Their _fueros_ abolished, and their government assimilated to the Castilian.

1708 Attempt to exact a loan from the clergy. The pope forbids its payment, but offers a tax on church property, which Philip declines. The allies win the battle of Oudenarde. The plate fleet captured by the English. Minorca, Majorca, and Sardinia conquered by the allies, and Oran by the Moors.

1709 Amelot, the French ambassador, dismissed. Medina-Celi prime minister. Barrier treaty between England and Holland regulating the northern boundary of the Spanish Netherlands, and providing for their government in the name of Charles, and eventual transfer to Austria.

1710 Insincere negotiations of Gertruydenberg between France and the allies. War in Spain renewed. Philip defeated at Almenara and Saragossa. Charles re-enters Madrid, but leaves to repel an invasion of Catalonia, and Philip returns and wins the battle of Villaviciosa.

1711 Death of the emperor Joseph I. The archduke Charles succeeds him as Charles VI.

1712 England withdraws from the Grand Alliance, and recalls her troops from Catalonia. Philip renounces his rights to the French crown, and changes the law of succession to the Spanish crown, excluding females while one of his male descendants shall survive.

1713 The imperial troops withdraw from Catalonia. Orry becomes finance minister, and reforms the administration. Death of Queen Maria Louisa. The clergy resist an attempt to curb the power of the Inquisition. Spain accedes to the Peace of Utrecht between France and England, Holland, Prussia, Savoy, and Portugal, by which Philip is recognised as king of Spain; the Spanish Netherlands, Sardinia, the Milanese, and Naples are ceded to Austria, and Sicily to Savoy; while England retains Gibraltar and Minorca.

1714 France and England send troops to reduce Catalonia. Barcelona taken by storm. The privileges of Catalonia abolished, and the Castilian constitution established there. Majorca submits. Philip marries Elizabeth Farnese. She gains unbounded influence over him, and makes Alberoni, an Italian priest, her chief adviser. He turns his attention to the revival of commerce and industry, economical reforms, and the reorganisation of the army and navy.

1715 Peace with Portugal. Colonia del Sacramento on the Rio de la Plata ceded to her.

1716-17 Triple alliance between France, England, and Holland to preserve the provisions of the treaty of Utrecht.

1717 Sardinia occupied by the Spaniards.

1718 Triple alliance between the emperor, France, and England. The Spaniards invade Sicily. Their fleet is destroyed by Byng in a battle off Cape Passaro. Alberoni concerts with count Görtz, minister of Charles XII of Sweden, a scheme for a joint invasion of Scotland by Sweden and Russia, which is frustrated by the death of Charles XII.

1719 Spain invaded by the French. A Spanish fleet, sent to restore the English pretender, dispersed by a storm. The allies ravage the Spanish coasts. Spanish reverses in Sicily. Holland accedes to the Triple, now the Quadruple, Alliance. Alberoni disgraced. Patiño succeeds him.

1720 Philip accedes to the Quadruple Alliance. Sicily ceded to Austria, and Sardinia to Savoy. Successful campaign on the Barbary coast.

1721 Defensive alliance with France and England.

1724 Philip abdicates in favour of his son =Luis=. Death of Luis. =Philip V= resumes the crown.

1725 The Spanish infanta, the intended queen of Louis XV, sent back to Spain. Philip’s agent, Ripperdá, concludes with the emperor the treaty of Vienna, securing the succession of Charles, son of Philip and Elizabeth Farnese, to Parma and Tuscany and arranging a commercial alliance.

1726 England joins France in the league of Hanover. Administration and disgrace of Ripperdá.

1727 Gibraltar besieged by the Spaniards. The emperor makes peace with England and France, referring the questions of Parma, Tuscany, and Gibraltar to a congress.

1728 Philip accepts the terms in the convention of the Pardo.

1729 Treaty of Seville between Spain, England, and France. The commercial treaty with the emperor abrogated. Philip’s son Charles recognised as heir to Parma and Tuscany.

1731 The emperor annexes Parma, but in the second treaty of Vienna accedes to the treaty of Seville. Charles succeeds to Parma and Piacenza.

1732 Oran recovered from the Moors.

1733 Perpetual Family Compact between France and Spain. France, Spain, and Sardinia agree to assert the claims of Stanislaus Leczinsky to Poland.

1734 Charles of Parma takes possession of Naples and is declared king of the Two Sicilies. The retiring Germans defeated at Bitonto. Sicily reduced for Charles. The Germans beaten at Parma.

1735 Preliminaries of Vienna. France and Sardinia make peace with the emperor. Parma to be ceded to Austria and Tuscany to Francis of Lorraine.

1736 Philip and Charles of Sicily accede to the Peace of Vienna, Charles retaining Sicily.

1739 War of Jenkins’ Ear occasioned by the disputes of Spanish and English traders in the West Indies. To meet the expense of the war, government pensions and payments are suspended for a year, and the interest on the public debt reduced. Porto Bello captured by the English.

1740 Death of the emperor Charles VI. Philip claims the succession for his son Don Philip.

1741 Unsuccessful siege of Cartagena de las Indias by the British. They fail to conquer Cuba. Anson plunders Payta and captures a Spanish treasure ship.

1742 Philip sends troops to invade Austrian Lombardy. The king of Sardinia suddenly goes over to the emperor and drives the Spaniards from Lombardy. The British fleet compels the neutrality of Naples.

1743 Alliance of Austria, England, and Sardinia. Spain renews the French alliance in the Treaty of Fontainebleau.

1744 Indecisive battle of Hyères between the English, French, and Spanish fleets. Unsuccessful siege of Coni by the Spaniards.

1745 The French and Spanish overrun the Milanese.

1746 The French and Spaniards routed at Piacenza and expelled from Lombardy. Death of Philip. His son, =Ferdinand VI=, succeeds.

1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Don Philip receives Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla. Maria Theresa recognised as successor of Charles VI.

1749 Commercial treaty of Aquisgran between Spain and England. Under the administration of Carvajal and Ensenada, Spain begins to recover her prosperity.

1752 Treaty of Aranjuez between Spain, Maria Theresa, and the dukes of Tuscany, and Parma guarantees the neutrality of Italy.

1753 Pope Benedict XIV acknowledges by a concordat the Spanish king’s right to make ecclesiastical appointments.

1754 Death of Carvajal. Richard Wall, an Irishman, succeeds him.

1755 Earthquake in Spain.

1759 Death of Ferdinand. His half-brother, Charles of Naples, succeeds as =Charles III=. Naples is handed over to Charles’ younger son, Ferdinand. Charles restores Aragon and Catalonia some of their privileges and remits arrears of taxes. Squillaci (Esquilache) appointed minister of finance.

1761 Third family compact with France for mutual defence. Consequent war with England.

1762 Portugal refuses to join the family compact and is invaded by the French and Spaniards. England sends troops to Portugal. The Spaniards defeated at Valencia de Alcantara and Villa Velha. Havana and Manila captured by the English. Colonia del Sacramento taken from Portugal.

1763 Peace with England. Spain cedes Florida and her fishing rights on the Newfoundland banks. England restores Havana and Manila. Grimaldi succeeds Wall. Louisiana ceded to Spain by France. The inhabitants refuse to accept the transfer.

1765 Reorganisation of the Spanish colonies. Discontent and revolts.

1766 Discontent roused against Squillaci by sumptuary laws, foreign innovations, and the high price of bread. Sanguinary revolution in Madrid called the “Revolt of Esquilache.” De Aranda minister. He continues the policy of innovation, and

1767 expels the Jesuit fathers from Spain and the colonies, as aiders and abettors of revolution.

1769 Louisiana subdued.

1770 The Spaniards assert their claim to the Falkland Islands and expel the English. Preparations are made for war, but France withdrawing her support,

1771 Spain is compelled to apologise and restore the Falklands. De Aranda dismissed.

1773 The pope, Clement XIV, compelled by Spain to order the suppression of the Jesuits. The pursuit of trade declared to involve no loss of rank or privilege.

1774 The final blow given to the Inquisition by a decree making civil offences punishable by civil tribunals only.

1775 Ceuta and Melilla attacked by the Moors. The aggressors defeated. A Spanish army routed in Algiers.

1776 The Portuguese attack the Spaniards on the Rio Grande. Colonia del Sacramento and the neighbouring colonies occupied by Spain.

1777 Grimaldi replaced by Florida-Blanca. Peace with Portugal. Spain retains Colonia del Sacramento.

1778 Perpetual alliance with Portugal. Privilege of free trade with all American colonies save Mexico granted to seven principal Spanish ports. The privilege was afterwards extended to all the provinces save Biscay.

1779 Spain offers to mediate between England and her revolted American colonies. On her refusal Spain declares war. Gibraltar besieged by the Spaniards. Failure of a Franco-Spanish naval expedition against England.

1780 The principle of the Armed Neutrality announced by Russia and accepted by Spain. Rodney defeats the Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent. English transport fleet captured.

1781 Pensacola taken by the Spaniards. Rebellions in Peru and Mexico.

1782 Minorca taken by the French and Spaniards. Gibraltar relieved by Howe. Treaty with Turkey containing commercial provisions, arranging for the exchange of slaves and protection for Spanish pilgrims.

1783 Peace with England concluded at Versailles. Spain retains Minorca and Florida. Increase of duties on foreign manufactures.

1784 The proceedings of the Inquisition against grandees and officials subjected to the king’s approval.

1786 Treaty with Algiers. The Algerian government guarantees the suppression of piracy.

1788 Death of Charles III. He is succeeded by his son =Charles IV=.

1791 Spain protests against the foundation of the English settlement at Nootka Sound, but being unsupported by France has to recognise it. This humiliation being attributed to the French Revolution leads to a reaction against liberalism. Florida-Blanca urges the European powers to restore Louis XVI.

1792 Dismissal of Florida-Blanca. Manuel de Godoy, the queen’s favourite, becomes supreme. The Spanish government intercedes for Louis XVI.

1793 Execution of Louis XVI. Spain joins the First Coalition against France. Failure of the invasion of France.

1794 The Spaniards are defeated with the loss of nine thousand men and surrender Figueras. The French invade Spain.

1795 Treaty of Bâle. Spain surrenders her territory in Santo Domingo. The French evacuate Spain.

1796 Alliance between France and Spain in the treaty of San Ildefonso. Spain joins

1797 the war against England, and her fleet is defeated in the battle of Cape St. Vincent.

1800 Louisiana ceded to France.

_Nineteenth Century_

1801 Successful invasion of Portugal. Portugal agrees to exclude English forces from her ports. Napoleon exacts a large payment from Portugal and insists on Spain’s ceding Trinidad to England.

1803 Napoleon compels Spain to pay a large subsidy for the war with England and to undertake to secure Portuguese neutrality.

1805 Spain joins France in the war. The English defeat the French and Spaniards at Cape Finisterre and Trafalgar. British invasion of Buenos Ayres.

1806 Ferdinand, king of Naples, expelled from Naples. Spain prepares for war, but after Napoleon’s victory at Jena renews the

1807 French alliance in the Treaty of Fontainebleau, arranging for the partition of Portugal. Ferdinand, prince of Asturias, conspires against the government. Charles asks help from Napoleon. The French march into Spain. Reconciliation of Ferdinand and Charles.

1808 Murat sent to command the French troops in Spain. Barcelona, Pamplona, and the northern fortresses of Spain occupied by the French. Indignation in Spain and riots against Godoy. Charles IV is constrained to abdicate in favour of =Ferdinand VII=. Murat occupies Madrid. Charles declares his abdication compulsory. Meeting of Napoleon and the Spanish royal family at Bayonne. Murat assumes the Spanish government in the name of Charles IV. Ferdinand restores the crown to Charles IV, who resigns his rights to Napoleon and retires to Rome. Napoleon makes =Joseph Bonaparte= king. General revolt against the French throughout Spain. The French sack Cordova. Saragossa and Valencia successfully resist them. Savage guerilla warfare. Capitulation of Baylen; twenty thousand French surrender. Flight of Joseph. The central junta assumes the government. French victories of Burgos, Espinosa, and Tudela. Napoleon enters Madrid, abolishes feudalism and the Inquisition and restores Joseph. The Spanish colonies of Buenos Ayres, Mexico, Chili, and Venezuela revolt.

1809 Battle of Corunna and retreat of an English army. Napoleon quits Spain. Joseph returns. Marshal Lannes takes Saragossa by storm. French victories of Medellin and Ciudad-Real. Soult commander-in-chief of the French in Spain. Wellington is sent to aid the Spaniards and defeats the French at Talavera. Wellington returns to Portugal. Spaniards defeated at Ocaña. Flight of the central junta from Seville to the isle of Leon. Joseph enters Seville.

1810 Napoleon converts Catalonia, Aragon, Navarre, and Biscay into military governments. Juntas formed in the colonial cities govern in Ferdinand’s name, but work for independence. The cortes meet at the isle of Leon, swear fealty to Ferdinand VII

1811 as a constitutional monarch and declare the abolition of feudalism, the privileges of the nobles and the tithes of the church, declare the sovereignty to reside in the people, and draw up a constitution called the “constitution of the year 12.” The cortes refuse to grant the colonies equality of representation and free trade. Most of the colonies declare their independence and successfully assert it against Spanish troops. The cortes conclude a treaty with England, granting her free trade in America, and make Wellington commander-in-chief of the Spanish troops in the western provinces. The French take Tarragona, Murviedro, and Valencia.

1812 Wellington captures Badajoz, defeats Marmont at Salamanca, and enters Madrid.

1813 Wellington defeats Joseph at Vitoria. Napoleon recalls Joseph and names Soult governor of Spain. Wellington takes San Sebastian and Pamplona. Wellington invades France.

1814 =Ferdinand VII= returns. He imprisons the liberal leaders and restores absolutism with the privileges of the nobles and clergy. The Inquisition re-erected. Persecution of partisans of Joseph, leaders of the liberal party, and guerilla captains. A camarilla or court party rules supreme and organises a reign of terror. Wars for independence in the South American colonies.

1815 Porlier’s rebellion at Corunna suppressed. Morillo sent to Venezuela. He crushes rebellion and governs vigorously.

1816 Rio de la Plata asserts its independence.

1817 Lacy rebels in Catalonia, is captured and shot.

1819 Florida sold to the United States. Secret societies formed against the government.

1820 Venezuela and New Granada declare their union as the Free State of Colombia. An army, assembled to conquer Colombia, rebels under Riego and Quiroga. The revolt spreads throughout Spain. Ferdinand compelled to swear to the constitution and abolish the Inquisition. Cortes and liberal government. The moderate party fails to restrain the radicals. The priests stir up the people against the constitution. Disorder throughout the country.

1821 Mexico becomes independent.

1822 Triumph of the radical party. Riego president of the cortes. The clerical and servile (royal) party sets up a regency in Urgel and arms for the king. Civil war in Catalonia and Aragon between serviles and radicals. Congress of Verona, France, Russia, Austria, and Prussia agree for armed intervention in Spain in favour of Ferdinand. Victory of the Liberals under Mina and flight of the regency to France.

1823 The government withdraws to Seville. Invasion by the French. The serviles and common people join them. The French erect a provisional government in Madrid and restore the “legitimate order” of things. The cortes withdraw to Cadiz, but surrender it to the French. Ferdinand resumes despotic power. Execution of Riego and other liberals. Many go into exile. President Monroe declares the United States’ intention to oppose the interference of European powers for the restoration of Spanish absolutism in America.

1824 Battle of Ayacucho. Chili and Peru achieve independence by the defeat of the Spaniards.

1825 “Commissions of purification” persecute all opponents of despotism. Bessières’s revolt suppressed.

1830 Ferdinand publishes the Pragmatic Sanction of 1789 which abrogated the Salic law of 1713. Birth of Ferdinand’s daughter Isabella.

1832 Illness of Ferdinand. The queen Christina appointed regent. Ferdinand recalls the Pragmatic Sanction, thus restoring the rights of his brother Don Carlos. The queen recalls the exiled constitutionalists. Ferdinand cancels his revocation of the Pragmatic Sanction. Disturbances in favour of Don Carlos. Don Carlos exiled.

1833 Death of Ferdinand. Christina regent for =Isabella II=. The northern provinces revolt for Carlos. France and England recognise Isabella. Don Carlos assumes the title of Carlos V king of Spain.

1834 Ministry of Martínez de la Rosa, including moderate royalists and moderate liberals. The cortes summoned. Quadruple Alliance. France and England agree to support the young queens of Spain and Portugal against the pretenders Carlos and Miguel. A Spanish army invades Portugal and expels the Portuguese pretender. Carlos escapes to England. A savage guerilla war between Carlists and Christinos begins in Biscay and Navarre. Carlos returns. Mina given command of the queen’s troops.

1835 Mutiny of the guards in favour of the constitution of 1812. The Carlists become masters of all northern Spain. Dissension between the rival parties of moderates and radicals, or progressists, and anarchy in the southern provinces. Cloisters attacked and monks murdered by the Christinos. Semi-republican juntas formed in the cities. The Carlists defeated at Mendigorria. The war continues with increased savagery. Mendizabal minister.

1836 The convent law of Mendizabal suppresses the monastic orders, confiscating their goods. Mendizabal retires. The moderates in power. A British legion defeats the Carlists at Bilbao. At La Granja the soldiers force Christina to promulgate the constitution of 1812 and dismiss her ministers. The Christino general Espartero relieves Bilbao. The “royal expedition” of Don Carlos to Madrid is driven back to the north.

1837 The constitution modified by the cortes and made less democratic. Carlos enters Castile, but is expelled by Espartero.

1838 The moderates in power. Attempts at absolutist reaction.

1839 Maroto becomes Don Carlos’ chief adviser and opens negotiations with Espartero which lead to the treaty of Bergara, by which the insurgents agree to lay down their arms in return for an amnesty and confirmation of the _fueros_ of Navarre and Biscay. Carlos escapes to France. The war continues two years longer in Catalonia and Valencia.

1840 The liberals force Christina to accept Espartero as chief minister. She abdicates.

1841 Espartero regent. Insurrections in favour of Christina.

1843 Revolt of Barcelona. General Narvaez occupies Madrid for Christina. Espartero flees to England. Isabella’s majority declared. Christina returns. Reactionary policy under French influence.

1844 Insurrection of the coloured population of Cuba.

1845 New constitution increasing the power of the crown.

1846 Louis Philippe procures the marriage of Isabella with Francis de Asis and of her sister with the duke of Montpensier.

1847 Cabrera fails to excite a Carlist rising.

1850 Amnesty to the Carlists. Revolt in Cuba in favour of union with the United States suppressed.

1851 Fall of Narvaez. Concessions to the clergy.

1852 The constitution changed in favour of absolutism. Limitation of the freedom of the press.

1854 The moderates and radicals join in a liberal union. Revolts in Barcelona and Madrid. Espartero minister. Attempts to revive internal prosperity. Sale of the property of the church, of institutions, and of the state ordered.

1856 New constitution. Espartero retires. Riots in Madrid and Barcelona. The old moderate party under Narvaez in power.

1858 Union of moderates and radicals under the O’Donnell ministry.

1860 Successful expedition to Morocco. The Spaniards win the battles of Tetuan and Guad Ras. Ortega proclaims Don Carlos’ son as Charles VI. Ortega captured and shot. Don Carlos’ sons captured and compelled to renounce their pretensions.

1861 Santo Domingo declared reunited to Spain. Convention of London. At the instigation of Spain, England, France, and Spain agree to force Mexico to fulfil her obligations. Spanish troops under Prim join in the Mexican expedition.

1863 Prim’s attitude brings about a misunderstanding with France. Dissolution of the O’Donnell cabinet.

1864 War with Santo Domingo.

1865 A party formed for the union of Spain with Portugal.

1866 War with Peru. Rebellion in Catalonia, Valencia, and Madrid. A new ministry under Narvaez and Gonsalez Bravo endeavours to restrain rebellion by a reign of terror.

1868 The liberal union, progressists, and democrats unite against the government. Revolution. Insurgents’ victory at the bridge of Alcolea. Flight of Isabella. Provisional government under Prim, Topete, and Olozaga. Disputes as to the form of government. Religious orders abolished and toleration proclaimed. Cuban insurrection.

1869 Monarchist majority in constituent cortes. Various candidates for the throne proposed. New constitution drawn up. Serrano becomes regent with Prim as minister. Republican and Carlist risings suppressed.

1870 =Amadeo=, duke of Aosta and son of the king of Italy, elected king of Spain. Prim assassinated.

1871 Serrano and Sagasta ministers.

1873 Amadeo abdicates. Republican government. Constituent assembly meets to draw up a federal republican constitution. Don Carlos (Charles VII) raises a Carlist rebellion with guerilla warfare in the north. The intransigentes or extreme republicans in opposition to the federalists erect independent governments in the coast towns. Cartagena becomes the centre of the extreme republicans. Cuba revolts in consequence of the law releasing slaves and seeks union with the United States. A party of Americans landing in Cuba to aid the insurgents seized and many of them executed.

1874 General Pavia occupies the house of assembly with troops and declares the cortes closed. Military dictatorship under Serrano and Sagasta. Cartagena surrenders to the federalists. General Martínez Campos proclaims =Alfonso XII=, son of Isabella, king.

1875 Alfonso returns to Spain. Religious liberty abolished. The law of civil marriage confined to non-Catholics. The Carlists driven from Catalonia and Valencia. Urgel, Vitoria, and Estella capitulate.

1876 New constitution with a minimum of religious toleration; senate partly elective. The Carlist insurrection suppressed.

1879 Campos ministry. Inundations. Alfonso marries the Austrian archduchess Maria Christina. Cánovas del Castillo ministry.

1880 Law for abolition of slavery in Cuba.

1881 Sagasta ministry. Riots in Catalonia over a projected commercial treaty with France.

1882 The treaty concluded.

1883 Socialist and military outbreaks. Posada Herrera succeeds Sagasta.

1884 Conservative ministry under Cánovas del Castillo.

1885 Dispute with Germany over Caroline Islands arbitrated by the pope (1886). Death of Alfonso XII. Queen Maria Christina regent. Sagasta ministry.

1886 Commercial treaty with England. Birth of =Alfonso XIII=. Don Carlos protests against the proclamation of Alfonso.

1888 Ruiz Zorrilla issues a revolutionary manifesto demanding a new form of government to be settled by the people. Republican disturbances.

1889 Introduction of trial by jury. Great strike in Catalonia.

1890 Reform of the constitution. Cánovas del Castillo ministry.

1892 New commercial tariff and consequent break with France. War with Morocco. Sagasta again minister.

1893 Explosions produced by anarchists in Barcelona.

1894 Legislation against anarchists. Consecration of the first bishop of the Spanish reformed church.

1895 Peace with Morocco.

1896 The United States requests Spain to recognise the independence of Cuba. Indignation in Spain.

1897 Cuban reform bill passed. Cubans recognised as belligerents by the United States. Cánovas del Castillo assassinated by an anarchist. Sagasta ministry.

1898 Armistice to the Cubans. The president of the United States sends a message to congress requiring the end of the Cuban War. Spain declares the message incompatible with Spanish rights. Bread riots in Spain. War with the United States in Cuba and the Philippines. The Spaniards defeated in the battles of Manila, San Juan, and Santiago. Santiago surrenders. Martial law proclaimed in Spain. Philippine Republic proclaimed. Treaty between Spain and America. Spain resigns her rights in Cuba, Porto Rico, and her other possessions in the Antilles and Philippines.

1899 Spain left with embarrassed finances. The Sagasta ministry resigns. Señor Silvela forms the modern conservative party. Señor Villaverde effects many financial reforms. Caroline Islands sold to Germany. Reform of the navy.

1900 A new conservative administration formed by General Azcarraga.

_Twentieth Century_

1901 Anti-clerical riots in Madrid and other towns. A Liberal government under Sagasta again goes into power. The queen in opening the Cortes declares that a thorough social reorganization of the country is necessary, that its finances must be consolidated and its wealth developed.

1902 Alfonso XIII declared of age and crowned. Attempt to assassinate Alfonso XIII. Silvela returns to power. Spain concludes treaties of arbitration with all countries of South America except Chile.

1903 Death of Sagasta. New cabinet headed by Señor Villaverdi.

[Illustration]

A BRIEF RÉSUMÉ OF PORTUGUESE HISTORY

_Tenth Century_

997 Oporto and surrounding territory taken from the Moors by Bermudo II of Galicia.

_Eleventh Century_

1055 Cea and other fortresses captured from the Moors by Ferdinand the Great of Castile and Leon.

1057 Ferdinand takes Lamego and Viseu

1064 and Coimbra, and forms the conquered territory into a country under Sesnando, a Moor.

1065 Death of Ferdinand. The suzerainty of the counties of Coimbra and Oporto passes with Galicia to his son Garcia.

1073 Garcia’s territories reunited with Leon and Castile under Alfonso VI.

1095 Alfonso VI gives Porto Cale (Portugal), consisting of the fiefs of Oporto and Coimbra, to Count Henry of Burgundy (Besançou), who married his daughter Theresa, 1072.

_Twelfth Century_

1109 Death of Alfonso. Urraca succeeds to Castile and Leon. Henry interferes in the internal troubles of that kingdom.

1112 War with Almoravids. Death of Henry. Theresa regent for her son Alfonso Henriques.

1117 Theresa besieged by Moors at Coimbra. She gives power to her lover Ferdinand Peres de Trava.

1121 Urraca takes Theresa captive. Peace made.

1127 Alfonso VII of Castile conquers Theresa’s realm and compels her homage.

1128 Alfonso Henriques assumes power, defeats and exiles Theresa. In the next years he three times invades Galicia and in

1137 defeats Alfonso VII’s troops at Cerneja. Peace of Tuy. Alfonso Henriques submits to the king of Leon.

1139 Battle of Ourique. Alfonso Henriques crushes the Moors. A legend was formerly current that he was then hailed as king by his soldiers.

1140 The Moors capture and destroy Leiria. Tourney of Valdevez. The Portuguese knights defeat the Castilian. Alfonso Henriques king of Portugal as =Alfonso I=.

1143 Peace of Zamora. Alfonso VII acknowledges Alfonso I as king. The latter declares himself a vassal of the pope.

1144 The Moors defeat the Templars at Soure.

1147 Alfonso I captures Santarem and takes Lisbon with the aid of English and other crusaders. Other Moorish cities surrender.

1152 Alfonso repulsed at Alcacer-do-Sal.

1158 Alfonso captures Alcacer-do-Sal.

1161 Alfonso is defeated by the Moors.

1166 The Moors take Evora.

1167 Alfonso invades Galicia.

1168 Alfonso besieges Badajoz, is taken prisoner and compelled to relinquish Galician conquests.

1170 Alfonso loses to the Moors in Alemtejo.

1171 Alfonso victorious at Santarem, makes seven years’ truce with Moors.

1172 Makes his son Dom Sancho co-ruler, who fights the Moors constantly.

1184 Dom Sancho crushes and kills Yusuf at Santarem.

1185 Alfonso dies and is succeeded by =Sancho I, O Povoador= (“City Builder”).

1189 Sancho, aided by crusaders on their way to Palestine, takes Algarve and Silves from the Moors.

1192 The Moors reconquer Alemtejo, but are repulsed at Santarem, and peace is made. Dom Sancho wages constant war with Alfonso IX of Leon. He builds many cities.

_Thirteenth Century_

1209 Sancho’s quarrels with Pope Innocent III, respecting jurisdiction over priests, culminate in the siege and escape of the bishop of Oporto.

1210 Dom Sancho grants the pope’s demands, retires to a convent and dies.

1211 =Alfonso II “the Fat”= succeeds, and summons the first real parliament; he wars with his brothers and sisters and Alfonso IX of Leon.

1212 Portuguese take part in the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa.

1217 Alcacer-do-Sal recovered from the Moors. Alfonso II is excommunicated for seizing church lands.

1223 Alfonso II dies and is succeeded by the thirteen-year-old =Sancho II=.

1226 Sancho II captures Elvas from the Moors.

1227 Sancho reinstates officials hostile to the clergy and fights the Moors.

1228 The pope reconciled.

1237 The pope lays an interdict on Portugal, but is pacified.

1239-1244 Sancho II takes several cities from the Moors.

1245 The pope deposes Sancho II. The clerical party sets up Sancho’s brother,

1248 Alfonso, who drives Sancho II into exile, where he dies. =Alfonso III= completes the conquest of Algarve.

1254 Alfonso marries Beatrice de Guzman, the natural daughter of Alfonso the Learned of Castile, so alienating the papal faction. Alfonso III summons a cortes at Leiria.

1261 The cortes forces the king to recognize the necessity of obtaining the people’s consent to taxation.

1262 The pope legalizes the king’s marriage and legitimates his son Dom Diniz, who

1263 is made king of Algarve.

1277 Dom Diniz rebels against his father.

1279 Alfonso III dies, leaving Portugal fully established and its boundaries defined. =Dom Diniz El Ré Lavrador=, established after war with his brother. Period of internal progress and prosperity.

1294 Commercial treaty with Edward I of England.

1297 Peace settled with Castile and Leon.

1300 University founded at Lisbon.

_Fourteenth Century_

1319 Diniz founds the order of Christ to replace the Templars.

1323 His wife, St. Isabella, prevents a battle between Diniz and his son Alfonso.

1325 Diniz dies and is succeeded by =Alfonso IV=.

1336 Alfonso invades Castile; peace made by St. Isabella.

1340 The Portuguese and Castilians defeat the Moors at the river Salado.

1348 The Black death invades Portugal.

1355 Iñes de Castro, wife or mistress of the infante Dom Pedro, murdered.

1357 Alfonso dies and is succeeded by =Dom Pedro (I) the Severe=.

1361 Pedro the Cruel of Castile surrenders the murderers of Iñes in exchange for Castilian fugitives. The murderers put to death with torture.

1367 Pedro dies and is succeeded by =Ferdinand the Handsome=, who

1369 claims the throne of Castile and Leon, and combats Henry of Trastamara.

1371 Ferdinand resigns his claims to Castile.

1373 Henry of Trastamara invades Portugal.

1374 Ferdinand promises to support John of Gaunt’s claims to Castile, but again makes peace with Henry of Trastamara.

1383 The English, angry at Ferdinand’s fickleness, ravage Portugal. Ferdinand dies, leaving his wile Leonora regent, against whom the people rise.

1384 Juan I of Castile allies himself with her, but is repulsed at Lisbon.

1385 The Portuguese proclaim Dom João, grand master of Aviz and son of Pedro the Severe, king, as =João (I) the Great=. The Portuguese defeat the Castilians at Aljubarrota and Valverde.

1386 A perpetual treaty of alliance signed with England.

1398 Iñes de Castro’s son, Diniz, attempts to overthrow João, but, with English assistance, he is defeated.

_Fifteenth Century_

1411 Peace made with Castile.

1415 The Portuguese take Ceuta in Africa, their first foreign possession.

1418 Prince Henry’s captains discover the Madeiras.

1420 Madeiras colonised.

1432 Azores occupied by Portuguese.

1433 A Portuguese ship passes Cape Bojador. João dies and is succeeded by =Duarte= (Edward), who calls a cortes at Evora and passes the Lei Mental ordaining the reversion to the crown of lands granted to nobles on failure of male descendants of the grantee.

1437 Duarte sends an expedition against Tangier. The Portuguese surrounded and saved only by Prince Ferdinand’s offering himself as hostage.

1438 Duarte dies, =Alfonso V the African=, a minor, succeeds. Pedro, son of João I, regent.

1441 Slave-trade begun by Portuguese.

1447 Alfonso V comes of age and dismisses Pedro.

1449 Alfonso V defeats and kills Pedro at Alfarrobeira.

1458 Alfonso takes Alcacer-Seguier, Africa.

1460 Prince Henry the navigator dies. Cape Verd Islands discovered and settled.

1462 Pedro de Cintra discovers Sierra Leone.

1464 Alfonso repulsed in Africa.

1471 Tangier captured by the Portuguese.

1475 Alfonso marries Juana (Beltraneja) of Castile and claims the Castilian crown,

1476 but is defeated at battle of Toro and concludes with Castile the treaty of Alcantara (1479). Juana retires to a convent.

1481 Alfonso dies. =João II the Perfect.= The cortes of Evora determines on an inquiry into titles to estates and the abrogation of the judicial powers of the nobles.

1483 The duke of Braganza and other nobles oppose these measures. Braganza executed.

1484 Diogo Cam discovers the Congo and Angola.

1487 Bartholomeu Dias discovers the Cape of Good Hope.

1488 Commercial treaty with England.

1490 Covilhão enters Abyssinia.

1493 Pope Alexander V declares the boundary between Portuguese and Spanish areas of discovery.

1494 By the treaty of Tordesillas the boundary is readjusted.

1495 João II dies without heirs and is succeeded by =Emmanuel the Fortunate=, who expels the Jews from Portugal as the condition of his marriage with the daughter of

1497 Ferdinand of Spain. Vasco da Gama discovers Natal.

1498 Vasco discovers Calicut.

1500 Cabral discovers Brazil. Factories established at Kananur and Cochin.

_Sixteenth Century_

1501 Ascension Island discovered. Vespucci discovers Rio de la Plata and Paraguay.

1502 St. Helena discovered. Vasco visits India and establishes a factory at Mozambique.

1505 De Almeida, the first Portuguese viceroy, sent to India. His son Lourenço discovers Ceylon. Mombasa occupied.

1506 Massacre of the New Christians in Lisbon.

1508 Albuquerque supersedes Almeida as viceroy in India.

1510 Albuquerque is repulsed in an attack on Calicut and conquers Goa

1511 and Malacca.

1512 Serrão discovers the Moluccas.

1515 Albuquerque captures Ormus. Portuguese established at Diu.

1517 Andrade settles at Canton.

1518 Portuguese settlement established in Ceylon.

1520 Magellan discovers the straits of Magellan.

1521 Andrade reaches Pekin. Emmanuel dies, and is succeeded by =João III=. He finds his countrymen too eager to gain wealth by foreign adventure and emigration, thus threatening depopulation.

1531 Daman taken and destroyed by Portuguese. Sousa founds São Vicente in Brazil and receives a grant of the first hereditary captaincy, or governorship of a province, in Brazil.

1536 Inquisition established in Portugal.

1539 Bishopric established at Goa.

1541 St. Francis Xavier sent to the Indies. Estevão da Gama, governor of India, leads an expedition to the Red Sea.

1542 Japan discovered by Fernão Mendes Pinto.

1543 Xavier founds Christian settlements in Travancore.

1545 The Indian viceroy De Castro wins victory of Diu over the king of Guzerat.

1548 St. Francis Xavier goes to Japan.

1549 Thomé de Sousa first governor-general of Brazil. He founds Bahia and governs by aid of Jesuits.

1557 Factories established at Macao. João III dies, and is succeeded by his three-year-old grandson =Sebastian=, under the regency of his grandmother Catherine and his great-uncle Cardinal Henry, but under the power of the brothers Camara.

1558 Portuguese settled at Daman.

1560 Inquisition introduced into India.

1567 Portuguese established at Rio de Janeiro after conflicts with French settlers.

1568 Sebastian of age.

1578 He invades Africa, and is defeated and killed at Kassr-el-Kebir. He is succeeded by his uncle =Henry=, who, feeling that he cannot live long, calls the cortes to name his successor.

1580 Henry dies. Philip II of Spain is chosen king as =Philip I=, and defeats his rival Antonio, prior of Crato, at Alcantara, and again in

1582 the Azores.

1584-1585 Two pretenders, who claim to be the dead Sebastian, captured.

1585 São Thiago, Cape Verd Islands, captured by an English fleet.

1586 Bahia plundered by the English.

1589 Combined English and Dutch expedition to “restore” Antonio, wins successes, but retreats.

1594 Gabriel Espinosa, a third false Sebastian, executed. Philip closes the Portuguese harbours to the Dutch.

1596 The English sack Faro and Fort Arguin and ravage the Azores.

1597 The Dutch build a factory in Java and occupy other East Indian possessions.

1598 =Philip II= (III of Spain) king.

_Seventeenth Century_

1603 Tullio, a fourth false Sebastian, captured.

1605 The Dutch take Amboyna and expel the Portuguese from the Moluccas.

1615 The Portuguese defeat the king of Achin in Malacca.

1621 =Philip III= (IV of Spain).

1622 The Shah of Persia, aided by the English, recovers Ormus.

1624 Bahia taken by the Dutch and recovered.

1630 Olinda in Brazil taken by the Dutch. Maurice of Nassau extends the Dutch power in Brazil.

1632 Military post of Tete in Mozambique established.

1634 An insurrection in Lisbon put down.

1637 An insurrection in Evora put down.

1638 The Dutch take Portuguese forts in Ceylon.

1640 The Dutch take Malacca. The Portuguese having been alienated by the misfortunes of their country under Spanish rule and by the bad faith of their kings, a sudden revolution ousts the Spaniards and gives the crown to the duke of Braganza as =João (IV) the Fortunate=. The assistance afforded by the Jesuits in this revolution is rewarded by almost unlimited power in ecclesiastical and great influence in civil affairs.

1641 The cortes assembles and accepts João IV. France and Holland send fleets. England recognises the king. Caminha conspiracy to restore Spanish power betrayed by the Spanish marquis De Ayamonte. The leaders executed.

1644 Albuquerque defeats the Spaniards at Montijo.

1645 Revolts against Dutch rule in Brazil and consequent breach with Holland.

1648 Benguela and Angola recovered from the Dutch.

1650 The revolted English fleet under Prince Rupert takes refuge in the Tagus. The Portuguese refuse to allow the parliamentary admiral Blake to enter the river. Blake attacks Portuguese merchantmen.

1652 Commercial treaty with England, greatly in the latter’s favour.

1654 The Dutch expelled from Brazil.

1656 João IV dies and is succeeded by his thirteen-year-old son =Alfonso VI=. Marshal Schomberg with a picked band of French officers comes to the assistance of Portugal.

1658 The Dutch take the last Portuguese stronghold in Ceylon.

1659 Menezes defeats the Spaniards at Elvas. In the treaty of the Pyrenees, France promises Spain to abandon Portugal.

1661 Spaniards invade Portugal.

1662 English alliance secured by the marriage of the king’s sister with Charles II and the cession of Tangier and Bombay with a grant of free trade with Portuguese dominions. Alfonso VI declares himself of age.

1663 The count of Villa Flor defeats Don John of Austria at Amegial and recovers Evora.

1664 Magalhães defeats the Spaniards at Ciudad Rodrigo. The Dutch take the Portuguese settlements on the coast of Malabar.

1665 The Portuguese crush the Spaniards at Montes-Claros.

1666 The king marries the French princess Marie d’Aumale.

1667 Alfonso’s excesses lead to a revolution in favour of his brother Dom Pedro. Alfonso imprisoned. The queen granted a divorce.

1668 Dom Pedro recognised as regent. Spain recognises Portugal’s independence. The queen marries Dom Pedro.

1683 The king dies in prison. Dom Pedro succeeds as =Pedro II=.

1698 Portuguese expelled from Mombasa.

_Eighteenth Century_

1703 Paul Methuen, the English ambassador, negotiates the Methuen treaty which secures preference to Portuguese over French wines in England, and forms the basis of the subsequent friendship between the two countries. Portugal recognises the archduke Charles, the English candidate to the Spanish throne.

1704 Archduke Charles arrives in Lisbon with English forces and with Portuguese aid successfully invades Spain.

1706 Death of Pedro II. =João V= succeeds. João V under influence of Cadaval continues the war with Philip V of Spain.

1707 The allied forces of Portuguese, Dutch, and English defeated by the Spaniards at Almansa.

1709 Portuguese under Fronteira defeated at Caia.

1711 A French fleet under Duguay-Trouin bombards and pillages Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

1715 Peace with Spain.

1717 Portuguese fleet defeats Turks off Cape Matapan.

1728 Mombasa recovered by Portuguese.

1739 Bassein and Thana on the west coast of India lost to Portugal.

1740 Mombasa again lost.

1750 João dies and is succeeded by =José= who leaves the chief government to Pombal. The latter checks the Inquisition, improves the navy and finance. Colonia del Sacramento ceded to Spain in exchange for territory in Paraguay.

1753 Revolt against the transference of territory in South America attributed to Jesuit instigation. Revolt suppressed.

1755 The great earthquake at Lisbon destroys forty thousand inhabitants. Chartered company established to trade with Brazil.

1757 Pombal expels the Jesuits from court.

1758 Pombal persuades the pope to decree the confiscation of merchandise belonging to Jesuits. Mysterious Tavora plot, and attempt on José’s life.

1759 The Jesuits charged with the plot and expelled from Portuguese territories. New Goa replaces Old Goa as capital of the Portuguese Indies.

1760 The pope permits José’s daughter to marry her uncle Pedro.

1762 The Spaniards invade Portugal and capture Braganza and Almeida with aid of English under Burgoyne and Count Schaumburg-Lippe. The Spaniards are beaten at Valencia de Alcantara and Villa Velha and

1763 peace made. Schaumburg-Lippe remains to reorganise the Portuguese army.

1769 Pombal saves José from assassination.

1773 Pombal issues a decree providing for the future abolition of slavery in Portugal. Clement XIV abolishes the Jesuit order.

1777 José dies leaving the throne to his daughter =Maria I= with her husband =Pedro III=.

1781 José’s widow obtains the power and drives Pombal from court.

1786 Maria’s husband and eldest son die and

1788 her mind gives way.

1792 Her son Dom João acts as regent and puts down sympathisers with the French Revolution.

1793 Portugal joins Spain in the disastrous war with France.

1795 By the treaty of Bâle, Spain makes a separate peace with France.

1796 War with Spain averted by the arrival of English aid.

1799 Dom João declared regent.

1800 Lucien Bonaparte at Madrid offers Portugal impossible terms of peace with Spain and France.

_Nineteenth Century_

1801 Olivenza, Campo Mayor, etc., taken by the French and Spaniards. Franco-Spanish victories of Arronches and Flor da Rosa. Peace with Spain and France with large cessions by Portugal. Napoleon sends Lannes as minister, and Portugal consents to all demands. Portugal’s neutrality recognised by France.

1804 Napoleon requires Portugal to join the Continental System and exclude British vessels from her ports. The Portuguese government hesitates.

1807 France and Spain sign the treaty of Fontainebleau, agreeing to conquer and divide Portugal. Junot and Caraffa invade Portugal; Taranco and Solano occupy the south. The people welcome them. On English advice, Dom João names a council of regency, and sails for Brazil just as the French enter Lisbon.

1808 Junot declares that the house of Braganza has ceased to reign, and divides Portugal into military provinces. Junot leaves Lisbon, and the regency calls on the people to rise; revolts against the French in many places and appeal to England. Sir Arthur Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington) arrives with English troops. Wellesley defeats La Borde at Roliça and Junot at Vimeiro. Convention of Cintra by which Junot agrees to evacuate Portugal.

1809 Soult takes and plunders Oporto, but is expelled by Wellesley, who invades Spain but retreats after winning the battle of Talavera. Beresford organises the Portuguese army. The English ambassador added to the regency.

1810 Masséna commissioned to reconquer Portugal; he takes Almeida. Wellington defeats Masséna at Busaco and retires to the lines of Torres Vedras, which he defends for more than a year against all attacks

1811 till Masséna is compelled to retreat, when he is followed by Wellington and defeated at Fuentes de Onoro. Wellington withdraws to Portugal.

1812 Wellington again invades Spain.

1814 End of Peninsular War. England grants Portuguese sufferers £100,000. The Portuguese court remains in Brazil, while Portugal is left in the hands of Beresford and the English. Great discontent excited by the treatment of Portugal as a province of England.

1815 Portuguese monarchy given the title of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves. Patriotic agitations and secret societies formed to restore the Portuguese to their position as a nation.

1816 Maria I dies, and the regent becomes king as =João VI=.

1817 Monte Video occupied by the Portuguese. General de Andrade’s plot for revolt against the English betrayed and the leaders executed. Revolts in Brazil put down.

1818 Severe edicts against clubs and secret societies in Portugal. The agitation against foreign rule increases.

1820 Beresford goes to Brazil. Rising in Oporto. The English are expelled and a new regency and assembly formed, which abolishes the Inquisition and draws up a constitution, afterwards known as the constitution of 1822, constituting the cortes as one elective chamber.

1821 João VI returns from Brazil. The queen Carlota Joaquina and her second son Dom Miguel become the centre of absolutist reaction and are expelled from Lisbon. Disputes between Portuguese and Brazilian deputies in the cortes.

1822 Brazil secures independence under João’s son Pedro, who is chosen emperor as Pedro I.

1823 A rebellion in Tras-os-Montes. João revises the constitution. A Brazilian fleet defeats the Portuguese.

1824 The king’s son Miguel revolts, but the revolt is suppressed by the energy of the foreign ambassadors, and a new constitution establishes the cortes in their ancient form, divided into three estates.

1825 The royal family goes to Brazil, where João is accepted as emperor, then abdicates in favour of Pedro, acknowledging the independence of Brazil.

1826 João VI dies. =Pedro IV= grants a constitutional charter. He abdicates the throne of Portugal in favour of his daughter =Maria II= (Maria da Gloria) aged seven, who is under the regency of her aunt Isabella Maria. Miguel swears fidelity to the constitution. Marquis of Chaves raises an insurrection for Miguel. Miguel is betrothed to Maria. English troops called in to keep order.

1827 Miguel made regent and English troops withdraw.

1828 Miguel exiles his enemies. =Miguel= proclaims himself king and abolishes parliament. Miguel’s forces capture Madeira.

1829 Miguel defeated by constitutionalists at Terceira.

1830 A council of regency under Villa Flor (Terceira), Palmella, etc., appointed for Maria in the Azores.

1831 Dom Pedro resigns the crown of Brazil to his son, and meeting Maria in London prepares to overthrow Miguel. Insurrection against Miguel put down.

1832 Pedro takes Oporto and is besieged there by Miguel who is defeated. Miguel’s fleet beaten by Sartorius.

1833 Saldanha victorious at Oporto. Pedro’s fleet under Napier defeats Miguel at Cape St. Vincent. Lisbon occupied for Pedro. =Maria II= proclaimed queen and the charter of 1826 restored.

1834 Quadruple alliance of Portugal, Spain, England, and France to expel Miguel and the Spanish pretender Don Carlos. Saldanha defeats Miguelites at Torres and Novas. Napier reduces Beira. Villa Flor overruns Tras-os-Montes and is victorious at Asseiceira. Miguel surrenders at Evora and goes into exile. The cortes abolishes the orders of friars. Massacres in Lisbon. The queen declared of age. Dom Pedro dies. The ministry under Palmella deals severely with Miguelites, causing frequent insurrections. The ministry by repudiation destroys national credit.

1835 Maria da Gloria marries Prince Augustus of Leuchtenberg. Prince consort dies.

1836 Maria marries Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg. September revolution at Lisbon under Caldeira

1838 compels the grant of the new constitution of 1838, based on that of 1822.

1842 Costa Cabral succeeds in abolishing the constitution of 1838, and substituting the charter of 1826.

1846 Sá da Bandeira leads an insurrection of the Septembrists (or partisans of the constitution of 1838), called the war of Maria da Fonte or “patuleia.” Costa Cabral flees to Spain. Royal troops victorious at Evora. English ships arrive. Bandeira defeated by Saldanha at Torres Vedras.

1847 Insurgents take Oporto. England, France, and Spain agree to intervene. Bandeira surrenders. Oporto yields to royal troops. Convention of Granada arranges amnesty.

1850 American fleet collects claims.

1851 Saldanha raises an insurrection. Oporto declares for Saldanha. He is made prime minister.

1852 The Cortes revises the constitution, and queen and prince royal swear allegiance to it. Public debt funded.

1853 Maria II dies, leaving her husband as regent for her son =Pedro V=.

1854 Royal slaves freed.

1855 The king comes of age.

1856 Saldanha ministry resigns. First railway opened.

1857 Fever ravages Lisbon. The French slave-ship _Charles-et-Georges_ seized.

1858 The French government threatens war; the ship is released and Portugal compelled to pay compensation.

1861 Pedro dies of cholera and is succeeded by his brother =Luiz I=.

1862 Duke of Loulé prime minister. Luiz marries the daughter of the king of Italy.

1864 Portugal protects Confederate privateers and has difficulties with the United States.

1865 The colonies receive constitutional privileges.

1866 The Spanish general Prim ordered out of Portugal.

1869 Saldanha, objecting to the Duke of Loulé, compels his dismissal (1870) and forms a ministry. He is soon after sent as ambassador to England.

1876 Financial panic.

1878-1883 The house of peers loses hereditary privileges.

1880 Celebration in honour of Camoens and Vasco da Gama.

1883 Fontes Pereira de Mello prime minister.

1887 Macao, hitherto leased to Portugal, formally ceded by China. Delagoa Bay Railway confiscated by Portuguese government.

1889 Riots at Oporto. King Luiz dies and is succeeded by =Carlos I=. Difficulties with England over rival claims in East Africa.

1890 England threatens war and Portugal yields under protest. Riots result. England and United States remonstrate against seizure of Delagoa Railway. The question submitted to Swiss arbitration. Collisions between English and Portuguese troops in East Africa.

1891 Military revolt in Oporto. British steamer seized and stopped. Agreement arrived at with Great Britain. Financial panic.

1892 Large reductions in expenditures. Great storms.

1893 Renewed activity among the Miguelistas--supporters of Dom Miguel.

1894 Railway dispute with France. Celebration of 500th anniversary of birth of Prince Henry the Navigator. War with nations near Lourenço Marques.

1895 Electoral reforms. House of peers remodelled and made to consist of twelve bishops, the princes of the blood royal, and ninety members nominated by the king. Portuguese under Colonel Galhardo victorious in the war near Lourenço Marques.

1897 400th anniversary of Vasco da Gama’s first voyage.

1899 Portugal remains neutral during the Boer War, but permits the British to search for contraband of war imported via Lourenço Marques.

1900 Delagoa Bay Railway award. The Portuguese government retains the railway, but has to pay compensation.

_Twentieth Century_

1901 The king, to commemorate the opening of the new century, grants a general amnesty to all convicted of political and press offences. The king visits London in order to attend Queen Victoria’s funeral ceremony in London, but on account of disturbances at home has to hurry back. Riots at Oporto.

1902 Dom Carlos visits the king of England and on his return the king of Spain, and re-enters Lisbon amid acclamation. Financial conditions cause much trouble throughout Portugal.

1903 The cabinet resigns, February 27th. A new cabinet is formed on the following day. King Edward of England visits Lisbon. Portuguese troops at Oporto mutiny and proclaim the Republic.

A GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPANISH HISTORY

BASED ON THE WORKS QUOTED, CITED, OR CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THE PRESENT HISTORY; WITH CRITICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

=Abarca=, Pedro de, Los Reyes de Aragon, 1684.--=Addison=, J., Charles the Third of Spain, London, 1900.--=Alberoni=, G., Cardinal, Testament politique du Cardinal Alberoni recueilli de divers mémoires, lettres et entretiens de Son Éminence traduit d’ l’Italien par le comte de R. B. M., Lausanne, 1753.--=Alfaro=, Compendio de la historia de España, Madrid, 1860-1862, 3 vols.--=Alfonso X=, Las quatro partes enteras de la crónica de España, edited by Florián de Ocampo, Zamora, 1541; Los quatro libros primeros de la crónica general de España; Documentos de la época de Don Alfonso el Sabio, Real Academia de la historia, Madrid, 1851.

To _Alfonso X_, known as the Learned, Spanish language and literature owe an enormous debt. He was the first to take the Castilian tongue, as the official language, and he made use of it in his own writings. Numerous are the literary works which bear his name and were, some written by him, some compiled under his direction. The chief that concern us here are of two classes, historical and legislative. Of the former class the principal is the _Estoria de Espanna_ or _Crónica general_. There is a dispute as to how much of this was written by Alfonso himself. Some authorities credit him with the whole. It extends from the creation to Alfonso’s own accession and is based partly on older histories, partly on tradition and poetic legends of which it is a perfect storehouse. Of the _Siete

## Partidas_, which belong to the second class and were called

by Alfonso _El Setenario_, Ticknor says that they “do not always read like a collection of statutes.... They often seem rather to be a series of treatises on legislation, morals, and religion divided with great formality into Parts, Titles, and Laws.”

=Al Makkari=, Analectos de la historia literaria y política de los árabes de España, Leipsic, 1855-1858, 4 vols.; History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain, translated, with notes by Pascual de Gayangos, London, 1840-1843, 2 vols.

_Abul-Abbas Ahmad ibn Mohammed Al Makkari_, the Arab historian, was born about 1585 at Tlemcen in Algeria. About 1620 he settled at Cairo, having been exiled from his own country,--why is not known. His history was undertaken in response to a request from his friends at Damascus who had been deeply interested by the oral descriptions of the doings of the Spanish Arabs with which he had entertained them when on a visit to Damascus in 1628. He died in 1631.

=Altamira y Crevea=, R., Historia de España y de la civilización española, Barcelona, 1900-1902. The two volumes thus far completed extend to 1479.--=Amicis=, E. de, Spain, New York, 1881.--=Anghiera=, Pietro Martire d’, Opus epistolarum, Alcalá, 1530, Strasburg, 1891.--=Annales Complutenses=, in Flórez’s España Sagrada.

_Annales Complutenses._ The word Complutenses is derived from Complutum, the Roman name for Alcalá de Henares. The anonymous writer of this brief historical summary wrote in the twelfth century.

=Annales Toledanos=, in Flórez’s España Sagrada.

_Annales Toledanos._ The author of the early portion of these annals of Toledo lived in the thirteenth century.

=Antonio=, N., Bibliotheca Hispana nova, 1500-1684, Madrid, 1783-1788, 2 vols.; Biblioteca Hispana vetus, Madrid, 1788, 2 vols.

_Nicolás Antonio_ was born at Seville in 1617, and educated there and at the university of Salamanca. He afterwards returned to Seville where he drew on the treasures of the library of the monastery of San Benito in the composition of his _Bibliotheca Hispana_ which forms a literary history, the first part of which extends to 1500, the second (which appeared in 1672) to 1670. In 1654 Philip IV sent Antonio to Rome as his general agent. He afterwards filled the office of agent to the Spanish Inquisition. He died in 1684.

=Armstrong=, E., Elisabeth Farnese, “the termagant of Spain,” London, 1892.--=Aschbach=, J., Geschichte der Westgoten, Frankfort, 1827; Geschichte der Ommaïjaden in Spanien, Vienna, 1860, 2 vols.; Geschichte Spaniens und Portugals zur Zeit der Almoraviden und Almohaden, Frankfort, 1833-1837, 2 vols.--=Aulnoy=, M. C. J. de B. d’, Relation du voyage d’Espagne, Paris, 1690; reprint as La cour et la ville de Madrid à la fin du 17ᵉ siècle, Paris, 1876, 2 vols.--=Avila=, G. G. de, Historia de Salamanca, Salamanca, 1606; Historia de la vida y hechos del rey Don Henrique III de Castilla, Madrid, 1638; Teatro eclesiastico de la primitiva iglesia de las Indias Occidentales, Madrid, 1649-1656, 2 vols.; Historia de la vida y hechos del monarca Don Felipe III, in Mendoza’s Monarquía de España, Madrid, 1770.--=Avila y Zuñiga=, Luis de, Comentario de la guerra de Alemaña hecha por Carlos V en 1546 y 1547, Madrid, 1548, 1852.--=Ayala=, P. López de, Crónicas de los reyes de Castilla, Don Pedro, Don Enrique II, Don Juan I, Don Enrique III, Madrid, 1781, 2 vols.; in Biblioteca de autores Españoles, Madrid, 1875.

_Pedro López de Ayala_, celebrated as knight, poet, and historian, was born in 1332, and died in 1407. He entered the service of Pedro the Cruel of Castile and sided with the king in the latter’s earlier struggles with his revolted brothers and nobles, distinguishing himself chiefly by his exploits on the sea. When King Pedro was driven out by his brother Henry of Trastamara, Ayala joined Henry. He was taken prisoner by the English at Navarrete, but afterwards ransomed. Under Henry II and Juan II he filled important offices. At the Battle of Aljubarrota he was captured by the Portuguese and released only on payment of an enormous ransom. Translations from Isidore of Seville, Boccaccio, Titus Livius, etc., are among his writings as well as a treatise on the duties of kings and nobles, called _El Rimado de Palacio_, but the chief of his works is the _Crónicas_. This is written with elegance and simplicity of style and much skill in delineation of character. He is accused of unduly blackening the character of King Pedro.

* * * * *

=Bacallar y Sanna=, Marques de San Felipe, Vicente, Comentarios de la guerra de España hasta el Año 1725, Genoa, 2 vols.

_Vicente Bacallar y Sanna_ was a Spaniard born in Sardinia about 1660. Under Charles II he held various diplomatic posts. In the war of the Spanish Succession he sided with Philip V and was created Marquis of San Felipe by that monarch. Besides his history of the war of succession he left a history of the Jewish monarchy.

=Bakhuyzen van den Brink=, R. C., Analyse d’un manuscrit contemporain sur la retraite de Charles Quint, The Hague, 1842.--=Baronius=, C., Annales ecclesiastici, Antwerp, 1601-1605, 12 vols.

_Cæsar Baronius_, the great ecclesiastical historian, was born in the kingdom of Naples in 1538, and died at Rome, 1607. His _Annales Ecclesiastici_ were written as an answer on behalf of the Church of Rome to the Protestant history called the _Magdeburg Centuries_. Baronius became a cardinal in 1596 and subsequently librarian of the Vatican.

=Baumgarten=, Hermann, Geschichte Spaniens zur Zeit der französischen Revolution, Berlin, 1851; Geschichte Spaniens vom Ausbruch der französischen Revolution, Leipsic, 1865-1871, 3 vols.; Geschichte Karls V, Stuttgart, 1885-1892.

_Hermann Baumgarten_ was born at Lesse in Brunswick in 1825, and between the years 1842 and 1848 studied philology and history at no less than five universities, namely Jena, Halle, Leipsic, Bonn, and Göttingen. He then became a teacher in the gymnasium at Brunswick, and from 1850-1852 was editor of the _Reichszeitung_ in that city. But in 1852 he resumed his historical studies at Heidelberg and subsequently at Munich. Here he was associated with the starting of the _Süddeutschen Zeitung_. In 1861 he became professor of history and literature at the Karlsruhe Polytechnicum and in 1872 in the university of Strasburg. His works include various political writings, but those on Spanish history here cited are his chief title to fame.

=Baumgartner=, A., “Der Cid in der Geschichte,” in Stimmen aus Maria Laach, Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1898.

_Alexander Baumgartner_ was the son of the celebrated statesman and savant, Andreas Baumgartner. In 1860 he entered the Order of Jesuits and subsequently taught in their colleges at Feldkirch and Stonyhurst. After the abolition of the order he retired to Holland and devoted himself to literature, becoming part editor of the periodical, Stimmen aus Maria Laach.

=Baudier=, M., Vie de Ximènes, Paris, 1635.--=Baudrillart=, A., Philippe V et la cour de France, Paris, 1890, 2 vols.--=Beccatini=, Storia del regno di Carlo III, Venice, 1796.--=Benavides=, Memorias del rey Ferdinand IV de Castilla, Madrid, 1860, 2 vols.--=Bergenroth=, G., and =de Gayangos= (P.), Calendar of State Papers, relating to negotiations between England and Spain, 1485-1543, London, 1862-1895, 6 vols.--=Bermejo=, I. A., Historia anecdotica y secreta de la Corte de Carlos IV, Madrid [1894-1895], 2 vols.--=Bermudez de Castro=, S., Antonio Perez, Madrid, 1842.--=Bernáldez=, A., Historia de los reyes católicos Fernando y Doña Isabel in Bibliofilos Andaluces, Seville, 1870, 2 vols.

_Andrés Bernáldez_, known as “the Curate of Los Palacios,” lived in the last half of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth century, and was _Cura_ of the town of Los Palacios from 1488-1513, and afterwards chaplain to Archbishop Diego de Deza. He was present at many of the scenes he describes and acquainted with many of the great men of his day, including Columbus. He shows considerable knowledge of foreign affairs, and gives many details not reported by his contemporaries.

=Bersani=, Storia del Cardenale Alberoni, Piacenza, 1872.--=Berwick=, duke of, Mémoires, Paris, 1778.--=Biblioteca= de autores españoles, Madrid, 1846, etc.--=Blaquière=, E., Historical Review of the Spanish Revolution, London, 1822.--=Bleda=, J., Crónica de los moros de España, Valencia, 1618, 2 vols.

_Jaime Bleda_ (1550-1622) was the _cura_ of a town which contained many Moriscos to whom he was vehemently opposed. It was he who, in conjunction with the archbishop of Valencia, persuaded Philip III to issue the decree of 1609, ordering the Moriscos to leave Spanish territory.

=Bofarull=, A. de, Historia crítica de Cataluña, Barcelona, 1876-1879, 9 vols.--=Bollaert=, W., Wars of Succession of Portugal and Spain from 1826 to 1840, London, 1870, 2 vols.--=Borrego=, A., Anales del reinado de Isabel II; Historia de las cortes de España durante el siglo XIX, Madrid, 1885.

_Andrés Borrego_, born in 1801, was minister of finance in Spain in 1840. He was one of those who supported the idea of a union between Spain and Portugal. Besides the books here mentioned, he wrote works on political economy.

=Briz Martínez=, J., Historia de los reyes de Sobrarbe, Aragon y Navarra.--=Burgos=, F. J. de, Anales del reinado de Doña Isabel II, 1850-1852, 6 vols.

_Francisco Javier de Burgos_, born 1778, died 1849, was a Spanish politician distinguished as a writer in the two opposite fields of poetry and economics. Being expelled from his seat in the upper house on a charge afterwards disproved, he devoted himself to the composition of a history of the reign under which he had held office.

=Burke=, U. R., History of Spain till the death of Ferdinand the Catholic, London, 1895, 2 vols.--=Buron=, R., Compendio de la historia crítica de la inquisición de España, Paris, 1823, 2 vols.--=Busk=, M. M., The History of Spain and Portugal, London, 1833.

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=Cabrera de Córdoba=, L., Relaciones de las cosas suredidas en la corte de España desde 1599 hasta 1614, 1857; Felipe Segundo, Madrid, 1619, 1876-1878, 4 vols.--=Calderon de la Barca=, F. E. J., The Attaché in Madrid, or, Sketches of the Court of Isabella II (trans. from the German), New York, 1856.--=Calvo Marcos=, M., Regimen parlementario de España en el Siglo 19, Madrid, 1883.--=Camden=, T., History of the War in Spain and Portugal, 1814.--=Campana=, C., Vida de Don Filippo (II) 1605.--=Campos=, J. de, Le Siege de Bilbao par l’armée carliste en 1874, Paris, 1876.--=Cánovas del Castillo=, A., Historia de la decadencia de España desde el advenimiento al trono de Don Felipe III hasta la muerte de Carlos II; Discurso. La dominación de los españoles en Italia, 1860; Estudios del reinado de Felipe IV, 1880-1890, 2 vols.; Historia General de España, Escrita por individuos de la Real Academia de la historia bajo la dirección de, Madrid, 1890. Completion retarded by the death of Cánovas.

The statesman, _Antonio Cánovas del Castillo_, was born in Malaga in 1828 and was the son of a professor in the naval college of San Telmo. He was not eighteen when he attempted to start a periodical called _la Jóven Malaga_, but it failed and he had to accept a small post on the Madrid Aranjuez railway. But he soon turned again to journalism and published his first and chief historical work. Cánovas is credited with a considerable share in a periodical called _El Murciélago_, of which only a few numbers appeared, but in which the most violent attacks were directed against various prominent persons not excluding royalty. Cánovas was credited with a considerable share in this as well as with the authorship of the manifesto of Manzanares (1854). He now entered the cortes and filled various offices of state in succession. He held aloof from the revolution of 1868 and during the reign of King Amadeo, though he made a brilliant speech in defence of the exiled sovereigns; but after Amadeo’s retirement he was chiefly instrumental in bringing about the return of Alfonso XII, during most of whose reign he was premier. He again held office from 1890-1893, and in 1895, when he devoted his attention to the severe repression of the Cuban insurrection. In the midst of the struggle he was murdered by an anarchist (August, 1897).

=Capefigue=, B. H. R., Isabelle de Castille, 1869.--=Carbajal=, L. G. de, Historia de España M. S.; Anales del rey Don Fernando el Católico.--=Carvajal=, La España de los Bórbones, 1844, 4 vols.--=Casado=, F. S., Historia de España.--=Casas=, B. de las, Historia general de las Indias, Madrid, 1875-1876; Brevissima relación de la destrucción de las Indias, Seville, 1552, in Colección de documentos inéditos, vol. 7, Madrid, 1879.

_Bartolomé de las Casas_ or _Casaus_ was of French descent. His father, Francisco Casaus, was in Hispaniola with Columbus in 1493, and returned to Seville with a fortune in 1500. In the same year Bartolomé, who had been born in 1474, went to Salamanca, where he studied jurisprudence. He then went to Hispaniola with the governor, Nicolás Ovando, and in 1510 took holy orders. In 1515 he returned to Spain to protest against the ill treatment of the natives of the West Indies by the Spaniards. Through the influence of Cardinal Ximenes he obtained the nomination of special commissioners to inquire into the abuses of authority. He was himself appointed to act as their adviser. The colonists proved too powerful and the mission failed in its object. Las Casas, expelled from Hispaniola, returned to Spain. After some difficulty he obtained the acceptance of his suggestions for improving the government of the West Indies, the chief of which was the unfortunate one of the substitution of negro for native labour. He returned to America and this time succeeded in obtaining better treatment for the Indians, who were finally declared free by a royal edict of 1543. He died at Madrid in 1569.

=Casiri=, M., Bibliotheca arabigo-hispana escurialensis, Madrid, 1750-1770, 2 vols.

_Michael Casiri_ was born in Tripoli, Syria, in 1710. By birth he was a Syro-Maronite and his life was chiefly devoted to oriental studies though in 1734 he took holy orders. In 1749 he was appointed librarian of the Escorial. His _Bibliotheca_ consists of extracts from and articles on the Arabian documents in the library of the Escorial.

=Castelar=, E., Historia del año 1883, Madrid, 1884; Discursos Parlamentarios, Madrid, 1885, 4 vols.

_Emilio Castelar y Ripoll_, celebrated as orator, writer, and statesman, was born at Cadiz in 1832. He took his degree of doctor of philosophy in his twenty-second year. He was editor of various newspapers in succession and an eloquent exponent of republican ideas which he continued to be after succeeding to the chair of Spanish History in the Universidad Central (1858), till the government forced him to resign. He shared in the revolution of 1866 and was consequently condemned to death. He escaped to Paris, where he remained till the revolution of 1868 made possible his return to Madrid, when he became one of the leaders of the republican party and headed the opposition during the reign of King Amadeo, on whose resignation Castelar attained the chief power under the republic. He governed ably, but his republicanism became suspected, and early in 1874 he was overthrown by a vote of want of confidence. He retired for a time to Paris, but soon returned to Spain and resumed his political career as deputy to the cortes. His numerous works include novels and speeches on various political questions.

=Castillo=, D. Enriquez de, Crónica del rey Don Henrique el Quarto, Madrid, 1787.--=Castro=, A. Gómez de, De rebus gestis Francisci Jimenii.--=Castro y Rossi=, A. de, El conde duque de Olivares y el rey Felipe IV, Cadiz and Madrid, 1846; Historia de los judíos en España, Cadiz and Madrid, 1847; Historia de los protestantes Españoles, Cadiz and Madrid, 1851; Exámen filosófico sobre la decadencia de España. Cadiz and Madrid, 1852.--=Cavanilles y Centi=, A. C., Historia de España (to the reign of Philip II), Madrid, 1860-1864, 5 vols.--=Cespedes y Meneses=, G. de, Historia de Don Felipe III, Lisbon, 1631.--=Cevallos=, P., Exposición de los hechos y maquinaciones que han preparado la usurpación de la corona de España, Madrid, 1808; History of the practices and machinations which led to the usurpation of the crown of Spain, London, 1808.--=Chaby=, C. de, Excerptos historicos e collecçào de documentos relativos á guerra denomenada da peninsula, Lisbon, 1863.--=Châteaubriand=, F. R. A. de, Guerre d’Espagne de 1823, Paris, 1838; Le Congrès de Vérone, Paris, 1838, 2 vols--=Cherbuliez=, V. C., L’Espagne politique, Paris, 1874.--=Chronica Albeldensis= in Flórez’s España Sagrada.

_Chronicon Albeldensis._ This is the work of two authors; the first, an anonymous monk of Albelda, wrote in the ninth century. His portion extends from the foundation of Rome to the reign of Alfonso III. The second author was the monk Vigila, of the same monastery, who coming a century later continued the narrative down to the year 976. He is the earliest authority for the history of Navarre.

=Chronicon Conimbricense= in Flórez’s España Sagrada.--=Chronicon Moissacense.=--=Churton=, E., Góngora, an historical and critical essay on the times of Philip III and Philip IV, London, 1862, 2 vols.--=Circourt=, A. M. J. E., Histoire des Mores Madejares et des Moresques, ou des Arabes d’Espagne sous la domination des chrétiens, Paris, 1845-1848, 3 vols.--=Clarke=, Letters concerning the state of Spain, London, 1763.--=Clarke=, H. B., The Cid Campeador and the Waning of the Crescent in the West, New York, 1897, in Heroes of the Nations.--=Clemencin=, D., Elogio de la reina católica Doña Isabella, in Mem. Academia, 1821.--=Clinton=, H. R., The War in the Peninsula, London, 1878.--=Colección= de documentos inéditos para la historia de España por M. Fernandez Navarrete, et al., Madrid, 1842-1895, 112 vols.; vol. 30 contains an index of the volumes preceding.--=Colección= de documentos inéditos relativos al descubrimiento, conquista y colonizacion de las antiguas posesiones españolas de America y Oceanía, Madrid, 1864-1890, first series, 42 vols. Also Colección de documentos inéditos relativos al descubrimiento, conquista y organizacion de las antiguas posesiones españoles de Ultramar. Second series published by the Royal Academy of History, Madrid, 1885-1900, 13 vols.--=Colección= de libros españoles raros y curiosos, Madrid, 1871-1892.--=Colección= legislativa de España, Madrid, 1816 (in progress), 330 vols.--=Colmeiro=, M., Reyes cristianos desde Alfonso VI hasta Alfonso XI, Madrid, 1893.--=Colmenares=, D. de, Historia de Segovia y compendio de la historia de Castilla, Segovia, 1637-1847.--=Condé=, J. A., Historia de la dominación de los Arabes en España, Madrid, 1820-1821, 3 vols.; English translation by Mrs. J. Foster, London, 1860, 3 vols.; History of the Dominion of the Arabs in Spain, London, 1854, 3 vols.

_José Antonio Condé_ (1765-1820), was at one time regarded as the great authority on the history of the Spanish Arabs. He was educated at the University of Salamanca, a member of various learned societies, and for long _conservador_ of the Escorial library. In 1814 he was exiled for political reasons and he died in great poverty. Modern students of the history of the Spanish Arabs have convicted Condé of many errors and faults of judgment, but it is acknowledged that he was a laborious scholar.

=Coppée=, H., History of the Conquest of Spain by the Arab Moors, Boston, 1881, 2 vols.--=Cos-Gayon=, F., Historia de la administración pública de España, Madrid, 1851.--=Coxe=, W., Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon, London, 1815, 5 vols.--=Crónica= de Don Alvaro de Luna, Milan, 1546, Madrid, 1784.--=Crónica= del rey Don Rodrigo, Alcalá, 1587.--=Curry=, J. L. M., Constitutional Government in Spain, New York, 1889.--=Cushing=, Caleb, Reminiscences of Spain, 1833, 2 vols.--=Custine=, M. de, L’Espagne sous Ferdinand VII, Paris, 1838, 4 vols.

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=Dahn=, F., Die Könige der Germanen, Würzburg and Leipsic, 1861-1895.--=Danvila y Collado=, M., Historia del Reinado de Carlos III, Madrid, 1893-1896, 6 vols.--=Daumet=, G., Étude sur l’alliance de la France et de la Castille au XIVᵉ et au XVᵉ siècles, Paris, 1898.--=De Labra=, R. M., Historia de las relaciones internacionales de España, Madrid, 1897; La Crisis colonial en España, Madrid, 1902.--=De la Escosura y Hevia=, A., Inicio crítico del feudalismo en España, Madrid, 1856.--=Del Cantillo=, A., Tratados, convenios y declaraciones de paz y de comercio que han hecho cen las potencias extranjeras los monarcos españoles de la Casa de Bourbon, 1700-1842, Madrid, 1843.--=Desclot=, B., Crónica del rey En Pere in Chroniques étrangères relatives aux expéditions françaises pendant le XIIIᵉ siècle, Orléans, 1876.

_Bernardo Desclot_, one of the greatest of Catalan historians, lived in the reigns of James I and Pedro III of Aragon. Little is known of his life. He wrote the story of the events of his own day in the Catalan language, and prefixed the narrative by a short account of the counts of Barcelona and kings of Aragon preceding James I.

=Desdevises du Degert=, G., L’Espagne de l’ancien régime, Paris, 1897 (in progress, 2 vols. already published).--=Desormeaux=, J. L. R., Abrégé chronologique de l’histoire d’Espagne et de Portugal, 1758, 5 vols.--=Diercks=, G., Geschichte Spaniens, Berlin, 1895-1896, 2 vols.--=Dillon=, J. T., History of the Reign of Pedro the Cruel, 1788, 2 vols.--=Dochez=, and Paquis, A., Histoire d’Espagne et de Portugal, Paris, 1844-1848, 2 vols.--=Dormer=, D. J., Progresos de la historia en Aragon, Saragossa, 1680.--=Dozy=, R. P., Recherches sur l’histoire et la littérature de l’Espagne, Leyden, 1845, 1860, 1881, 2 vols.; Le Cid d’après de nouveaux documents, 1860; Histoire des Musulmans d’Espagne jusqu’à la conquête de l’Andalousie par les Almoravides, Leyden, 1861, 4 vols.

_Reinhart Dozy_, an eminent Dutch orientalist of French extraction was born in Leyden in 1820 and died there in 1883. He was an extraordinary linguist and wrote almost equally well in every European language beside being deeply versed in most of the Semitic languages but especially the Arabic. In 1850 he became professor in the University of Leyden. He was the first to shake the high reputation of the historian Condé by pointing out his numerous errors. Dozy’s historical investigations were made in the archives of various countries, especially of course in Spain. He edited a number of the works of Arab writers with commentaries and glossaries and published a dictionary of the names of Arab garments.

=Ducasse=, Mémoires et correspondance politique du roi Joseph, Paris, 1853-1855, 10 vols.--=Du Hamel=, V., Historia constitucional de la monarquía española, translated from the French by B. A. y Espinosa, Madrid, 1848, 2 vols.--=Duncan=, F., The English in Spain; or, the Story of the War of Succession between 1834-1840, London, 1877.--=Dunham=, S. A., History of Spain and Portugal, London, 1832, 5 vols.--=Dunlop=, J., Memoirs of Spain during the reigns of Philip IV and Charles II, Edinburgh, 1834, 2 vols.--=Duran=, A., Romancero General, Madrid, 1857-1861.--=Duro=, C. F., La armada invincible, Madrid, 1884-1885, 2 vols.

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=Eckstein=, F., Espagne, considérations sur son passé, son présent, son avenir, 1836.--Elliot, F. M., Old Court Life in Spain, London, 1893, 2 vols.; La España del siglo XIX, Madrid, 1885-1887, 3 vols. A series of historical lectures delivered in the Atheneum of Madrid.--=Everhard Nidart=, P. J., Varias obras correspondientes á la regencia de la reina Doña Maria Ana de Neoburg; sucesos de Don Juan de Austria (in Semanario Erudito), 1788.

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=Fabricius=, A. K., La première invasion des Normands dans l’Espagne Musulmane en 814, Lisbon, 1892.--=Fernald=, J. C., The Spaniard in History, New York, 1898.--=Fernan-Nuñez=, Condé de, Vida de Carlos III, published by A. Morel-Fatio and A. Paz y Melia, Madrid, 1898, 2 vols.--=Ferrer del Rio=, A., Exámen histórico crítico del reinado de Don Pedro de Castilla, 1850; Historia del reinado de Carlos III de España, Madrid, 1856, 4 vols.--=Ferreras=, J. de, Synopsis histórica cronológica de España, Madrid, 1775-1781, 17 vols.--=Field=, H. M., Old Spain and New Spain, London, 1888.--=Flórez=, Enrique, Memorias de las reynas católicas, historia genealógica de la casa real de Castilla y de Leon, Madrid, 1761, 1790, 2 vols.; España Sagrada teatro geográfico-histórico de la iglesia de España, Madrid, 1747, 51 vols.; Llave historial, Madrid, 1743, 1790; España carpetana, Medallas de las colonias, municipios y pueblos antiguos de España, Madrid, 1757.

_El Padre Enrique Flórez_, historian, archæologist, theologian, and numismatist, was born at Valladolid in 1701, and entered the order of St. Augustine in his fifteenth year. His _España Sagrada_ is the work most usefully consulted in studying the history and antiquities of Spain, containing, as it does, so many documents, notices and illustrations bearing on the subject, and greatly valued for the high critical faculty and scrupulous care exhibited by its author. Flórez left also works on theology and a treatise on botany and the natural sciences. He was corresponding member of the French Academy of inscriptions and _belles-lettres_, and enjoyed the friendship of many prominent men of his age. He died in 1773.

=Forneron=, Histoire de Philippe II, Paris, 1881-1882, 4 vols.--=Forster=, J., Chronicle of James I, translated from the Catalan, London, 1883, 2 vols.--=Foulché-Delbosc=, R., Bibliographie des voyages en Espagne et en Portugal, Paris, 1896.--=Foy=, M. S., Histoire de la guerre de la péninsule sous Napoléon, Paris, 1827, 4 vols.--=Froissart=, John, Chroniques de France, d’Angleterre, d’Écosse, d’Espagne, de Bretagne, Paris, 1869-1888, 8 vols. (trans. T. Johnes, London, 1857, 2 vols.).--=Froude=, J. A., The Spanish Story of the Armada, 1892.

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=Gachard=, L. P., Correspondance de Philippe II sur les affaires des Pays-Bas, Brussels, 1848-1879, 5 vols.; Retraite et mort de Charles Quint, 1854-1855; Don Carlos et Philippe II, Brussels, 1863, 1867, 2 vols.; Relations des Ambassadeurs Vénitiens sur Charles V et Philippe II.

_Louis Prosper Gachard_, the Belgian historian, born at Paris in 1800, died at Brussels, 1885, was keeper of the Belgian archives, to which appointment he succeeded in 1826. Besides putting in order the existing archives he greatly added to the documents contained in them and caused researches to be made throughout Europe for papers which might throw light on Belgian history. His works are valued both for their impartial historical spirit and their literary style as well as for the fresh light they throw on the periods with which they deal.

=Gallenga=, A., Iberian Reminiscences, 1883, 2 vols.--=Garcia=, J. C., Castilla y Leon durante los reinados de Pedro I, Enrique II, Juan I, Enrique III, Madrid, 1891.--=Gardiner=, S. R., Narrative of the Spanish Marriage Treaty, Spanish and English, London, 1859; Prince Charles and the Spanish Marriage, 1617-1623, London, 1869, 2 vols.--=Garibay y Zamálloa=, E., Los quarenta libros del compendio historial de las chrónicas y universal historia de España, Antwerp, 1571, Barcelona, 1628, 4 vols.

_Esteban de Garibay y Zamálloa_ (1525-1599) was appointed by Philip II as chronicler of his reign. He was a laborious collector of historical information, who, though extremely credulous, served to some extent as a model to Mariana and other historians.

=Gayangos=, P. de, History of the Mohammedan dynasties in Spain, London, 1840, 2 vols.; Historia de los reyes de Granada, Paris, 1842; Cartas del Cardinal Cisneros, Madrid, 1867; Cartas y relaciones de Hernan Cortes al emperador Carlos V, Paris, 1870.--=Gebhardt=, Historia general de España, Barcelona, 1897, 7 vols.--=Geddes=, M., Wars of the Commons of Castile in the reign of Charles V, 1730.--=George=, A., Memoirs of the Queens of Spain, London, 1850.--=Gibbon=, E., Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, London, 1853.--Giovio, P., Historia sui temporis 1494-1547, Florence, 1548, 2 vols.--=Godoy=, M., Mémoires, Paris, 1839-1841, 6 vols.; partial translation, London, 1836, 2 vols.--=Gómez de Arteche= y Moro, J., Guerra de la independencia 1808-1814, Madrid, 1868-1883, 5 vols.; Historia del Reinado de Carlos IV, Madrid, 1893.

General _José Gómez de Arteche y Moro_ was born at Madrid in 1821 and entered the artillery in 1840. He took an active part in the events of July, 1856, siding with O’Donnell. He was under-secretary in the ministry of war in 1865 and 1868, and in 1878 became aide-de-camp to Alfonso XII. In 1885 he was elected senator for Guipuzcoa.

=Gonsalez=, T., Apuntamientos para la historia del rey Don Felipe Segundo por lo tocante á sus relaciones con la rein a Isabel de Inglaterra.--=Grabinski=, J. de, Amédée de Savoie, duc d’Aoste, roi d’Espagne.--=Graetz=, H., Geschichte der Juden, Berlin and Leipsic, 1853-1870, 11 vols.; 1888-1889, 3 vols.--=Granvella=, Cardinal A. P., Papiers d’état du Cardinal Granvella in Collection des documents inédits sur l’histoire de France, Paris, 1841-1861, 9 vols.; Correspondance du Cardinal Granvella, 1565-1586, Brussels, 1878-1892, 9 vols.--=Guardia=, J. M., La cour de Rome et l’église d’Espagne.--=Guerra=, Caida y ruina del imperio visigótico, Madrid, 1883.--=Guizot=, F. P. G., Un projet de mariage royal, 1863.--=Guzman=, F. Perez de, Crónica del serenissimo principe, Don Juan II, Logroño, 1517, Valencia, 1779.

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=Häbler=, Die wirtschaftliche Blüte Spaniens im 16. Jahrhundert, Berlin, 1888.--=Hale=, E. E. and S., The Story of Spain in Story of the Nations, New York, 1891.--=Harcourt=, Henri duc d’, Avènement des Bourbons au trône d’Espagne, Paris, 1875, 2 vols.--=Hare=, A., Wanderings in Spain, London, 1873.--=Havemann=, W., Darstellungen aus der innern Geschichte Spaniens während des 15., 16., und 17. Jahrhunderts, Göttingen, 1850; Das Leben des Don Juan d’Austria, Gotha, 1865.--=Hefele=, K. J., Der Kardinal Ximenes und die kirchlichen Zustände Spaniens am Ende des 15. Jahrhunderts, Tübingen, 1851.--=Henningsen=, C. F., The most striking events of a twelvemonth’s Campaign with Zumalacarregui, Philadelphia, 1836, 2 vols.--=Herrera y Tordesillas=, A. de, Historia general del mundo del tiempo del Señor Rey Don Felipe II, Madrid, 1601-1612, 3 vols.; Historia general de los hechos de los Castellanos en las islas y tierra firme del mar océano, Madrid, 1601-1615, 1728, 4 vols.; Tratado relación y discurso histórico de los movimientos de Aragon.

_Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas_ lived from 1559 to 1625. He studied in Spain and Italy, where he attracted the attention of Vespasiano di Gonzaga, who being appointed viceroy of Navarre and Valencia, made Herrera his private secretary and afterwards recommended him to Philip II, with the result that Herrera was appointed chief chronicler for America and a chronicler for Castile. He fulfilled these offices during the reigns of the three Philips and acquired a European reputation for capacity and exactitude. The second of the works above mentioned is the chief of many. Part of it is merely a condensation of that of Las Casas, but for the events of his own time he is a most valuable authority, and he had the advantage of access to documents of all kinds.

=Hidalgo=, D., Diccionario general de bibliografía española, Madrid, 1864-1879, 6 vols.--=Hill=, C., Story of the Princess des Ursins (Orsini) in Spain, New York, 1899.--=Hinojosa=, Eduardo de, Historia de los Visigodos.--=Höfler=, Kaiser Karls (V) erstes Auftreten in Spanien, Vienna, 1874.--=Houghton=, A., Les Origines de la Restoration des Bourbons en Espagne.--=Howard=, O. O., Isabella of Castile, New York, 1894.--=Hubbard=, N. G., Histoire contemporaine de l’Espagne, Paris, 1869-1883, 6 vols.--=Huber=, V. A., Die Geschichte des Cid, Bremen, 1829; Chrónica del Cid, Marburg, 1844.--=Huegel=, C. W., Spanien und die Revolution, 1821.--=Huerta=, F. M., Sobre qual de los reyes godos fué y debe contarse primero de las de su nación en España in Academia de la historia, Memorias, 1796.--=Hughes=, T. M., Revelations of Spain in 1845, London, 1845, 2 vols.--=Hume=, M. A. S., Philip II of Spain, London, 1845, 2 vols.; Spain, its Greatness and Decay, Cambridge, 1897; Modern Spain, 1788-1898, London and New York, 1899, in Story of the Nations; The Spanish People, their Origin, Growth, and Influence, New York, 1901.--=Hurtado de Mendoza=, D., see Mendoza, D. Hurtado de.

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=Ibn Bassam=, Zakira, Tesoro ó cualidades de los habitantes de la península.--=Idatius=, Chronicum (379 A.D.-469 A.D.) in the Chronica Medii Aevi of Rösler, Tübingen, 1798.

The chronicle of _Idatius_ belongs to the fifth century. Its author was a bishop of Chaves in Portugal, and a native of Lamego, where he was born towards the close of the fourth century. The work is brief, but supplies information not to be found elsewhere.

=Irving=, W., Conquest of Granada, New York, 1850, 1880; Companions of Columbus, New York, 1880.--=Isidorus Hispalensis=, Historia Gotorum, Vandalorum et Suevorum, Madrid, 1599, in S. Isidori Hispalensis episcopi opera omnia, Rome, 1797-1803, 7 vols.

_Isidorus Hispalensis_ or _Saint Isidore_ of Seville was the son of a wealthy citizen of Cartagena, where he was born about 570 A.D. His brother, St. Leander, Archbishop of Seville, bestowed great pains on his education, but becoming jealous of his remarkable learning shut him up in a monastery. On Leander’s death Isidore became bishop of Seville. He was regarded as the glory of his age for learning, and left numerous works which, besides the _Historia_ and numerous ecclesiastical writings, include a kind of general encyclopædia of the science of the period, known as the _Origines_.

=Isidorus Pacensis=, Chronicon, in Flórez’s España Sagrada.

_Isidor Pacensis_ was bishop of Pax Julia, whence his surname of Pacensis. Pax Julia is identified with the Portuguese town of Beja. The prelate wrote in the eighth century. The names of three of his works have come down to us, but one of them only is extant and is a _chronicon_ extending to the year 754 A.D.

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=Janer=, F., Condición social de los Moriscoes de España causas de su expulsion y consecuencias que en el órden económico esta produjo, in Academia de la Historia, Madrid, 1857.--=Jiménez de Rada=, R., see Ximenes Toletanus, Rodericus.--=Joannes= Biclarensis, Chronicon, in Flórez’s España Sagrada.

_Joannes Biclarensis_ lived in the last half of the sixth century. His birthplace was Santarem, but he derived his surname from the Latin form of Valclara (in Catalonia), of which he was abbot. He afterwards became bishop of Gerona. His _Chronicon_ continues that of Idatius down to the year 590.

=Jones=, Sir J. T., Journals of sieges carried on under the Duke of Wellington in Spain, London, 1846, 3 vols.--=Jordanes=, De Origine Gothorum, Augsburg, 1515, Venice, 1729.--=Julian=, St., Historia Regis Wambæ in Flórez’s España Sagrada.--=Junta=, P. de, and J. B. Varesio (editors), Chrónica del famoso cavallero Cid Ruy Diez Campeador, 1593.

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=Kaemmel=, O., Illustrierte Weltgeschichte, Darmstadt, 1890, 10 vols.--=Kayserling=, M., Geschichte der Juden in Spanien und Portugal, Berlin, 1861-1867, 2 vols.

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=La Fuente=, V. de, Juana la loca vindicada de la nota de herejia.--=Lafuente y Alcantara=, M., Historia de Granada.--=Lafuente y Zamálloa=, M., Historia general de España, Madrid, 1795, 1854.

_Modesto Lafuente y Zamálloa_ (1806-1866) took his degree of bachelor of theology at the university of Valladolid in 1832, and afterwards successively filled chairs of philosophy, rhetoric, and theology. In 1837 he removed to Madrid, where he published a periodical entitled _Fray Gerundio_, through which he attacked existing abuses, advocated reforms, and set himself against the Carlist wars. This publication soon attained a wide circulation, and was continued till 1849, after which Lafuente turned his attention to his _Historia_. He subsequently became a deputy to the cortes for Astorga, and in 1860 member of the council of state. He was also a member of various academies.

=Landau=, M., Geschichte Kaiser Karls VI als König von Spanien, Stuttgart, 1889.--=Lane-Poole=, S., and =A. Gilman=, The Story of the Moors in Spain (Story of the Nations), New York, 1891.--=Las Casas=, see Casas.--=Lathbury=, T., The Spanish Armada, London, 1840.--=Latimer=, E. W., Spain in the Nineteenth Century, Chicago, 1897.--=Latour=, A. T. de, L’Espagne religieuse et littéraire, Paris, 1862.--=Laughton=, J. K., State Papers relating to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada, London, 1894, 2 vols.--=Lauser=, W., Geschichte Spaniens vom Sturze Isabellas bis zur Thronbesteigung Alfonsos, Leipsic, 1877, 2 vols.--=Lavigne=, G. de L’Espagne et le Portugal, 1855.--=Lawrence=, E., Dominic, and the Inquisition, in Historical Studies, New York, 1873.--=Lea=, H. C., Chapters from the religious history of Spain connected with the Inquisition, Philadelphia, 1890.--=Legrelle=, A., La diplomatie française et la succession d’Espagne, 1659-1725, Paris, 1888-1892, 4 vols.--=Lembke=, F. W., and =Schäfer=, H., Geschichte von Spanien, Gotha, 1831-1890, 5 vols.--=Lemos=, D. A., Historia general de Portugal, 1715-1789.--=Leopold=, Spaniens Bürgerkrieg, Hanover, 1876.--=Lezo del Pozo=, J., Apologia del rey Don Pedro de Castilla conforme á la Crónica de Ayala.--=Limborch=, P. van, Historia Inquisitions, Amsterdam, 1692; History of the Inquisition (abridged), London, 1816.

_Philip van Limborch_, a prominent Dutch theologian, was born in 1633 and died in 1712. He was professor of theology at the seminary of the remonstrants in Amsterdam. His _Historia_ consists of a record of sentences given by the Inquisition of Toulouse, and is preceded by an account of the origin and methods of the Inquisition.

=Llorente=, J. A., Opinion de l’Espagne sur l’inquisition, 1812; Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire de la révolution d’Espagne, Paris, 1817, 3 vols.; Histoire critique de l’inquisition d’Espagne, Paris, 1817-1818, 4 vols.; History of the Inquisition of Spain (abridged), London, 1827.

_Juan Antonio Llorente_, born 1756, was a Spanish priest who became general secretary to the inquisition in 1789. A scheme for the reform of that tribunal which he drew up was about to be executed when the fall of the liberal minister Jovellanos prevented its realisation. In the war with France Llorente sided with the Bonapartists and became a member of the council of state of King Joseph. On the abolition of the inquisition (1809) Llorente was commissioned to investigate its archives and write its history. Thus he had access to materials now no longer in existence. On the restoration of the Bourbons Llorente was banished, and it was while in exile at Paris that his celebrated _Histoire critique de l’Inquisition_ appeared in French and was soon translated into German, English, Dutch, Italian and Spanish. Its success was great, but it drew down a persecution of the author who on the publication of a book called _Portraits politiques des papes_ (1822) was ordered to quit France. He died from the effects of the hurried journey to Madrid.

=Londonderry, Marquis of=, see Stewart.--=Lorenzana, Cardinal=, Collectio Sanctorum Patrum ecclesiæ Toledanæ, Madrid, 1782-1793.--=Louville=, C. A. d’A., Mémoires secrets sur l’établissement de la maison de Bourbon en Espagne, 1818.--=Lowell=, J. R., Impressions of Spain.--=Lucas Tudensis=, Chronicon Mundi, in Schott’s Hispaniæ Illustratæ, Frankfort, 1608.

_Lucas de Tuy_, or _Lucas Tudensis_, was a Spanish prelate who died in 1288. His _Chronicon_, which was finished in 1236, was written by command of the great queen Berengaria. It consists of four books: the first contains the _Six Ages of the World_ of St. Isidore, with additions; the second, Isidore’s treatise on the origin of the Goths, Spaniards, and Suevi; the third, the spurious chronicle of San Ildefonso and St. Julian’s history. The fourth extends from the time of Pelayo to the conquest of Cordova. When the work was translated into Spanish, in the end of the thirteenth or beginning of the fourteenth century, a continuation extending to 1252 was added.

=Luna=, M. de, La verdadera historia del rey Don Rodrigo, Valencia, 1606.

_Miguel de Luna_ was a Morisco who embraced Catholicism and became interpreter to Philip II. His history purports to be a translation from an Arab chronicler of the eighth century, but was really based on old romances and has no authoritative value.

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=MacCrie=, T., History of the Progress and Suppression of the Reformation in Spain in the Sixteenth Century, 1829.--=Mahon, Lord=, see Stanhope, P. H.--=Maistre=, J. de, Lettres à un gentilhomme Russe sur l’inquisition espagnole, 1837.--=Maldonado=, J. M., Historia de la revolución de España, Madrid, 1833, 2 vols.--=Malo de Molina=, M., Rodrigo el Campeador, Estudio histórico, Madrid, 1857.--=Malvezzi=, V., Sucesos principals de la monarquía de España en el tiempo de Felipe IV, Madrid, 1640.--=Mariana=, Juan de, Historia general de España, Valencia, 1783-1796, 9 vols.; in Biblioteca de autores españoles, Madrid, 1854, published in various later editions; English translation by J. S. Stephens, London, 1699.

_Juan de Mariana_, one of the most famous of Spanish historians, was born near Talavera in 1536, and in 1554 became a member of the Society of Jesus. Two years later he went to Rome, where he filled a chair in the Jesuit college. After visiting Sicily and lecturing on theology at Paris during five years, he returned to Spain in 1574 and devoted himself to his _Historia de España_, which was first written in Latin and then translated by himself into the Castilian tongue. The variety of his talents and acquirements is exhibited in his writings on philosophy, politics, finance, and religion, and in the last mentioned the freedom of his opinions exposed him to some suspicion from his order, and he was even brought before the inquisition. His history has enjoyed immense popularity and is still much admired, though it is acknowledged that he often confuses fact and fable.

=Marineo=, Lucio, Obra de las cosas memorables de España, Alcalá, 1533.--=Marliani=, M. de, Histoire politique de l’Espagne moderne, Paris, 1840, 2 vols.--=Marmol Carvajal=, L. del, Historia del rebelión y castigo de los Moriscos del reyno de Granada, Madrid, 1600, and in Biblioteca de autores Españoles.

_Luis del Marmol Carvajal_ was a native of Granada who flourished in the sixteenth century. In 1535 he accompanied Charles V to Tunis. He was captured by the Moors, and both during and after his captivity made long journeys and voyages in and about Barbary and Egypt. His _Historia del rebelión_ is the narrative of an eye-witness, and the language is pure though the style suffers from the too great length of the sentences.

=Martínez de la Rosa=, F., Hernan Perez del Pulgar, Madrid, 1834.--=Martínez Marina=, F., Teoria de las Cortes de Leon y Castilla, Madrid, 1821, 3 vols.; Ensayo histórico-crítico sobre la antigua legislación y principales cuerpos legales de los reynos de Leon y Castilla, Madrid, 1834, 2 vols.--=Masdeu=, J. F., Historia crítica de España, Madrid, 1783-1805, 20 vols.

_Juan Francisco Masdeu_, a celebrated Spanish historian, was born in 1744 and died in 1817. Educated under the care of the Jesuits, he entered their order in 1759, and on their expulsion from Spain retired to Ferrara. His _Historia_ was commenced in 1781. It extends only down to the end of the eleventh century. It is a work of much learning and destroys many fables previously current, though in many instances the author carries his scepticism too far.

=Mas-La Trie=, J. M., Trésor de chronologie, d’histoire et de géographie, 1837.--=Mazade=, C. de, l’Espagne moderne, Paris, 1855; Les revolutions de l’Espagne contemporaine, 1868.--=Medina=, J. T., Historia del tribunal del Santo Oficio de la inquisición de Cartagena de las Indias, Santiago, 1899.--=Melo=, F. M., Historia de los movimientos separación y guerra de Cataluña en tiempo de Felipe IV, Lisbon, 1645, Paris, 1840.--=Mendoza=, D. Hurtado de, Guerra de Granada hecha por el rey Felipe II, Madrid, 1610, 1852.

_Diego Hurtado de Mendoza_ belonged to an illustrious Spanish family and was born in Granada about 1503. His earliest teacher was the celebrated Peter Martyr of Angleria (Pietro Martire d’Anghiera). He served in the Italian wars and was employed by Charles V in various important diplomatic missions. Having displeased Philip II he was compelled to retire to Granada. He was already pre-eminent for his learning and had taken advantage of his position as ambassador to the Grand Turk to make a valuable collection of manuscripts which he presented to Philip II for the Escorial library. When no longer permitted to engage in affairs of state he devoted himself to literary works which include poems and translations from Aristotle. For collecting information for his _Guerra de Granada_ he had the advantage of residence on the spot and a knowledge of the inner workings of the government. The book also ranks high for its literary style.

=Menéndez y Pelayo=, M., Historia de los Heterodoxos españoles, Madrid, 1880.

_Marcellino Menéndez y Pelayo_, a contemporary literary critic, historian, and philosopher, born in 1856, and noted for his prodigious memory. His work exhibits a decided tendency to ultramontanism, and he has written in defence of the Inquisition. His talents were early developed and he had already a scholar’s reputation before he was out of his teens. At 21 he was appointed to the chair of critical history of Spanish Literature of the Faculty of philosophy and letters at Madrid. In 1880 he became a member of the Spanish Academy of Language, in 1882 of that of History, and afterwards of those of moral sciences, of politics, and of the fine arts. Since then he has become director of the national library in Madrid, and of the entire system of public archives, museums, and libraries in Spain.

=Mérimée=, P., Histoire de Don Pedre I, Paris, 1865; Translation 1849.--=Mignet=, F. A. M., Négociations relatives à la succession d’Espagne sous Louis XIV, Paris, 1835-1842, 4 vols.; Antonio Perez et Philippe II, Paris, 1845; Translation, London, 1846; Charles Quint, son abdication, son séjour et sa mort au monastère de Yuste, Paris, 1854; Rivalité de François I et de Charles Quint, Paris, 1875, 2 vols.

_François Auguste Marie Mignet_, the French historian, was born in 1796 at Aix where he subsequently studied for the law. In the earlier part of his career he made a reputation as a liberal journalist and was associated with the _National_, but after 1830 he devoted himself wholly to history. Here his studies were by no means confined to Spanish subjects, his chief work being a history of the French Revolution.

=Mingote y Taragona=, P., Geografia de España y sus Colonias, Leon, 1887.--=Minutoli=, J. M. von, Spanien und seine fortschreitende Entwickelung, Berlin, 1852.--=Miraflores=, Marques de, Apuntes históricos-críticos para escribir la historia de la revolución de España desde el año 1820-1823 [Madrid], 1834; Memorias para escribir la historia de los siete primeros años del reinado de Isabel II, Madrid, 1843-1844, 2 vols.; Continuación de las memorias del reinado de Isabel II.--=Miro=, M. J., Las Constituciones de España, Madrid, 1821, 2 vols.--=Modoz=, P., Diccennario geográfico-estadístico-histórico de España y sus posesiones de Ultramar, Madrid, 1848-1850, 11 vols.--=Moncada=, F. de, Condé de Osuna, Expedición de los Catalanes y Aragoneses contra Griegos y Turcos, Barcelona, 1623, 1842; Madrid, 1883.

_Francisco de Moncada_, Condé de Usuna, a member of an old Catalan family, was born in 1586 and died in 1635. He filled various important public offices as councillor of war, governor of Flanders, and ambassador to the emperor Ferdinand II. In the low countries he twice defeated the Prince of Orange. His _Expedición de catalanes y aragoneses_ is an account of the expedition under Roger de Flor (died 1305) on behalf of the Byzantines. He derived his materials from Zurita and Muntaner, the latter a contemporary of Flor. Many of the adventures described appear quite incredible. The language is pure and the style flowing.

=Mondejar=, G. I., Marques de, Memorias históricas del rei Alonso el Sabio, Madrid, 1777.--=Monresa Sanchez=, J. Mᵃ., Historia legal de España desde la dominación goda hasta nuestros dias, Madrid, 1841, 2 vols.--=Montejo=, B., Sobre la independencia de Castilla, in Memorias de la Real Academia de la Historia.--=Montesa y Manrique=, Historia de la legislación de España, Madrid, 1861, 1864, 7 vols.--Morales, A. de, Crónica General de España, Alcalá, 1574-1577, Madrid, 1791; Opusculos Castellanos, Madrid, 1793, 3 vols.

_Ambrosio de Morales_ (1513-1591) was appointed in 1574 chronicler of the kingdoms of Castile and continued the _Crónica general de España_ of Florián de Ocampo. His work lacks arrangement.

=Morel-Fatio=, A., l’Espagne au XVI et XVII siècle, Paris, 1878; Études sur l’Espagne, Paris, 1890-1895, 2 vols.; Catalogue des manuscrits espagnoles du Bibliothèque National, Paris, 1881.--=Morel=, J., Lettres sur l’inquisition.--=Motley=, J. L., The Rise of the Dutch Republic, London, 1856, 1889, 3 vols.--=Moüy=, C. de, Don Carlos et Philippe II, Paris, 1888; Jeanne la Folle (Revue des deux Mondes).--=Müller=, W., Politische Geschichte der neuesten Zeit, 1876-1890, Stuttgart, 1890.--=Muñoz Maldonado=, J., Historia de la guerra de la independencia de España contra Napoléon Bonaparte desde 1808 á 1814, Madrid, 1833, 3 vols.

_José Muñoz Maldonado_ (1807-1875) was fiscal minister in the Royal Council of the Orders during ten years. Under Isabella II he was several times elected deputy for Guadalajara, Jaen and Ciudad Real, and afterwards became senator, but was more distinguished as a jurisconsult and as a writer, though rather industrious than brilliant.

=Muñoz y Romero=, Diccionario bibliográfico histórico, Madrid, 1865.--=Muntaner=, R., Chrónica del rey Don Jaume primer, Rey D’Arago e de molts de sos descendents, Valencia, 1558, Stuttgart, 1844.

_Ramón Muntaner_ is the rival of Bernardo Desclot as chief of Catalan historians. He lived in the reign of James I of Aragon and took part in the expedition of the company or army which Roger de Flor led against both Turks and Greeks and in other military enterprises. His chronicle therefore describes events in which he himself shared. He was still alive in 1330.

=Muriel=, A., Historia de Carlos IV, Madrid, 1894-1895, 6 vols.; Constitutes, vols. 29-34 of the Memorial-historico-españal, published by the Real Academia de la Historia.

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=Napier=, W. F. P., History of the War in the Peninsula, 1807-1814, London, 1828-1840, 6 vols., 1890.--=Navarrete=, M. Fernandez de, Colección de documentos inéditos para la historia de España, Madrid, 1842, etc.--=Nervo=, G., Baron de, Histoire d’Espagne, Paris, 1870, 4 vols.; Isabelle la catholique reine d’Espagne, Paris, 1874; Translation by T. Temple West, London, 1897.--=Norman=, W. W., Philip II king of Spain, with an account of the condition of Spain, the Netherlands and the American colonies in Historical Studies, New York, 1898.--=Novissima= Recapilación de los leges de España, Paris, 1846, 5 vols.--=Nueva= Colección de documentos inéditos para la historia de España y de sus Indias, edited by F. de Zabalburu and others, Madrid, 1892 ff., 6 vols.--=Nuñez de Castro=, A., Corónica Góthica, Castillana y Austriaca, Madrid, 1789-1790, 7 vols.

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=Ober=, F. A., History for young readers; Spain, New York, 1899.--=Ocampo=, F. de, Los cincos libros primeros de la crónica general de España, Zamora, 1541.

_Florián de Ocampo_, whose life covers the period between 1513 and 1590, was commissioned by Charles V to write the general chronicle of Spain, but as he commenced with the time of the flood he only managed to bring it down to the time of the Scipios. In spite of much credulity and an unpleasing style the book has been much esteemed by antiquarians. Together with the works of Morales and Sandoval it was published at Madrid in 1791, under the title of _Corónica General de España_.

=Olivart=, Marques de, Colección de los tratados ... internacionales celebrados per nuestros gobiernos con los estados extranjeros, desde el reinado de Doña Isabel II, Madrid, 1890 ff., 10 vols.--=Oman=, C. W. C., History of the Peninsular War, London, 1901, 2 vols. (work not completed).--=Ortiz y Sanz=, J., Compendio cronológico de la historia de España, Madrid, 1795-1803, 7 vols.--=Oviedo y Valdés=, G. Fernandez de, Quinquagenas, in Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid, 1880.

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=Palacios=, Cura de los, see =Bernáldez=.--=Paquis=, A., and Dochez, Histoire d’Espagne et de Portugal, Paris, 1844-1848, 2 vols.--=Parmele=, M. P., A Short History of Spain, New York, 1898.--=Pellicer de Ossav y Tovar=, J., Annales de la monarquía de España después de su pérdida, Madrid, 1681.--=Perez del Pulgar=, Hernán, Breve parte de las hazañas del Gran Capitán, printed as Brevo sumario de los hechos del Gran Capitán, Seville, 1527, Madrid, 1834.--=Perez Pujol=, E., Historia de los instituciones de la España goda.--=Perez y Lopez=, A. X., Teatro de la legislación universal de España é Indias, Madrid, 1791, 28 vols.--=Philippson=, M., Heinrich IV und Philipp III, Berlin, 1870-1876, 3 vols.; Ein Ministerium unter Philipp II. Kardinal Granvella am spanischem Hofe 1579-1586, Berlin, 1894.--=Pichot=, A., Chronique de Charles Quint, 1853.--=Pidal=, P. J., marques de, Historia de las alteraciones de Aragon en el reinado de Felipe II, 1862-1863, 3 vols.

_Pedro José Pidal_ (1800-1865), distinguished both in literature and in politics, studied law and philosophy at Oviedo. The activity with which he supported the liberal party, 1820-1824, caused him to be condemned to imprisonment in the reaction of 1824, but he escaped his sentence, and in 1828 was pardoned. In 1838 he was elected to the cortes where he was distinguished for his oratory. Successively president of the congress, minister of the interior and of justice, he was active in reforming the administration and in 1851 was instrumental in bringing about an understanding between the Spanish and Papal courts. He left numerous works on jurisprudence, language, and literature.

=Pirala=, A., Anales de la guerra civil, 1853; Historia de la guerra civil y de los partidos liberal y carlista (with an account of Espartero’s regency), Madrid, 1890, 3 vols.; Historia contemporánea, Madrid, 1875-1880; 1893-1895, 6 vols.; El rey en Madrid y en provincias, 1871.

_Antonio Pirala_, a contemporary historian, born 1824. He filled various minor offices in the administration and was secretary to King Amadeo. His writings include contributions to various large publications as well as some insignificant ones on religious subjects; but the most important are those historical works mentioned above.

=Plummer=, M. W., Contemporary Spain as shown by her novelists, New York, 1899.--=Polybius=, General History, London, 1693, 2 vols.--=Pradt=, D. D., Mémoires historiques sur la révolution d’Espagne, Paris, 1816.--=Prescott=, W. H., History of Ferdinand and Isabella, Boston and London, 1838, 1889; History of the Reign of Philip II, Boston and London, 1855-1858, 3 vols.

_William Hickling Prescott_ was born in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1796. He was educated at Harvard College and in 1814 began to study for the law, but an accident having affected his sight he was temporarily obliged to give up all work, and was never again able to use his eyes for long at a time. He devoted himself to the study of history and literature, having books read aloud to him. George Ticknor was the first to direct his attention to Spanish history which attracted him as an unexplored as well as rich field. For the composition of his _Ferdinand and Isabella_ he had collected a great number of original documents and its publication brought him immediate fame, not only in America and England, but in the greater part of Europe. Continuing his labours he produced the _Conquest of Mexico_, the _Conquest of Peru_, and two volumes of a history of Philip II and revised Robertson’s Charles V. He died in 1859, before the publication of the third volume of Philip II.

=Procopius=, De Bello Gothico, Augsburg, 1676; Translation by H. Holcroft, London, 1863.--=Pulgar=, Fernando del, Crónica de los reyes católicos Don Ferdinando y Doña Isabel, Saragossa, 1567, Valencia, 1780; Los Claros varones de España y las treinta y dos cartas, Madrid, 1775.--=Puyol y Alonso=, J., La vida política en España, Madrid, 1892.

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=Quintana=, M. J., vidas de españoles célebres, Madrid, 1807-1834, 3 vols.

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=Ramiro II=, Ilustración del reynado de Ramiro II de Aragon, in Academia de la historia, Memorias.--=Raynal=, G. T. F., Histoire des éstablissements et du commerce des Européens dans les deux Indes, Paris, 1771, 4 vols.--=Real Academia de la Historia=, Memorias, Madrid, 1796-1888; Memorial histórico español: Colección de documentos, opúsculos y antigüedades, Madrid, 1851-1898; Catálogo de las obras publicadas por la Real Academia, Madrid, 1907.--=Reynald=, H., Histoire d’Espagne depuis la mort de Charles III, Paris, 1882.--=Rico y Amat=, Historia política e parlamentaria de España, Madrid, 1860-1862, 3 vols.--=Ríos=, J. Amador de los, Los Judíos en España, Madrid, 1792; Las razas históricas de la península Iberica; Historia Critica de la literature española, Madrid, 1861-1865, 7 vols.

_José Amador de los Ríos_ (1818-1878) was educated at Cordova and afterwards at San Isidro de Madrid, during which time he supported his whole family by painting. He afterwards distinguished himself at the university of Seville. His _Estudios sobre los judíos de España_, published 1848, won him admission into the Academia de la Historia, and also the appointment to the chair of critical history of literature at the Universidad Central. Besides his historical works he wrote on architecture and on Spanish literature and published some volumes of poems.

=Risco=, R. P. M., La Castilla y el mas famoso Castellano, Madrid, 1792, 3 vols.; Gesta Roderici Campidocti.--=Robertson=, W., History of the reign of Charles V, London, 1769, 1856.

_William Robertson_, a Scotch minister and the son of a Scotch minister was born at Borthwick, Midlothian, in 1721. He attained considerable eminence in the Scotch church as leader of the “moderate” party. His first historical work, _The History of Scotland_, was published in 1758, when he at once became famous. In 1759 he was appointed chaplain of Stirling Castle, in 1762 principal of Edinburgh University, and in 1764 king’s historiographer. His _History of Charles V_ appeared in 1769. It is his greatest work, the fruit of a careful study of that monarch’s reign, and was a standard book; but its value is now greatly diminished owing to the fact that Robertson had not access to many sources of information which are open to modern research.

=Rocca=, A. J. N. de, Mémoires sur la guerre des Français en Espagne, Paris, 1814, 1815.--=Rodriguez Villa=, A., La reina Doña Juana la loca, Madrid, 1892.--=Romey=, C., Histoire d’Espagne, Paris, 1839-1850, 9 vols.--=Rose=, H. J., Among the Spanish People, London, 1877, 2 vols.--=Rosell=, C., Crónicas de los reyes de Castilla, in continuation of Mariana, in Biblioteca de autores, españoles, Madrid, 1875-1878.--=Rosseeuw Saint-Hilaire=, N., Histoire d’Espagne jusqu’à la mort de Ferdinand VII, Paris, 1844-1879, 14 vols.--=Rousset de Missy=, J., Histoire publique et secrète de la cour de Madrid depuis l’avènement du roi Philippe, 1719.--=Rule=, W. H., History of the Inquisition.

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=Saavedra y Fajardo=, D. F. de, Corona gótica Castellana y Austriaca, in Biblioteca de autores españoles, Madrid, 1853.--=Sainz de Baranda=, P., Clave de la España Sagrada, 1853.--=Sala=, G., Epitome de los principios y progresos de las guerras de Cataluña, 1640-1641.--=Salazar y Mendoza=, P. de, Monarquía de España; Origen de las dignidades reglares de Castilla y Leon, 1618.--=Salmon=, P., La revolución de España de 1808.--=Sampire Astoricensis=, continuation of _Chronicon_ of Sebastianus Salmanticensis in Flórez’s España Sagrada.--=Sanchez=, T. A., and others, Cantares del Cid Campeador conocidos con el nombre de poema del Cid, 1864.--=Sanchez de Toca=, J., Del poder naval en España, Madrid, 1898.--=Sandoval=, P. de, Historia de la vida y hechos del emperador Carlos V, Valladolid, 1604-1606; translated by John Stevens, London, 1703. Historia de los reyes de Castilla y de Leon, Pamplona, 1615, Madrid, 1792.--=San Felipe=, Marques de, see Bacallar y Sanna.--=San Miguel=, E., duque de, Relation de l’expédition de Riego.--=Schäfer=, see Lembke and Schäfer.--=Schirrmacher=, F. W., Geschichte von Spanien, Gotha, 1881-1902, 7 vols.--=Schlagintweit=, E. S., Der spanisch-marokkanische Krieg in den Jahren 1859-1860, Leipsic 1863.--=Schott=, A., Hispania illustrata, Frankfort, 1603-1608.--=Schurtz=, H., Die pyrenäische Halbinsel in _Helmolt’s Weltgeschichte_, Leipsic and Vienna, 1900.--=Sebastianus Salmanticensis=, Chronicon Regum Legionensium, in Flórez’s España Sagrada.

_Sebastian_ was bishop of Salamanca (whence the epithet, Salmanticensis) in the ninth century. He wrote his chronicle by command of Alfonso III, whose reign is the last described in it. It begins with the history of the Gothic king Recesuinto (reigned 649-672 A.D.) and is the chief authority for the rise of the kingdom of Asturias.

=Sédillot=, L. A., Histoire générale des Arabes, Paris, 1854.--=Sève=, E., La situation économique de l’Espagne, Paris, 1887.--=Shaw=, Sir Charles, Personal memoirs and correspondence ... comprising a narrative of the war for constitutional liberty in Portugal and Spain, London, 1837, 2 vols.--=Siguenza=, J. de, Historia de la orden de San Gerónimo, Madrid, 1600.--=Silos=, Monk of (Monachus Silensis) in Flórez’s España Sagrada.

_The Monk of Silos_ was admitted to that convent in the latter half of the eleventh century. His real name is unknown. The Chronicle which he wrote in Latin began with a short account of the ancestors of Alfonso VI, followed by a history of that sovereign’s reign, but the part relating to Alfonso VI is lost. The fragment which remains is highly valued as the work of a careful writer who had access to many ancient and authentic documents. St. Isidore of Seville, Sebastian of Salamanca, and Sampiro are his guides for the earlier portion.

=Sismondi=, J. C. L., De la littérature du midi de l’Europe, Paris, 1813-1829, 4 vols.; Translation by Roscoe, London, 1848, 2 vols.--=Sociedad de bibliófilos españoles=, Madrid.--=Somerville=, A., A Narrative of the British Auxiliary Legion with Incidents of the War in Spain, Glasgow, 1837.--=Southey=, R., Chronicle of the Cid, 1808, Lowell, 1846; History of the Peninsular War, 1823-1832, 6 vols.--=Stanhope=, P. H., The Court of Spain under Charles II, London, 1844; War of the Succession in Spain, 1850.--=Stewart=, C. W., marquis of Londonderry, Story of the Peninsular War, London, 1813, 1869.--=Stirling-Maxwell=, W., The Cloister Life of the Emperor Charles V, London, 1852; Don John of Austria, London, 1883.--=Strada=, F., De Bello Belgico ab excessu Carli V, Rome, 1632, Ratisbon, 1754.--=Strobel=, E. H., The Spanish Revolution, 1868-1875, Boston, 1898.--=Suchet=, L. G., duc d’Albuféra, Mémoires sur les campagnes en Espagne depuis 1808 jusqu’en 1814, Paris, 1834, 2 vols.; Translation, London, 1829.--=Symonds=, J. A., Renaissance in Italy, Catholic Reaction, London, 1886, 2 vols.; Renaissance in Italy, Italian Literature, London, 1882, 2 vols.

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=Tapia=, E. de, Historia de la civilización española, Madrid, 1840, 4 vols.--=Ternaux-Compans=, H., Les Comuneros, Paris, 1834.--=Tessé=, J. B. R. de F., comte de, Mémoires, Paris, 1806, 2 vols.--=Ticknor=, G., History of Spanish Literature, New York, 1849; London, 1855, 3 vols.; 1872; Spanish translation by Gayangos and Vedia, Madrid, 1851-1856; German translation by Gelius, Leipsic, 1852-1867.--=Toreño=, J. M. Q., conde de, Historia del levantamiento, guerra y revolución de España, Madrid, 1835, 5 vols.; Madrid, 1872.--=Torquemada=, T. de, and others, Copilacion de las instrucciones del oficio de la sancta inquisición, 1576.--=Turba=, Über den Zug Kaiser Karls V gegen Algier, Vienna, 1890.

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=Ulloa=, M. de, Disertación sobre el orígen y patria de los godos; sobre el principio de la monarquía goda en España, in Academia de la historia, Memorias, 1797.

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=Valladares de Sotomayor=, A., Vida interior del rey Don Felipe II, 1788.--=Valles=, Baron de los, The Career of Don Carlos, London, 1835.--=Valras=, comte de, Don Carlos VII et l’Espagne Carliste 1872-1876, Paris, 1876, 2 vols.--=Varillas=, A., Politique de Ferdinand.--=Vault=, F. E. de, Mémoires militaires relatifs à la succession d’Espagne sous Louis XIV, Paris, 1835-1862, 11 vols.--=Vera Figueroa y Zuñiga=, A. de, Condé de la Roca, El rei Don Pedro defendido, Madrid, 1648.--=Viardot=, L., Histoire des Arabes et des Mores d’Espagne, Paris, 1851, 2 vols.--=Viollet=, A., Histoire des Bourbons en Espagne, 1843.--=Voiture=, V., Voyage d’Espagne.--=Vollmöller=, K., Poema del Cid, Halle, 1879.--=Vuillier=, Les Îles Oubliées (Balearic Isles), Paris, 1893 (trans. London, 1896).

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=Wallis=, S. T., Spain: her institutions, politics and public men, Boston, 1853.--=Walton=, W., The Revolutions of Spain, 1808-1836, London, 1837, 2 vols.--=Watson=, R., History of the reign of Philip II, London, 1777, 1839; History of the Reign of Philip III, London, 1783, 1786, 2 vols.--=Watts=, H. E., The Christian Recovery of Spain, New York, 1894; Spain, from the Moorish Conquest to the Fall of Granada, London and New York, 1897.--=Weber=, G., Allgemeine Weltgeschichte, Leipsic, 1857-1880, 1882-1890, 15 vols.--=Weiss=, C., L’Espagne depuis le règne de Philippe II jusqu’ à l’avènement des Bourbons, 1844, 2 vols.--=Whitehouse=, H. R., The Sacrifice of a Throne, Life of Amadeus, Duke of Aosta, sometime King of Spain, New York, 1897.--=Wellesley=, Richard C., Marquis of, Despatches and correspondence ... during his ... mission to Spain ... in 1809, edited by Montgomery Martin, London, 1838.--=Wilkens=, Geschichte des spanischen Protestantismus im 16. Jahrhundert, Gütersloh, 1887.--=Williams=, L., Lendenand, The Land of the Dons, New York, 1898.--=Wilson=, The Downfall of Spain: Naval History of the Spanish-American War, London, 1899.--=Wolf=, F., Additions to Julius’ German Translation of Ticknor’s History of Spanish Literature, Leipsic, 1852-1867.--=Wright=, W., On the Authorities for the History of the Dominion of the Arabs in Spain.--=Wulsa=, Chronica Regum Gothorum.

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=Ximenes Toletanus=, Rodericus, Chronica Rerum in Hispania Gestarum, published as Crónica de España del Arzobispo Don Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada in Colección de documentos inéditos para la historia de España, vol. CV, Madrid, 1893.

_Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada_ was a warlike Spanish prelate born in Navarre about 1170. In 1210 he became archbishop of Toledo, in which capacity he took an active part in the crusades against the Moors and especially distinguished himself at the great battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. As a statesman he was also eminent in the days of Ferdinand III, especially exercising the chief influence in Castilian affairs. Notwithstanding he found time to earn a great reputation for learning. The work known as the _Chronica rerum in Hispania Gestarum_ was called by himself _Historia Gothica_. Rodrigo died in 1247.

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=Yriarte=, C., Les Tableaux de la guerre, 1870.

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=Zamora y Caballero=, D. E., Historia general de España y de sus posesiones de Ultramar, Madrid, 1873-1874, 6 vols.--=Zurita y Castro=, Gerónimo de, Anales de la Corona de Aragon, Saragossa, 1562-1604, 1610-1621.

_Gerónimo Zurita y Castro_ belonged to a noble Castilian family, and was born in 1512. He was employed by the Inquisitor General on important missions and through his influence was appointed first chronicler of the kingdom of Aragon (1548). He visited Sicily, Naples, and Rome in search of material for his work. On his return he was commissioned by Philip II to put in order the documents in the archives at Simancas. He devoted thirty years to the composition of his _Anales_. The work covers the period from the Mussulman invasion to 1510, and gives an accurate picture of the development of the constitution of Aragon. Zurita is accused of being stiff and formal in style and too diffuse, but on the other hand his work is noted for impartiality of judgment and for scholarship.

A GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PORTUGUESE HISTORY BASED ON THE WORKS QUOTED, CITED, OR CONSULTED

=Academia Real Das Sciencias=, Collecção dos Principæs auctores da Historia Portugueza, Lisbon, 1806, etc., 8 vols.; Historia Portugueza, Collecção de Noticias para a Historia e geografia das Naçoes ultramarinas, Lisbon, 1812-1856, 7 vols.--=Acenheiro=, C. R., Chronicon dos Reis de Portugal, Lisbon, 1824.--=Adamson=, John, Biblioteca lusitana, or Catalogue of books and tracts relating to the history, literature, and poetry of Portugal, Newcastle, 1836; Lusitana Illustrata, Newcastle, 1842-1846, 2 vols.--=Albuquerque=, A. de, Commentarios, Lisbon, 1557; 3rd edition, 1774, 4 vols.--=Albuquerque Ribafria=, Andre de, Relação da victoria que aleancor do Castelhano Andre de Albuquerque entre avonches e assumar.--=Alison=, Sir A., History of Europe, Edinburgh and London, 1833-1842, 10 vols.--=Almeida-Garrett=, J. B. da S. L., Portugal na Balança da visconde d’Europa.--=Alvares=, Da Cunha, Campania de Portugal pela provincia do Alemtego, 1663.--=Alvares=, Fr. João, Chronica dos feitos, vida e morte do Ifante Sanito Dom Fernando, Lisbon, 1527.--=Alves Noguiera=, E., Evoluçoes da civilisação em Portugal.--=Andrada=, F., Chronica de João III, Lisbon, 1613.--=Andrade=, Francisco, Chronica do Rey Dom João III, Lisbon, 1613.--=Andrade=, J. de, Vida de Dom João de Castro, Lisbon, 1671.--=Anonymous=, History of Kingdom of Portugal ... by a person of quality, London, 1661; Memoirs of the Court of Portugal and of the administration of Count d’Oezras, London, 1765; Le Portugal avant et après 1846, Paris, 1847; Le Portugal et la France au Congo, Paris, 1884; Explanation of the true and lawful right and title of the most excellent Prince Anthonie, first of that name King of Portugal, Leyden, 1585; Relation historique de la Découverte de l’Isle de Madère, Paris, 1671; Account of the Court of Portugal under the reign of Dom Pedro II, London, 1700; Anecdotes du Ministère de S. J. Carvalho sur le règne de Joseph I, Warsaw, 1784; Mémoires de Sébastien José de Carvalho, Marquis de Pombal, Brussels and Lisbon, 1784; Les Français en Portugal, Lisbon, 1808; Memoria para a Historia das Inquiraçoes dos primeiros de Portugal, 1816.--=Aranha=, Brito, Bibliographie des ouvrages portugais pour servir à l’étude des villes, des villages, des monuments ... du Portugal, Açores, Madère, Lisbon, 1900.--=Aubert de Bertaelt d’Aubery=, R., Histoire de la conjuration de Portugal en 1640, Amsterdam, 1689.--=Authors= (various), Papers respecting the relations between Great Britain and Portugal presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of his Majesty, June, 1829. Papers as to the succession, London, 1828-1830, 2 vols.--=Azevedo=, Z. de, Epitome da Historia Portugueza.--=Azurara=, Gómez Eanes de, Chronica d’El Rei Dom João I, Lisbon, 1644; Chronica de Senhor Rey Dom Pedro Menezes, in Correa de Serras’ Collecção, Lisbon, 1790-1824.

_Gómez Eanes de Azurara_ was born in the first half of the fifteenth century. He was appointed Keeper of the Torre do Tombo in 1454, and wrote numerous works relating to the voyages and foreign conquests of Portugal. The date of his death is unknown.

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=Badcock=, Colonel, Civil War in Portugal and siege of Oporto, London, 1836.--=Barbosa Bacellar=, A., Relação da vittoria de Dom Affonso VI, Lisbon, 1659.--=Barbosa de Pinho Leal=, Portugal antigo e moderno, Lisbon, 1873-1877, 7 vols.--=Barbosa Machado=, see Machado.--=Barros Cunha=, J. G., Historia da Liberdade em Portugal, Lisbon, 1869.--=Barros=, P. Andre, Vida do Apostelico Padre Antonio Vieyra da Compania de Jesus, Lisbon, 1746.--=Barros=, João de, Decada Primeira da Asia, Lisbon, 1553-1563, vols. I, II, III; vol. IV, Madrid, 1615; 2nd edition, Lisbon, 1628.

_João de Barros_, called the Portuguese Livy, was born in 1496. He was educated in the palace of the king, Dom Manoel, and at the age of twenty was honoured by the king’s command to write the history of India. Under João III, he held important offices, and completed the history begun during the reign of Manoel. He died at Pombal in 1570.

=Bayam=, J. P., Chronica do Principe Dom Sebastião, decimo sexto Rey de Portugal, Lisbon, 1730; Chronica d’El Rey Dom Pedro I, Lisbon, 1735.--=Bayão=, J. P., Portugal Cuidadoso com a vida e perda do Rei Dom Sebastião, Lisbon, 1737.--=Beckford=, W., Italy, Spain and Portugal, London, 1839, 2 vols.--=Bégin=, Emile A., Voyage Pittoresque en Espagne et en Portugal, Paris, 1852.--=Bernades=, B. M., Portugal e os Estrangeiros, Lisbon, 1879.--=Bernardo da Cruz=, Fray, Chronica d’El Rei Dom Sebastião, Lisbon, 1837.--=Birago=, G. B., Historia della Disunione del Regno di Portogallo dalla Corona di Castiglia, Amsterdam, 1647.--=Blount=, E., The Historie of the uniting of the Kingdom of Portugal to the Crowne of Castell, etc., London, 1600.--=Bollaert=, W., The Wars of Succession of Spain and Portugal from 1820-1840, London, 1870.--=Borges=, C., Manuel Portugal regenerado.--=Borges de Castro=, =José Ferreira=, and =J. Judice Biker=, Collecção dos Tradados, Convençoes, etc., entre Portugal os outras potencias desde 1640, Lisbon, 1856-1858.--=Botelho de Moraes e Vasconcellos=, El Alphonso, o la fundaçion del reino de Portugal; poema epica, Paris, 1712.--=Bouchot=, Auguste, Histoire de Portugal, in Duruy’s “Histoire Universelle,” Paris, 1846; 1854.--=Bouterwek=, F., History of Spanish and Portuguese Literature, London, 1823, 2 vols.--=Branco=, M. B., Portugal e os estrangeiros, Lisbon, 1879-1895, 3 vols.--=Brandão=, F. A., Monarchia Lusitana, Parte III, IV, V, VI, Lisbon, 1690-1751.--=Brito=, Fr. Bernardo de, Monarchia Lusitana, Parte I, II, Lisbon, 1690.

_Bernardo de Brito_ was born in 1569; died 1617. His life was devoted to literary work.

=Brockwell=, C., The National and Political History of Portugal, London, 1726.--=Brown=, J. M. Historical Review of the Revolutions of Portugal since the close of the Peninsular War, 1827.--=Bulhoes=, L. de, Les Colonies Portugueses, 1878.--=Busk=, M. M., The History of Spain and Portugal, London, 1833.

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=Cætano do Amarel=, Antonio, Memorias para a Historia da Legislação e costumes de Portugal.--=Calado=, O. P. Mestre Frei Manoel, O Valeroso Lucideno, Lisbon, 1648.--=Cantu=, Cæsare, Gli ultimi trenta anni, Turin, 1879, 3 vols.--=Cærnarvon, Earl of=, Portugal and Gallicia, London, 1836, 2 vols.--=Carneira=, Condé de, Correspondencia official de--com o duque de Palmella, Lisbon, 1874.--=Carnota, Count of=, Memoirs of the duke of Saldanha, London, 1880, 2 vols.--=Carte=, Thomas, History of the Revolutions of Portugal, London, 1740.--=Carvalho=, J. L. Freire de, Ensaio Historico-Politico sobre a Constituiças e Governo do reino de Portugal; Memorias para a Historia do tempo que duron a Usurpação de D. Miguel, Lisbon, 1841-1843.--=Castaneda=, Hernan Lopes de, Historia do Descobrimento e Conquista da India pelos Portuguezes, Coimbra, 1551-1561; English translation, The First Book of the History of the Discovery and Conquest of the East Indies, London, 1582.

_Hernan Lopes de Castaneda_ was born at Santarem, and emigrating to India at an early age began his history, which occupied him twenty years. He was the first historian of India and his work has been translated into many languages. He died at Coimbra in 1559.

=Castilho=, A. F. de, Quadros Historicos de Portugal.--=Castro=, João de, Vida do Rey Dom Sebastião, Paris, 1602.--=Centazzi=, G., O Estudante de Coimbra ou relampago da Historia Portuguesa 1826-1838.--=Chaby=, C. de, Excerptos historicos relativos a Guerra denominada da Peninsula, e a anteriores de 1801, de Roussilon e Cataluña, Lisbon, 1863.--=Chagas=, P. (see Cordeiro, L.).--=Chamberlayne=, E., Rise and Fall of Count Olivares, London, 1658.--=Chermont=, B. de, Summario Chronologico da Historia de Portugal, etc.--=Chronicon Complutense=, in Flórez’s España Sagrada.--=Chronicon Lusitanum=, in Flórez’s España Sagrada.--=Claudio da Conceição=, Fr., Cabinete Historico.--=Coelho da Rocha=, M. A., Ensaio sobre a Historia do Goveno e da Legislação de Portugal.--=Colbatch=, J., Court of Portugal under Reign of Pedro II, London, 1700.--=Conestaggio=, G. de F., Dell’ Unione del Regno di Portogallo alla Corona di Castiglia, Venice, 1592.--=Conto=, A. M. do, Relação Historica da revolução do Algarve contra os Francezes, etc.--=Cordeiro=, L., Historia de Portugal (in 37 parts by various authors), Lisbon, 1877-1883.--=Cordeiro=, R., Faitos de Historia Portugueza.--=Cornide de Saavedra=, J., Estado de Portugal en el anno de 1800.--=Correa de la Cerda=, Francisco, Catastrophe de Portugal, Lisbon, 1669.--=Correa da Serra=, José, Historia Portugueza, Lisbon, 1790-1816, 11 vols.; Collecção de Livros Ineditos de Historia Portugueza, Lisbon, 1790-1824, 5 vols.

_José Francisco Correa da Serra_ was born at Serpa, June 6th, 1750; died September 11th, 1823. He was distinguished as a naturalist, politician, and historian, and in his collections has preserved many of the ancient chronicles and biographies.

=Costa=, H. J. da, Historia de Portugal, London, 1809.--=Costa=, Quintela Ignacio da, Annæs du Marinha Portugueza.--=Coutinho=, M. de L., Reflexoes sobre a acclamacas de Alfonso Henriques Cortes de Lamego, etc.--=Couto=, Diogo de, Decadas da Asia, Lisbon, 1736, 3 vols.; Vida de Paulo de Lima Pereira, Lisbon, 1765; Dialogos Soldado Practico, Lisbon, 1790.

_Diogo de Couto_ was born at Lisbon in 1542. At the age of 14 he went to India, where for ten years he especially distinguished himself. He afterwards returned to literary labours and was chosen to continue the _History of João de Barros_, with the title of _Chronista Môr da India_. He died at Goa, in 1616.

=Crawfurd=, O., Portugal (old and new), London, 1880.

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=D’Antas=, M., Les Faux Don Sébastien, Paris, 1866.--=Danvers=, Frederick C., The Portuguese in India, London, 1894, 2 vols.--=Dauncey=, J., A Compendious Chronicle of the Kingdom of Portugal from Alfonso the first king, to Alfonso VI, London, 1661.--=Denis=, Jean-Ferdinand, Résumé de l’histoire littéraire du Portugal, Paris, 1826; Portugal, in L’Univers Pittoresque, Paris, 1846.

_Jean-Ferdinand Denis_ was born at Paris, August 13th, 1798. Much of his early life was spent in travel and the study of the literature of Spain and Portugal. In 1838 he became connected with the administration of the libraries of Paris and passed the remainder of his life in literary work. He was a voluminous writer upon historical and literary subjects.

=Dumouriez=, Charles François, État présent du royaume de Portugal, Lausanne, 1766; Hamburg, 1797; Mémoires, Hamburg, 1794, 2 vols.; Campagnes de Maréchal de Schomberg en Portugal depuis l’année 1662 jusqu’en 1668, London, 1807.

_Charles François Dumouriez_ was born at Cambrai, France, January 25th, 1739. He rose to high rank in the French army, but in 1793 was driven into exile, and until his death in 1823, resided in England. His Mémoires are a valuable contribution to the military history of his period.

=Dunham=, S. Astley, History of Spain and Portugal, London, 1832-1833.

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=Ennes=, Antonio, see Cordeiro, L.

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=Falcay=, J. A., L’état actuel de la monarchie portugaise.--=Fanshaw=, R., Letters during his embassies in Spain and Portugal, London, 1702.--=Faria y Sousa=, M. de, Asia Portuguesa, Lisbon, 1666-1675, 3 vols.; Europa Portuguesa, Lisbon, 1678-1680, 3 vols.; Africa Portuguesa, Lisbon, 1681; Historia del reyno de Portugal, Brussels, 1730; History of Portugal from the first ages of the world to 1640; translated and continued to 1698 by John Stevens, London, 1698.

_Manoel de Faria y Sousa_ was born in 1590, and at an early age evinced remarkable literary ability. He became secretary to the Bishop of Oporto and afterwards went to Spain upon the invitation of the Secretary of State of Philip IV. Returning to Lisbon in 1628, he accompanied the Portuguese ambassador to Rome and was received by the pope in a very flattering manner. The last fifteen years of his life were spent at Madrid in the composition of his history. He is also celebrated as a commentator of Camoens and left numerous works. Died in 1643.

=Faria=, M. Severim de, Noticias de Portugal, Lisbon, 1624.

_Manoel Severim de Faria_, a celebrated Portuguese antiquary was born at Lisbon. He studied at Evora, where he early distinguished himself and became the possessor of a library much celebrated at the time for the rare works it contained.

=Figueiroci=, A. do Conto de Castello Bramo, Memorias e Observaçoes militares e politicas de Portugal.--=Flórez=, Enrique, España Sagrada, teatro geographico-historico de la iglesia de España, Madrid, 1747-1773.--=Fonseca Benevides=, J. F., Las Rainhas de Portugal, Lisbon, 1878-1879, 2 vols.--=Francisco de S. Luis=, Memorias Historicas e Chronologicas do Condé D. Henrique; Indice Chronologico das Navegaroes Viagens e dos Portuguezas, etc.; Memoria em que re tracta da origem do nome de Portugal, etc.--=Francisco de Santa Maria=, Anno Historico; Diario Portuguez, Lisbon, 1744, 2 vols.--=Francisco do Santissimo Sacramento=, Epitome Unico da Dignidade de grande e maior Ministro da Puridade, etc., Lisbon, 1666.--=Frémont d’Ablancourt=, Mémoires de; contenant l’histoire de Portugal depuis les Traites des Pyrenèes de 1659 jusqu’à 1668, La Hague, 1701.

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=Galvão=, Duarte, Chronica do muito alto e muito esclarecido Principe D. Affonso Henriquez, Lisbon, 1726.--=Gebauer=, G. C., Portugisische Geschichte, Leipsic, 1759.--=Geddes=, M., View of the Inquisition of Portugal; History of the Pope’s behaviour to the Portuguese, 1641-1666.--=Giedroye=, R., Résumé de l’histoire du Portugal au XIX siècle, Paris, 1876.--=Godin=, O. L., Princes et princesses de la famille royale de Portugal ayant par leurs alliances régné sur la Flandre, Lisbon, 1892; (Congrès international des orientalistes, 10th session, monographs, vol. I).--=Goes=, Damião de, Chronica do serenissimo Senhor Rei D. Manoel, Lisbon, 1567; Coimbra, 1790; Chronica do Serenissimo Principe D. João, Coimbra, 1790.

_Damião de Goes_ was born in 1501. At an early age he entered the diplomatic service, and visited most of the European courts and cities. His genius gained him the friendship of many royal personages, amongst whom was Henry the Eighth of England. He was afterwards appointed Chronista Môr de Reino, and his later years were spent in literary work. He died in 1560.

=Gulielmi de Monserrat=, C. J. U., Interpretis acutissimi Tractatus de Successione Regum et Principum Galliæ, Tübingen.

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=Harris=, A complete history of the rise and progress of the Portuguese Empire in the East Indies, London, 1744.--=Helfferich=, C. A., Les communes françaises en Espagne et en Portugal pendant le moyen age.--=Herculano=, A., Historia de Portugal, Lisbon, 1848-1853, 4 vols.; 1875; 1887; Da origem e estabelecimento da Inquisição em Portugal, 1854-1857, 3 vols.; Roteiro de Vasco de Gama.

_Alexandre Herculano de Carvalho e Araujo_, was born at Lisbon, March 28th, 1810. He became distinguished as a poet and a novelist, and after the publication of _Schæfer’s History_ commenced his _History of Portugal_. His scientific treatment of the subject aroused great opposition among the supporters of the old legendary histories, and he consequently closed his work with the year 1279. Herculano’s example has however been followed by later writers, and he may be said to have founded the new historical school of Portugal.

=Herrera=, Antonio de, Crónica de las Indias occidentales, 1601.

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=Jant=, Chevalier de, Relations de la France avec le Portugal au temps de Mazarin, Paris, 1877.--=Jesus=, Raphael de, Monarchia Lusitana, Parte VII, 1683.

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=Kopke=, Diogo, Quadre Gerd da Historia Portugueza segundo as epochis de suas revoluçoes nacionaes.

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=Lacerda=, M. de Castro Correade, Relação da tomada de Abrantes, 17 Agosto, 1808.--=La Clède=, N. de, Histoire générale de Portugal, Paris, 1735, 8 vols.; 1828-1830, 10 vols.; Portuguese translation, “Historia Geral de Portugal,” Lisbon, 1781-1797, 16 vols.--=Lardner=, D., Lives of the most eminent literary and scientific men of Italy, Spain, and Portugal, London, 1830.--=Lasteyrie=, J. de, Le Portugal depuis la Révolution de 1820, Paris, 1841.--=Latifau=, J. F., Histoires des découvertes et conquêtes des Portugais dans le nouveau monde, Paris, 1734.--=Latino Coelho=, J. M., Historia de Portugal desde os fins de XVIII seculo até 1814, Lisbon, 1874; Historia política e militar de Portugal, Lisbon, 1874-1892, 3 vols.--=Lauro=, Carlo, Strangest adventure that ever happened. History of Dom Sebastian (translated), London, 1601.--=Lavanha=, João Baptista, Viagem de Filippe II, ao Reino de Portugal, etc., Madrid, 1622.--=Le Grand=, M., Le Portugal. Notice historique au point de vue du développement de ses relations avec la France.--=Lemos=, Diego de, Historia Geral de Portugal, 1786-1820, 20 vols.--=Liano=, A. A. de, Répertoire de l’histoire et de la littérature des nations Espagnole et Portugaise.--=Liao=, Duarte Nuñes do, Chronicas d’El Rei D. João, D. Duarte, etc., Lisbon, 1645; 2nd edition, 1780, 2 vols.; Primeira Parte das chrónicas dos Reis de Portugal, Lisbon, 1600, 1677, 1774.--=Ljunstedt=, A. K., Contribution to an Historical Sketch of Portuguese Settlements in China, Macao, 1832.--=Lobato=, G., see Cordeiro, L.--=Lobkowitz=, Johannes Caramuel, Philippus Prudens Caroli V Imp. Filius Lusitanæ, Galgarbiæ, Indæ, Braziliæ legitimus Rex, Antwerp, 1639.--=Lopes=, Fernão, Crónica dos reys de Portugal, Lisbon, 1644, 2 vols.--=Lopes=, J. J. P., Memoria sobre a origem forma e authoridade das Cortes de Portugal.--=Luz Soriano=, S. José da, Historia da guerra civil e do estabelecimento do Governo parlementar em Portugal, 1866-1882.

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=Macedo=, I. J. de, Consideraçoes sobre as causas da elevação decadencia da monarchia Portugueza desde Alfonso I, Maria II.--=Machado=, Ignacio Barbosa, Fastos Politicos e militares da antiga e nova Lusitania, etc., Lisbon, 1745, 2 vols.--=Machado=, Diogo Barbosa, Bibliotheca Lusitana, histórica, crítica e chronologica, Lisbon, 1741-1759, 4 vols.; Memorias para a Historia de Portugal do anno 1554 até o anno 1561, Lisbon, 1736-1751, 4 vols.--=Mahon=, Lord, History of England, London, 1851.--=Major=, R. H., Life of Prince Henry of Portugal, London, 1868; Portuguese translation by J. A. Fereira Brandão, 1876.--=Mariz=, Pedro de, Dialogos de Varia Historia, em que se referem as Vidas dos Senhores Reyes de Portugal, Coimbra, 1594; Lisbon, 1674.--=McMurdo=, The history of Portugal from the Reign of Diniz to the Reign of Alfonso V, London, 1889, 2 vols.--=Mello de Castro=, J. de, Historia da Vida de Dinis de Mello de Castro, Lisbon, 1752.--=Mello=, F. M. de, Epanaphoras de varia Historia Portugueza em cinco Relacoes, Lisbon, 1660.--=Mendonça=, Lopes de, Apontamentos para a historia da Conquista de Portugal por Filippe II; In Annæs das Sciencias Moraes e Politicas, vol. II.--=Menezes=, C. J. de, Os Jesuitos e Marquez de Pombal; A Inquisição em Portugal.--=Menezes=, Fernando de, Vida e acçoes d’El Rei D. João I, Lisbon, 1677.--=Menezes=, Luis de, Historia de Portugal restaurado, Lisbon, 1679-1698, 2 vols.

_Luis de Menezes_ was born at Lisbon, July 22nd, 1632. He rose to high rank in the military service, and wrote the history of the wars between Spain and Portugal from 1640 to 1668. He died by his own hand, May 26th, 1690.

=Monteiro=, D. L. de Sousa, Vida de D. Pedro IV.--=Montgomery=, J., See Lardner.--=Morato=, F. M. Trigorode Aragão, Memoria sobre os Escrivaes da Piritade dos Reis de Portugal, etc.--=Murphy=, James C., Travels in Portugal, in the years 1789-1790, London, 1795.

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=Napier=, W., History of the War in the Peninsula, London, 1828-1840, 6 vols.; 1851; 1890.--=Nascimento=, Francisco Manoel de, Da vida e feitos d’El Rey D. Manoel.--=Neufville=, L. de la, Histoire générale de Portugal, Paris, 1700.--=Neves=, J., Accursio das N., Historia geral da invasão dos Francezes em Portugal e da restauração d’este, Lisbon, 1810-1811.

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=Oliveira-Martins=, J. P., Portugal contemporaneo, Lisbon, 1881, 2 vols.; Historia de Portugal, Lisbon, 1879, 2 vols.; 5th edition, 1890.--=Osorio=, J., De rebus Emmanuelis Lusitaniæ regis, Olyssipone, 1571; History of the Portuguese during the reign of Emmanuel, London, 1752, 2 vols.

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=Palmella=, Duke of, Despachos e correspondeñcia do, Lisbon, 1851-1854.--=Parada=, A., Carvalho de, Justificação dos Portuguezes sobre a acção de libertarem se reyno da obediencia de Castella, Lisbon, 1643.--=Pepys=, S., The Portugal History, London, 1677.--=Pereira de Figueiredo=, Ant., Compendio das Epocas e Successos mais illustres da Historia Geral, Lisbon, 1800; Elogios dos Reis de Portugal em lotim e em Portuguez, etc.; Dissertaçoes sobre la Historia antiga de Portugal.--=Pina=, Ruy de, Chronicas dos seis reis primeiros, Lisbon, 1727-1729; Chronica de Senhor Rey D. Alfonso V, Lisbon, 1790.--=Pinheiro=, D. Diogo, Manifesto, en que se mostra a innocencia do Duque de Braganza D. Fernardo II, ea faluta de prova e a nullidade da sentenca porque foi condenado, in Antonio Cætano de Sousa’s Provas da Historia Genealogica da casa Real Portugueza, etc., Lisbon, 1739.--=Porcel=, F. M., Retrato de Manuel de Faria y Sousa, Lisbon, 1733.--=Posano=, Matthæus de, De Bello Septensi (in Correa da Serras’ Collecção de Livros Ineditos de Historia Portugueza).

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=Quillinan=, Mrs. D. W., Journal of a few months’ residence in Portugal, 2nd edition, London, 1895.

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=Rafael de Jesus=, Fr., Monarchia Lusitana, Parte VII, vida del Rey D. Affonso IV, Lisbon, 1683.--=Ratton=, Jacome, Recordacoes sobre occorrencias do ren tempo em Portugal.--=Rebello da Silva=, L. A., Historia de Portugal pendente XVI e XVII seculos, Lisbon, 1860-1871, 5 vols.; Corpo Diplomatico Portugueza, 1856-1878; D. João II e la Nobreza, in Annæs das sciencias Moreas e Politicas, vol. II.--=Resende=, Andre de, De Antiquitatibus Lusitaniæ, Evora, 1593; Coimbra, 1700; Vida do Infante D. Duarte, Lisbon, 1789.

_Andre de Resende_, born at Evora in 1498. He adopted the religious profession and studied in Salamanca, Paris, and Brussels. The death of his mother in 1534 so overwhelmed him that he determined to leave his native country, but João IV unwilling that Portugal should be deprived of Resende’s remarkable abilities, appointed him tutor to the Infantes D. Affonso, D. Henrique, and D. Duarte. Resende obtained the pope’s permission to change his monastic habit for that of a priest and passed the remainder of his life in literary and antiquarian pursuits. He died in 1567.

=Resende=, Garcia de, Livro das obras de Garcia de Resende (Life of João II), Evora, 1554.--=Ribeiro Dos Santos=, Antonio, Memoria sobre a novidade da Navegaçãos Portugueza no Seculo XV.--=Ribeiro-João=, Pedro, Memorias para a Historia das Inquiriçoes de Portugal; Dissertaçoes Chronologicas e Criticas sobre a Historia e Jurisprudencia ecclesiastica e Civil de Portugal, 1810-1813, 3 vols.; Usurpação Retenção Restauração de Portugal.--=Ribeiro=, P., see Cordeiro, L.--=Rocha=, Fr. M. Da., Portugal Renascido (10th century).

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=Sá=, J. A. de, Memoria sobre a origem jurisdicção dos Corregedores das comarcas; Defeya dos direitos Nacionaes e Reaes da Monarchia Portugueza.--=Saldanha de Oliveira e Daun=, José S., Quadro Historico Politico e Da dos acontecimentos da Historia de Portugal.--=Salisbury=, W. A., Portugal and its People.--=Santarem, Viscount of=, Memorias para a Historia e Theoria das Cortes, Lisbon, 1828; Quadro elementar das relasçôes politicas e diplomaticas de Portugal, Lisbon, 1842-1861, 19 vols.--=Santos=, Fr. Manuel Dos, Historia Sebastica vida do D. Sebastião e successos memoraveis do Reino e Conquistas no seu tempo, Lisbon, 1735; Monarchia Lusitana, Parte VIII, 1367-1385, Lisbon, 1727.--=Schæfer=, H., Geschichte von Portugal, Hamburg, 1836-1854, 5 vols.; In Heeren and Ukert’s Europaische Staats-geschichte, 1840-1846.--=Schlosser=, Friedrich C., Geschichte des 18. Jahrhunderts, Heidelberg, 1823, 2 vols.; History of the Eighteenth Century and of the Nineteenth till the overthrow of the French Empire, translated by D. Davison, London, 1843-1852, 8 vols.; Weltgeschichte, Frankfort, 1842-1854, 19 vols.; 4th edition, Berlin, 1884-1888.--=Severim=, de Faria M., Noticias di Portugal, Lisbon, 1740.--=Shelly=, Mrs., see Lardner, D.--=Silva=, Fr. Bernardino da, Defensão da Monarchia Lusitana, Coimbra and Lisbon, 1620-1623, 2 vols.--=Silva=, J. Soares da, Memoria para a Historia de Portugal, 1383-1433, Lisbon, 1730-1732, 3 vols.--=Silva Lisboa=, José da, Memorias dos beneficios politicos do governo d’El Rei D. João VI.--=Silvercruys=, E., Le Portugal, Lille, 1872.--=Sousa=, Fr. João de, Documentos Arabicos para a Historia Portugueza, Lisbon, 1790.--=Sousa=, Luis de, Annæs d’El Rei D. João III, Lisbon, 1844; Historia de S. Domingos particular do reino e conquistas de Portugal, Lisbon, 1623-1678, 3 vols.--=Sousa de Macedo=, A., Lusitana Liberata ab injusto Castellanorum Dominio, London, 1645.--=Sousa=, Cætano de A., Historia Genealogica de Casa Real Portugueza, Lisbon, 1735-1739, 6 vols.--=Sousa=, Monteiro J. M. de, Historia de Portugal desde o reinado da S. D. Maria I até a convenção de Evora monte, etc., 1838, 10 vols.--=Southwell=, Robert, Letters, in Carte’s History of Revolutions in Portugal, 1740.--=Stephens=, H. Morse, The Story of Portugal, London, 1891; article on Portugal in the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica.

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=Thiebault=, Paul, Baron, Relation de l’expédition du Portugal faite en 1807 et 1808, Paris, 1817.

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=Vander-Bandt=, L., Joannes Barzantinus Lusitaniæ illegitimus Rex, Louvain, 1642.--=Van-Laetham=, Campagne de 6 mois dans le royaume des Algerves en Portugal, Brussels, 1834.--=Vasconcellos=, D. Augustin Manoel y, Anacephaleoses, Antwerp, 1621; Vida de Dom Duarte de Meneses, Lisbon, 1627; Vida y acçones d’El Rey Don John II, Madrid, 1639.--=Veijas=, Antonio Paes, Relação dos successos das armas de João IV nas terras de Castella, 1664 até a victoria do Montijo, Lisbon, 1644.--=Vertot=, R. A. de, Révolutions de Portugal, Paris, 1678, translated into English and continued to 1809 by L. de Boisgelin [London], 1809; Histoire de la conjuration de Portugal, Paris, 1689.

_René Aubert de Vertot d’Aubœuf_ was born at Château Benetat, in Normandy, November 25th, 1655. He attained high rank in the church, but in 1703 became secretary to the Duchess of Orléans, and in 1715 historiographer of the Order of Malta. Forty years of his life were consecrated to historical composition, and he produced numerous works written in an elegant style, but neither profound nor distinguished for their adherence to truth. He died in Paris, June 15th, 1735.

=Vidal=, E., see Cordeiro, L.--=Villareal=, M. F. de, Anticaramuel, Paris.

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=Wraxall=, Nathaniel W., Historical Memoirs of my Own Times, London, 1815.

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