Part 6

[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Skull and dentition of Australian Sea-Bear (_Otaria forsteri_).]

Sea-lions

The third and last family of the Pinnipedia, and thus of existing Carnivora, is the _Otariidae_, which includes the eared seals, or sea-lions and sea-bears. In all these animals, when on land, the hind-feet are turned forwards under the body, and aid in supporting and moving the trunk as in ordinary quadrupeds. There are small external ears. Testes suspended in a distinct external scrotum. Skull with post-orbital processes and alisphenoid canal. Soles of feet naked. By many naturalists these seals are arranged in a number of generic groups, but as the differences between them are not very great, they may all be included in the typical genus _Otaria_. The dental formula is i. 3/2, c. 1/1, p. 4/4, m. (1 or 2)/1; total 34 or 36. The first and second upper incisors are small, with the summits of their crowns divided by deep transverse grooves into an anterior and a posterior cusp of nearly equal height; the third large and canine-like. Canines large, conical, pointed, recurved. Molars and premolars usually 5/5, of which the second, third and fourth are preceded by milk-teeth shed a few days after birth; sometimes (as in fig. 7) a sixth upper molar (occasionally developed on one side and not the other); all with similar characters, generally single-rooted; crown moderate, compressed, pointed, with a single principal cusp, and sometimes a cingulum, and more or less developed anterior and posterior accessory cusps. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 15, L. 5, S. 4, Ca. 9-10. Head rounded. Eyes large; ears small, narrow and pointed. Neck long. Skin of the feet extended far beyond the nails and ends of the digits, with a deeply-lobed margin. The nails small and often quite rudimentary, especially those of the first and fifth toes of both feet; the best-developed and most constant being the three middle claws of the hind-foot, which are elongated, compressed and curved.

Sea-bears and sea-lions are widely distributed, especially in the temperate regions of both hemispheres, though absent from the coasts of the North Atlantic. They spend more of their time on shore, and range inland to greater distances than the true seals, especially at the breeding-time, though they are obliged to return to the water to seek their food. They are gregarious and polygamous, and the males usually much larger than the females. Some possess, in addition to the stiff, close, hairy covering common to the group, a fine, dense, woolly under-fur. The skins of these, when dressed and deprived of the longer harsh outer hairs, constitute the "sealskin" of commerce. The species include _O. stelleri_, the northern sea-lion, the largest of the genus, from the North Pacific, about 10 ft. in length; _O. jubata_, the southern sea-lion, from the Falkland Islands and Patagonia; _O. californiana_, from California; _O. ursina_, the sea-bear or fur-seal of the North Pacific, the skins of which are imported in immense numbers from the Pribiloff Islands; _O. antarctica_ or _pusilla_, from the Cape of Good Hope; and _O. forsteri_, from Australia and various islands in the southern hemisphere. (See SEAL-FISHERIES.)

Little is known as to the past history of the sea-lions and sea-bears, but a skull has been obtained from the Miocene strata of Oregon, which Mr F.W. True states to be considerably larger than any existing sea-lion skull; its basal length when entire being probably about 20 in. The name _Pontoleon magnus_ has been proposed for this fossil sea-lion, as the character of the skull and teeth do not agree precisely with those of any living member of the group. If, however, all the modern eared seals are included in the genus _Otaria_, there is apparently no reason to exclude the fossil species.

EXTINCT CARNIVORA

Modern Carnivora are undoubtedly the descendants of the Creodonta (q.v.), an extinct early Tertiary suborder. It has been observed that as the Miocene is approached, some of these Carnivora Creodonta, or Primitiva, begin to assume more and more of the characteristics of the Carnivora Vera, till at last it is difficult to determine where the one group ends and the other commences. The creodont genera _Stypolophus_ and _Proviverra_ show some of these modern characters; but it is not till we reach the European Oligocene genus _Amphictis_, with the dental formula i. 3/3, c. 1/2, p. 4/4, m. 2/2, that we meet a type in which the fourth upper premolar and the first lower molar assume the truly sectorial character of the Carnivora Vera, while the teeth behind them are proportionally reduced in size. From the _Amphictidae_ are probably descended the _Viverridae_, the connecting genus being the African _Nandinia_, which, as already mentioned, retains the imperfectly ossified bulla of the ancestral forms. In another direction, _Amphictis_, through the Old World Lower Pliocene genus _Ictitherium_, has given rise to the _Hyaenidae_. The _Felidae_ have apparently an ancestral type in the creodont _Palaeonictis_, which has been regarded as the direct ancestor of the sabre-toothed cats, or _Machaerodontinae_ (see MACHAERODUS); but it is possible that _Palaeonictis_ may be off the direct line, and that the _Felidae_ are sprung from _Amphictis_. Be this as it may, from another group of creodonts, represented by _Vulpavus_ (_Miacis_), _Viverravus_ (_Didymictis_), and _Uintacyon_, is probably derived the Oligocene _Cynodictis_, with a dental formula like that of _Canis_ or _Cyon_, a perforation to the humerus, and an apparently undivided auditory bulla; and from _Cynodictis_ the transition is easy to the _Canidae_. It should be mentioned, however, that there is a group of North American Oligocene dog-like animals, such as _Daphaenus_, _Protemnocyon_, and _Temnocyon_, which agree with _Cyon_ in the shortness of the jaws, and with that genus and _Speothos_ in the cutting-heel of the lower sectorial. Possibly these genera may be nearly related to _Cyon_. Other dog-like North American types are _Oligohinis_, _Enhydrocyon_ and _Hyaenocyon_.

By means of the _Amphicyonidae_, as represented by the Middle Tertiary genera _Proamphicyon, Pseudamphicyon_, and _Amphicyon_, in which there were three upper molars, we have a transition from the _Cynodictis_-type to the bear-group; one of the later intermediate forms being the Lower Pliocene Old World _Hyaenarctus_, in which the two upper molars are squared and foreshadow those of _Ursus_ itself. In some unknown manner _Hyaenarctus_ appears to be related to _Aeluropus_. An allied type is found in _Arctotherium_ of the South American Pleistocene.

By the loss of the third lower molar and certain modifications of the other teeth and skull, the Miocene genus _Plesictis_ may be derived from _Cynodictis_, its dental formula being i. 3/3, c. 1/1, p. 4/4, m. (1 or 2)/2. Now _Plesictis_ is nothing more than a generalized representative of the _Mustelidae_. We have thus traced three out of the four modern arctoid families to the _Cynodictis_-type. The _Procyonidae_, or fourth family (apart from the Asiatic _Aelurus_ and _Aeluropus_) are connected with the last-named genus through the North American Oligocene _Phlaeocyon_, which is stated to be in almost every respect intermediate between _Procyon_ and _Cynodictis_ while the living _Bassariscus_ is stated to show closer signs of affinity with _Cynodictis_ than with _Phlaeocyon_.

To deal with fossil representatives of living genera, or extinct genera nearly related to groups still existing, would here be impracticable. It may be stated, however, that aberrant groups like the otters are linked up with more normal types by means of extinct forms (in this particular instance by the Miocene _Potamotherium_), so that the gaps in the phylogeny of the Carnivora are comparatively few.

LITERATURE.--The above article is based on that by Sir W.H. Flower in the 9th edition of this Encyclopaedia. The principal works on Carnivora are the following: W.H. Flower, "On the Value of the Base of the Cranium in the Classification of the Carnivora," _Proc. Zool. Soc. London_, 1869; T.H. Huxley, "Cranial and Dental Characters of the Canidae," _Proc. Zool. Soc. London_, 1880; St G. Mivart, "On the Classification and Distribution of the Aeluroidea ... and Arctoidea", _Proc. Zool. Soc. London_, 1882 and 1885; E.R. Lankester, "On the Affinities of Aeluropus," _Trans. Linn. Soc. London_, vol. viii. part iv., 1901; Miss A. Carlsson, "Uber die systematische Stellung von Nandinia," _Zool. Jahrb. Syst._, vol. xiii., 1900, and "Ist Otocyon die Ausgangsform des Hundegeschlechts oder nicht?" op. cit. vol. xxii., 1905; J.L. Wortman and W.D. Matthew, "The Ancestry of Certain Members of the Canidae, Viverridae, and Procyonidae," _Bull. Amer. Mus._, vol. xii., 1899. (R. L.*)

CARNOT, LAZARE HIPPOLYTE (1801-1888), French statesman, the second son of L.N.M. Carnot (q.v.), was born at Saint-Omer on the 6th of October 1801. Hippolyte Carnot lived at first in exile with his father, returning to France only in 1823. Unable then to enter active political life, he turned to literature and philosophy, publishing in 1828 a collection of _Chants helleniques_ translated from the German of W. Muller, and in 1830 an _Expose de la doctrine Saint-Simonienne_, and collaborating in the Saint-Simonian journal _Le Producteur._ He also paid several visits to England and travelled in other countries of Europe. In March 1839, after the dissolution of the chamber by Louis Philippe, he was elected deputy for Paris (re-elected in 1842 and in 1846), and sat in the group of the Radical Left, being one of the leaders of the party hostile to Louis Philippe. On the 24th of February 1848 he pronounced in favour of the republic. Lamartine chose him as minister of education in the provisional government, Carnot set to work to organize the primary school systems, proposing a law for obligatory and free primary instruction, and another for the secondary education of girls. But he declared himself against purely secular schools, holding that "the minister and the schoolmaster are the two columns on which rests the edifice of the republic." By this attitude he alienated both the Right and the Republicans of the Extreme Left, and was forced to resign on the 5th of July 1848. He was one of those who protested against the _coup d'etat_ of the 2nd of December 1851, but was not proscribed by Louis Napoleon. He refused to sit in the _Corps Legislatif_ until 1864, in order not to have to take the oath to the emperor. From 1864 to 1869 he was in the republican opposition, taking a very active part. He was defeated at the election of 1869. On the 8th of February 1871 he was named deputy for the Seine et Oise, and

## participated in the drawing up of the Constitutional Laws of 1875. On

the 16th of December 1875, he was named by the National Assembly senator for life. He died on the 16th of March 1888, three months after the election of his elder son, M.F.S. Carnot (q.v.), to the presidency of the republic. He had published _Le Ministere de l'instruction publique et des cultes du 24e fevrier au 5e juillet 1848_, (1849), _Memoires sur Lazare Carnot_ (2 vols., 1861-1864), _Memoires de Barere_ (with David Angers, 4 vols., 1842-1843). His second son, Marie Adolphe Carnot (b. 1839), became a distinguished mining-engineer and director of the Ecole des Mines (1899), his studies in analytical chemistry placing him in the front rank of French scientists. He was made a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1895.

See Vermorel, _Les Hommes de 1848_, (3rd ed., 1869); E. Spuller, _Histoire parlementaire de la Seconde Republique_ (1891); P. de la Gorce, _Histoire du Second Empire_ (1894 et seq.).

CARNOT, LAZARE NICOLAS MARGUERITE(1753-1823), French general, was born at Nolay in Burgundy in 1753. He received his training as an engineer at Mezieres, becoming an officer of the Corps de Genie in 1773 and a captain ten years later. He had then just published his first work, an _Essai sur les machines en general_. In 1784 he wrote an essay on balloons, and his. _Eloge_ of Vauban, read by him publicly, won him the commendation of Prince Henry of Prussia. But as the result of a controversy with Montalembert, Carnot abandoned the official, or Vauban, theories of the art of fortification, and went over to the "perpendicular" school of Montalembert. He was consequently imprisoned, on the pretext of having fought a duel, and only released when selected to accompany Prince Henry of Prussia in a visit to Vauban's fortifications. In 1791 he married. The Revolution drew him into political life, and he was elected a deputy for the Pas de Calais. In the Assembly he took a prominent part in debates connected with the army. Carnot was a stern and sincere republican, and voted for the execution of the king. In the campaigns of 1792 and 1793 he was continually employed as a commissioner in military matters, his greatest service being in April 1793 on the north-eastern frontier, where the disastrous battle of Neerwinden and the subsequent defection of Dumouriez had thrown everything into confusion. After doing what was possible to infuse energy into the operations of the French forces, he returned to Paris and was made a member of the Committee of Public Safety. He was charged with duties corresponding to those of the modern chief of the general staff and adjutant-general. As a member of the committee he signed its decrees and was thus at least technically responsible for the acts of the Reign of Terror. His energies were, however, directed to the organization, not yet of victory, but of defence. His labours were incessant; practically every military document in the archives of the committee was Carnot's own work, and he was repeatedly in the field with the armies. His part in Jourdan's great victory at Wattignies was so important that the credit of the day has often been assigned to Carnot. The winter of 1793-1794 was spent in new preparations, in instituting a severe discipline in the new and ill-trained troops of the republic, and in improvising means and material of war. He continued to visit the armies at the front, and to inspire them with energy. He acquiesced in the fall of Robespierre in 1794, but later defended Barere and others among his colleagues, declaring that he himself had constantly signed papers without reading them, as it was physically impossible to do so in the press of business. When Carnot's arrest was demanded in May 1795, a deputy cried "Will you dare to lay hands on the man who has organized victory?" Carnot had just accepted promotion to the rank of major in the engineers. Throughout 1793, when he had been the soul of the national defence, and 1794, in which year he had "organized victory" in fourteen armies, he was a simple captain.

Carnot was elected one of the five Directors in November 1795, and continued to direct the war department during the campaign of 1796. Late in 1796 he was made a member (1st class) of the Institute, which he had helped to establish. He was for two periods president of the Directory, but on the _coup d'etat_ of the 18th Fructidor (1797) was forced to take refuge abroad. He returned to France after the 18th Brumaire (1799) and was re-elected to the Institute in 1800. Early in 1800 he became minister of war, and he accompanied Moreau in the early part of the Rhine campaign. His chief work was, however, in reducing the expenses of the armies. Contrary to the usual custom he refused to receive presents from contractors, and he effected much-needed reforms in every part of the military administration. He tendered his resignation later in the year, but it was long before the First Consul would accept it. From 1801 he lived in retirement with his family, employing himself chiefly in scientific pursuits. As a senator he consistently opposed the increasing monarchism of Napoleon, who, however, gave him in 1809 a pension and commissioned him to write a work on fortification for the school of Metz. In these years he had published _De la correlation des figures de geometrie_ (1801), _Geometrie de position_ (1803), and _Principes fondamentaux de l'equilibre et du mouvement_ (1803), all of which were translated into German. His great work on fortification appeared at Paris in 1810 (_De la defense de places fortes_) and was translated for the use of almost every army in Europe. He took Montalembert as his ground-work. Without sharing Montalembert's antipathy to the bastioned trace, and his predilection for high masonry caponiers, he followed out the principle of retarding the development of the attack, and provided for the most active defence. To facilitate sorties in great force he did away with a counterscarp wall, providing instead a long gentle slope from the bottom of the ditch to the crest of the glacis. This, he imagined, would compel an assailant to maintain large forces in the advanced trenches, which he proposed to attack by vertical fire from mortars. Along the front of his fortress was built a heavy detached wall, loop-holed for fire, and sufficiently high to be a most formidable obstacle. This "Carnot wall," and, in general, Carnot's principle of active defence, played a great part in the rise of modern fortification.

He did not seek employment in the field in the aggressive wars of Napoleon, remaining a sincere republican, but in 1814, when France itself was once more in danger, Carnot at once offered his services. He was made a general of division, and Napoleon sent him to the important fortress of Antwerp as governor. His defence of that place was one of the most brilliant episodes of the campaign of 1814. On his return to Paris he addressed a political memoir to the restored king of France, which aroused much attention both in France and abroad. He joined Napoleon during the Hundred Days and was made minister of the interior, the office carrying with it the dignity of count, and on the 2nd of June he was made a peer of France. On the second Restoration he was proscribed. He lived thenceforward in Magdeburg, occupying himself still with science. But his health rapidly declined, and he died at Magdeburg on the 2nd of August 1823. His remains were solemnly removed to the Pantheon in 1889. Long before this, in 1836, Antwerp had erected a statue to its defender of 1814. In 1837 Arago pronounced his _eloge_ before the Academie des Sciences. The sincerity of his patriotism and his political convictions was proved in 1801-1804 and in 1814. The memory of his military career is preserved in the title, given to him in the Assembly, of "The organizer of victory." His sons, Sadi and L. Hippolyte, are separately noticed.

AUTHORITIES.--Baron de B..., _Vie privee, politique, et morale de L.N.M. Carnot_ (Paris, 1816); Serieys, _Carnot, sa vie politique et privee_ (Paris, 1816); Mandar, _Notice biographique sur le general Carnot_, &c. (Paris, 1818); W. Korte, _Das Leben L.N.M. Carnots_ (Leipzig, 1820); P.F. Tissot, _Memoires historiques et militaires sur Carnot_ (Paris, 1824); Arago, _Biographie de Carnot_ (Paris, 1850); Hippolyte Carnot, _Memoires sur Carnot_ (Paris, 1863); C. Remond, _Notice biographique sur le grand Carnot_ (Dijon 1880); A. Picaud, _Carnot, l'organisateur de la victoire_ (Paris, 1885 and 1887); A. Burdeau, _Une Famille de patriotes_ (Paris, 1888); L. Hennet, _Lazare Carnot_ (Paris, 1888); G. Hubbard, _Une Famille republicaine_ (Paris, 1888); M. Dreyfous, _Les Trois Carnot_ (Paris, 1888); M. Bonnal, _Carnot, d'apres les archives_, &c. (Paris, 1888); and memoir by E. Charavaray in _La Grande Encyclopedie._

CARNOT, MARIE FRANCOIS SADI (1837-1894), fourth president of the third French Republic, son of L. Hippolyte Carnot, was born at Limoges on the 11th of August 1837. He was educated as a civil engineer, and after having highly distinguished himself at the Ecole Polytechnique and the Ecole des Ponts et Chaussees, obtained an appointment in the public service. His hereditary republicanism recommended him to the government of national defence, by which he was entrusted in 1870 with the task of organizing resistance in the departments of the Eure, Calvados and Seine Inferieure, and made prefect of the last named in January 1871. In the following month he was elected to the National Assembly by the department Cote d'Or. In August 1878 he was appointed secretary to the minister of public works. In September 1880 he became minister, and again in April 1885, passing almost immediately to the ministry of finance, which he held under both the Ferry and the Freycinet administrations until December 1886. When the Wilson scandals occasioned the downfall of Grevy in December 1887, Carnot's high character for integrity marked him out as a candidate for the presidency, and he obtained the support of Clemenceau and of all those who objected to the candidatures of men who have been more active in the political arena, so that he was elected by 616 votes out of 827. He assumed office at a critical period, when the republic was all but openly attacked by General Boulanger. President Carnot's ostensible part during this agitation was mainly confined to augmenting his popularity by well-timed appearances on public occasions, which gained credit for the presidency and the republic. When early in 1889, Boulanger was finally driven into exile, it fell to President Carnot's lot to appear at the head of the state on two occasions of especial interest, the celebration of the centenary of 1789 and the opening of the Paris Exhibition of that year. The perfect success of both was regarded, not unreasonably, as a popular ratification of the republic, and though continually harassed by the formation and dissolution of ephemeral ministries, by socialist outbreaks, and the beginnings of anti-Semitism, Carnot had but one serious crisis to surmount, the Panama scandals of 1892, which, if they greatly damaged the prestige of the state, increased the respect felt for its head, against whose integrity none could breathe a word. Carnot seemed to be arriving at the zenith of popularity, when on the 24th of June 1894, after delivering at a public banquet at Lyons a speech in which he appeared to imply that he nevertheless would not seek re-election, he was stabbed by an Italian anarchist named Caserio and expired almost immediately. The horror and grief excited by this tragedy were boundless, and the president was honoured with a splendid funeral in the Pantheon, Paris.

His son, FRANCOIS CARNOT, was first elected deputy for the Cote d'Or in 1902.

See E. Zevort, _Histoire de la Troisieme Republique_, tome iv., "La Presidence de Carnot" (Paris, 1901).