CHAPTER 2
=Geography of Bīkaner.=—This region is but little known to Europeans, by whom it has hitherto been supposed to be a perfect desert, unworthy of examination. Its present condition bears little comparison with what tradition reports it to have been in ancient times; and its deterioration, within three centuries since the Rajputs supplanted the Jats, almost warrants our belief of the assertion, that these deserts were once fertile and populous; nay, that they are still capable (notwithstanding the reported continual increase of the sand) to maintain an abundant population, there is little room to doubt. The princes of Bikaner used to take the field at the head of ten thousand of their kindred retainers; and although they held extraordinary grants from the empire for the maintenance of these contingents, their ability to do so from their proper resources was undoubted. To other causes than positive sterility must be attributed the wretched condition of this State. Exposed to the continual attacks of organized bands of robbers from without, subjected internally to the never-ending demands of a rapacious government, for which they have not a shadow of advantage in return, it would be strange if aught but progressive decay and wretchedness were the consequence. In three centuries [197], more than one-half of the villages, which either voluntarily or by force submitted to the rule of the founder, Bika, are now without memorial of their existence, and the rest are gradually approximating to the same condition. Commercial caravans, which passed through this State and enriched its treasury with the transit duties, have almost ceased to frequent it from the increasing insecurity of its territory. Besides the personal loss to the prince the country suffers from the deterioration of the commercial towns of Churu, Rajgarh, and Rani, which, as entrepôts, supplied the country with the productions of Sind and the provinces to the westward, or those of Gangetic India. Nor is this confined to Bikaner; the same cause affects Jaisalmer, and the more eastern principalities, whose misgovernment, equally with Bikaner, fosters the spirit of rapine: the Maldots of Jaisalmer and the Larkhanis of Jaipur are as notorious as the Bidawats of Bikaner; and to these may be added the Sahariyas, Khosas, and Rajars, in the more western desert, who, in their habits and principles, are as demoralized as the Bedouins of Arabia.
=Extent, Population, Soil, Tibas or Sandhills.=—The line of greatest breadth of this State extends from Pugal to Rajgarh, and measures about one hundred and eighty miles; while the length from north to south, between Bhatner and Mahajan, is about one hundred and sixty miles: the area may not exceed twenty-two thousand miles.[6.2.1] Formerly they reckoned two thousand seven hundred towns, villages, and hamlets scattered over this space, one-half of which are no longer in existence.
=Population.=—An estimate of the population of this arid region, without presenting some data, would be very unsatisfactory. The tract to the north-west of Jethpur is now perfectly desolate, and nearly so from that point to Bhatner: to the north-east the population is but scanty, which observation also applies to the parts from the meridian of Bikaner to the Jaisalmer frontier; while internally, from these points, it is more uniform, and equals the northern parts of Marwar. From a census of the twelve principal towns, with an estimate, furnished by well-informed inhabitants, of the remainder, we may obtain a tolerably accurate approximation on this point:
Chief Towns. Number of Houses. Bikaner 12,000 Nohar 2,500 Bahaduran 2,500 Reni 1,500 Rajgarh 3,000 Churu 3,000 [198] Mahajan 800 Jethpur 1,000 Bidesar 500 Ratangarh 1,000 Desmukh 1,000 Senthal 50 —-—- 28,850 —-—- 100 villages, each having 200 houses 20,000 100 ” ” 150 ” 15,000 200 ” ” 100 ” 20,000 800 hamlets ” 30 each 24,000 —-—— Total number of houses 107,850 —-——
Allowing five souls to each house, we have a total of 539,250 souls, giving an average of twenty-five to the square mile, which I cannot think exaggerated, and making the desert regions depending on Bikaner equal, in the density of population, the highlands of Scotland.[6.2.2]
Of this population, full three-fourths are the aboriginal Jats; the rest are their conquerors, descendants of Bika, including the Saraswat Brahmans,[6.2.3] Charans, Bards, and a few of the debased classes, whose numbers, conjointly, are not one-tenth of the Rajputs.
=Jats.=—The Jats are the most wealthy as well as the most numerous portion of the community. Many of the old Bhumia landlords, representatives of their ancient communal heads, are men of substance; but their riches are of no use to them, and to avoid the rapacity of their government, they cover themselves with the cloak of poverty, which is thrown aside only on nuptial festivities. On these occasions they disinter their hoards, which are lavished with unbounded extravagance. They even block up the highways to collect visitors, whose numbers form the measure of the liberality and munificence of the donor of the fête.
=Sarsūt=, =Saraswat Brāhman=.—Sarsut (properly Sarasvati) Brahmans are found in considerable numbers throughout this tract. They aver that they were masters of the country prior to the Jat colonists. They are a peaceable, industrious race, and without a single prejudice of ‘the order’; they eat meat, smoke tobacco, cultivate the soil, and trade even in the sacred kine, notwithstanding their descent from Sringi Rishi, son of Brahma.
=Charans.=—The Charans are the sacred order of these regions; the warlike tribes esteem [199] the heroic lays of the bard more than the homily of the Brahman. The Charans are throughout reverenced by the Rathors, and hold lands, literally, on the tenure of ‘an old song.’ More will be said of them in the Annals of Jaisalmer.
=Mālis=, =Nāis=.—Malis, Nais, gardeners and barbers, are important members of every Rajput family, and to be found in all the villages, of which they are invariably the cooks.
=Chuhras=, =Thoris=.—Chuhras, Thoris, are actually castes of robbers:[6.2.4] the former, from the Lakhi Jungle; the latter, from Mewar. Most of the chieftains have a few in their pay, entertained for the most desperate services. The Bahaduran chief has expelled all his Rajputs, and retains only Chuhras and Thoris. The Chuhras are highly esteemed for fidelity, and the barriers and portals throughout this tract are in their custody. They enjoy a very singular perquisite, which would go far to prove their being the aborigines of the country; namely, a fee of four copper coins on every dead subject, when the funeral ceremonies are over.
=Rājputs.=—The Rathors of Bikaner are unchanged in their martial qualifications, bearing as high a reputation as any other class in India; and whilst their brethren of Marwar, Amber, and Mewar have been for years groaning under the rapacious visitations of Mahrattas and Pathans, their distance and the difficulties of the country have saved them from such afflictions; though, in truth, they have had enough to endure at home, in the tyranny of their own lord. The Rathors of the desert have fewer prejudices than their more eastern brethren; they will eat food, without enquiring by whom it was dressed, and will drink either wine or water, without asking to whom the cup belonged. They would make the best soldiers in the world if they would submit to discipline, as they are brave, hardy, easily satisfied, and very patient; though, on the other hand, they have imbibed some qualities, since their migration to these regions, which could only be eradicated in the rising generation: especially the inordinate use of opium, and smoking intoxicating herbs, in both which accomplishments ‘the sons of Bika’ are said to bear the palm from the rest of the Chhattis rajkula, the Thirty-six Royal Tribes of India. The _piyala_, or ‘cup,’ is a favourite with every Rajput who can afford it, and is, as well as opium, a panacea for ennui, arising from the absence of all mental stimulants, in which they are more deficient, from the nature of the country, than most of their warlike countrymen.
=Face of the Country.=—The whole of this principality, with the exception of a few isolated spots, or oases, scattered here and there, consists more or less of sand. From the eastern to the western boundary, in the line of greatest breadth, it is one continuous [200] plain of sand, though the _tibas_, or sandhills, commence in the centre of the country, the principal chain running in the direction of Jaisalmer, and shooting forth subordinate branches in every direction; or it might be more correct to designate this main ridge, originating in the tracts bordering the eastern valley of the Indus, as terminating its elevations about the heart of Bikaner. On the north-east quarter, from Rajgarh to Nohar and Rawatsar, the soil is good, being black earth, slightly mixed with sand, and having water near enough to the surface for irrigation; it produces wheat, gram, and even rice, in considerable quantities. The same soil exists from Bhatner to the banks of the Gara. The whole of the Mohila tract is a fertile oasis, the _tibas_ just terminating their extreme offsets on its northern limit: being flooded in the periodical rains, wheat is abundantly produced.
=Products of the Desert.=—But exclusive of such spots, which are “few and far between,” we cannot describe the desert as a waste where “no salutary plant takes root, no verdure quickens”; for though the poverty of the soil refuses to aid the germination of the more luxuriant grains, Providence has provided a countervailing good, in giving to those it can rear a richness and superiority unknown to more favoured regions. The bajra of the desert is far superior to any grown in the rich loam of Malwa, and its inhabitant retains an instinctive partiality, even when admitted to revel in the luxurious repasts of Mewar or Amber, for the _vatis_ or _batis_ or ‘bajra cakes,’ of his native sandhills, and not more from association than from their intrinsic excellence. In a plentiful season they save enough for two years’ consumption. The grain requires not much water, though it is of the last importance that this little should be timely.
Besides bajra we may mention moth and til;[6.2.5] the former a useful pulse both for men and cattle; the other the oil-plant, used both for culinary purposes and burning. Wheat, gram, and barley are produced in the favoured spots described, but in these are enumerated the staple products of Bikaner.
Cotton is grown in the tracts favourable for wheat.[6.2.6] The plant is said to be septennial, even decennial, in these regions. As soon as the cotton is gathered, the shoots are all cut off, and the root alone left. Each succeeding year, the plant increases in strength, and at length attains a size unknown where it is more abundantly cultivated.
Nature has bountifully supplied many spontaneous vegetable products for the use of man, and excellent pasture for cattle. Guar, Kachri, Kakri, all of the cucurbitaceous family, and water-melons of a gigantic size, are produced in great plenty.[6.2.7] The latter is most valuable; for being cut in slices and dried in the sun, it is stored up [201] for future use when vegetables are scarce, or in times of famine, on which they always calculate. It is also an article of commerce, and much admired even where vegetables are more abundant. The copious mucilage of the dried melon is extremely nourishing; and deeming it valuable as an anti-scorbutic in sea voyages, the Author sent some of it to Calcutta many years ago for experiment.[6.2.8] Our Indian ships would find no difficulty in obtaining a plentiful supply of this article, as it can be cultivated to any extent, and thus be made to confer a double benefit on our seamen and the inhabitants of those desert regions. The superior magnitude of the water-melons of the desert over those of interior India gives rise to much exaggeration, and it has been gravely asserted by travellers in the sand _tibas_,[6.2.9] where they are most abundant, that the mucilage of one is sufficient to allay the thirst both of a horse and his rider.
In these arid regions, where they depend entirely on the heavens for water, and where they calculate on a famine every seventh year, nothing that can administer to the wants of man is lost. The seeds of the wild grasses, as the _bharut_, _baru_, _harara_, _sawan_, are collected, and, mixed with bajra-flour, enter much into the food of the poorer classes. They also store up great quantities of the wild _ber_, _khair_, and _karel_ berries; and the long pods of the _khejra_, astringent and bitter as they are, are dried and formed into a flour. Nothing is lost in these regions which can be converted into food.
=Trees.=—Trees they have none indigenous (mangoes and tamarind are planted about the capital), but abundant shrubs, as the _babul_, and ever-green _pilu_, the _jhal_, and others yielding berries. The Bidawats, indeed, apply the term ‘tree’ to the _rohira_, which sometimes attains the height of twenty feet, and is transported to all parts for house-building; as likewise is the _nima_, so well known throughout India. The _phog_ is the most useful of all these, as with its twigs they frame a wicker-work to line their wells, and prevent the sand from falling in.
The _ak_, a species of euphorbia, known in Hindustan as the _madar_, grows to an immense height and strength in the desert; from its fibres they make the ropes in general use throughout these regions, and they are reckoned superior, both in substance and durability, to those formed of _munj_ (hemp), which is however cultivated in the lands of the Bidawats.
Their agricultural implements are simple and suited to the soil. The plough is one [202] of single yoke, either for the camel or ox: that with double yoke being seldom required, or chiefly by the Malis (gardeners), when the soil is of some consistence. The drill is invariably used, and the grains are dropped singly into the ground, at some distance from each other, and each sends forth a dozen to twenty stalks. A bundle of bushes forms their harrow. The grain is trodden out by oxen; and the moth (pulse), which is even more productive than the bajra, by camels.
=Water.=—This indispensable element is at an immense distance from the surface throughout the Indian desert, which, in this respect, as well as many others, differs very materially from that portion of the great African Desert in the same latitudes. Water at twenty feet, as found at Mourzook by Captain Lyon, is here unheard of, and the degree of cold experienced by him at Zuela, on the winter solstice, would have “burnt up” every natural and cultivated production of our Hindu Sahara. Captain Lyon describes the thermometer in lat. 26°, within 2° of zero of Reaumur. Majors Denham and Clapperton never mark it under 40° of Fahrenheit, and mention ice, which I never saw but once, the thermometer being 28°; and then not only the mouths of our _mashaks_, or ‘water-skins,’ were frozen, but a small pond, protected from the wind (I heard, for I saw it not), exhibited a very thin pellicle of ice. When at 30° the cold was deemed intense by the inhabitants of Maru in the tracts limiting the desert, and the useful _ak_, and other shrubs, were scorched and withered; and in north lat. 25°, the thermometer being 28°, desolation and woe spread throughout the land. To use their own phrase, the crops of gram and other pulses were completely “burnt up, as if scorched by the lightnings of heaven”; while the sun’s meridian heat would raise it 50° more, or up to 80°, a degree of variability at least not recorded by Captain Lyon.
At Deshnokh,[6.2.10] near the capital, the wells are more than two hundred cubits, or three hundred feet, in depth; and it is rare that water fit for man is found at a less distance from the surface than sixty, in the tracts decidedly termed _thal_, or ‘desert’: though some of the flats, or oases, such as that of Mohila, are exceptions, and abundance of brackish water, fit for cattle, is found throughout at half this depth, or about thirty feet. All the wells are lined with basket-work made of _phog_ twigs, and the water is generally drawn up by hand-lines [203].[6.2.11]
=Sar, or ‘Salt Lakes.’=—There are a few salt lakes, which, throughout the whole of the Indian desert, are termed _sar_, though none are of the same consequence as those of Marwar. The largest is at the town of Sar,[6.2.12] so named after the lake, which is about six miles in circumference. There is another at Chhapar about two miles in length, and although each of them frequently contains a depth of four feet of water, this entirely evaporates in the hot winds, leaving a thick sheet of saline incrustation. The salt of both is deemed of inferior quality to that of the more southerly lakes.
=Physiography of the Country.=—There is little to vary the physiography of this region, and small occasion to boast either of its physical or moral beauties; yet, strange to say, I have met with many whose love of country was stronger than their perceptions of abstract veracity, who would dwell on its perfections, and prefer a mess of _rabri_, or porridge made of bajra, to the greater delicacies of more civilized regions. To such, the _tibas_, or ‘sand-ridges,’ might be more important than the Himalaya, and their diminutive and scanty brushwood might eclipse the gigantic foliage of this huge barrier. Verdure itself may be abhorrent to eyes accustomed to behold only arid sands; and a region without _tufans_ or ‘whirlwinds’; or armies of locusts rustling like a tempest, and casting long shadows on the lands, might be deemed by the prejudiced, deficient in the true sublime. Occasionally the sandstone formation rises above the surface, resembling a few low isolated hills; and those who dwell on the boundaries of Nagor, if they have a love of more decided elevations than their native sandhills afford, may indulge in a distant view of the terminations of the Aravalli.
=Mineral Productions.=—The mineral productions of this country are scanty. They have excellent quarries of freestone in several parts, especially at Hasera, thirteen coss to the north-east of the capital, which yield a small revenue estimated at two thousand rupees annually. There are also copper mines at Biramsar and Bidesar; but the former does not repay the expense of working, and the latter, having been worked for thirty years, is nearly exhausted.
An unctuous clay is excavated from a pit, near Kolait, in large quantities, and exported as an article of commerce, besides adding fifteen hundred rupees annually to the treasury. It is used chiefly to free the skin and hair from impurities, and the Cutchi ladies are said to eat it to improve their complexions.[6.2.13]
=Animal Productions.=—The kine of the desert are highly esteemed; as are the camels, especially those used for expedition and the saddle, which bear a high price,[6.2.14] and are [204] considered superior to any in India. They are beautifully formed, and the head possesses much blood and symmetry. Sheep are reared in great abundance, and find no want of food in the excellent grasses and shrubs which abound. The _phog_, _jawas_,[6.2.15] and other prickly shrubs, which are here indigenous, form the dainties of the camel in other regions. The Nilgae, or elk, and deer of every kind, are plentiful; and the fox of the desert is a beautiful little animal. Jackals and hyaenas are not scarce, and even lions are by no means unknown in Bikaner.
=Commerce and Manufactures.=—Rajgarh[6.2.16] was the great commercial mart of this country, and the point of rendezvous for caravans from all parts. The produce of the Panjab and Kashmir came formerly direct by Hansi-Hisar—that of the eastern countries by Delhi, Rewari, Dadri, etc., consisting of silks, fine cloths, indigo, sugar, iron, tobacco, etc.; from Haraoti and Malwa came opium, which supplied all the Rajput States; from Sind, via Jaisalmer, and by caravans from Multan and Shikarpur, dates, wheat, rice, _lungis_ (silk vestments for women), fruits, etc.; from Pali, the imports from maritime countries, as spices, tin, drugs, coco-nuts, elephants’ teeth, etc. Much of this was for internal consumption, but the greater part a mere transit trade, which yielded considerable revenue.
=Woollens.=—The wool of the sheep pastured in the desert is, however, the staple commodity both of manufacture and trade in this region. It is worked into every article of dress, both male and female, and worn by all, rich and poor. It is produced from the loom, of every texture and quality, from the coarse _loi_ or ‘blanket,’ at three rupees per pair (six shillings), to thirty rupees. The quality of these last is very fine, of an intermediate texture between the shawl and camlet, and without any nap; it is always bordered with a stripe of chocolate brown or red. Of this quality are the _dopattas_ or ‘scarfs’ for the ladies. Turbans are also manufactured of it, and though frequently from forty to sixty-one feet in length, such is the fineness of the web, that they are not bulky on the head.
From the milk of the sheep and goats as well as kine, _ghi_ or ‘clarified butter’ is made, and forms an important article of trade.
=Manufactures in Iron.=—The Bikaneris work well in iron, and have shops at the capital and all the large towns for the manufacture of sword blades, matchlocks, daggers, iron lances, etc. The sword-handles, which are often inlaid with variegated steel, or burnished, are in high request, and exported to various parts of India. They have also expert artists in ivory, though the articles are chiefly such as are worn by females, as _churis_, or ‘bracelets’ [205].
Coarse cotton cloths, for internal consumption, are made in considerable quantities.
=Fairs.=—Annual fairs were held, in the months of Karttik and Phalgun, at the towns of Kolait and Gajner,[6.2.17] and frequented by the merchants of the adjacent countries. They were celebrated for cattle, chiefly the produce of the desert, camels, kine, and horses from Multan and the Lakhi Jungle,[6.2.18] a breed now almost extinct. These fairs have lost all their celebrity; in fact, commerce in these regions is extinct.
=Government Revenues.=—The personal revenues of the Raja were derived from a variety of sources: from the Khalisa, or ‘crown-lands’ imposts, taxes on agriculture, and that compendious item which makes up the deficiencies in all oriental budgets, _dand_, or ‘contribution.’ But with all these “appliances and means to boot,” the civil list of this desert king seldom exceeded five lakhs of rupees, or about £50,000 per annum.[6.2.19] The lands of the feudality are more extensive proportionally in this region than in any other in Rajputana, arising out of the original settlement, when the Bidawats and Kandhalots, whose joint acquisitions exceeded those of Bika, would not admit him to hold lands in their territory, and made but a slight pecuniary acknowledgment of his supremacy. The districts in which the crown-lands lie are Rajgarh, Reni, Nohar, Gharib, Ratangarh, Rania, and more recently Churu.
The following are the items of the revenue: (1) Khalisa, or fiscal revenue; (2) Dhuan; (3) Anga; (4) Town and transit duties; (5) Paseti, or ‘plough-tax’; (6) Malba.
=Khālisa Lands.=—1. The fisc. Formerly this branch of revenue yielded two lakhs of rupees; but with progressive superstition and prodigality, the raja has alienated almost two-thirds of the villages from which the revenue was drawn. These amounted to two hundred; now they do not exceed eighty, and their revenue is not more than one lakh of rupees. Surat Singh is guided only by caprice; his rewards are uniform, no matter what the service or the object, whether a Brahman or a camel-driver. The Khalisa is the only source which he considers he has merely a life-interest in. To supply the deficiencies, he has direct recourse to the pockets of his subjects.
=Hearth-Tax.=—2. Dhuan may be rendered hearth-tax, though literally it is a smoke (_dhuan_) tax. All must eat; food must be dressed; and as they have neither chimneys nor glass windows on which to lay the tax, Surat Singh’s chancellor of the exchequer makes the smoke pay a transit duty ere it gets vent from the various orifices of the edifice. It only amounts to one rupee on each house or family, but would form an important item if not evaded by the powerful chiefs; still it yields a lakh of rupees. The town [206] of Mahajan, which was settled on Ratan Singh, son of Raja Nunkaran, on the resignation of his right of primogeniture and succession, enjoys exemption from this tax. It is less liable to fluctuation than other taxes, for if a village becomes half-deserted, those who remain are saddled with the whole. Dhuan is only known to the two western States, Bikaner and Jaisalmer.
=Poll-Tax.=—3. _Anga._ This is not a capitation but a body tax (from _anga_, the body), and was established by Raja Anup Singh. It might almost be termed a property-tax, since it embraced quadrupeds as well as bipeds of every sex and age, and was graduated according to age and sex in the human species, and according to utility in the brute. Each male adult was assessed one _anga_, fixed at four annas (about sixpence), and cows, oxen, buffaloes, were placed upon a level with the lord of the creation. Ten goats or sheep were estimated as one _anga_; but a camel was equivalent to four _angas_, or one rupee, which Raja Gaj Singh doubled. This tax, which is by far the most certain in a country perhaps still more pastoral than agricultural, is most providently watched, and though it has undergone many changes since it was originally imposed, it yet yields annually two lakhs of rupees.
4. _Sāīr_, or ‘imposts.’ This branch is subject to much fluctuation, and has diminished greatly since the reign of Surat Singh. The duties levied in the capital alone formerly exceeded what is collected throughout the whole of his dominions; being once estimated at above two lakhs, and now under one. Of this amount, half is collected at Rajgarh, the chief commercial mart of Bikaner. The dread of the Rahats, who have cut off the communications with the Panjab, and the want of principle within, deter merchants from visiting this State, and the caravans from Multan, Bahawalpur, and Shikarpur, which passed through Bikaner to the eastern States, have nearly abandoned the route. The only duties of which he is certain are those on grain, of four rupees on every hundred maunds sold or exported, and which, according to the average sale price of these regions, may be about two per cent.
=Paseti.=—5. Paseti is a tax of five[6.2.20] rupees on every plough used in agriculture. It was introduced by Raja Rae Singh, in commutation of the corn-tax, or levy in kind, which had long been established at one-fourth of the gross produce. The Jats were glad to compound, and get rid of the agents of corruption, by the substitution of the plough-tax. It formerly yielded two lakhs of rupees, but with decreasing agriculture has fallen, like every other source, to a little more than one-half, but still yields a lakh and a quarter.
=Malba.=—6. Malba[6.2.21] is the name of the original tax which the Jat communities imposed [207] upon themselves, when they submitted to the sway in perpetuity of Bika and his successors. It is the land-tax[6.2.22] of two rupees on each hundred bighas of land cultivated in Bikaner. It is now unproductive, not realizing fifty thousand rupees, and it is said that a composition has been effected, by which it has been, or will be, relinquished: if so, Surat Singh gives up the sole legitimate source of revenue he possesses.
_Recapitulation_
1. Khalisa, or fisc[6.2.23] Rs. 100,000 2. Dhuan 100,000 3. Anga 200,000 4. Sair, imposts[6.2.24] 75,000 5. Paseti, plough-tax 125,000 6. Malba, land-tax 50,000 —-—— TOTAL 650,000 —-——
Besides this, the fullest amount arising to the prince from annual taxation, there are other items which occasionally replenish the treasure of Surat Singh.
=Datoi.=—Datoi is a triennial tax of five rupees levied on each plough.[6.2.25] It was instituted by Raja Zorawar Singh. The whole country is liable to it, with the exception of fifty villages in Asaichwati, and seventy of the Beniwals, conditionally exempted, to guard the borders. It is now frequently evaded by the feudal chieftains, and seldom yields a lakh of rupees.
In addition to these specific expedients, there are many arbitrary methods of increasing the “ways and means” to satisfy the necessities or avarice of the present ruler, and [208] a train of dependent harpies, who prey upon the cultivating peasantry, or industrious trader. By such shifts, Surat Singh has been known to double his fixed revenue.
=Dand, Khushhali.=—The terms Dand and Khushhali, though etymologically the antipodes of each other—the first meaning a ‘compulsory contribution,’ the other a ‘benevolence, or voluntary,’[6.2.26]—have a similar interpretation in these regions, and make the subjects of those parts devoutly pray that their prince’s house may be one rather of mourning than rejoicing, and that defeat rather than victory may be attendant on his arms.
The term dand is coeval with Hindu legislation. The bard Chand describes it, and the chronicler of the life of the great Siddhraj of Anhilwara, “who expelled the seven Daddas,” or ‘great evils,’ whose initial letter was _d_, enumerates dand as one of them, and places it with the Dholis and Dakins, or minstrels and witches, giving it precedence amongst the seven plagues which his ancestors and tyrant custom had inflicted on the subject. Unhappily, there is no Siddhraj to legislate for Rajputana; and were there fourteen Daddas by which Surat Singh could swell his budget, he would retain them all for the oppression of the impoverished Jats, who, if they could, would be happy to expel the letter _S_ from amongst them. But it is from the chieftain, the merchant, and the banker that the chief sums are realized; though indirectly the poor peasant contributes his share. There are fourteen collectors of dand,[6.2.27] one to every _chira_ or division, and these are furnished with arbitrary schedules according to the circumstances, actual or supposed, of each individual. So unlimited are these exactions, that the chief of Gandeli for two years offered the collector of his quarter ten thousand rupees if he would guarantee him against any further demand during even twelve months; and being refused, he turned the collector out, shut the gates of his castle, and boldly bid his master defiance.
One of his expedients to levy a khushhali, or ‘benevolence,’ is worth relating: it was on the termination of his expedition against Bhatner, which added this celebrated desert and castle to his territory, and in which he was attended by the entire feudal army of Bikaner. On his return, “flushed with conquest,” he demanded from each house throughout his dominions the sum of ten rupees to cover the expenses of the war. If the tyrant-ridden subjects of Surat Singh thus rejoice in his successes, how must they feel for his defeats! To them both are alike ominous, when every [209] artifice is welcomed, every villainy practised, to impoverish them. Oppression is at its height, and must work out its own cure.
=Feudal Levies.=—The disposable force of all these feudal principalities must depend on the personal character of the Raja. If Surat Singh were popular, and the national emergencies demanded the assemblage of the Kher, or _levée en masse_, of the “sons of Bika,” he might bring ten thousand Rajputs into the field, of whom twelve hundred might be good horse, besides the foreign troops and park; but under present circumstances, and the rapid deterioration of every branch of society, it may be doubted whether one-half could be collected under his standard.
The household troops consist of a battalion of foreign infantry, of five hundred men with five guns, and three squadrons of horse, about two hundred and fifty in number; all under foreign leaders. This is independent of the garrison of the capital, whose commandant is a Rajput of the Parihar tribe, who has twenty-five villages assigned for the payment of his troops.[6.2.28]
_Schedule exhibiting the Fiefs of Bikaner._
─────────────────┬───────────┬───────────┬────────┬────────────────┬───── │ │ │ │ Retainers: │ Names of │ Clans. │Places of │Revenue.│ │ │Remarks. Chieftains. │ │ Abode. │ │ Foot. │Horse. │ ─────────────────┼───────────┼───────────┼────────┼────────┼───────┼───── Behri Sal │Bika │Mahajan │ 40,000│ 5,000│ 100 │[A] │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Abhai Singh │Benirot │Bhukarka │ 25,000│ 5,000│ 200 │ Anup Singh │Bika │Jasana │ 5,000│ 400│ 40 │ Pem Singh │ Do. │Bai │ 5,000│ 400│ 25 │ Chain Singh │Benirot │Sawa │ 20,000│ 2,000│ 300 │ Himmat Singh │Rawat │Rawatsar │ 20,000│ 2,000│ 300 │ Sheo Singh │Benirot │Churu │ 25,000│ 2,000│ 200 │ Ummed Singh ┐│Bidawat ┌│Bidesar ┐│ 50,000│ 10,000│2,000 │[B] Jeth Singh ┘│ └│Sondwa ┘│ │ │ │ Bahadur Singh ┐│ ┌│Mainsar ┐│ │ │ │ Suraj Mall ├│Narnot ┤│Tendesar ├│ 40,000│ 4,000│ 500 │ Guman Singh ││ ││Katar ││ │ │ │ Atai Singh ┘│ └│Kachor ┘│ │ │ │ Sher Singh │Narnot │Nimbaj │ 5,000│ 500│ 125 │ Devi Singh ┐│ ┌│Sidmukh ┐│ │ │ │ Ummed Singh ├│Narnot ┤│Karipura ├│ 20,000│ 5,000│ 400 │ Surthan Singh ││ ││Ajitpura ││ │ │ │ Karnidhan ┘│ └│Beasar ┘│ │ │ │ Surthan Singh │Kachhwaha │Nainawas │ 4,000│ 150│ 30 ┐│[C] Padam Singh │Panwar │Jethsisar │ 5,000│ 200│ 100 ├│ Kishan Singh │Bika │Hayadesar │ 5,000│ 200│ 50 ┘│ Rao Singh │Bhatti │Pugal[29] │ 6,000│ 1,500│ 40 │[D] Sultan Singh │ Do. │Rajasar │ 1,500│ 200│ 50 │ Laktir Singh │ Do. │Raner │ 2,000│ 400│ 75 │ Karnai Singh │ Do. │Satasar │ 1,100│ 200│ 9 │ Bhum Singh │ Do. │Chakara │ 1,500│ 60│ 4 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Four Chieftains, │ │ │ │ │ │ [30] viz. │ │ │ │ │ │ 1. Bhoni Singh │Bhatti │Bichnok │ 1,500│ 60│ 6 │ 2. Zalim Singh │ Do. │Gariala │ 1,100│ 40│ 4 │ 3. Sardar Singh │ Do. │Surjara │ 800│ 30│ 2 │ 4. Khet Singh │ Do. │Randisar │ 600│ 32│ 2 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Chand Singh │Karamsot │Nokha │ 11,000│ 1,500│ 500 ┐│ Satidan │Rupawat │Badila │ 5,000│ 200│ 25 ├│[E] Bhum Singh │Bhatti │Janglu │ 2,500│ 400│ 9 ┘│ Ketsi │ Do. │Jaminsar │ 15,000│ 500│ 150 │[F] Isari Singh │Mandla │Sarunda │ 11,000│ 2,000│ 150 │ Padam Singh │Bhatti │Kudsu │ 1,500│ 60│ 4 │ Kalyan Singh │ Do. │Nainea │ 1,000│ 40│ 2 │ │ │ │ —————│ —————│ ———— │ │ │TOTAL │ 332,100│ 44,072│5,402 │[210] ─────────────────┴───────────┴───────────┴────────┴────────┴───────┴─────
Footnote 29:
Pugal Patta.
Footnote 30:
These chiefs are called Sardars of Khari Patta, one of the original conquests of the founder, Bika.
Remarks:
Footnote A:
One hundred and forty villages, attached to this fief, settled on the heir of Raja Nunkaran, who consequently forfeited the _gaddi_. The first of the chiefs of Bikaner.
Footnote B:
One hundred and forty _kothri_ (families, lit. _chambers_) of this class.
Footnote C:
These two fiefs are held by foreign nobles of the house of Amber, and the ancient Pramara (_vulg._ Panwar).
Footnote D:
The fief of Pugal was wrested from the Bhattis of Jaisalmer.
Footnote E:
Twenty-seven villages dependent on this family from Jodhpur, and settled here eleven years.
Footnote F:
Twenty-seven villages.
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If ever the whole feudal array of Bikaner amounted to this, it would assuredly be found difficult now, were the ban proclaimed, to assemble one-fourth of this number [211].
_Foreign Troops_
Foot. Horse. Guns. Sultan Khan — 200 — Anokha Singh, Sikh — 250 — Budh Singh Dewara — 200 — Durjan Singh’s Battalion 700 4 4 Ganga Singh’s Battalion 1000 25 6 —— —- —— Total Foreigners 1700 679 10 Park — — 21 —— —— —— 1700 679 31 —— —— ——
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Footnote 6.2.1:
[Bīkaner is bounded on N. and W. by Bahāwalpur; S.W. by Jaisalmer; S. by Mārwār; S.E. by Shaikhāwati of Jaipur; E. by Lohāru and Hissār; total area 23,311 square miles (_IGI_, viii. 202).]
Footnote 6.2.2:
[In 1911 the population was 573,501, 4·79 souls per house.]
Footnote 6.2.3:
[For the Saraswat or Sarsūt Brāhmans see Rose, _Glossary_, ii. 122 ff.]
Footnote 6.2.4:
[The Chuhras are the criminal branch of the Panjāb sweepers (Rose, _Glossary_, ii. 182 ff.). The Thoris are said to be connected with the Aheris, a well-known criminal tribe (_Census Report, Mārwār, 1891_, ii. 194). In Bahāwalpur they resemble the Dhedh outcastes, who eat the flesh of dead animals (Malik Muhammad Din, _Gazetteer_, i. 155).]
Footnote 6.2.5:
[_Moth_, _phaseolus aconitifolius_; _til_, _sesamum indicum_.]
Footnote 6.2.6:
[Only a few acres of cotton are now grown.]
Footnote 6.2.7:
[_Guār_, _dolichos biflorus_; water-melons are known as _matīra_; _kakri_, a coarse variety of melon.]
Footnote 6.2.8:
I sent specimens to Mr. Moorcroft so far back as 1813, but never learned the result.—See Article “On the Preservation of Food,” _Edin. Review_, No. 45, p. 115.
Footnote 6.2.9:
Mr. Barrow, in his valuable work on Southern Africa, describes the water-melon as self-sown and abundant.
Footnote 6.2.10:
[Twenty miles S. of Bīkaner city, containing a temple of Karniji, the guardian deity of the Mahārāja’s family.]
Footnote 6.2.11:
Water is sold, in all the large towns, by the Malis, or ‘gardeners,’ who have the monopoly of this article. Most families have large cisterns or reservoirs, called _tankas_, which are filled in the rainy season. They are of masonry, with a small trap-door at the top, made to exclude the external air, and having a lock and key affixed. Some large _tankas_ are established for the community, and I understand this water keeps sweet for eight and twelve months’ consumption. [The proper form of the word seems to be _tānkh_, _tānkha_ (Yule, _Hobson-Jobson_, 2nd ed. 898 f.; H. Beveridge, _The Academy_, xlvi. 174).]
Footnote 6.2.12:
[About 40 miles N.W. of Bīkaner city. The chief salt lakes are at Chhāpar and Lūnkaransar (Erskine iii. A. 350).]
Footnote 6.2.13:
[Multāni mitti, fuller’s earth, found near Madh in the S. of the State, and sometimes eaten (Erskine iii. A. 251; Watt, _Econ. Prod._ 329 f.).]
Footnote 6.2.14:
One thousand rupees have been given for one; one hundred is the average value.
Footnote 6.2.15:
[The camel thorn, _Alhagi maurorum_.]
Footnote 6.2.16:
[N.W. of Bīkaner city, near the Panjāb frontier.]
Footnote 6.2.17:
[These towns are respectively 25 miles S.W. and 19 miles S.W. of Bīkaner city.]
Footnote 6.2.18:
[The tract S. of the Sutlej, having its E. limits at Ludhiāna and Sunām; to the S. of it lay the Bhāti desert (Manucci i. 320, iv. 426). Its importance is shown by Aurangzeb appointing Muhammad Muizzu-d-dīn, eldest son of Sultān Muazzam, Faujdār of the Lākhi Jungle, in A.D. 1706 (Bilimoria, _Letters of Aurangzeb_, 75.)]
Footnote 6.2.19:
[At present the normal revenue of the State is about 32 lakhs of rupees, or £213,000.]
Footnote 6.2.20:
[_Pānch_, from which the tax derives its name.]
Footnote 6.2.21:
[Malba properly means ‘sweepings, rubbish,’ then miscellaneous revenue.]
Footnote 6.2.22:
_Mal_ is the term for land which has no irrigation but from the heavens.
Footnote 6.2.23:
Nohar district 84 villages Revenue Rs. 100,000 Reni 24 ” ” 10,000 Rania 44 ” ” 20,000 Jaloli 1 ” ” 5,000 —-—— Total original Fiscal Lands 135,000 —-——
since Rajgarh, Churu, and other places recovered.
Footnote 6.2.24:
Impost Duties in old times, namely:
Town of Nunkaran Rs. 2,000 Rajgarh 10,000 Shaikhsar 5,000 Capital—Bīkaner 75,000 From Churu and other towns 45,000 —-—— 137,000 —-——
Footnote 6.2.25:
[_Dānt_, _dānta_, ‘a tooth,’ then ‘a ploughshare.’]
Footnote 6.2.26:
_Khush_ means ‘happiness, pleasure, volition’; _ap ki khushi_, ‘at your pleasure.’ [hāl = ‘circumstances.’]
Footnote 6.2.27:
This was written in 1813.
Footnote 6.2.28:
[The State now supports for Imperial service the well-known Camel Corps, called the Ganga Risāla.]
Footnote 6.2.29:
Pugal Patta.
Footnote 6.2.30:
These chiefs are called Sardars of Khari Patta, one of the original conquests of the founder, Bika.
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