Part 17

To counterbalance the move to suburbs and nearby rural areas, urban local units of government seek to annex surrounding land from counties or nearby cities. In Virginia, annexation is determined by a panel of three judges, only one of whom is a resident of the county involved. No referendum is held to ascertain the wishes of the residents of the area under consideration because of the belief that annexation should be based on the need of the majority of the people concerned. While annexation may be an answer to the urban government's need for extending its tax base, county units lose their prime tax property. Over a period of time, the continued growth of the metropolitan area causes persons to locate outside of the revised boundaries and the process of annexation starts over again.

In addition to annexation, another method available whereby an urban unit may extend its boundaries is consolidation of local units. An example is the merger of a city government unit and a county government unit into a revised city government unit. In Virginia, consolidation statutes are relatively flexible: officials of both units negotiate between themselves to reach an agreement on the authority of the new local unit of government, in contrast to annexation where the county government is often forced against its will to give up valuable real estate.

The growth of metropolitan areas has raised a serious challenge to the ability of local units of government to provide adequate government services to their residents at reasonable costs. Unless further understanding is developed among the citizenry involved, the impact of metropolitanism will continue to result in serious inequities among individual local units of government.

S U M M A R Y

By April 1861, the Commonwealth of Virginia had furnished one-third of all the Presidents of the United States, had had numerous other Virginian leaders in high federal positions, had been responsible for the calling of a "Peace Conference" in the nation's capital and had been most reluctant to vote for secession from the Union. However, the inhabitants of Virginia believed in the doctrine of "States' Rights," in non-interference of slavery by the federal government and in not coercing neighboring seceded states back into the Union via invasion. Consequently, Virginia joined the Confederacy, and Richmond soon became the Confederate capital and the State of Virginia a huge battlefield.

The brilliant military tactics of General Robert E. Lee, Thomas Jonathan Jackson and "J.E.B." Stuart will always be worthy of military study. Virginia helped the Confederacy, economically as well as militarily, especially with the food products of the Saltville area and of the Shenandoah Valley and the manufactured arms equipment of the Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond. When West Virginia became an independent state without the consent of Virginia, it reduced the area and population of the Commonwealth considerably. The ending of the War between the States, like that of the American Revolutionary War, took place in Virginia. The magnificent courage and fervor of the Virginians as members of the Confederacy will always be cherished by posterity. When one is well-informed of the deeds, hardships and activities which occurred during the War between the States in Virginia and in other southern states, one can easily understand the ever-present pride which the Confederate Flag does, and always will, inspire. This era of American history, although one of the darkest periods in our national history when even brother sometimes fought brother on the battlefield, will forever remain one of the most dynamic and heroic periods in human civilization.

After enduring a harsh Reconstruction Program enforced by a radical United States Congress and by "Carpetbagger" and "Scalawag" governments, Virginia officially returned to the Union on January 26, 1870. Then the Commonwealth began settling some of its local problems: the extremely high state debt, the educational program, the joint boundary line between Virginia and West Virginia and the "Readjuster" Movement. The newest county in Virginia--Dickenson County--was created in 1880. By 1900, Virginia ranked seventeenth in United States state population and seemed prepared to meet the challenging events of the Twentieth Century with renewed confidence.

A new state constitution, still in effect today, was "proclaimed" in 1902. It provided for a poll tax and an "understanding clause" provision as a voting requirement; later, the latter was changed to an intelligence test requirement. The unusual political status of a city, completely independent of county jurisdiction, was originated at this time also. Racial segregation in the public schools of Virginia was provided for in the Constitution of 1902.

Other events and activities concerning Virginia and Virginians during the Twentieth Century include the payment to Virginia by West Virginia of the state debt which West Virginia had accumulated while she was part of Virginia, the operation of the first City-Manager form of local government at Staunton, outstanding participation in two World Wars and in the Korean conflict, the "Restoration of Williamsburg" Project, a reorganization of state governmental departments, the comparatively small economic dislocation during the "Great Depression," the establishment of the Shenandoah National Park, the opportunity afforded service men and women on

## active duty to vote without payment of a poll tax, the constant

increase in the growth of industry, the victory for the Virginia delegates at the 1952 Democratic National Nominating Convention, Republican Presidential victories in Virginia in 1928, 1952, 1956 and 1960, developments in education including the problems of school integration and the expansion of school facilities and the continuing growth of metropolitanism.

As our nation's history unfolds, issues of state, national and international scope will continue to face the Commonwealth. The history of Virginia has furnished Virginians with a proud heritage, an appreciation for the noble deeds of the past and an understanding of the courage and wisdom required to solve successfully current and future problems. Virginia--a vital area of the United States--will undoubtedly play a major role in the fulfillment of the destiny of the United States.

5

Economic Life

_The Work Force_

A variety of geographical resources and of human resources results in diversity in the economic life of the state. The proportion of the population engaged in gainful occupation at the present time is significant. Approximately 38% of the total population in Virginia is included in the work force. The group outside the work force includes individuals who are thirteen years of age or younger, homemakers, students age fourteen and over, the physically and mentally handicapped who are unable to work, and persons who are retired.

Census enumerations since 1890 indicate that total employment in Virginia has expanded continuously. During the seventy year period 1890-1960, the work force increased from approximately 552,000 to approximately 1,473,000. This represents an increase of 176%, or an average annual increase of 13,137 workers.

Three phases in the trend of employment are observable: from 1890 to 1910, 1910 to 1940 and 1940 to 1960. The first phase coincides with the Industrial Revolution in the United States; the increase in employment in Virginia during this time was 44%. In the second phase, from 1910 to 1940, the rate of increase slackened although the total number in the work force grew; the increase amounted to 14% during this period. The third phase of employment began in 1940 as needs of World War II became clear; unprecedented peacetime demands started in 1945 and have continued to the decade of the 1960's; in this phase, for the first time, Virginia outpaced the United States as a whole in growth of employment, with an increase of 63%.

_Types of Employment_

Government Employment--Government employees make up the largest number of workers in any particular type of occupation in the state. The term "government employees" includes all civilians working directly for federal, state and local governments plus military personnel stationed in Virginia. Nearly one-fourth of the total Virginia employment is found in this group. Government employment is the greatest single source of personal income in the state.

Approximately 65% of the government employment in Virginia, as defined above, is engaged in activities of the federal government. The number of military personnel in the state is slightly more than twice the number of federal civilian employees. Although federal employment is scattered throughout the state--every community has postal employees, for example--there is a concentration of federal employees in two areas of the state, namely, Northern Virginia (Arlington and Fairfax Counties and the cities of Alexandria and Falls Church) and the Hampton Roads area. Within the federal civilian group, approximately 70% are employed by the Department of Defense. Following the Department of Defense, the next largest numbers of federal civilian employees work for the Post Office Department and for the Veterans Administration. In addition to the federal employees working in the state, a substantial number of persons who live in Northern Virginia commute daily to the District of Columbia and nearby Maryland for federal employment.

Approximately 35% of the government employees in Virginia work for the state (11%) and for local (24%) governments. Since more than half of the government employment in the United States is found in state and local governments, the number of such employees in Virginia is relatively smaller. The state and local group in Virginia is nearly equally divided between school and non-school personnel. Although the number of state and local employees in Virginia has grown during the past decade, the percentage of increase has not been as great as that for the United States as a whole.

Employment in Manufacturing--Excluding military personnel from the total government group, employees engaged in manufacturing rank first in number. However, when civilian government and military personnel are combined, government employment surpasses manufacturing employment. Approximately 20% of the total work force is engaged in manufacturing. During the decade of the 1940's manufacturing in Virginia surpassed agriculture for the first time, and the growth of manufacturing continued progressively through the decade of the 1950's. Manufacturing as a whole is diversified.

Expenditure for new manufacturing plant and equipment exceeded one billion dollars in one recent seven-year period. Additional millions of dollars have been spent recently for expanding existing facilities. Fabricated metals (example, swimming-pool type atomic reactors) and machinery and electrical equipment (examples, motors, calculators) groups of industries have grown substantially within the past few years. The four manufacturing industries having the largest number of employees are textile, chemical and chemical products, food and kindred products, and lumber and wood products. The employees in these four industries constitute nearly 50% of all workers engaged in manufacturing.

Textile employment leads all other manufacturing employment. The textile industry in Virginia includes the spinning and processing of yarn and the weaving and finishing of material. Cotton and rayon broad-woven fabrics are the major ones. Approximately 60% of Virginia's textile employment is found in this category. The cities of Danville, Fieldale and Roanoke are especially noted for their textiles. Knitting mills constitute the second type of textile

## activity, and approximately two-thirds of employment in the knitting

mills is engaged in making full-fashioned and seamless hosiery. Lynchburg is a key center of knitting mills for men's and ladies' hosiery.

The second largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing in Virginia is the chemical industry. Approximately two-thirds of such chemical employees are found in the synthetic fiber field. In 1917, the first large rayon plant was established. This industry has developed rapidly, and Virginia now plays an important part nationally in this production. Virginia now has approximately 30% of the total employees in the United States engaged in synthetic fibers. There are at present large synthetic fiber plants in Richmond, Martinsville, Roanoke, Waynesboro, Narrows and Front Royal. Virginia has been regarded as the geographical center of this industry in the United States. Another type of chemical production involves industrial inorganic chemicals including alkalies--soda ash, bicarbonate of soda, caustic soda--and chlorine (Saltville and Hopewell), sulfuric acid (Norfolk and Richmond) and ammonia (Hopewell). The manufacturing of fertilizer is also important in the state because of the agricultural need for it in the South and because Virginia is conveniently located with respect to the raw materials necessary for making fertilizer (namely, potash, nitrogen and phosphate rock). Hopewell and Norfolk are two cities which have large plants for the manufacture of fertilizers. Both Fredericksburg and Richmond have a large cellophane company and certain medicinal drugs such as streptomycin and thiamine hydrochloride are manufactured at Elkton. In addition, dyes, wood turpentine, dry ice and various insecticides are produced in Virginia.

The third largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing is the food and kindred products industry. This industry may be conveniently divided into two groups based upon the factors which determine their location:

1) those food industries whose products originate and are marketed in a population center--for example, bakery products (Richmond, Norfolk and Roanoke), beverages (Norfolk and Richmond), meat products (Richmond and Smithfield), dairy products (Richmond, Roanoke, Alexandria and Fredericksburg) and manufactured ice (Richmond and Alexandria);

2) those food industries which find it desirable to locate close to the source of supply--usually a perishable commodity--for example, seafood canneries (Norfolk, Hampton and Reedville), vegetable canneries (Walkerton and Urbanna), poultry dressing plants (Broadway, Harrisonburg and Winchester), fruit processing plants (Berryville, Mount Jackson, Winchester and Front Royal), confectionery plants (Suffolk and Norfolk), meatpacking companies (Suffolk and Smithfield) and frozen foods (seafood--Norfolk; poultry--Broadway; fruits and vegetables--Exmore).

* * * * *

The fourth largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing is the lumber and lumber products industry. In the latter part of the Nineteenth Century and the early Twentieth Century, this industry had the greatest number of employees in the manufacturing field. Gradually its importance declined until the 1930's when it increased rapidly as the demand for lumber production increased until, at present, it has reached fourth place. Approximately 77% of Virginia's total lumber industry employees is found in the sawmills and planing mills, especially in mills located in Franklin, Petersburg, Norfolk and Richmond. Whereas the synthetic fibers mentioned previously are manufactured primarily in seven large plants with numerous employees per plant, the lumber industry in Virginia consists of approximately 1700 establishments--only approximately 200 of which employ at least twenty employees. Veneer mills, excelsior mills, mill-work plants, plywood plants and companies which make fruit and vegetable baskets, boxes and crates also furnish diverse types of wood products for the Virginia lumber industry.

The fifth largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing is the apparel industry. Approximately one-half of all such employees are engaged in making men's and boys' clothing: suits, coats and overcoats are made in large quantities in Richmond, Staunton and Norfolk; shirts, pajamas and underwear at Danville, Radford, Lynchburg and Marion; trousers, overalls and sports jackets at Martinsville, Richmond and Staunton. Women's and misses' dresses are manufactured at Roanoke, maids' and nurses' uniforms and sports jackets at Lynchburg, lingerie at Staunton and Roanoke, gloves at Lynchburg, children's and infants' dresses and play clothes at Newport News and Shenandoah. Supplementary textile products include sheets and pillow cases (Danville), towels (Fieldale), hassocks, canvas awnings and automobile seat covers (Richmond).

The sixth largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing is the transportation equipment industry. Most of this employment is found in shipbuilding at the Hampton Roads area where aircraft carriers, atomic submarines, ocean liners--such as the "Constitution" and the "United States"--and numerous smaller vessels are constructed. Other employees of this industry work in numerous truck and bus body companies scattered throughout the state, in railroad equipment companies--for example, brake shoes (Roanoke); railroad bearings (Petersburg) and in a wagon company (Lynchburg).

Furniture-making ranks seventh in number of employees engaged in manufacturing. Most of Virginia's furniture workers are engaged in the manufacture of unupholstered wooden house furniture. Such furniture includes bedroom, living room and dining room suites (Bassett, Martinsville, Staunton, Marion, Stanleytown, Roanoke and Pulaski), cedar chests (Alta Vista) and radio and television cabinets (Bristol). Living room upholstered furniture including chairs, sofa beds, studio couches and furniture frames are manufactured at Salem, Christiansburg, Norfolk, Roanoke and Galax. Chrome dinettes and plastic furniture are manufactured in plants located at Marion. Office equipment including floor cabinets and metal filing cabinets is made at Crozet. There is also an extensive fixture industry--bank, office and store fixtures--plus such items as literary bookstacks, metal partitions, doors and movable

## partitions primarily at Orange, Norfolk and Richmond.

The eighth largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing is the tobacco industry. Although the national consumption of tobacco has increased considerably, the rapid mechanization added to the manufacturing process has resulted in a decline in the total number of employees. Although only approximately six workers per 1,000 engaged in manufacturing in the United States are in the tobacco industry, in Virginia approximately 56 workers per 1,000 are so engaged. The chief locations for the tobacco industry are Richmond, Petersburg, Danville and South Boston. These workers are engaged primarily in the manufacture of cigarettes and in tobacco stemming and redrying. Richmond is the largest cigarette manufacturing center in the world. Petersburg has an exceptionally large cigarette manufacturing plant. Cigars, chewing and smoking tobacco and snuff are also manufactured in Richmond. Danville has the largest number of tobacco stemming and redrying workers. Approximately half of the tobacco industry workers are women.

The ninth largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing is the paper and allied industries. The greatest number of such workers is engaged in the manufacturing of pulp. The largest pulp mills are located at Covington and Franklin. Approximately one-half of the nation's supply of wood pulp is furnished by the South and Virginia ranks fifth among the southern states in its production. The newly developed methods of utilizing southern pine for producing kraft paper and newsprint have caused considerable increase in this type of production. Kraft paper is usually dark brown in color and is a most durable type of wrapping paper. Such paper is manufactured at Covington, Franklin, West Point, Hopewell and Richmond. Other paper products such as gummed and waxed paper (Richmond), varied types of commercial envelopes and church collection envelopes (Richmond), multi-wall paper bags (Richmond, Franklin and Newport News) and paperboard containers--corrugated shipping cases, cartons, boxes of varied sizes and shapes (Richmond, Lynchburg) are likewise produced in abundance.

Over 9,000 employees are engaged in the printing and publishing industry. Approximately one-half of these employees work in the printing and publishing of newspapers. These newspaper companies are scattered throughout the state. In addition, there are other companies which publish books, engage in commercial printing in general, in lithographing, bookbinding, plate printing, engraving and in photo engraving. These companies also are located in several areas with Richmond, Norfolk and Newport News having the greatest number of employees.

Another industry important to Virginia's economic expansion is the stone, clay and glass production industry. Half of the employees in this industry are engaged in the manufacture of concrete and plaster products. An increase in local construction has resulted in an increase in the production of cinder blocks and other building materials. The following products are included: purchased glass products (example, mirrors)--Galax, Bassett, Richmond, Martinsville; hydraulic cement--Fordwick and Riverton; structural clay (brick and hollow tile)--Roanoke; pottery and china (lusterware)--Abingdon; flower pots and pans--Richmond; asbestos (automatic brake linings)--Winchester; stone products (marble and granite monumental stones)--Burkeville, Richmond, Roanoke and Danville; concrete products--Roanoke and Richmond; gypsum products--Plasterco and Norfolk; lime--Austinville and Kimballton; mineral wool--Riverton; soapstone and stone products--Schuyler; abrasives--Petersburg; and mica--Newport News.

Other manufacturing industries in Virginia include (1) leather and leather products--with tanneries at Luray, Bristol, Pearisburg, Buena Vista and Salem; luggage-making at Petersburg and footwear-making at Lynchburg, Fredericksburg, Farmville and Halifax; (2) primary metals industry--with gray-iron foundries at Newport News, Lynchburg and Radford; (3) fabricated metals industry--with the manufacture of structural metal and structural and ornamental products at Richmond, Norfolk, Bristol and Alexandria; pressure vessels at Newport News; locks at Salem; swimming-pool type atomic reactors at Campbell County (near Lynchburg), and (4) non-electrical machinery industry--with hydraulic turbines, textile wool cards, pulp and papermaking machinery at Newport News, Crozet, Bristol and Richmond.

Employment in Agriculture--A persistent trend in Virginia's economic picture is the continuous decline in agricultural employment, a condition characteristic of agriculture in the United States in general. Approximately 10% of the total employment is presently found in agricultural pursuits. Although the demand for agricultural commodities has increased, the output per worker in agriculture has increased more rapidly. The greater output has occurred as a result of improved methods of farming, technological advances and larger agricultural investments. This situation has resulted also in a greater variety of crops, improved breeds of livestock, and better control of insects and pests.

In the past twenty years there has been a gradual shift in Virginia's agriculture from the production of crops to the production of livestock and livestock products. As a matter of fact, Virginia is a leader in the South in the relative importance of livestock and livestock products. Poultry and poultry products lead the distribution list, followed by meat animals (cattle and calves, hogs, sheep and lambs) and dairy products. Virginia ranks third in the production of turkeys in the United States and sixth in production of broiler chicks in the United States. Rockingham County is famous for its turkeys and chickens. "Cut-up chicken" meat, as well as broilers and eggs, constitutes important poultry products. Culpeper and Loudoun Counties have the greatest number of milk cows per square mile. Large manufacturing plants in the southwestern part of Virginia produce evaporated and condensed milk. Beef cattle are raised in almost every county in Virginia but the Southwest, the Shenandoah Valley and Northern Virginia are the three chief regions. In addition to the meat itself, by-products such as soap and fodder are manufactured and hides and skins are utilized in the making of miscellaneous articles. Hogs and pigs are found in great numbers in Southampton, Nansemond and Isle of Wight Counties and sheep and lambs in large numbers in Augusta, Russell, Rockingham and Highland Counties.

In field crops, tobacco leads the list. One of the nation's largest tobacco producers, Virginia has four types of tobacco: (1) flue-cured--the most extensive one--grown largely in Pittsylvania, Halifax and Mecklenburg Counties with Danville and South Boston the chief markets; (2) burley tobacco grown mostly in the southwest area--Washington, Scott and Lee Counties--with Abingdon the leading market; (3) fire-cured tobacco grown in Appomattox, Charlotte and Campbell with Lynchburg and Farmville important markets and (4) sun-cured tobacco grown in central Virginia--Louisa, Caroline and Hanover Counties--with Richmond the largest market in this area.

Virginia ranks first in the amount of peanut yield per acre and third in peanut production in the United States. The peanut acreage is located in southeast Virginia--Southampton, Isle of Wight, Nansemond and Sussex Counties; Suffolk is often referred to as the "Peanut Capital of the World." Corn is grown in practically every county with most acreage in Southampton, Loudoun and Pittsylvania Counties. The growing of wheat, particularly winter wheat, is widespread also, with Augusta, Rockingham and Loudoun Counties having the greatest harvest. Irish potatoes are grown extensively on the Eastern Shore (Accomack and Northampton Counties) and in the Norfolk area. Virginia ranks third in sweet potato production in the United States and Accomack, Northampton and Princess Anne Counties are the chief growers of these potatoes. Soy beans are cultivated in Norfolk, Princess Anne, Accomack, Northumberland and Hanover Counties. Hay is grown in various parts of Virginia and consists of six types: clover and timothy hay, lespedeza hay, alfalfa hay, peanut hay, soybean hay and cowpea hay. Cotton is grown in the southeast, particularly in Southampton, Greensville, Brunswick and Mecklenburg Counties. Virginia leads all the states in the production of orchard grass seed. Some oats, barley and buckwheat are grown but only in small quantities.

Truck farming is extremely important. Lima beans, snap beans, beets, broccoli, cabbage, cucumbers, sweet corn, kale, onions, green peas, green peppers, spinach, strawberries, tomatoes and watermelons are grown extensively. The truck farming region is located primarily in Accomack, Northampton, King and Queen, Nansemond, Princess Anne and Norfolk Counties. Much of the truck farming crop is sent to New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Boston, Washington and Atlanta.