Part 37

The =gums= (Gingivæ) are composed of a dense fibrous tissue intimately united with the periosteum of the alveolar processes, and blending at the edges of the alveoli with the alveolar periosteum, which fixes the teeth in their cavities. They are covered by a smooth mucous membrane, destitute of glands, and of a low degree of sensibility.

The =hard palate= (Palatum durum) is bounded in front and on the sides by the alveolar arches; behind it is continuous with the soft palate. Its osseous basis is formed by the premaxilla, maxilla, and palate bones. The mucous membrane is smooth, and is attached to the bones by a submucosa which contains in its anterior part an exceedingly rich venous plexus, constituting an erectile tissue. A central raphé (Raphé palati) divides the surface into two equal portions. Each of these presents about eighteen transverse curved ridges (Rugæ palatini) which have their concavity and their free edges directed backward. They are further apart and more prominent anteriorly. There are no glands in the submucosa.

=Vessels and Nerves.=—The blood-supply is derived chiefly from the palatine arteries and the nerves from the trigeminus.

The =soft palate= (Palatum molle) is a musculo-membranous curtain which separates the cavity of the mouth from that of the pharynx. It slopes downward and backward from its junction with the hard palate. The =oral surface= faces downward and forward, and is covered with a mucous membrane continuous with that of the hard palate. It is corrugated and presents numerous small orifices (of gland-ducts) and two sagittal ridges. On each side a short, thick fold passes to join the base of the tongue; this is the =anterior pillar= of the soft palate (Arcus glossopalatinus). The =pharyngeal surface= looks upward and backward and is covered by a mucous membrane continuous with that of the nasal cavity. The =free border= (Arcus palatinus) is concave and thin; it is in contact (except during deglutition) with the epiglottis. It is continuous with a fold of the mucous membrane, which passes on each side along the lateral wall of the pharynx and unites with its fellow over the beginning of the œsophagus; this fold is termed the =posterior pillar= of the soft palate (Arcus pharyngopalatinus). The space between the diverging anterior and posterior pillars (Sinus tonsillaris) is occupied by the faucial =tonsil=. In the horse, however, there is not a compact tonsil, as in man, dog, etc., but a somewhat extended group of mucous glands and masses of lymphoid tissue. These cause elevations of the surface, on which are seen numerous depressions (crypts) in which the gland-ducts open. The soft palate is greatly developed in equidæ, its length being five to six inches (12 to 15 cm.). Its length and contact with the epiglottis account for the fact that in these animals mouth-breathing does not occur under normal conditions, and that in vomiting the ejected matter escapes usually through the nasal cavity.[78]

[Illustration:

FIG. 239.—HARD PALATE AND PART OF SOFT PALATE OF HORSE.

_1_, Raphé palati; _2_, ridges of palate; _3_, anterior end of soft palate, showing orifices of ducts of palatine glands. ]

=Structure.=—The soft palate consists of: (1) The oral mucous membrane, continuous with that of the hard palate; (2) the =palatine glands= (Glandulæ palatinæ), which form a layer about half an inch in thickness; (3) the aponeurotic and muscular layer; (4) the pharyngeal mucous membrane, continuous with that of the nasal cavity.

The =muscles= proper to the soft palate are the azygos uvulæ, the levator palati, and the tensor palati.

The =azygos uvulæ= (M. palatinus) consists of two small muscular bundles which lie together at the median line. It is attached through the medium of the palatine aponeurosis to the palatine arch, and terminates near the free edge of the soft palate. Its action is to shorten and raise the soft palate.

The =levator palati= (M. levator veli palatini) arises from the muscular process of the petrous temporal bone and from the Eustachian tube, and passes forward and downward externally to the latter, to spread out on the pharyngeal surface of the soft palate. It raises the soft palate, thus closing the posterior nares during deglutition.

The =tensor palati= (M. tensor veli palatini) is larger than the levator, and is fusiform and flattened. It arises from the muscular process of the petrous temporal bone and the Eustachian tube, and passes forward external to the levator. Its tendon is then reflected around the hamulus of the pterygoid bone, being held in position by a fibrous band and lubricated by a bursa. It turns inward and expands in the aponeurosis of the soft palate. It tenses the soft palate.

=Vessels and Nerves.=—The blood-supply of the soft palate is derived from the internal and external maxillary arteries. The nerves come from the trigeminus, vagus, and glosso-pharyngeal nerves.

[Illustration:

FIG. 240.—CROSS-SECTION OF HEAD OF HORSE JUST IN FRONT OF FACIAL CREST.

_1_, Cavity of superior turbinal; _2_, cavity of inferior turbinal; _3_, cavum oris; _4_, _4_, genio-glossi; _5_, _5_, genio-hyoidei; _6_, hyo-glossus; _7_, upper, _7′_, lower fourth cheek tooth. Line to facial artery crosses zygomaticus. ]

The =floor= of the mouth in its anterior part is free and is formed by the body of the mandible, covered by mucous membrane. The remainder is concealed by the attached portion of the tongue, with the exception of a narrow space on each side of the latter. About opposite the canine tooth on each side is a papilla, the =caruncula sublingualis=, through which the duct of the submaxillary gland opens. Just behind these papillæ is a median fold of mucous membrane which passes to the under surface of the tongue, constituting the =frenum linguæ=. On either side are the sublingual crests, which extend from the frenum to the level of the fourth cheek tooth. The crest presents numerous small papillæ, through which open the ducts from the subjacent sublingual gland.[79] Behind the last tooth a vertical fold of the mucous membrane passes from upper to lower jaw. This is termed the plica pterygomandibularis: it contains a ligament of like name.

The =isthmus faucium= is the orifice of communication between the mouth and the pharynx. It is bounded above by the soft palate, below by the root of the tongue, and laterally by the anterior pillars of the soft palate. It is long, relatively small, and not very dilatable in the horse, and is closed by the soft palate under normal conditions, except during deglutition.

THE TONGUE

The =tongue= (Lingua) is situated on the floor of the mouth, between the rami of the mandible, and is supported mainly in a sort of sling formed by the mylo-hyoid muscles. Its posterior portion, the =root= (Radix linguæ), is attached to the hyoid bone, soft palate, and pharynx. Only the upper surface of this part is free, and slopes downward and backward. The middle portion, the =body= (Corpus linguæ), has three free surfaces. The upper surface or =dorsum= (Dorsum linguæ) is rounded. The lateral surfaces are nearly flat for the most part, but anteriorly become rounded and narrower. The lower surface is attached to the mandible. The =apex= or tip (Apex linguæ) is free, spatula-shaped, and presents superior and inferior surfaces and a rounded border.

[Illustration:

FIG. 241.—TONGUE OF HORSE, DORSAL ASPECT. ]

=Structure.=—The tongue consists of: (1) The mucous membrane; (2) the glands; (3) the muscles.

The =mucous membrane= (Tunica mucosa linguæ) adheres intimately to the subjacent tissue, except on the lower part of the lateral surfaces of the body and the under surface of the tip. It varies considerably in thickness. On the dorsum it is very thick and dense. Underneath this portion there is a dense fibrous cord, which extends medially a distance of five or six inches forward from the vallate papillæ. On the sides and under surface of the tongue the membrane is much thinner and smooth, and can more readily be dissected off the muscular tissue. From the under surface of the free part of the tongue a fold of the mucous membrane passes to the floor of the mouth, forming the =frenum linguæ=. This contains the anterior edges of the genio-glossi muscles. Posteriorly a fold passes on each side from the edge of the dorsum to join the soft palate, forming the anterior pillars of the latter. A central glosso-epiglottic fold (Plica glossoepiglottica) passes from the root to the base of the epiglottis. The mucous membrane presents numerous =papillæ=, which are of four kinds—filiform, fungiform, vallate, and foliate. The =filiform papillæ= (Papillæ filiformes) are fine, pointed projections. They cover the upper surface of the body and tip, to which they give a distinct pile. The =fungiform papillæ= (Papillæ fungiformes) are rounded at the free end, which is supported by a neck. They occur principally on the lateral part of the tongue, but are also found scattered over the dorsum and upper surface of the free portion. The =vallate papillæ= (Papillæ vallatæ) are usually two or three in number. The two constant ones have a diameter of about 7 mm., and are found on the posterior part of the dorsum, one on each side of the median plane, about an inch (ca. 3 cm.) apart. The third, when present, is behind these, is centrally situated, and is always smaller. Rarely a fourth may be seen. They are rounded, broader at their exposed than at their attached surfaces, and are situated in a cup-shaped cavity. The =foliate papillæ= (Papillæ foliatæ) are situated just in front of the anterior pillars of the soft palate, where they form a rounded eminence about an inch (ca. 2 to 3 cm.) in length, marked by transverse fissures. The last three varieties are covered with microscopic secondary papillæ and are furnished with taste buds. The mucous membrane of the root of the tongue presents numerous folds and depressions. Into the latter open the ducts from the =lingual glands= (Glandulæ linguales), which constitute a thick layer in the loose submucous tissue. Mucous glands are found also on the dorsum and sides of the tongue. In the submucosa of the root is found also a large quantity of lymph follicles (Folliculi tonsillares) and diffuse lymphoid tissue.

[Illustration:

FIG. 242.—MUSCLES OF TONGUE, HYOID BONE, PHARYNX, ETC., OF HORSE.

_T. p._, Tensor palati; _L. p._, levator palati; _Pt. p._, pterygo-pharyngeus; _P. p._, palato-pharyngeus; _S. p._, stylo-pharyngeus; _Th. p._, thyro-pharyngeus; _C. p._, crico-pharyngeus; _Th. h._, thyro-hyoideus; _Hyo. gl._, hyo-glossus; _G. p._, guttural pouch; _F. p._, foliate papilla; _A. v._, facial artery and vein. The concealed parts of the hyoid bone are indicated by dotted line. ]

The =muscular tissue= may be divided into intrinsic and extrinsic. The intrinsic musculature consists, not of distinct muscles, but rather of systems of fibers which run longitudinally, vertically, and transversely, blending with the extrinsic muscles, which are now to be described.

1. =Stylo-glossus.=—This is a long, thin muscle, which lies on the lateral part of the tongue. It arises by a thin tendon from the outer surface of the great cornu of the hyoid bone, near the articulation with the small cornu. It terminates near the tip of the tongue by blending with its fellow of the opposite side and with the intrinsic musculature. The action is to retract the tongue. Unilateral contraction would also draw the tongue toward the side of the muscle acting.

[Illustration:

FIG. 243.—MUSCLES OF TONGUE, PHARYNX, LARYNX, ETC., DEEP DISSECTION.

_T. p._, Tensor palati; _L. p._, levator palati, concealed part indicated by dotted line; _Pt. p._, pterygo-pharyngeus; _P. p._, palato-pharyngeus; _St. p._, stylo-pharyngeus; _C. a._, crico-arytenoideus post.; _C. th._, crico-thyroideus; _Th. c._, thyroid cartilage (wing); _Th. h._, thyro-hyoideus; _K. h._, kerato-hyoideus; _Th. c._, thyroid cornu; _S. c._, small cornu; _L. p._, lingual process; _F. p._, foliate papilla; _Fu. p._, fungiform papillæ. Part of great cornu is removed and indicated by dotted line. ]

2. =Hyo-glossus.=—This is a wide, flat muscle, somewhat thicker than the preceding. It lies on the lateral part of the root and body of the tongue, partly under cover of the preceding muscle. Its deep face is related to the genio-glossus. It arises from the lateral aspect of the hyoid bone, from the lingual process to the oral extremity of the great cornu, and from the thyroid cornu. The fibers pass obliquely forward and upward, and for the most part turn toward the median plane of the dorsum of the tongue. Its action is to retract and depress the tongue.

(It is usually possible to recognize in this muscle three portions, which would correspond to the baseo-, kerato-, and chondro-glossus of human anatomy.)

3. =Genio-glossus.=—This is a fan-shaped muscle, which lies parallel to the median plane of the tongue. It is separated from the muscle of the opposite side by a quantity of fat and connective tissue. It arises from the inner surface of the ramus of the mandible near the symphysis. From the tendon the fibers pass in a radiating manner, some toward the tip, others toward the dorsum, and others toward the root of the tongue; some fibers pass from the posterior end of the tendon to the body and small cornu of the hyoid bone. The muscle as a whole is a depressor of the tongue, and especially of its middle portion; when both muscles act, a median groove is formed on the dorsum. The posterior fibers protrude the tongue, the middle fibers depress the tongue, and the anterior fibers retract the tip of the tongue.

=Vessels and Nerves.=—The arteries of the tongue are the lingual and sublingual branches of the external maxillary artery. The sensory nerves are the lingual and glosso-pharyngeal, and the muscles are innervated by the hypoglossal nerve.

THE TEETH

The teeth are hard white or yellowish-white structures, implanted in the alveoli of the bones of the jaws—premaxilla, maxilla, and mandible. Morphologically they are large calcified papillæ. Functionally they are organs of prehension and mastication, and may serve as weapons of offense and defense. They are classified according to form and position as follows:

1. =The incisor teeth= (Dentes incisivi) are situated in front and are implanted in the premaxilla and mandible.

2. =The canine teeth= (Dentes canini) are situated a little further back, at or near the premaxillary suture in the upper jaw; in the lower jaw they are nearer the incisors.

3. =The cheek teeth= (Dentes premolares et molares), the remaining teeth, occupy the sides of the dental arch. The space between the incisors and cheek teeth is termed the interdental or interalveolar space. It is customary to divide the cheek teeth into an anterior series, termed =premolars=, which appear as temporary, deciduous, or milk teeth, and are replaced by permanent successors, and a posterior series, the =molars=, which appear only as permanent teeth without deciduous predecessors.

As the teeth of the two sides of the jaws are alike in number and character (in normal cases), the complete dentition may be briefly indicated by a =dental formula= such as the following:

( 2 1 2 3 ) 2 ( I - C - P - M - ) = 32. ( 2 1 2 3 )

In this formula the letters indicate the kinds of teeth, and the figures above and below the lines give the number of teeth of one side in the upper and lower jaw respectively in man.

The individual teeth of each group are designated numerically, the starting-point being the middle line; thus the incisor on either side of the middle line is the first incisor, and may be conveniently indicated by the notation I^1. The temporary or deciduous teeth may be designated in a similar manner, prefixing D (for deciduous) to the letter indicating the kind of tooth. In addition to the above systematic method of notation other terms have received the sanction of popular usage. Thus the first incisors are commonly called “pinchers,” or “nippers”; the second, intermediate; and the third, corner teeth. The canines, when highly developed, may be termed tusks or fangs. The vestigial and inconstant first premolar of the horse is popularly termed the “wolf tooth.”

Each tooth presents for description a portion coated with enamel, termed the =crown= (Corona dentis), and a portion covered with cement, termed the =root= (Radix dentis). The line of union of these parts is the neck (Collum dentis).[80] In many teeth the neck is distinct and is embraced by the gum, _e. g._, the teeth of the dog and the temporary incisors of the horse. In other teeth no constriction is seen, as in the permanent incisors of the horse. Between these extremes may be noted the molars of the horse, in which the neck is seen only in advanced age.

The =surface= of a tooth directed toward the lips is termed =labial=; toward the cheek, =buccal=; and toward the tongue, =lingual= (Facies labialis, buccalis, lingualis). The surface opposed to a neighboring tooth of the same dental arch is termed the =contact surface= (Facies contactus). The grinding or =masticatory= or “table” surface (Facies masticatoria) is that which comes in contact with a tooth or teeth of the opposite jaw.

=Structure.=—Teeth are composed of four tissues, which are considered here from within outward. The =pulp= (Pulpa dentis) is a soft gelatinous tissue, which occupies a space in the central part of the tooth termed the =pulp cavity= (Cavum dentis). The pulp is well supplied with blood-vessels and nerves. It occupies a relatively large space in young growing teeth, but later the dentine deposited on its surface gradually encroaches on it until, in advanced age, the cavity is obliterated or much reduced. The =dentine= (Substantia eburnea) forms the bulk of most teeth, covering the surface of the pulp. It is very hard, and is yellowish-white in color. The =enamel= (Substantia adamantina) constitutes a layer of varying thickness covering the dentine of the crown of the tooth. It is easily distinguished by its clear bluish-white appearance and its extreme density. The =cement= (Substantia ossea) is always the outermost tooth substance. In simple teeth it forms usually a thin layer on the surface of the dentine of the root only, but in complex teeth it exists in considerable quantity, tending to fill in the spaces between the enamel folds of the crown also. Its structure is practically the same as that of bone without Haversian canals, and even these occur where the cement forms a very thick layer. The embedded part of the tooth is attached to the alveolus by a vascular layer of connective tissue, the =alveolar periosteum= (Periosteum alveolare), which constitutes the periosteum at once of tooth and alveolus.

The =blood-supply= to the pulp is derived from the alveolar or dental branches of the internal artery; the =nerve-supply= comes from branches of the trigeminus.

THE TEETH OF THE HORSE

THE PERMANENT TEETH

The formula of the permanent teeth of the horse is:

( 3 1 3 or 4 3 ) 2 ( I - C - P —————— M - ) = 40 or 42 ( 3 1 3 3 )

[Illustration:

FIG. 244.—UPPER TEETH OF HORSE, ABOUT FOUR AND ONE-HALF YEARS OLD.

_I^1_, _I^2_, _I^3_, Incisors; _C_, canine; _P^1_, _P^2_, _P^3_, _P^4_, premolars; _M^1_, _M^2_, _M^3_, molars. ]

[Illustration:

FIG. 245.—LOWER TEETH OF HORSE, FOUR YEARS OF AGE.

_I^1_, _I^2_, First and second permanent incisors; _Di^3_, third deciduous incisor. The cheek teeth are numbered according to popular usage. ]

In the mare the canines usually are very small and do not erupt, reducing the number to 36 or 38.[81]

=Incisor Teeth.=—These are twelve in number. The six in each jaw are placed close together, so that their labial edges form almost a semicircle. They have the peculiarity (not found in existing mammals other than the equidæ) of presenting, instead of the simple cap of enamel on the crown, a deep invagination, the =infundibulum=, which becomes partly filled up with cement. Hence as the tooth wears the table surface has a central ring of enamel surrounding this cavity in addition to the peripheral enamel. The cavity becomes darkened by deposits from the food, and is commonly termed the “cup” or “mark.” Each tooth is curved so that the labial surface is convex and the roots converge. The average length of the incisors at five or six years of age is about two and a half to three inches (ca. 7 cm.). They taper regularly from crown to root, without any constriction, and in such a manner that in young horses the exposed crown is broad transversely; toward the middle, the two diameters of a cross-section are about equal; near the root the antero-posterior diameter is considerably greater than the transverse.

[Illustration:

FIG. 246.—LOWER INCISOR AND CANINE TEETH OF HORSE, FIVE YEARS OLD. ]

[Illustration:

FIG. 247.—UPPER INCISOR AND CANINE TEETH OF HORSE, FIVE YEARS OLD.

_I^1_, _I^2_, _I^3_, Incisors; _C_, canine. ]

This fact is of value in the determination of age by the teeth, since the table surface at different ages represents a series of such cross-sections. As the exposed crown wears down the embedded part (reserve crown) pushes up out of the alveolus, so that the tables of the first and second lower incisors are at first oval, with the long diameter transverse; later—at about fourteen years usually for the first lower incisors—the tables are triangular, with the base at the labial edge. At the same time the infundibulum or cup becomes smaller, approaches the lingual border, and finally disappears; it remains longer on the upper incisors, as it is deeper in them. Another marked feature in old age is the progressive approach to a horizontal direction as seen in profile; at the same time the teeth become parallel and finally convergent.

=Canine Teeth.=—These are four in number in the male; in the mare they are usually absent or rudimentary.[82] They interrupt the interdental space, dividing it into two unequal parts. The upper canine is situated at the junction of the premaxilla and the maxilla; the lower canine is placed nearer the corner incisor. The canines are simple teeth, smaller than the incisors, and are curved with the concavity directed backward. The crown is compressed, convex, and smooth externally; concave with a median ridge internally; its edges are sharp, and the apex is pointed in the unworn tooth. The root is round and the pulp cavity is large, persisting to advanced age.

[Illustration:

FIG. 248.—LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF PERMANENT INCISOR TOOTH OF HORSE, ABOUT NATURAL SIZE. ]

[Illustration:

FIG. 249.—INCISOR TOOTH OF HORSE, LINGUAL ASPECT. (After Ellenberger-Baum, Anat. für Künstler.) ]

[Illustration:

FIG. 250.—CANINE AND INCISOR TEETH OF HORSE.

The bone has been removed to show the embedded parts of the teeth. (After Ellenberger-Baum, Anat. für Künstler.) ]