Part 22

Since 1947, an outstanding play, "The Common Glory," written by Pulitzer Prize Winner Paul Green, has been presented in the summer at the Lake Matoaka Amphitheater in Williamsburg. The theme of "The Common Glory" is based upon important historical events from 1774 through 1783 with the famous comments of such American statesmen as Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Robert Livingston and Patrick Henry. The realistic performance of this theme in the historical outdoor, natural setting in Williamsburg near historical Jamestown and Yorktown is an experience the audience long remembers. Paul Green also wrote "The Founders," another historical drama in honor of the three hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the founding of Jamestown.

Music and drama--from both the creative sense and the participation sense--still remain an active phase of culture in Virginia.

_Education_

In colonial days in Virginia, education was considered a personal family matter. A public school, as the term is understood now, was non-existent. Since England had no national public system of education until 1833, the Virginia colonists, of whom a majority were of English descent, did not have any heritage for schools for the general public. Later, the geographical distances between the plantations and the gradual development of social classes tended to discourage public education. The typical child who received formal education was taught by the family members, privately tutored, apprenticed for farming, attended a "Pay School" or "Old Field School" (a community school taught by a teacher paid either by the individual parents or by a particular patron and located on relatively poor agricultural land), enrolled in a Latin Grammar School or attended a fashionable school in London. Only the boys received the formal education and the girls learned the proper techniques of performing household tasks and of being a gracious hostess. Many poor children had no formal education of any kind.

In 1634, the Syms Free School in Elizabeth City County was organized as a local, free school as a direct result of provisions of a will whereby two hundred acres of land were provided and free milk and income from eight cows were included for the support of the school. Twenty-five years later, Dr. Thomas Eaton of the same county also endowed a free school and left a five hundred acre estate with buildings and livestock as the endowment. The endowment also provided for the maintenance of an "able schoolmaster to educate and teach the children born within the County of Elizabeth." Later, the two schools were combined and, by the beginning of the Twentieth Century, they had been incorporated into the public school system as the Syms-Eaton Academy.

A few church schools were organized, but they reached a very small number of children with their enrollment. Orphans and poor children often received the benefits of apprenticeship training in trade or industrial schools and eventually had an opportunity to learn to read and write. By 1775, there were nine free schools endowed by private philanthropists for the poor and needy. Public schools at this time in Virginia were considered as schools for paupers, orphans and needy financial cases rather than schools for the benefit of the general public. Community tax-supported schools for the children of the general public were practically unknown.

Until the beginning of the Nineteenth Century, the slaves--both Negro and Indian--were usually taught religious training and some primary learning, the amount and type of training depending upon the individual master. After certain sensational articles tended to cause discontent and confusion in the minds of some of these individuals which resulted in sporadic raids and open dissatisfaction with living conditions, the legislature of Virginia passed a law making it illegal to teach any slave how to read, write or do arithmetic.

By the middle of the Nineteenth Century, private academies and seminaries (for girls) began to replace the early Latin-Grammar schools. The subjects of English, Latin, science, mathematics, public speaking, spelling and penmanship were taught. The fine arts subjects such as painting and music were stressed in the seminaries. Some of the early academies included Prince Edward Academy (later became Hampden-Sydney Academy and, eventually, Hampden-Sydney College), Liberty Hall Academy (later, Washington College and, eventually, Washington and Lee University), Fredericksburg Academy (later, Fredericksburg College), Alexandria Academy, Shepherdstown Academy (later, Shepherdstown College and, eventually, State Normal School in West Virginia), Central Academy (later, Central College and, eventually, the University of Virginia), Richmond Seminary (later, Richmond College), Salem Academy (later, Roanoke College), Monongahela Academy (later, West Virginia University) and Marshall Academy (later, Marshall College and, eventually, a State Normal School in Huntington, West Virginia). These academies are considered forerunners of public high schools in Virginia because, even as late as the period immediately prior to the War between the States, there were very few public schools of any type in Virginia.

Henrico University was the first attempt in Virginia at an institution for higher learning. The Indian Massacre of 1622 ruined these conscientious efforts. The first two colleges actually founded in Virginia were William and Mary College at Williamsburg founded in 1693--the second oldest college in the thirteen original colonies--and Washington and Lee University at Lexington founded in 1749. William and Mary College was founded for the purpose of providing an opportunity for higher education within the colony itself; Washington and Lee University--originally known as Augusta Academy, then Liberty Hall, and, eventually, Washington College before being renamed Washington and Lee University--was founded to educate young men in Virginia in a similar fashion to the academies in England at that time. In 1819, the General Assembly passed a law allotting $15,000 annually from the Literary Fund to be used for a state university, the University of Virginia, to be located in Charlottesville.

As in most states, the early private colleges were usually founded by religious groups. By the end of the Nineteenth Century, colleges had been established in Virginia by Presbyterians, Episcopalians, Catholics, Baptists, Methodists, Lutherans and the Brethren Sect. The following institutions were in existence at this time: the Protestant Episcopal Theological Seminary in Alexandria, the University of Richmond (Baptist), Hampden-Sydney College at Hampden-Sydney (Presbyterian), St. Vincent's Seminary and College at Richmond (Catholic), Emory and Henry College at Emory (Methodist), Roanoke College at Salem (Lutheran), St. John's Catholic Academy and Seminary at Norfolk, Mary Baldwin College at Staunton (for women--Presbyterian), Randolph-Macon College at Ashland (for men--Methodist), Bridgewater College at Bridgewater (Brethren), St. Paul's Polytechnic Institute at Lawrenceville (Episcopalian), the Virginia Theological Seminary and College at Lynchburg (for Negroes), Randolph-Macon College at Lynchburg (for women--Methodist), Union Theological Seminary in Virginia at Richmond (Interdenominational) and Virginia Union University at Richmond (for Negroes--Baptist).

Other colleges founded in the Nineteenth Century include the Hampton Institute at Hampton (private--Negro), Medical College of Virginia at Richmond (state), Hollins College at Hollins (private), Longwood College at Farmville (state--women), Virginia Military Institute at Lexington (state), Virginia Polytechnic Institute at Blacksburg (private) and Virginia State College at Petersburg (Negro). Madison College was founded in 1908 at Harrisonburg as a private institution of higher learning and, nine years later, Eastern Mennonite College was also chartered in Harrisonburg.

The increase of women in colleges became apparent by the Twentieth Century with the organization of Sweet Briar College at Sweet Briar (private), Mary Washington College at Fredericksburg (women's division of the University of Virginia--state), Randolph-Macon Woman's College at Lynchburg, Lynchburg College at Lynchburg (coed--Disciples of Christ) and Radford College at Radford (women's division of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute--state). In addition, there are seven junior colleges: Stratford at Danville, Averett at Danville, Southern Seminary and Junior College at Buena Vista, Sullins at Bristol, Marion at Marion, Virginia Intermont at Bristol--all colleges for women only. These additional junior colleges--Shenandoah at Dayton, Bluefield at Bluefield and Ferrum at Ferrum--are coed institutions.

Public schools were initially supported by a Literary Fund and by one-half the capitation tax. Gradually, all the capitation or poll tax money was transferred to the Literary Fund. After the middle of the Nineteenth Century, some cities and counties in Virginia began to adopt a system of free schools for the general public. For the first time, a favorable attitude toward public education on the part of a majority of the Virginians became apparent. The long-assumed idea that public schools were charity schools tinged with a social stigma faded into the background and public education for all the children began to be widely encouraged. Before much actual progress along this line was achieved, however, the War between the States took place. As a result, most of the academies were forced to close and education for a time became a comparatively minor issue.

After the War between the States, the Underwood Constitution included a provision requiring public education through the establishment of a uniform system of free public schools in all counties of the state. The deadline date for organizing and establishing such a system was 1876. A State Superintendent of Public Instruction was elected by the General Assembly, a State Board of Education was formed, and public education itself was financed by interest on the Literary Fund, capitation tax revenue, revenue from state and local property taxes and a state tax on each male twenty-one years old or over. Reverend William H. Ruffner of Lexington was the first State Superintendent of Public Instruction in Virginia.

Racial segregation in the public schools of Virginia was constitutionally established in the Underwood Constitution of 1902. Section 149 stated that white and colored children were not to be taught in the same schools. This idea had been in existence in statute law since 1869-1870, and the Constitution of 1902 also specifically stated that public funds were to be restricted, with a few exceptions, to public school use.

Gradually, teacher training courses were offered and improved and teacher scholarships were created in the attempt to organize a large number of new schools with qualified teacher personnel. Eventually, specialized courses were offered in the elementary and secondary schools: vocational courses including agricultural and industrial arts courses and household arts courses, Bible Study, Music, Drawing, Art and commercial subjects such as bookkeeping, shorthand and typing were introduced. These courses coupled with the original fundamental courses provided a rich curriculum for the public school children of Virginia. By 1920, health examinations, health instructions and physical training were required of each student. Early State Superintendents of Instruction faced tremendous problems in their attempts to organize and develop a whole new school system.

The importance of education in Virginia by 1918 is ascertained by the fact that the state legislature at that time passed an act ordering the State Board of Education to appropriate a fund of not more than $10,000 to be used for a scientific evaluation study of the Virginia schools by a special Survey Commission. Both the Inglis Survey of 1919 (named after Dr. Alexander Inglis, Director of the survey) and the O'Shea Survey of 1927 (named after Dr. M. V. O'Shea, Director of the survey) resulted in considerable improvements in the organization and administration of the educational system and in curricular offerings. Some of the recommendations included the appointment of the State Board of Education by the Governor with confirmation by the State Senate, the appointment of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction by the State Board of Education, the selection of a variety of basic textbooks by the State Board of Education, an increase in vocational education courses of study, a minimum nine month academic year, compulsory school attendance, improvement in teacher certification standards, the county unit plan (rather than the district plan) of school organization and a substantial increase in the salaries of teachers.

When the depression occurred in the late 1920's and early 1930's, Virginia was affected but to a lesser degree than most of the other states. One of the first items drastically reduced in the local and state budgets was school expenditures. Regardless of its financial hardship, however, the educational system continued to improve. A new Division of Instruction headed by a Director of Instruction was created in the State Department of Education to assume the responsibility of improving the instruction program in the Virginia public schools. Later, a Supervisor of Elementary Education and a Supervisor of Music was added to the State structure and a Supervisor of Secondary Education, a Supervisor of Negro Education and a Supervisor of Physical and Health Education were selected. Course content has been revised and new subjects added as needs warranted. Recent progress includes the development of audio-visual aids, rehabilitation education courses for disabled veterans, special education for the "exceptional" child and for the mentally retarded child, distributive education and adult education courses. Most of the public schools in the Commonwealth now have a twelve-year basic plan with the seven-five system predominating: seven years in grade school (elementary) and five years in high school (secondary).

Some of the outstanding public educators in Virginia have been James Blair, Reverend William H. Ruffner, R. R. Farr, Dr. F. V. N. Painter, John L. Buchanan, John E. Massey, Joseph W. Southall, Joseph D. Eggleston, Dr. R. C. Stearnes, Harris Hart, Sidney B. Hall, Dabney S. Lancaster, G. Tyler Miller, Dowell J. Howard, Dr. Davis Y. Paschall, Dr. Woodrow W. Wilkerson--State Superintendents of Public Instruction--George Wythe, Edwin Alderman, Edward Armstrong, Samuel C. Armstrong, George Denny, Thomas R. Dew, William H. McGuffey, Benjamin S. Ewell, John Langston, John T. Lomax, Booker T. Washington, William Morton, William Pendleton, Thomas R. Price, Francis Henry Smith, William Waugh Smith, Charles E. Vauter, William Wilson, Milton Humphreys, Ed Joynes, Lyon Tyler and J. L. Blair Buck. Countless individual teachers, state and local administrators, and parent-teacher organizations have also contributed ideas which have influenced and improved the educational facilities throughout the state.

Education has become one of the greatest problems in the Commonwealth and a field of paramount interest to the citizens as well as to state and local officials, the students, the parents, and the professional educational staff directly involved. As the enrollments have rapidly increased, the governors, state legislators and local officials have increased their concern and support, causing the educational facilities to improve and expand. Such

## actions provide opportunities for the residents of Virginia to

obtain a well-rounded education.

SUMMARY

Literature reveals the everyday experiences of people as well as their dreams and aspirations. Personal diaries, journals and letters were frequently used during colonial days to describe ideas and events. Poetry was scarce but many scholarly articles, often historically inclined, were written. Political thinking soon became a favorite topic for written expression and biographies and essays became numerous. Edgar Allan Poe, a resident of Virginia from his adoption at the age of three, is considered the most original author for his creation of the modern short story and the detective story. Virginians also have contributed several historical and romantic novels. The distinguished history and picturesque setting of Virginia has furnished innumerable topics of interest for written or oral expression.

Art has flourished in Virginia from the handicraft of the early days to the plastic sculpturing of the present. In the colonial period, European artists often visited Virginia and used Virginia and her residents as their subjects. Later, Virginia artists began to study abroad and, upon their return home, engaged primarily in portrait and panorama painting. Edward Valentine created unusual, as well as fine, sculptures. Foreign artists as well as native artists have often used Virginia personalities and scenes as sources for their inspiration.

Although Virginia can claim only two separate types of original architecture--the Colonial type influenced by England and altered to fit the environment of Virginia and the Jeffersonian type originated through the artistic efforts of Thomas Jefferson himself--Americans and foreigners still visit and study these architectural types in an effort to imitate or perpetuate such desirable styles. The Commonwealth has a variety of standard forms of architecture.

Organs, harpsichords and violins were popular musical instruments in colonial days in Virginia. Gradually, American folk music, Negro spirituals, the founding of the "Etude" music magazine and the invention of the five-stringed banjo tended to increase and popularize music in Virginia. John Powell of Richmond is considered Virginia's greatest single contributor to the musical composition field.

From the Williamsburg Theater of 1716 to the Barter Theater of the present, Virginians have shared the spotlight, the hardships and the fame of plays, vaudeville, moving pictures, radio and television. The annual production of "The Common Glory," an historical drama, at Lake Matoaka Theater in Williamsburg attracts thousands of patrons.

Education, the "backbone" of cultural activities, is one of the most challenging current problems facing Virginia. Personal training in the home, apprenticeship training outside the home, the church and church school education, private tutoring and private and public institutions of education of the elementary, secondary and higher education level--all are significant milestones along the educational paths of Virginia. With the educational facilities expanding on all levels to meet the rapidly increasing enrollment, with teacher training becoming more specialized, with the improvement in standard courses and the addition of new courses of study and with larger legislative appropriations for education, education in Virginia provides more students with better opportunities for effective learning.

The changing pattern of everyday living can be recognized by observation and analysis of the literature, art, architecture, music, drama and education of a people. The inhabitants of the Commonwealth, consequently, have woven a particular pattern of their own from their contributions to these various phases of Cultural Life.

7

Political Life

_Background of Present State Constitution_

The original Constitution for the State of Virginia was written at a special convention held in Williamsburg from May 7, 1776 to July 5, 1776. The Constitution itself was officially adopted on June 29, 1776, making this date the birth date of the State. The individual who was primarily responsible for most of the content in the original Constitution was George Mason. The creation of the first Constitution was unusual in two respects: at the time it was written, the convention members decided upon specific powers which the newly-formed government should not have before it determined those powers which it should have; furthermore, the Constitution was adopted officially by the convention members without the usual procedure of submitting it to the voters for final ratification.

As years pass and conditions vary, it becomes necessary to make changes in the framework of a government to meet such needs. Consequently, on four specific occasions, the Constitution of Virginia has been rewritten: namely, in 1829-1830, 1850, 1867 and 1901.

In 1816, the residents west of the Blue Ridge Mountains demanded more representation in their state government and fewer suffrage restrictions. After many years of discontent, these individuals finally encouraged enough residents throughout the state to vote for a constitutional convention to be held in Richmond in 1829. At the convention, suffrage was extended slightly although all non-real estate owners still could not vote. The term of the Governor was extended to a three-year term with an increase in his powers, and representation was reapportioned to benefit the inhabitants living west of the Blue Ridge Mountains. However, in the redistribution of seats in the House of Delegates, the residents in the Trans-Allegheny section lost some seats. When the proposed Constitution was submitted to the people of Virginia for ratification, 26,055 voted for it and 15,166 voted against it. In this vote, for the first time, the Valley people of the western part of the state joined the residents of the east rather than their Trans-Allegheny neighbors who had strongly opposed it. The new Constitution was officially adopted in 1830.

After the national census of 1840 had been taken, it revealed an unfair numerical representation of the white people west of the Blue Ridge Mountains in comparison with the representation of the number of white people living east of the Blue Ridge Mountains. Such unfair representation existed in both houses of the General Assembly to the extent that some residents even suggested that the people of the western part of Virginia create a separate state and call it Appalachia. Special local meetings were held and a referendum was finally suggested to determine the need of a constitutional convention as an attempt to correct this unfair condition. Finally, a state-wide vote in 1850 recommended such a convention be held in Richmond in the same year. After numerous arguments among the delegates had been voiced over a four months' period, a compromise was eventually adopted. The national census of 1850 was to be used as the official white population count and legislative representation was to be based upon this count: the effect of the compromise was to give the counties west of the Blue Ridge Mountains a majority in the House of Delegates and the counties east of the Blue Ridge Mountains a majority in the State Senate. Additional reforms were adopted which resulted in this 1850 convention sometimes being referred to as "the reform convention": suffrage was extended considerably to white male citizens; oral balloting was to be maintained; the Governor, the Lieutenant Governor, the Attorney General, certain judges, county clerks and sheriffs were to be elected directly by the qualified voters; the tenure of the Governor was extended to a four-year term; and the General Assembly was to meet once every two years instead of annually. A capitation or poll tax was to be levied upon each voter and half of the revenue from this tax was to be used for school purposes. The General Assembly was given additional power to control slavery by the passage of certain restrictions which were to be imposed upon slaveowners. This third Constitution for Virginia was officially adopted in 1851 after it had been ratified by the voters of the state.

After the War between the States had ended and the Reconstruction Period had begun, Virginia became Military District Number One in March 1867 with General John M. Schofield as its chief executive. The United States Congress demanded that Virginia and the other nine former seceded states rewrite their state constitutions. When the delegates of the constitutional convention met on December 3, 1867, they consisted of 32 Conservative Party members, 25 Radical Republican Negroes, 14 native Virginia Radical Republicans and 31 Carpetbaggers, Scalawags and aliens. The constitution which resulted from this convention is known as the Underwood Constitution because the chairman of the convention was Judge John C. Underwood, a Radical Republican. Some of the provisions of this constitution included the division of each county into townships, the establishment of a county court with a single judge in each county, the appointment of a Board of Supervisors in each county to carry out the executive powers, the levying of a high tax rate on landed property, the compulsory creation of a public school system, the denial of suffrage to many former Confederate leaders and a restriction of allowing only former non-supporters of the Confederacy to hold office or act as a juror. In 1869, upon the recommendation of President Ulysses S. Grant, the United States Congress allowed Virginia voters to vote at a popular referendum on the Underwood Constitution itself and then to vote separately on the sections which denied suffrage rights and office-holding rights to former Confederates. On July 6, 1869, the qualified voters of Virginia ratified the Underwood Constitution and rejected the other two sections.

In 1897, an attempt to hold a constitutional convention was defeated but three years later, the people of the Commonwealth voted in favor of a constitutional convention. This fifth constitutional convention began in June 1901 and continued for approximately one year. As a result of this convention (described in Chapter Four), numerous changes were made which were considered so important by the delegates at the convention that they decided to "proclaim" this Constitution of 1902 as the fundamental law of Virginia rather than to submit it to the voters for ratification. Consequently, on May 29, 1902, the Constitution of 1902 was voted by the convention delegates for adoption and this is the present Constitution of the Commonwealth, with certain subsequent revisions.