Part 57

=Structure of Veins.=—The walls of veins are similar in structure to those of the arteries, but are very much thinner, so that veins collapse more or less completely when empty, while arteries do not. The =middle coat= is very thin and consists to a large extent of ordinary connective tissue. The =intima= is also less elastic than in the arteries. In many veins this coat forms semilunar =valves=, the free edges of which are directed toward the heart. They are most numerous in the veins of the skin and the deep veins of the extremities (except the foot), while in most veins of the body cavities and viscera they are absent or occur only where the veins open into larger ones or where two veins join.

The walls of the vessels are supplied with blood by numerous small arteries, called =vasa vasorum=. These arise from branches of the artery which they supply or from adjacent arteries, ramify in the external coat, and enter the middle coat also.

The =nerves= of the vessels consist of both medullated and non-medullated fibers. They form plexuses around the vessels, from which fibers pass mainly to the muscular tissue of the middle coat.

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE HORSE

THE PERICARDIUM[155]

The =pericardium= is the fibro-serous sac which surrounds the heart, and also the great vessels in connection with it to a greater or less extent. Its form is in general similar to that of the heart. The =fibrous layer= is relatively thin, but strong and inelastic. It is attached dorsally to the large vessels at the base of the heart, and is continued in part up to the longus colli muscle. Ventrally it is firmly attached to the middle of the posterior half of the thoracic surface of the sternum. The =serous layer= is a closed sac, surrounded by the fibrous pericardium, and invaginated by the heart. It is smooth and glistening, and contains a small amount of clear serous fluid, the =liquor pericardii=. Like other serous membranes, it may be regarded as consisting of two parts, parietal and visceral. The =parietal part= lines the fibrous layer, to which it is closely attached. The =visceral layer= covers the heart and parts of the great vessels, and is therefore also termed the =epicardium=. The serous pericardium is composed of a connective-tissue membrane, rich in elastic fibers, and covered on its free surface by a layer of flat endothelial cells.

The pericardium is covered by the mediastinal pleura (Pleura pericardica) and is crossed laterally by the phrenic nerves. Its lateral surfaces are related chiefly to the lungs, but the lower part is in partial contact with the chest-wall. On the left side the area of contact is from the third to the fifth intercostal space inclusive. On the right side the contact is smaller and is at the third and fourth ribs. The anterior border of the base is opposite to the second intercostal space, and the posterior border is opposite to the sixth rib or space. The base is related to the great vessels, the trachea and its bifurcation, the bronchial lymph glands, the œsophagus, and the vagus, left recurrent, and cardiac nerves.

The two parts of the serous pericardium are, of course, continuous with each other at the line of reflection on to the great vessels. The latter are covered in varying degree by the visceral layer. The aorta and pulmonary artery are inclosed in a complete common sheath as far as the bifurcation of the latter. A pouch passes inward between the pulmonary artery and the left auricle, and is connected with another pouch which passes backward between the right auricle and the aorta, thus forming the great transverse sinus of the pericardium. The posterior vena cava is covered on the right and below for a distance of an inch or a little more (ca. 3 cm.). The pulmonary veins receive practically no serous covering. The epicardium is closely adherent to the muscular tissue of the heart, but is attached to the vessels by loose tissue and fat, and hence is easily dissected off them.

THE HEART

The =heart= (Cor) occupies the greater part of the middle mediastinal space. Its shape is that of an irregular and somewhat flattened cone. It is attached at its base by the great vessels, but is otherwise entirely free in the pericardium. It presents two surfaces, two borders, a base, and an apex for description.

[Illustration:

FIG. 419.—HEART OF HORSE, LEFT VIEW. HARDENED _in situ_.

The dotted line indicates the line of reflection of the serous pericardium. The epicardium and subepicardial fat have not been removed from the heart. ]

In =position= the heart is decidedly asymmetrical, about two-fifths being to the right of the median plane and three-fifths to the left. The long axis (from the middle of the base to the apex) is directed downward, backward, and somewhat to the left. The =base= (Basis cordis) is directed dorsally and lies a little above the middle of the dorso-ventral diameter of the thorax. It is opposite to the ribs from the third to the sixth inclusive. The =apex= (Apex cordis) lies above the last segment of the sternum, and is separated by a very short interval from the sternal part of the diaphragm. The =anterior border= (Margo cranialis) is strongly convex and is directed obliquely downward and backward; its lower part is parallel with the sternum. The =posterior border= (Margo caudalis) is much shorter, nearly vertical, and is opposite to the sixth rib or intercostal space. The =surfaces=, =right= and =left= (Facies dextra, sinistra), are convex and are marked by =grooves= which indicate the division of the heart into four chambers, the two atria above and two ventricles below. The left surface (covered by the pericardium) is in contact with the lower third of the chest-wall from the third to the fifth intercostal space. On the right side the cardiac notch of the lung is smaller and further forward, so that the area of contact is at the third and fourth ribs.

[Illustration:

FIG. 420.—HEART OF HORSE, RIGHT VIEW. HARDENED _in situ_.

Line of reflection of serous pericardium dotted. Epicardium and subepicardial fat have not been removed from heart. Left ventricle is considerably contracted. ]

The =coronary= or =atrio-ventricular groove= (Sulcus coronarius) indicates the division between the atria and the ventricles. It almost completely encircles the heart, but is interrupted by the origin of the pulmonary artery. The =longitudinal= or =interventricular grooves=, right and left (Sulci longitudinales sinister et dexter), correspond to the septum between the ventricles. The left groove is left-anterior in position. It begins at the coronary groove behind the origin of the pulmonary artery, and passes downward almost parallel to the posterior border, but does not reach the apex. The right groove is right posterior in position. It begins at the coronary groove below the termination of the posterior vena cava and passes downward and a little backward, ending about an inch and a half (ca. 3 to 4 cm.) above the apex. The grooves are occupied by the coronary vessel and a variable quantity of fat.

[Illustration:

FIG. 421.—BASE OF HEART OF HORSE WITH LARGE VESSELS, DORSAL VIEW. SPECIMEN HARDENED _in situ_. ]

=Size and Weight.=—In horses of medium size the heart usually weighs about seven or eight pounds (ca. 3.5 kg.), or about 0.7 per cent. of the body-weight. There is, however, great range of variation in apparently normal specimens.

The following measurements were obtained in medium-sized hearts in diastole:

Sagittal diameter of base 25 cm. Greatest width of base 18 to 20 cm. Circumference at coronary groove 65 to 70 cm. Distance between origin of pulmonary artery and apex 25 cm. Distance between termination of posterior vena cava and apex 18 to 20 cm.

THE RIGHT ATRIUM

The =right atrium= (Atrium dextrum) or auricle forms the right-anterior part of the base of the heart, and lies above the right ventricle. It consists of a =sinus venosus=, into which the veins open, and an =auricle= or auricular appendix. The latter is a conical diverticulum which curves around the right and anterior surfaces of the aorta, its blind end appearing on the left side in front of the origin of the pulmonary artery.

[Illustration:

FIG. 422.—RIGHT SIDE OF HEART OF HORSE OPENED UP BY REMOVAL OF GREATER PART OF RIGHT WALL. ORGAN HARDENED _in situ_.

The right ventricle was in diastole. _r_, Intervenous crest; _v_, _v_, tricuspid valve; _p_, _p_, papillary muscles; _m_, _m_, moderator bands. Arrow points into origin of pulmonary artery. ]

There are five chief openings in the right atrium. The =opening of the anterior vena cava= (Ostium venæ cavæ cranialis) is in the upper and fore part. The =opening of the posterior vena cava= (Ostium venæ cavæ caudalis) is at the lower posterior part. Between the two the wall pouches upward somewhat, forming what is sometimes termed the sinus venosus or sac of Lower. In the anterior part of this the =vena azygos= opens. The =coronary sinus= opens immediately below the posterior vena cava; the orifice is provided with a small semilunar valve or valve of Thebesius (Valvula sinus coronarii). The middle coronary vein has a separate opening in some cases close to that of the coronary sinus. The =atrio-ventricular opening= is in the lower part, and leads into the right ventricle. In addition to the foregoing there are several small orifices of the venæ cordis parvæ; these are concealed in the depressions between the musculi pectinati.

The atrium is lined with a glistening membrane, the =endocardium=. Its walls are smooth except on the right and in the auricle (or appendix), where it is crossed in various directions by muscular ridges, the =musculi pectinati=. Small bands extend across some of the spaces inclosed by the musculi pectinati. The latter terminate above on a curved crest, the =crista terminales=, which indicates the junction of the primitive sinus venosus of the embryo with the atrium proper, and corresponds with the sulcus terminalis externally. The openings of the venæ cavæ are without valves. A ridge, the intervenous crest,[156] projects downward and forward from the roof just in front of the opening of the posterior vena cava; it tends to direct the flow of blood from the anterior vena cava to the atrio-ventricular opening. The =fossa ovalis= is an oval depression in the septal wall at the point of entrance of the posterior vena cava, bounded internally by a thick margin (Limbus fossæ ovalis). The fossa is the remains of an opening, the =foramen ovale=, through which the two atria communicate in the fœtus.

THE LEFT ATRIUM

The =left atrium= (Atrium sinistrum) or auricle forms the posterior part of the base of the heart. It lies behind the pulmonary artery and the aorta and above the left ventricle. The auricle (or appendix) extends outward and forward on the left side, and its blind end is behind the origin of the pulmonary artery. The =pulmonary veins=, usually seven or eight in number, open into the atrium behind and on the right side. The cavity of the atrium is smooth, with the exception of the auricle (or appendix), in which the musculi pectinati are present. In some cases there is a depression on the septal wall opposite the fossa ovalis, bounded above by a fold which is the remnant of the valve of the foramen ovale of the fœtus. The =atrio-ventricular opening= is situated below and in front; it usually appears smaller than the right one on account of the contraction of the left ventricle in the dead subject. The apertures of small veins of the heart are found in the spaces inclosed by the musculi pectinati.

The number and the arrangement of the pulmonary veins are variable. They may be five to nine in number. The largest orifice is posterior. Usually three veins of considerable size enter close together on the right above the posterior vena cava, and three or four open close to the ridge which projects from the roof at the base of the auricle (appendix).

THE RIGHT VENTRICLE

The =right ventricle= (Ventriculus dexter) constitutes the right-anterior part of the ventricular mass. It forms almost all of the anterior border of the heart, but does not reach the apex, which is formed entirely by the left ventricle. It extends from the third rib to the fourth intercostal space on the left side, to the fifth rib and space on the right side. It is somewhat triangular in outline, and is semilunar in cross-section. Its base faces upward and a little to the right and is connected largely with the right atrium, with which it communicates through the atrio-ventricular orifice; but its left part projects higher and forms the =conus arteriosus=, from which the pulmonary artery arises. Its apex is two inches or more (ca. 5 to 6 cm.) above the apex of the heart. On opening the cavity it is seen that the two openings are separated by a thick rounded ridge (Crista supraventricularis). The axis of the cavity, taken from this ridge to the apex forms a spiral curve downward and to the right. The septal wall is convex and faces obliquely forward and to the right.

[Illustration:

FIG. 423.—SECTION OF HEART OF HORSE.

Specimen hardened _in situ_ and cut nearly at right angles to the ventricular septum. The left ventricle is contracted, but not _ad maximum_. _V. a._, Segment of aortic valve. ]

The =right atrio-ventricular orifice= (Ostium venosum dextrum) is oval and is situated opposite to the lower parts of the third and fourth ribs. It is guarded by a =tricuspid valve= (Valvula tricuspidalis); of the three large cusps of this valve, one is between the atrio-ventricular opening and the conus arteriosus, one is septal, and the third is on the right margin. Small intermediate cusps intervene between the large ones. The peripheral edges of the cusps are attached to the fibrous ring at the atrio-ventricular opening. The central edges are irregular and hang down into the ventricle; they give attachment to chordæ tendineæ. The auricular surfaces are smooth. The ventricular surfaces are rough and furnish attachment to interlacing branches of the chordæ tendineæ. The valves are folds of the endocardium, strengthened by fibrous tissue and at the periphery by muscular fibers also. The =chordæ tendineæ= are attached below to the three =musculi papillares=, which project from the ventricular wall; superiorly they divide into branches which are inserted into the ventricular surfaces and the free edges of the valves. Each segment of the valve receives chordæ tendineæ from two papillary muscles. Of the latter, two are on the septum and the third and largest springs from the anterior wall.

The =pulmonary orifice= (Ostium arteriæ pulmonalis) is circular and is situated at the summit of the conus arteriosus, opposite to the lower part of the third intercostal space. It is guarded by the =pulmonary valve=, composed of three semilunar cusps (Valvulæ semilunares arteriæ pulmonalis); of these, one is internal, one external, and the third posterior. The convex peripheral border of each cusp is attached to the fibrous ring at the junction of the pulmonary artery and the conus arteriosus. The central border is free and slightly concave. Each cusp consists of a layer of endocardium on its ventricular surface, a continuation of the inner coat of the artery on its arterial surface, and an intermediate layer of fibrous tissue. The upper edge of the conus arteriosus forms three arches with intermediate projecting angles or horns, to all of which the cusps are attached; and the artery forms opposite each cusp a pouch, the sinus of the pulmonary artery (or of Valsalva).

[Illustration:

FIG. 424.—SECTION OF HEART OF HORSE. SPECIMEN HARDENED _in situ_.

The section is cut nearly at right angles to the ventricular septum, and is viewed from the right and posteriorly. ]

The walls of the ventricle (except in the conus arteriosus) bear muscular ridges and bands, termed =trabeculæ carneæ=. These are of three kinds, viz., (1) ridges or columns in relief; (2) musculi papillares, somewhat conical flattened projections, continuous at the base with the wall and giving off the chordæ tendineæ to the tricuspid valve; (3) moderator bands (Musculi transversi cordis) which extend from the septum to the opposite wall. The latter are partly muscular, partly tendinous, and vary in different subjects. The strongest one is usually about midway between the base and apex and extends from the septum to the base of the anterior musculus papillaris. It is considered that they tend to prevent overdistention.

THE LEFT VENTRICLE

The =left ventricle= (Ventriculus sinister) forms the left posterior part of the ventricular mass. It is more regularly conical than the right ventricle and its wall is much thicker except at the apex. It forms all of the posterior border of the ventricular part and the apex of the heart. Its base is largely continuous with the left atrium, with which it communicates through the left atrio-ventricular opening, but in front it opens into the aorta. The cavity usually appears smaller than that of the right ventricle in the dead subject, on account of the greater contraction of its wall. It is almost circular in cross-section.

[Illustration:

FIG. 425.—THE BASES OF THE VENTRICLES OF THE HEART OF THE HORSE.

The atria have been removed and the aorta and pulmonary artery cut off short. The left ventricle is contracted. _p.v._, Pulmonary valve; _a.v._, aortic valve. ]

The =left atrio-ventricular orifice= (Ostium venosum sinistrum) is opposite to the fifth rib and intercostal space. It is almost circular and is guarded by the =bicuspid= or =mitral valve= (Valvula bicuspidalis). The two segments of this valve are larger and thicker than those of the right side of the heart. One is placed in front and separates the atrio-ventricular and aortic openings. The other is placed behind and laterally and is usually divided into two or three flaps.

The =aortic orifice= (Ostium aorticum) is directed upward and slightly forward. It is situated opposite to the fourth rib. It is guarded by the =aortic valve=, composed of three semilunar cusps (Valvulæ semilunares aortæ); one cusp is anterior, the others right and left posterior. They are similar to those of the pulmonary valve, but are much stronger. The free edge of each contains a central nodule of fibrous tissue, the corpus Arantii (Nodulus valvulæ semilunaris).

The =chordæ tendineæ= are fewer but larger than those of the right ventricle.

There are two large =musculi papillares=, one on each side; they are usually compound. The moderator bands are variable. Commonly two or three larger ones (which are often branched) extend from the musculi papillares to the septum. Smaller ones may be found in various places, especially at the apex. The other trabeculæ are fewer and less prominent than in the right ventricle.

The =interventricular septum= (Septum ventriculorum) is the musculo-membranous partition which separates the cavities of the two ventricles. It is placed obliquely. One surface is convex, faces forward and to the right, and bulges into the right ventricle. The other surface, which faces into the left ventricle, is concave and looks backward and to the left. The greater part of the septum is thick and muscular (Septum musculare), but the upper part is thin and membranous (Septum membranaceum). The latter intervenes between the left ventricle, on the one hand, and the right ventricle and atrium on the other.

STRUCTURE OF THE HEART

The heart-wall consists mainly of peculiar striped muscle, the myocardium, which is covered externally by the visceral part of the serous pericardium or epicardium, and is lined by the endocardium.

The =epicardium= is in general closely attached to the muscular wall, but is loosely attached over the coronary vessels and the associated subepicardial fat. It consists of a layer of flat polygonal cells, resting on a membrane of white and elastic fibers.

The =myocardium= consists of planes of fibers arranged in a somewhat complicated manner. The muscular tissue of the atria is almost completely separated from that of the ventricles by the fibrous rings around the atrio-ventricular orifices.

In the atria the muscle bands fall naturally into two groups—superficial and deep. The former are common to both atria, the latter special to each. The =superficial= or =common fibers= for the most part begin and end at the atrio-ventricular rings, but some enter the interatrial septum. The =deep= or =special bundles= also form two sets. Looped fibers pass over the atria from ring to ring, while annular or spiral fibers surround the ends of the veins which open into the atria, the auricles, and the fossa ovalis.

The muscular wall of the ventricles is much stronger than that of the atria. That of the left ventricle is in general about three times as thick as that of the right one, but is thin at the apex. The =superficial fibers= are attached above to the atrio-ventricular fibrous rings and pass in a spiral toward the apex. Here they bend upon themselves and pass deeply upward to terminate in a papillary muscle of the ventricle opposite to that in which they arose. The loops so formed at the apex constitute a whorl, the =vortex cordis=. The =deep fibers=, although they appear to be proper to each ventricle, have been shown by MacCallum to be in reality almost all common to both. Their arrangement is scroll-like. They begin on one side, curve around in the wall of that ventricle, then pass in the septum to the opposite side, and curve around the other ventricle. There is a layer of deep fibers which is confined to the basal part of the left ventricle; it is attached to the left atrio-ventricular ring.

Four =fibrous rings= (Annuli fibrosi) surround the orifices at the bases of the ventricles. The atrio-ventricular rings separate the musculature of the atria from that of the ventricles. Those which surround the origins of the pulmonary artery and aorta are festooned in conformity with the attached borders of the valves. The aortic ring contains on the right side a plate of cartilage (Cartilago cordis), which frequently becomes more or less calcified in old animals. Sometimes a smaller plate is present on the left side.

The =endocardium= lines the cavities of the heart and is continuous with the internal coat of the vessels which enter and leave the organ. Its free surface is smooth and glistening and is formed by a layer of endothelial cells. The latter rest on a thin layer of connective tissue, which is connected with the myocardium by a subendocardial elastic tissue containing vessels and nerves.

=Vessels and Nerves.=—The heart receives its blood-supply through the two =coronary arteries= which arise from the aorta opposite to the anterior and left cusps of the aortic valve. Most of the blood is returned by the =coronary veins=, which open into the right atrium by the coronary sinus.[157] A few small veins open directly into the right atrium, and others are said to open into the left atrium and the ventricles. The =lymph vessels= form a subepicardial network which communicates through stomata with the cavity of the pericardium. There is a less distinct subendocardial network. The vessels converge usually to two trunks which accompany the blood-vessels in the atrio-ventricular grooves and enter the glands at the bifurcation of the trachea. The =nerves= are derived from the =vagus= and =sympathetic= through the cardiac plexus.

THE ARTERIES

THE PULMONARY ARTERY