Part 46

Under his sons the importance of the chief castles was recognized as so great that the struggle for their control was in the forefront of every contest. When Richard made vast grants at his accession to his brother John, he was careful to reserve the possession of certain castles, and when John rose against the king's minister, Longchamp, in 1191, the custody of castles was the chief point of dispute throughout their negotiations, and Lincoln was besieged on the king's behalf, as were Tickhill, Windsor and Marlborough subsequently, while the siege of Nottingham had to be completed by Richard himself on his arrival. To John, in turn, as king, the fall of Chateau Gaillard meant the loss of Rouen and of Normandy with it, and when he endeavoured to repudiate the newly-granted Great Charter, his first step was to prepare the royal castles against attack and make them his centres of resistance. The barons, who had begun their revolt by besieging that of Northampton, now assailed that of Oxford as well and seized that of Rochester. The king recovered Rochester after a severe struggle and captured Tonbridge, but thenceforth there was a war of sieges between John with his mercenaries and Louis of France with his Frenchmen and the barons, which was specially notable for the great defence of Dover Castle by Hubert de Burgh against Louis. On the final triumph of the royal cause, after John's death, at the battle of Lincoln, the general pacification was accompanied by a fresh issue of the Great Charter in the autumn of 1217, in which the precedent of Stephen's reign was followed and a special clause inserted that all "adulterine" castles, namely those which had been constructed or rebuilt since the breaking out of war between John and the barons, should be immediately destroyed. And special stress was laid on this in the writs addressed to the sheriffs.

In 1223 Hubert de Burgh, as regent, demanded the surrender to the crown of all royal castles not in official custody, and though he succeeded in this, Falkes de Breaute, John's mercenary, burst into revolt next year, and it cost a great national effort and a siege of nearly two months to reduce Bedford Castle, which he had held. Towards the close of Henry's reign castles again asserted, in the Baron's War, their importance. The Provisions of Oxford included a list of the chief royal castles and of their appointed castellans with the oath that they were to take; but the alien favourites refused to make way for them till they were forcibly ejected. When war broke out it was Rochester Castle that successfully held Simon de Montfort at bay in 1264, and in Pevensey Castle that the fugitives from the rout of Lewes were able to defy his power. Finally, after his fall at Evesham, it was in Kenilworth Castle that the remnant of his followers made their last stand, holding out nearly five months against all the forces of the crown, till their provisions failed them at the close of 1266.

Thus for two centuries after the Norman Conquest castles had proved of primary consequence in English political struggles, revolts and warfare. And, although, when the country was again torn by civil strife, their military importance was of small account, the crown's historic jealousy of private fortification was still seen in the need to obtain the king's licence to "crenellate" (i.e. embattle) the country mansion.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--G.T. Clark, _Medieval Military Architecture in England_ (2 vols.), includes a few French castles and is the standard work on the subject, but inaccurate and superseded on some points by recent research; Professor Oman's _Art of War in the Middle Ages_ is a wide survey of the subject, but follows Clark in some of his errors; Mackenzie, _The Castles of England_ (1897), valuable for illustrations; Deville, _Histoire du Chateau-Gaillard_ (1829) and _Chateau d'Argues_ (1839); Viollet-le-Duc's _Essay on the Military Architecture of the Middle Ages_ was translated by M. Macdermott in 1860. More recent studies will be found in J.H. Round's _Geoffrey de Mandeville_ (1891); "English Castles" (_Quarterly Review_, July 1894); and "Castles of the Conquest" (_Archeologia_, lviii., 1902); St John Hope's "English Castles of the 10th and 11th Centuries" (_Archaeol. Journal_, lx., 1902); Mrs Armitage's "Early Norman Castles of England" (_Eng. Hist. Review_, xix. 1904), and her papers in _Scot. Soc. Ant. Proc._ xxxiv., and _The Antiquary_, July, August, 1906; G. Neilson's "The Motes in Norman Scotland" (_Scottish Review_, lxiv., 1898); G.H. Orpen, "Motes and Norman Castles in Ireland" (_Eng. Hist. Review_, xxi., xxii., 1906-1907). (J. H. R.)

CASTLEBAR, a market town and the county town of Co. Mayo, Ireland, in the west parliamentary division, on the river and near the lough of the same name, on the Manulla and Westport branch of the Midland Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3585. The county court buildings and other public offices occupy a square, and there is a pleasant mall shaded by fine trees. There are some breweries, and trade in linens and agricultural produce. The castle, which gives its name to the town, was a fortress of the De Burgh family; but the town itself was founded in the reign of James I., and received a charter from him in 1613. In 1641 the castle was held for the parliament by Sir Henry Bingham, but he was forced to surrender to Lord Mayo, and fell a victim, with all his garrison, to the fury and treachery of the besiegers. The massacre was afterwards avenged in 1653 by the execution of Sir Theobald Burke (by that time Lord Mayo), who had been in command along with his father at the siege. In 1798 the town was occupied for some weeks by the French under General J.J. Humbert, who had defeated the English under Luke Hutchison in a conflict which is jocularly styled the "Castlebar Races." The town returned two members to the Irish parliament until the Union. Four miles N.E. of Castlebar is Turlough, with a round tower 70 ft. high and 57 ft. in circumference, and other remains.

CASTLECONNELL, a village of Co. Limerick, Ireland, on the left bank of the Shannon, 8 m. N.E. of Limerick on the Great Southern & Western railway. It possesses a spa which was once considerably frequented, but is famous as a centre for the salmon fishing on the lower Shannon. Castleconnell is so intimately connected with this sport that it has given its name to a favourite pattern of fly-rod, in which a movable splice takes the place of the usual metal joint. The beautiful rapids of Doonas (avoided by a canal) are in the neighbourhood, and the surrounding scenery is generally attractive. There are remains of a castle from which the town took its name, which was the seat of the kings of Thomond, and was blown up by General Ginkel at the time of the siege of Limerick (1690).

CASTLE DONINGTON, a town in the Loughborough parliamentary division of Leicestershire, England, 123-1/2 m. N.N.W. from London, on the Trent Junction and Western branch of the Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 2514. It lies on the flank of the hills overlooking the Trent and Soar valleys. There are slight remains of the castle. The church of St Luke is a fine building of Early English and later date. Donington Park, a neighbouring mansion, was offered to refugees during the French Revolution in 1830, and Charles X. availed himself of this retreat. Hosiery, silk and baskets are manufactured. Castle Donington is 2-1/2 m. west of Kegworth station on the Midland main line. Kegworth (pop. 2078), on the Soar, has a hosiery and knitting industry.

CASTLE DOUGLAS, a burgh of barony and police burgh of Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 3018. It is situated on Carlingwark Loch, 19-1/2 m. S.W. of Dumfries by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. Its auction marts for sheep and cattle sales are the largest in the south-west of Scotland; at an autumn sale as many as 15,000 sheep and 1400 cattle are disposed of in one day. The leading industries comprise the making of agricultural implements and mineral waters, besides tanning. The Macmillan Free Church perpetuates the memory of John Macmillan (d. 1753), the Cameronian, who helped to found the Reformed Presbyterian Church. He had been chaplain to Murray of Broughton, and afterwards became minister of Balmaghie, about 3-1/2 m. N.W. of Castle Douglas. The town is the chief centre of business in East Galloway, and it is also resorted to in midsummer for its beautiful scenery and excellent fishing. Till 1765 it was only a village under the name of Causewayhead, but the discovery of marl in the lake brought it some prosperity, and it was purchased in 1792 by Sir William Douglas and called after him. Since then its progress has been continuous. Carlingwark Loch contains several islets, on one of which is a crannog, or ancient lake dwelling.

CASTLEFORD, an urban district in the Osgoldcross parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on the river Aire near its junction with the Calder, 9 m. S.E. of Leeds, on the North-Eastern and Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1901) 17,386. Large glass-bottle and earthenware-jar works, chemical works, and neighbouring collieries employ the inhabitants. Here was the Roman village or fort of _Lagecium_ or _Legeolium_; and though visible remains are wanting, a number of relics have been discovered.

CASTLE-GUARD, an arrangement under the feudal system, by which the duty of finding knights to guard royal castles was imposed on certain baronies, and divided among their knight's fees. The greater barons provided for the guard of their castles by exacting a similar duty from their knights. In both cases the obligation was commuted very early for a fixed money payment, which, as "castle-guard rent" lasted on to modern times.

See J.H. Round, "Castle-Guard," in _Archaeological Journal_, vol. lix., and "Castle-ward and Coinage," in _The Commune of London._ (J. H. R.)

CASTLEMAINE, a town of Talbot county, Victoria, Australia, 78 m. by rail N.N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 5704. The gold-mines here were among the first discovered in the colony, and dredging for gold is carried on in Barker's and Forrest creeks, at the junction of which the town stands. Slate and flagstone are largely quarried in the district, which also produces wine and much fruit, especially apples. Castlemaine has a reputation as a health resort in cases of pulmonary complaints.

CASTLE RISING, a village of Norfolk, England, 4 m. by road N.E. of King's Lynn. The Norman castle for which it is famous stands on slightly elevated ground overlooking, to the west, the low marshy coast of the Wash. Its site is enclosed by artificial ramparts of earth and a dyke which is crossed by an ancient bridge. The keep is square and massive, and fairly perfect, and it is not difficult to reconstruct the arrangement of the rooms. In some parts, especially the entrance, the Norman carving is very rich. The foundations of a small chapel with apsidal eastern termination have been discovered outside the castle. The village of Castle Rising is the decayed remnant of a town of no little importance. Its church of St Laurence is late Norman, with much rich ornamentation; it shows traces of considerable alterations in the Early English period, but is an admirable example of the earlier style.

It is a matter of dispute whether Rising was or was not an early Saxon settlement; in Domesday Book the manor is given as having belonged to Archbishop Stigand, from whom it had passed to Odo of Bayeux, whose estates were confiscated in 1088. Granted to William de Albini, whose son built Rising Castle, it passed first to Robert de Montalt, and then by sale to Isabel, queen of England, in 1332, remaining in the possession of the crown until Henry VIII. exchanged it for other lands with the duke of Norfolk. In 1269 an inquisition found that the lord had the return of all writs. In 1275 Robert de Montalt died seised of the manor and vill with the assize of bread and ale. An inquisition of 1379, although it makes no mention of the borough, states that the lord has the rents of assizes, and perquisites of the courts with view of frank-pledge. A mayor is first mentioned in 1343, and a borough existed in the 15th century. A survey of 1589-1590 declared that Castle Rising was an ancient borough by prescription according to the grant made to Hugh de Albini by Henry III. In 1589-1590 the recorder was chosen by the lord of the manor. The mayor, the only member of the corporation, whose sole duty was the holding of the assize of bread and ale, was chosen by the burgesses and presented at the court leet for confirmation. Castle Rising became a parliamentary borough in 1558, but was disfranchised in 1832 and the corporation abolished in 1835, although a mayor was elected for special purposes until 1883. Having no manufactures, the trade of the town depended entirely on its fairs and markets; but these have been long obsolete.

CASTLETON, a village in the High Peak parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, 17 m. W.S.W. of Sheffield, and 2 m. from Hope station on a branch of the Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 547. Lying itself at an elevation of about 600 ft., it is surrounded on the north, west and south by hills from 1400 to 1700 ft. in height, rising sharply, and in parts precipitously. The village is celebrated for its situation in the midst of the wild Peak country, for the caves and mines in the neighbourhood, and for the Castle of the Peak, the ruins of which are strongly placed on a cliff immediately above the village. The Peak Cavern or Devil's Hole, penetrating this cliff, is the most magnificent in Derbyshire. For many generations the entrance to this cave has served as a workshop, held free of rent, to families employed in rope and twine making. Speedwell Cavern is not far distant, at the entrance to the fine pass of Winnats, by which Castleton and the Vale of Hope are approached from the west. The beauties of this cavern, in which occurs the so-called bottomless pit, are in part readily accessible by boat, but the approach to the inner or Cliff cavern is so difficult that it has rarely been explored. Among several other caves is that known as the Blue John Mine, from the decorative fluorspar called "Blue John" which is obtained here. The church of St Edmund, Castleton, retains a fine Norman chancel arch, and the vestry contains a valuable library. At Brough near Castleton was a Roman fort, established to hold in check the hillmen of the Peak. It was connected by roads with Buxton, Manchester and Rotherham. The Castle of the Peak, or Peveril Castle, is famous through Sir Walter Scott's novel _Peveril of the Peak_. Early earthworks, which, extending from below the castle in a semicircle, enclosed the town, can still in great part be traced. Before the Conquest the site was held by Gernebern and Hundinc, and was granted by the Conqueror to William Peverell, by whom the castle was built. On the forfeiture of William Peverell, grandson of the first holder, it was granted by Henry II. to Prince John who, in 1204, made Hugh Nevill governor of the castle. In 1216 William Ferrers, earl of Derby, took it from the rebellious barons, and was made governor by Henry III., who in 1223 granted a charter for a weekly market at the town. In 1328 the castle was given to John of Gaunt on his marriage with Blanche of Lancaster, and thus became parcel of the duchy of Lancaster. The castle has often been used as a prison, and from its position was almost impregnable.

CASTLETOWN (Manx, _Bully Cashtel_), a town of the Isle of Man, 10 m. S.W. of Douglas, by the Isle of Man railway. Pop. (1901) 1975. It is picturesquely situated on both sides of a small harbour formed by the outflow of the Silver Burn into Castletown Bay. It was the legal capital of the island until 1862. In the centre of the town stands Castle Rushen, which is said to owe its foundation to the Danish chief, Guthred, in 947-960, though the existing building, which is remarkably well preserved, probably dates from the 14th century. Until the 18th century it was the residence of the lords of Man, and until 1891 served as a prison. The massive keep is square, and is surrounded by an outer wall, with towers and a moat. The council chamber and court-house were built in 1644. In the neighbourhood of the castle is the old House of Keys, where the members of the Manx parliament held their sessions until the removal of the seat of government to Douglas. A lofty Doric column commemorates Cornelius Smelt, lieutenant-governor of the island (d. 1832), near which there is a remarkable sun-dial with thirteen faces, dating from 1720. King William's College, situated a mile to the north-east of the town, was opened in 1833; but a complete restoration was rendered necessary by fire in 1844, and it was subsequently enlarged. It is the chief educational establishment in the island. At Hango Hill near the town William Christian, receiver-general, who had surrendered the castle, and with it the island, to the parliamentary forces in 1651, was executed in 1663 at the instance of the countess of Derby, who had undertaken to defend it for the king. A small shipping trade is maintained.

CASTOR and POLLUX (Gr. [Greek: Poludeukes]), in Greek and Roman mythology, the twin sons of Leda, and brothers of Helen and Clytaemnestra. They were also known under the name of Dioscuri ([Greek: Dioskoroi], later [Greek: Dioskouroi], children of Zeus), for, according to later tradition, they were the children of Zeus and Leda, whose love the god had won under the form of a swan. In some versions Leda is represented as having brought forth two eggs, from one of which were born Castor and Pollux, from the other Helen. In another account, Zeus is the father of Pollux and Helen, Tyndareus (king of Sparta) of Castor and Clytaemnestra. In Homer, Castor, Pollux and Clytaemnestra are said to be the children of Tyndareus and Leda, Helen the daughter of Leda by Zeus. The Dioscuri were specially reverenced among people of Dorian race, and were said to have reigned at Sparta, where also they were buried. They were also worshipped, especially in Athens, as lords and protectors ([Greek: anakes, anaktes]). Sailors in a storm prayed to them (Horace, _Odes_, i. 3) and sacrificed a white lamb, whereupon they were wont to appear in the form of fire at the masthead (probably referring to the phenomenon of St Elmo's fire), and the storm ceased. Later, they were confounded with the Samothracian Cabeiri. In battle they appeared riding on white horses and gave victory to the side they favoured. They were the patrons of hospitality, and founded the sacred festival called Theoxenia. They presided over public games, Castor especially as the horse-tamer, Pollux as the boxer; but both are represented as riding on horseback or driving in a chariot. In Sparta their ancient symbol was two parallel beams [Greek: dokana] connected by cross-bars, which the Spartans took with them into the field (Plutarch, _De Fraterno Amore_, 1; Herodotus v. 75); later, they were represented by two amphorae with snakes twined round them. Their most important exploits were the invasion of Attica, to rescue their sister Helen from Theseus; their share in the hunting of the Calydonian boar (see MELEAGER) and the Argonautic expedition, and their battle with the sons of Aphareus, brought about by a quarrel in regard to some cattle, in which Castor, the mortal (as the son of Tyndareus), fell by the hand of Idas. Pollux, finding him dead after the battle, implored Zeus to be allowed to die with him; this being impossible by reason of his immortality, Pollux was permitted to spend alternately one day among the gods, the other in Hades with his brother. According to another fable, the god marked his approval of their love by placing them together in the sky, as the Twins or the morning and evening star (Hyginus, _Poet. Astronom._ ii. 22). Like the Asvins of the _Veda_, the bringers of light in the morning sky, with whom they have been identified, the Dioscuri are represented as youthful horsemen, naked or wearing only a light chlamys. Their characteristic attribute is a pointed egg-shaped cap, surmounted by a star.

Though their worship was perhaps most carefully observed among people of Dorian origin, Castor and Pollux were held in no small veneration at Rome. It was the popular belief in that city from an early period that the battle of Lake Regillus had been decided by their interposition (Dion. Halic. vi. 13). They had fought, it was said, armed and mounted, at the head of the legions of the commonwealth, and had afterwards carried the news of the victory with incredible speed to the city. The well in the Forum at which they alighted was pointed out, and near it rose their ancient temple, in which the senate often held its sittings. On the 15th of July, the supposed anniversary of the battle, a great festival with sumptuous sacrifices was celebrated in their honour, and a solemn parade of the Roman knights (_transvectio equitum_), who looked upon the Dioscuri as their patrons, took place. (Apollodorus iii. 10. 7, 11. 2; Homer, _Odyssey_, xi. 299; Hyginus, _Fab._ 77. 155; Pindar, _Nem._ x. 60, 80 and schol.; Diod. Sic. iv. 43; Plutarch, _Theseus_, 32, 33; Theocritus, _Idyll_, xxii.)

See Maurice Albert, _Le Culte de Castor et Pollux en Italie_ (1883), with special descriptions and representations in art, on coins, vases and statues; S. Eitrem, "Die gottlichen Zwillinge bei den Griechen" (treating of the divine beings mentioned in pairs in Greek mythology), in _Videnskabs-Selskab Skrifter_ (Christiania, 1902); W.R. Paton, _De Cultu Dioscurorum apud Graecos_ (Bonn, 1894); L. Myriantheus, _Acvins oder arische Dioskuren_ (Munich, 1876); J.R. Harris, _The Dioscuri in the Christian Legends_ (1903), and _The Cult of the Heavenly Twins_ (1906); W. Helbig, "Die Castores als Schutzgotter des romischen Equitatus," in _Hermes_, xl. (1905); C. Jaisle, _Die Dioskuren als Retter zur See bei Griechen und Romern, und ihr Fortleben in christlichen Legenden_ (Tubingen, 1907); L. Preller, _Griechische und romische Mythologie_; articles by A. Furtwangler in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_, and by M. Albert in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites._