Part 30

While the five stones already referred to are bathed by pouring water from a conch shell, the Purusha Suktha, or hymn of the Rig Veda, is repeated. This runs as follows:--"Purusha has thousands of heads, thousands of arms, thousands of eyes, and thousands of feet. On every side enveloping the earth, he transcended this mere space of ten fingers. Purusha himself is this whole (universe); whatever has been, and whatever shall be. He is also the lord of immortality, since through food he expands. Such is his greatness, and Purusha is superior to this. All existing things are a quarter of him, and that which is immortal in the sky is three quarters of him. With three quarters Purusha mounted upwards. A quarter of him was again produced below. He then became diffused everywhere among things, animate and inanimate. From him Viraj was born, and from Viraj Purusha. As soon as born, he extended beyond the earth, both behind and before. When the gods offered up Purusha as a sacrifice, the spring was its clarified butter (ghi), summer its fuel, and the autumn the oblation. This victim, Purusha born in the beginning, they consecrated on the sacrificial grass. With him as their offering, the Gods, Sadhyas, and Rishis sacrificed. From that universal oblations were produced curds and clarified butter. He, Purusha, formed the animals which are subject to the power of the air (Vayavya), both wild and tame. From that universal sacrifice sprang the hymns called Rik and Saman, the Metres, and the Yajus. From it were produced horses, and all animals with two rows of teeth, cows, goats, and sheep. When they divided Purusha, into how many parts did they distribute him? What was his mouth? What were his arms? What were called his thighs and feet? The Brahman was his mouth; the Rajanya became his arms; the Vaisya was his thighs; the Sudra sprang from his feet. The moon was produced from his soul; the sun from his eye; Indra and Agni from his mouth; Vayu from his breath. From his navel came the atmosphere; from his head arose the sky; from his feet came the earth; from his ears the four quarters; so they formed the worlds. When the gods, in performing their sacrifice, bound Purusha as a victim, there were seven pieces of wood laid for him round the fire, and thrice seven pieces of fuel employed. With sacrifice the gods worshipped the sacrifice. These were the primæval rites. These great beings attained to the heaven, where the Gods, the ancient Sadhyas, reside."

Some Smarthas, e.g., the Brahacharnams, are more Saivite than other sections of Tamil-speaking Brahmans. During worship, they wear round the neck rudraksha (Elæocarpus Ganitrus) beads, and place on their head a lingam made thereof. In connection with the rudraksha, the legend runs that Siva or Kalagni Rudra, while engaged in Tripura Samhara, opened his third eye, which led to the destruction of the three cities, of which Rakshasas or Asuras had taken the form. From this eye liquid is said to have trickled on the ground, and from this arose the rudraksha tree. The mere mention of the word rudraksha is believed to secure religious merit, which may be said to be equivalent to the merit obtained by the gift of ten cows to Brahmans. Rudraksha beads are valued according to the number of lobes (or faces, as they are called), which are ordinarily five in number. A bead with six lobes is said to be very good, and one with two lobes, called Gauri Sankara rudraksha, is specially valued. Dikshitar Brahmans, and Pandaram priests of the higher order, wear a two-lobed bead mounted in gold. In a manuscript entitled Rudrakshopanishad, it is stated that a good rudraksha bead, when rubbed with water, should colour the water yellow. The Madhvas worship in the same way as Smarthas, but the objects of worship are the salagrama stone, and images of Hanuman and Adi Sesha. Food offered to Adi Sesha, Lakshmi, and Hanuman, is not eaten, but thrown away. The Madhvas attach great importance to their spiritual guru, who is first worshipped by a worshipper. Some keep a brindavanam, representing the grave of their guru, along with a salagrama stone, which is worshipped at the close of the Devata puja. Sri Vaishnavas keep for domestic worship only salagrama stones. Like the Madhvas, they are scrupulous as to the worship of their gurus (acharyas), without whose intervention they believe that they cannot obtain beatitude. Hence Sri Vaishnavites insist upon the Samasrayanam ceremony. After the Sandhya service and Brahma yagna, the guru is worshipped. All orthodox Vaishnavas keep with them a silk cloth bearing the impressions of the feet of their Acharya, an abhayastha or impression of the hand of Vishnu in sandal paste, a few necklaces of silk thread (pavitram), and a bit of the bark of the tamarind tree growing at the temple at Alvartirunagiri in the Tinnevelly district. The worshipper puts on his head the silk cloth, and round his neck the silk necklaces, and, if available, a necklace of Nelumbium (sacred lotus) seeds. After saluting the abhayastha by pressing it to his eyes, he repeats the prayer of his Acharya, and proceeds to the Devatarchana, which consists in the performance of the sixteen upacharas already described. The salagrama stone is bathed, and the Purusha Suktha repeated.

The daily observances are brought to a close by the performance of the Vaisvadeva ceremony, or offering to Vaisvadevas (all the gods). This consists in offering cooked rice, etc., to all the gods. Some regard this as a sort of expiatory ceremony, to wipe out the sin which may have accidentally been committed by killing small animals in the process of cooking food.

The male members of a family take their meals apart from the females. The food is served on platters made of the leaves of the banyan (Ficus bengalensis), Butea frondosa, Bauhinia, or plantain. Amongst Smarthas and Madhvas, various vegetable preparations are served first, and rice last, whereas, amongst the Sri Vaishnavas, especially Vadagalais, rice is served first. Before commencing to eat, a little water (tirtham), in which a salagrama stone has been bathed, is poured into the palms of those who are about to partake of the meal. They drink the water simultaneously, saying "Amartopastaranamasi." They then put a few handfuls of rice into their mouths, repeating some mantras--"Pranayasvaha, Udanayasvaha, Somanayasvaha," etc. At the end of the meal, all are served with a little water, which they sip, saying "Amartapithanamasi." They then rise together.

In connection with the salagrama stone, which has been referred to several times, the following interesting account thereof [166] may be quoted:--"Salagrams are fossil cephalopods (ammonites), and are found chiefly in the bed of the Gandak river, a mountain torrent which, rising in the lofty mountains of Nepal, flows into the Ganges at Salagrami, a village from which they take their name, and which is not far from the sacred city of Benares. In appearance they are small black shiny pebbles of various shapes, usually round or oval, with a peculiar natural hole in them. They have certain marks to be described later, and are often flecked and inlaid with gold [or pyrites]. The name salagram is of Sanskrit derivation, from sara chakra, the weapon of Vishnu, and grava, a stone; the chakra or chakram being represented on the stone by queer spiral lines, popularly believed to be engraved thereon at the request of Vishnu by the creator Brahma, who, in the form of a worm, bores the holes known as vadanas, and traces the spiral coil that gives the stone its name. There is a curious legend connected with their origin. In ancient times there lived a certain dancing-girl, the most beautiful that had ever been created, so beautiful indeed that it was impossible to find a suitable consort for her. The girl, in despair at her loveliness, hid herself in the mountains, in the far away Himalayas, and there spent several years in prayer, till at last Vishnu appeared before her, and asked what she wanted. She begged him to tell her how it was that the great creator Brahma, who had made her so beautiful, had not created a male consort for her of similar perfect form. Then she looked on Vishnu, and asked the god to kiss her. Vishnu could not comply with her request as she was a dancing-girl, and of low caste, but promised by his virtue that she should be reincarnated in the Himalayas in the form of a river, which should bear the name Gandaki, and that he would be in the river as her eternal consort in the shape of a salagram. Thereupon the river Gandaki rose from the Himalayas, and salagrams were found in it. How the true virtue of the salagram was discovered is another strange little fable. A poor boy of the Kshatriya or warrior class once found one when playing by the river side. He soon discovered that when he had it in his hand, or secreted in his mouth, or about his person, his luck was so extraordinary at marbles or whatever game he played, that he always won. At last he so excelled in all he undertook that he rose to be a great king. Finally Vishnu himself came to fetch him, and bore him away in a cloud. The mystic river Gandaki is within the jurisdiction of the Maharaja of Nepal, and is zealously guarded on both banks, while the four special places where the sacred stones are mostly picked up are leased out under certain conditions, the most important being that all true salagrams found are to be submitted to the Maharaja. These are then tested, the selected ones retained, and the others returned to the lessee. The first test of the salagrams to prove if they are genuine is very simple, but later they are put through other ordeals to try their supernatural powers. Each stone, as it is discovered, is struck on all sides with a small hammer, or, in some cases, is merely knocked with the finger. This causes the soft powdery part, produced by the boring of the worm, to fall in and disclose the vadana or hole, which may, in the more valuable salagrams, contain gold or a precious gem. In addition to the real stone with chakram and vadana formed by natural causes, there are found in many mountain streams round black pebbles resembling the true salagram in colour, shape, and size, but lacking the chakram and vadana. These are collected by Bairagis, or holy mendicants, who bore imitation vadanas in them, and, tracing false chakrams in balapa or slate stone, paste them on the pebbles. So skilfully is this fraud perpetrated that it is only after years of use and perpetual washing at the daily puja that in time the tracery wears away, and detection becomes possible. There are over eighteen known and different kinds of true salagrams, the initial value of which varies according to the shape and markings of the stone. The price of any one salagram may be so enhanced after the further tests have been applied, that even a lakh of rupees (Rs. 1,00,000) will fail to purchase it; and, should experience prove the stone a lucky one, nothing will, as a rule, induce the fortunate owner to part with it. The three shapes of salagrams most highly prized are known as the Vishnu salagram, the Lakshmi Narasimha salagram, and the Mutchya Murti salagram. The first has a chakram on it the shape of a garland, and bears marks known as the shenka (conch) gada padma, or the weapons of Vishnu, and is peculiar to that god. The second has two chakrams on the left of the vadana, and has dots or specks all over it. This stone, if properly worshipped, is believed to ensure to its owner prosperity and eternal life. The third, the Mutchya Murti, is a long-shaped flat stone with a vadana that gives it a resemblance to the face of a fish. It bears two chakrams, one inside and one outside the vadana, and also has specks and dots on it in the shape of a shoe. There are four or five varieties of this species, and it also, if duly worshipped, will infallibly enrich its possessor. One salagram there is which has no vadana, and is known as the ugra chakra salagram. It is quite round with two chakrams, but it is not a particularly safe one to possess, and is described as a 'furious salagrama,' for, if not worshipped with sufficient ardour, it will resent the neglect, and ruin the owner. The first thing to do on obtaining a salagram is to find out whether or not it is a lucky stone, for a stone that will bring luck to one owner may mean ruin for another. The tests are various; a favourite one is to place the salagram with its exact weight of rice together in one place for the night. If the rice has increased in the morning (and, in some cases, my informant assures me, it will be found to have doubled in quantity), then the stone is one to be regarded by its lucky holder as priceless, and on no account to be parted with. If, on the other hand, the rice measures the same, or--dreadful omen--has even become less, then let the house be rid of it as early as possible. If no purchaser can be found, make a virtue of necessity, and send it as a present to the nearest temple or mutt (religious institution), where the Gurus know how to appease the wrath of the Deity with daily offerings of fruits and flowers. A salagram will never bring any luck if its possession is acquired by fraud or force. The story runs that once a Brahman, finding one with a Mahomedan butcher, obtained it by theft. The luckless man speedily rued the day of his time, for, from that time onwards, nothing prospered, and he ended his days a destitute pauper. Again, possession of them without worship is believed by all Hindus to be most unlucky, and, as none but Brahmans can perform the worship, none but Brahmans will retain the stones in their keeping. For an orthodox Brahman household, the ownership of three or more stones is an absolute necessity. These must be duly worshipped and washed with water, and the water drunk as tirtha, and sacrifice of boiled rice and other food must be daily performed. When this is done, speedy success in all the business of life will fall to the lot of the inmates of the house, but otherwise ruin and disgrace await them."

In some temples, the Mula Vigraha, or idol fixed in the inner sanctuary, is decorated with a necklace of salagrama stones. For example, at Tirupati the god is thus decorated.

The following incident in connection with a salagrama stone is narrated by Yule and Burnell [167]:--"In May, 1883, a salagrama was the ostensible cause of great popular excitement among the Hindus of Calcutta. During the proceedings in a family suit before the High Court, a question arose regarding the identity of a salagrama, regarded as a household god. Counsel on both sides suggested that the thing should be brought into court. Mr. Justice Morris hesitated to give this order till he had taken advice. The attorneys on both sides, Hindus, said there could be no objection; the Court interpreter, a high-caste Brahman, said it could not be brought into Court because of the coir matting, but it might with perfect propriety be brought into the corridor for inspection; which was done. This took place during the excitement about the 'Ilbert Bill,' giving natives magisterial authority in the provinces over Europeans; and there followed most violent and offensive articles in several native newspapers reviling Mr. Justice Morris, who was believed to be hostile to the Bill. The Editor of the Bengallee newspaper, an educated man, and formerly a member of the Covenanted Civil Service, the author of one of the most unscrupulous and violent articles, was summoned for contempt of court. He made an apology and complete retraction, but was sentenced to two months' imprisonment."

The sacred chank, conch, or sankhu, which has been referred to in connection with ceremonial observance, is the shell of the gastropod mollusc Turbinella rapa. This is secured, in Southern India, by divers from Tuticorin in the vicinity of the pearl banks. The chank shell, which one sees suspended on the forehead and round the neck of bullocks, is not only used by Hindus for offering libations, and as a musical instrument in temples, but is also cut into armlets, bracelets, and other ornaments. Writing in the sixteenth century, Garcia says:--"This chanco is a ware for the Bengal trade, and formerly produced more profit than now ... and there was formerly a custom in Bengal that no virgin in honour and esteem could be corrupted unless it were by placing bracelets of chanco on her arms; but, since the Patans came in, this usage has more or less ceased." "The conch shell," Captain C. R. Day writes, [168] "is not in secular use as a musical instrument, but is found in every temple, and is sounded during religious ceremonials, in processions, and before the shrines of Hindu deities. In Southern India, the sankhu is employed in the ministration of a class of temple servers called Dasari. No tune, so to speak, can of course be played upon it, but still the tone is capable of much modulation by the lips, and its clear mellow notes are not without a certain charm. A rather striking effect is produced when it is used in the temple ritual as a sort of rhythmical accompaniment, when it plays the part of kannagolu or talavinyasa." In a petition from two natives of the city of Madras in 1734, in connection with the expenses for erecting a town called Chintadrepettah, the following occurs [169]:--"Expended towards digging a foundation, where chanks was buried with accustomary ceremonies." A right-handed chank (i.e., one which has its spiral opening to the right), which was found off the coast of Ceylon at Jaffna in 1887, was sold for Rs. 700. Such a chank is said to have been sometimes priced at a lakh of rupees; and, writing in 1813, Milburn says [169] that a chank opening to the right hand is greatly valued, and always sells for its weight in gold. Further, Baldæus narrates the legend that Garroude flew in all haste to Brahma, and brought to Kistna the chianko or kinkhorn twisted to the right. The chank appears as a symbol on coins of the Chalukyan and Pandyan dynasties of Southern India, and on the modern coins of the Maharajas of Travancore.

Temple worship is entirely based on Agamas. As Brahmans take part only in the worship of Siva and Vishnu, temples dedicated to these gods are largely frequented by them. The duties connected with the actual worship of the idol are carried out by Gurukkals in Siva temples, and by Pancharatra or Vaikhanasa Archakas in Vishnu temples. The cooking of the food for the daily offering is done by Brahmans called Parcharakas. At the time of worship, some Brahmans, called Adhyapakas, recite the Vedas. Some stanzas from Thiruvaimozhi or Thevaram are also repeated, the former by Brahmans at Vishnu temples, and the latter by Pandarams (Oduvar) at Siva temples. In a typical temple there are usually two idols, one of stone (mula vigraha) and the other of metal (utsava vigraha). The mula vigraha is permanently fixed within the inner shrine or garbagraha, and the utsava vigraha is intended to be carried in procession. The mula vigrahas of Vishnu temples are generally in human form, either in a standing posture, or, as in the case of Ranganatha, Padmanabha, and Govindarajaswami, in a reclining posture, on Adisesha. Ordinarily, three idols constitute the mula vigraha. These are Vishnu, Sridevi (Lakshmi), and Bhudevi (earth goddess). In temples dedicated to Sri Rama, Lakshmana is found instead of Bhudevi. Sridevi and Bhudevi are also associated with Vishnu in the utsava vigraha. In all the larger temples, there is a separate building in the temple precincts dedicated to Lakshmi, and within the garbagraha thereof, called thayar or nachiyar sannadhi, is a mula vigraha of Lakshmi. There may also be one or more shrines dedicated to the Alvars (Vaishnava saints) and the Acharyas--Desikar and Manavala Mahamunigal. The sect mark is put on the faces of the mula and utsava vigrahas. The mula vigraha in Siva temples is a lingam (phallic emblem). In Siva temples, there is within the garbagraha only one lamp burning, which emits a very feeble light. Hence arise the common sayings "As dim as the light burning in Siva's temple," or "Like the lamp in Siva's temple." The utsava vigraha is in the human forms of Siva and Parvathi. In all important Saivite temples, Parvathi is housed in a separate building, as Lakshmi is in Vishnu temples. Vigneswara, Subramanya, and the important Nayanmars also have separate shrines in the temple precincts.

So far as ordinary daily worship is concerned, there is not much difference in the mode of worship between temple and domestic worship. Every item is done on a large scale, and certain special Agamic or Tantric rites are added to the sixteen Upacharas already mentioned. At the present time, there are, especially in the case of Vishnu temples, two forms of temple worship, called Pancharatra and Vaikhanasa. In the former, which is like domestic worship in all essential points, any Brahman may officiate as temple priest. In the latter, only Vaikhanasa Archakas may officiate.

All big temples are generally well endowed, and some temples receive from Government annual grants of money, called tasdik. The management of the temple affairs rests with the Dharmakarthas (trustees), who practically have absolute control over the temple funds. All the temple servants, such as Archakas, Parcharakas, and Adhyapakas, and the non-Brahman servants (sweepers, flower-gatherers, musicians and dancing-girls) are subject to the authority of the Dharmakartha. For their services in the temple, these people are paid partly in money, and partly in kind. The cooked food, which is offered daily to the god, is distributed among the temple servants. On ordinary days, the offerings of cooked food made by the Archakas, and the fruits brought by those who come to worship, are offered only to the mula vigraha, whereas, on festival days, they are offered to the utsava vigrahas.