Part 11

There is little difference in the requirements of the various localities. For example, the regulations of the Croydon council require that every common bearing joist for lengths up to 3 ft. 4 in. in clear shall be 3 in. X 2-1/2 in.; for lengths between 3 ft. 4 in. and 5 ft. 4 in., 4 in. X 2 in.; for lengths between 5 ft. 4 in. and 7 ft. 4 in., 4 in. X 3 in.; and so on according to the clear span. The Croydon by-laws with regard to trimmers are as follows:--A trimmer joist shall not receive more than six common joists, and the thickness of a trimming joist shall be 1-1/2 in. thicker than that for common joists of the same bearing, and the thickness of a trimmer joist shall be 1/4 in. thicker for every joist trimmed into same than the common joist. For example, if the common joists are 4 in. X 3 in. the trimming joists would have to be 4 in. X 4-1/4 in., and the trimmer joist would have to be 4 in. X 4-1/2 in.

_Partitions._--Partitions are screens used to divide large floor spaces into smaller rooms and are sometimes constructed to carry the floors above by a system of trussing. They are built of various materials; those in use now are common stud partitions, bricknogged

## partitions, and solid deal and hardwood partitions, 4-1/2 in. brick

walls or bricks laid on their sides, so making a 3 in. partition, and various patent partitions such as coke breeze concrete or hollow brick

## partitions (see BRICKWORK), iron and wire partitions, and plaster slab

## partitions (see PLASTERWORK).

There are two kinds of stud or quarter partitions, common and trussed.

[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Common Partition.]

Common partitions.

Common partitions (fig. 30) simply act as a screen to divide one room from another, and do not carry any weight. They weigh about 25 lb. per foot superficial including plastering on both sides, and are composed of 4 in. X 3 in. head and sill and 4 in. X 2 in. upright studs; 4 in. X 2 in. nogging pieces are fitted between the studs to keep them from bending in, and are placed parallel with the head, usually 4 ft. apart. Where door-openings occur in these partitions the studs next the opening are 4 in. X 3 in. Should the floor boards have been laid, the sill of the partition would be laid direct on them, but if the partitions are erected at the time of building the structure the sill should either rest directly over a joist, if parallel with it, or at right angles to the joists; should the position of the sill come between two joists, that is, parallel with them, then short pieces called bridging pieces of 4 in. X 2 in. stuff are wedged between the two joists and nailed to carry the sill.

[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Trussed Partition.]

Trussed partitions.

Trussed partitions (fig. 31) are very similar to the last, but they are so built as to carry their own weight and also to support floors, and in addition have braces; the head and sill are larger, and calculated according to the clear bearing and the weight put upon them. There are two forms of trussing, namely, queen post (fig. 32) and king post (fig. 33).

Bricknogged partitions.

Bricknogged partitions are formed in the same manner as the common stud

## partition, except that the studs are placed usually 18 or 27 in. apart

in the clear instead of 12 in., and the 18 and 27 in. widths being multiples of a brick dimension, they are filled in with brickwork 4-1/2 in. thick and always built in cement. These are used to prevent sound from passing from one room to another, and also to prevent fire from spreading, and are vermin-proof. Another method is to fill the space between the studs with coke breeze concrete instead of brickwork.

Timber partitions have the advantages that they are light and cheap and substantial, and the disadvantages that they are not fire-resisting or sound-resisting or vermin-proof; they should never be erected in damp positions such as the lower floors of buildings.

[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Queen Post Trussed Partition.]

[Illustration: FIG. 33.--King Post Trussed Partition.]

Solid wood partitions are used in offices and classrooms of schools, the upper portions usually being glazed; where these partitions enclose a staircase in a public building the London Building Act requires them to be of 2 in. hardwood, with only small panels of fire-resisting glass.

_Timber Work._--Half timber work consists of a framework of timber; the upper storeys of suburban and country residences are often thus treated, and the spaces between the timbers are filled in with brickwork and plastered inside, and rough cast outside, though sometimes tiles are hung on the outside. In some instances in country places there is no filling between the timbers, and both sides are lath and plastered, and in others the timbers are solid, or facing pieces are simply plugged to the walls, the joints being pinned with hardwood pins. Half timber work (fig. 34) well designed has a very pleasing, homely and rural effect. The best and most durable wood to use is English oak worked smooth on the external face and usually painted; the by-laws of various authorities differ considerably as to the method of construction and in the restrictions as to its use. Some very fine early examples are to be seen in England, as at Holborn Bars, London, in the old parts of Bristol, and at Moreton Old Hall, near Congleton, Cheshire (see HOUSE, Plate IV. fig. 13).

[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Half Timber Construction.]

Timber-framed permanent buildings are not used in the towns of England, not being allowed by the by-laws. In some English villages timber bungalows are allowed, plastered inside, and either rough cast outside, or with tiles, or with sheet iron painted. At the garden city of Letchworth, in Hertfordshire, there are a few timber-framed bungalows (erected about 1904 and originally intended to be used as week-end cottages), the outsides of which are covered with sheet iron and painted. Other instances of the temporary use of this kind of building are found in soldiers' barracks, offices and chapels.

In America and the British colonies this class of building is very largely erected on the outskirts of the cities. In American practice in framing the walls of wooden buildings two distinct methods are used and are distinguished as "braced" and "balloon."

The Braced (fig. 35) was the only kind in use previous to about the year 1850. In this method of framing the sills, posts, girts and plates are made of heavy timber morticed and pinned together and braced with 4 in. X 4 in. or 4 in. X 6 in. braces and common studding. To frame a building in this way it is necessary to cut all the pieces and make all the mortice holes on the ground, and then fit them together and raise a whole side at a time or at least one storey of it. The common studs are only one storey high.

The Balloon frame (fig. 36) is composed of much smaller scantlings and is more rapidly erected and less expensive. The method is to first lay the sill, generally 4 in. X 6 in., halved at the angles. After the floor is laid, the corner posts, usually 4 in. X 6 in., are erected and temporarily secured in place with the aid of stays. The common studs are then set up and spiked to the sill, and a temporary board nailed across their face on the inside. These common studs are the full height from sill to roof plate, and the second tier of floor joists are supported by notching a 1-1/4 in. X 7 in. board, called a false girt or ribbon, into their inside edge at the height to receive the floor joists. The ends of the joists are also placed against a stud and spiked. The tops of the studs are cut to a line, and a 2 in. X 4 in. plate is spiked on top, an additional 2 in. X 4 in. plate being placed on the top of the last breaking joint. Should the studs not be long enough to reach the plate, then short pieces are fished on with pieces of wood spiked on both sides. The diagram shows a portion of the framework of a two-storey house constructed in the manner described. In the balloon frame the timbers are held together entirely by nails and spikes, thus permitting them to be put up rapidly. The studs are doubled where windows or openings occur. In both these methods dwarf brick foundations should be built, upon which to rest the sill. For buildings of a superior kind a combination of the braced and balloon frames is sometimes adopted.

[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Braced Frame.]

[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Balloon Frame.]

The sides of frame buildings are covered with siding, which is fastened to a sheathing of rough boards nailed to the studs. The siding may consist of matched boards placed diagonally, or of clapboards or weather boards--which are thin boards thicker at one edge than the other, and arranged horizontally with the thick edge downwards and overlapping the thin edge of the board below. Shingles or wooden tiles are also employed.

AUTHORITIES.--The following are the principal publications on carpentry: T. Tredgold, _Carpentry_; Peter Nicholson, _Carpenter and Joiner_; J. Newlands, _Carpenter's Assistant_; J. Gwilt, _Encyclopaedia of Architecture_; Rivington, _Building Construction_ (elementary and advanced); E.L. Tarbuck, _Encyclopaedia of Practical Carpentry and Joinery_; A.W. Pugin, _Details of Ancient Timber Houses_; Beresford Pite, _Building Construction_; J.P. Allen, _Building Construction_; H. Adams. _Notes on Building_; C.F. Mitchell, _Building Construction_ (elementary and advanced); Burrell, _Building Construction_; F.E. Kidder, _Building Construction_ (U.S.A.); E.E. Viollet le Duc, _Dictionnaire_; J.K. Krafft, _L'Art de la charpente_. (J. Bt.)

CARPET, the name given to any kind of textile covering for the ground or the floor, the like of which has also been in use on couches and seats and sometimes even for wall or tent hangings or curtains. In modern times, however, carpet usually means a patterned fabric woven with a raised surface of tufts (either cut or looped), and used as a floor covering. Other floor coverings are and have been made also without such a tufted surface, and of these some are simple shuttle-woven materials plain or enriched with needlework or printed with patterns, others are woven after the manner of tapestry-weaving (see TAPESTRY) or in imitation of it, and a further class of carpets is made of felt (see FELT). This last material is entirely different from that of shuttle or tapestry weaving. Although carpet weaving by hand is, and for centuries has been, an Oriental industry, it has also been, and is still, pursued in many European countries. Carpet-weaving by steam-driven machinery is solely European in origin, and was not brought to the condition of meeting a widespread demand until the 19th century.

PLATE I

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--PART OF A LINEN COVERING OVER-WROUGHT WITH ORNAMENT IN LOOPS OF COLOURED WOOLS.

Egypto-Roman of the 3rd or 4th century A.D. (Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington.)]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--PART OF A LINEN COVERING OVER-WROUGHT WITH ORNAMENT IN LOOPS OF DARK-BROWN WOOL.

Egypto-Roman of the 3rd or 4th century A.D. (Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington.)]

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--CUT PILE TURKEY CARPET, 18th CENTURY, EXEMPLIFYING SUCH CHARACTERISTIC ANGULAR TREATMENT OF QUASI-BOTANICAL FORMS AS IS USUALLY FOUND IN CARPETS AND RUGS MADE IN ASIA MINOR. FROM DESIGNS OF PERSIAN OR MOSIL ORIGIN. (Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington.)]

PLATE II

[Illustration: FIG 4.--RUG MADE IN PERSIA IN THE MANNER OF TAPESTRY WEAVING]

[Illustration: FIG. 5.--CARPET OF STOUT FLAX OR HEMP WOVEN AND THEN COMPLETELY COVERED WITH ORNAMENT WORKED IN CLOSE NEEDLE STITCHES IN COLOURED THREADS.]

History.

In connexion with the word "carpet" (Lat. _carpita_, rug; O. Fr. _carpite_) notice may be taken of the Gr. [Greek: Tapaes] and the Lat. _tapetium_, whence also comes the Fr. _tapis_ (the present word for "carpet") as well as our own word "tapestry." This latter, though now more particularly descriptive of hangings and curtains woven in a special way, was, in later medieval times, indiscriminately applied to them and to stuffs used as floor and seat coverings. From a very early period classical writers make mention of them. In ancient Egypt, for instance, floor and seat coverings were used in temples for religious ceremonies by the priests of Amen Ra; later on they were used to garnish the palaces of the Pharaohs. If one may judge from rare remains of decorative textiles, in the museum at Cairo especially, dating from at least 1480 B.C., such Egyptian fabrics were of linen inwoven with coloured wools in a tapestry-weaving manner, and were not tufted or piled textures. Taken from the palace at Nineveh is a large marble slab carved in low relief with a geometrical pattern surrounded by a border of lotus flowers and buds, evidently a copy of an Assyrian floor cover or rug about 705 B.C., such as was also woven probably in the tapestry-weaving manner. On the other hand, its design equally well suggests patchwork--a method of needlework in vogue with Egyptians, at least 900 years B.C., for ornamental purposes, as indicated by the elaborately patterned canopy which covered the bier of an Egyptian queen--the mother-in-law of Shishak who took Jerusalem some three or four years after the death of Solomon--and is preserved in the museum at Cairo. In the _Odyssey, tapetia_ are frequently mentioned, but these again, whether floor coverings or hangings, are more likely to have been flat-textured and not piled fabrics. On the tomb of Cyrus was spread a "covering of Babylonian tapestry, the carpets underneath of the finest wrought purple" (Arrian vi. 29). Athenaeus (bk. v. ch. 27) gives from Callixenus the Rhodian (c. 280 B.C.) an account of a banquet given by Ptolemy Philadelphus at Alexandria, and describes "the purple carpets of finest wool, with the pattern on both sides," as well as "handsomely embroidered rugs very beautifully elaborated with figures"; these again were probably not piled fabrics but kindred to the hangings in the palace of Ptolemy Philadelphus decorated with portraits, which were likely to have been of tapestry-weaving, and would be nearly the same in appearance on both sides of the fabric. Of corresponding tapestry woven work are Egypto-Roman specimens dating from the 2nd or 3rd century A.D., a considerable collection of which is in the Victoria and Albert Museum at South Kensington. From about the same period date bits of hangings or coverings woven in linen, over-wrought in a method of needlework with ornament of compact loops of worsted (Plate I. figs, 1 and 2). These are the earliest extant specimens of textiles presenting a tufted or piled surface very kindred to that of woven pile carpets of much later date. But the _modus operandi_ in producing the earlier only remotely corresponds with that of the later--though making a surface of loops by means of needlework as in the Coptic or Egypto-Roman specimens of Plate I. figs, 1 and 2 seems to be a step in a progress towards the introduction at an apparently later date of tufts into loom weavings such as we find in 16th-century tufted or piled carpets.

Method of making piled carpets.

The simple traditional Oriental method of making these latter is briefly as follows:--The foundation is a warp of strong cotton or hempen or woollen or silk threads, the number of which is regulated by the breadth of the carpet and the fineness or coarseness to be given to its pile. Short lengths of coloured wool or goats' or camels' hair or silk are knotted on to each of the warp threads so that the two ends of each twist or tuft of coloured yarn, of whatever material it is, project in front. Across the width of the warp and above the range of tufts a weft thread is run in; another line or row of tufts is then knotted, and above this another weft thread is run in across the warps, and so on. These rows of tufts and weft as made are compressed together by means of a blunt fork or rude comb-like instrument, and thus a compact textile with a pile or tufted surface is produced; the projecting tufts are then carefully clipped to an even surface. In the East the rude wooden frames in which the warp-threads are stretched either stand upright upon, or are level with, the ground. They are easily transported and put together, and the weaving in them is done chiefly by wandering groups of weavers. The local surroundings, often those of rocky arid districts, in which Kurdish and other families weave carpets are well illustrated in _Oriental Rugs_ by J.H. Mumford. For making pile carpets and rugs two traditional knots are in use; the first is termed the Turkish or Ghiordes knot, from Ghiordes, an old city not far from Brusa. It is in vogue principally throughout Asia Minor, as far east as Kurdistan and the Caucasus, but it is also used farther south-east in parts of Persia and India. The yard of the pile is knotted in short lengths upon the warp-threads so that the two outstanding ends of each knot alternate with every two threads of the warp. The second traditional knot is the Persian or Sehna knot, which, though better calculated to produce a close, fine, even, velvety surface, has in many parts of Persia been abandoned for the Ghiordes knot, which is a trifle more easily tied. The Persian or Sehna knot is tied so that from every space between the warp-threads one end of the knot protrudes. The number of knots to the inch tied according to either the Turkish or Persian method is determined by the size and closeness of the warp-threads and the size and number of weft-threads thrown across after each row of knots. The patterns of the fabrics made by country weavers are usually taken by them from old rugs. But in towns where weaving is conducted under more organized conditions new patterns are often devised, and are traced sometimes upon great cardboards, on which the stitches, or knots, are indicated by squares each painted in its proper colour. In some of the Persian carpets and rugs made at Sehna, Kirman and Tabriz, the warp is of silk, a material that contributes to fine compact pile textures.

Date of original pile textures.

There is much uncertainty as to the period when cut pile carpets were first made in the East. Their texture is certainly akin to that of fustian and velvet; while that of the finer Persian carpets, which were not made much earlier than about the 15th century, is practically not distinguishable from velvet, having long or heavy pile. Fustian, the English name for a cut short pile textile, is derived from Fostat (old Cairo), and such material is likely to have been made there, as soon as anywhere else, by Saracens, especially during the propitious times of the Fatimite Khalifs, who for more than two centuries previously to the 13th century were noted for the encouragement they gave to all sorts of arts and manufactures. It seems that velvet came into use in Europe not much earlier than the 14th century, and various French church inventories of the time contain entries of "_tapis velus_ (cut pile carpets) _d'aultre mer, a mettre par terre_" (see _Essai sur l'histoire des tapisseries et tapis_, by W. Chocqueel, Paris, 1863, pp. 22-23). It is an open question if the making of cut pile carpets in Persia or by Saracens elsewhere preceded that of fustians and velvets or whether the developments in making the three proceeded _pari passu._

Carpets with flat surface.

The making of carpets with a flat surface, however, is probably far older than that of cut pile carpets, and characteristic of one such old method is that in the making of Soumak carpets (Plate II. fig. 5), the ornament of which done in close needle stitches with coloured threads completely conceals the stout flax or hemp web which is the essential material of these carpets. Soumak is a distortion of Shernaka, a Caucasian town in the far east of Asia Minor. But so-called Soumak carpets are made in other districts, and the particular needlework used in them is practically of the same kind as that on a smaller scale used for the well-known Persian Nakshe or woman's trousering, and again that used on a still smaller scale in the ornamentation of valuable Kashmir shawls. Quilted and chain-stitched cotton prayer and bath rugs from Persia are referred to in the article on EMBROIDERY.

Another method of making carpets with a flat surface is that of tapestry-weaving (see Plate II. fig. 4), which, according to existing and well-authenticated specimens of considerable antiquity (already referred to), appears to be the oldest of any historic process of ornamental weaving (see TAPESTRY).

Motives in traditional designs in Oriental carpets.

Very broadly considered, the traditional designs or patterns of Oriental carpets fall into two classes: the one, prevailing to a much larger extent than the other, seems to reflect the austerity of the Sunni or orthodox Mahommedans in making patterns with abstract geometric and angular forms, stiff interlacing devices, cryptic signs and symbols and the like; whilst the other suggests the freer thought of the Shiah or unorthodox sect, in designs of ingenious blossom and leafy scrolls, conventional arabesques, botanical and animal forms, and cartouches enclosing Kufic inscriptions (see the splendid example known as the Ardebil carpet, Plate III. fig. 7, and another in Plate IV. fig. 9). Types of the more austere design occur in carpets from Afghanistan, Turkestan, Bokhara and Asia Minor, N.W. India and even Morocco, the other types of freer design being almost special to Persian rugs and carpets.

Indian Carpets.

Next in historic importance to Persia, Turkestan and Asia Minor is India, where the making of cut pile carpets--known as Kalin and Kalicha--was presumably introduced by the Mahommedans during the latter part of the 14th century. But the industry did not apparently attain importance until after the founding of the Mogul dynasty by Baber early in the 16th century. The designs mainly derived from those of Persian carpets of that period do not as a rule rise to the excellence of their prototypes. Historical centres of Indian carpet making are in Kashmir, the Punjab and Sind, and at Agra, Mirzapur, Jubbulpore, Warangal in the Deccan, Malabar and Masulipatam. Velvets are richly embroidered in gold and silver thread at Benares and Murshidabad and used as ceremonial carpets, and silk pile carpets are made at Tanjore and Salem. For the most part the best of the Indian woollen pile carpets have been produced by workers of repute engaged by princes, great nobles and wealthy persons to carry on the craft in their dwellings and palaces. These groups of highly skilled workers as part of the household staff were paid fixed salaries, but they were also allowed to execute private orders. During the 19th century the carpet industry was developed in government gaols. Produced in great quantities the prison-made carpets as a rule are less well turned out, and the competition, set up between them and the rugs and carpets of private factories has had a somewhat detrimental effect upon the industry generally. Older in origin than the cut pile carpets are those of thinner and flat surface texture, which from almost immemorial times have been woven in cotton with blue and white or blue and red stripes in the simplest way. These are called _daris_ and _satranjis_, and are made chiefly in Benares and northern India. They are also made in the south and by such aborigines retaining primitive habits as the Todas of the Nilgiri Hills, a fact which points to the age of this particular method of making ground or floor coverings.