CHAPTER XII

TRADE: INDUSTRIES AND PRODUCTS

For many years prior to the reign of Abdur Rahman, trade with Afghanistan itself or in transit to regions beyond the frontiers had to contend against two difficulties, the one arising from the heavy imposts upon goods intended for local consumption, and the other from the excessive charges levied upon merchandise destined for markets beyond the Oxus. Under the Khans commerce struggled ineffectually against exactions which, if comprehensible during a period when the country was parcelled out among a number of reigning families, were directly inimical to its better interests so soon as the several territories became incorporated within one central administration.

At this juncture the trade of Afghanistan followed these routes, none of which were practicable for wheeled traffic:

(1) From Persia, _viâ_ Teheran and Meshed to Herat.

(2) From Khiva, _viâ_ Bokhara, Merv and the Murghab valley to Herat.

(3) From Bokhara, _viâ_ Karshi, Balkh and Khulm to Kabul.

(4) From Chinese Turkestan, _viâ_ Chitral to Jelalabad.

(5) From India, _viâ_ the Khyber and the Ghwalari passes, to Kabul and the Oxus.

(6) From India, _viâ_ the Bolan and the Gomul passes, for Kandahar and Herat.

In connection with these routes the following duties were levied at the different points upon passing caravans.

From India, _viâ_ the Khyber and Ghwalari passes, for Kabul, in addition to a 2½ per cent. _ad valorem_:

At Peshawar: 1 rupee per horse or camel.

At Jelalabad: 2 rupees per horse or camel.

At Butkhak: no duty was levied at this point, but a customs officer inspected the goods and sent a detailed list of them to Kabul.

At Kabul: 2 rupees 8 annas per horse or camel, or 1/40 _ad valorem_, on entering Kabul and 13 or 14 annas per 100 rupees’ worth on leaving, by which payment through caravans were exempted from further duties until beyond Bamian.

Between the Kabul and Balkh territories local caravans, carrying goods within the boundaries of either khanate, had, in their passage of the Hindu Kush, _viâ_ the Kushan pass, to pay:

One pony-load (3 maunds) of indigo, silk or asbury, 1 rupee 2 shahis.

One camel-load (5 maunds) of indigo, silk or asbury, 2 rupees 1½ shahis.

One ass-load of indigo, silk or asbury, 7 shahis.

One camel-load of salt, 7 shahis.

One camel-load of almonds, 1 rupee 2 shahis.

One camel-load of pistacia nuts, 1½ rupees.

Horses and mares, 5½ rupees for Bamian and beyond Kushan; 1 rupee 2 shahis for Kushan.

Foot passengers, 1 rupee.

Beyond Bamian caravans destined for the Oxus had to meet charges:

At Rui, of 4 annas per load, camel or horse.

At Kamard, of 4 annas per load, camel or horse.

At Balkh, of 2 rupees per load, camel or horse.

Merchandise from Eastern Turkestan paid at Jelalabad, in addition to 2½ per cent. _ad valorem_, as follows:

_s._ _d._ On a load of salt 3 shahis[34] = 0 3 On a load of cotton 5 ” = 0 5 On a load of ghee 5 ” = 0 5 On a load of cloth 6 ” = 0 6

Upon trade coming into Herat and the north-western districts of Afghanistan from regions beyond the Oxus, in addition to a 5 per cent. _ad valorem_, duties were paid at:

Tungeh,[35] Tungeh, Tungeh, Tungeh, Tungeh, per bale. per camel. per horse. per ass. per slave. Karki 20 5 3 1 22 Andkhui 26 5 3 2 20 Maimana 28 5 3 1 25 Almar -- 3 2 — -- Kalch Wali -- 5 3 1 5 Murghab 30 5 3 2 15 Kala Nau -- 5 3 2 -- Kuruk -- 15 10 5 --

From India, _viâ_ the Gomul and the Bolan, for Kandahar and Herat, in addition to 2½ per cent. _ad valorem_, tolls were levied at:

R. A. Ghazni 2 0 per load of camel or horse Kandahar 2 8 ” ” ” Girishk 1 0 ” ” ” Farah 2 0 ” ” ” Herat 2 8 ” ” ”

Examination of these imposts goes to prove that, under the rule of the khans and in the reign of Shir Ali, trade received no encouragement; while, if Abdur Rahman were the father of his people, there is no doubt that judged by his domestic policy he revealed a lack of foresight in fulfilling his parental obligations. If overweening vanity and ignorance contributed to the failure of Abdur Rahman’s attempt to make Afghanistan a self-supporting State, it can be pleaded for him, nevertheless, that it was his intention to help trade and industries which were indigenous to the country. To effect this, he abolished inter-provincial tolls, maintained the scale of rates which was levied upon caravans in transit to trans-Oxus markets, increased the frontier duties in proportion to the loss which he sustained by withdrawing charges hitherto imposed within his dominions, and began various industrial works in the capital.

Enamoured of his idea, he unfortunately omitted from consideration, besides a certain inadequacy of revenue, the overwhelming intolerance of his subjects to every form of labour. There was thus in Afghanistan itself when, six years after his accession to the throne, the Amir embarked upon a campaign of commercial expansion, no reserve of capital behind the Government and no fund of energy in the people. In spite of the number of miscellaneous industries which he attempted in Kabul no continuity of success was preserved, while reaction against his penalties upon Indian trade resulted in the opening up of the Quetta-Nushki-Nasratabad road as a commercial route. Direct loss of revenue, therefore, befel Abdur Rahman through his encouragement of a policy which was prejudicial to his own interests, as it was hostile to the trade of India and Russia. So far from profitable was the issue, indeed, that the position of the State at the close of his reign was in anything but a condition of comfortable prosperity.

The movement of the principal imports and exports in the closing years of his reign is given on pp. 292, 293.

Under pressure of financial difficulties arising from debts contracted by his father for the supply of military stores and equipment, the development of public works and a host of minor obligations, Habib Ullah was compelled to reconsider his economic position. Accepting the situation on its merits, during the first year of his reign he remitted certain duties and lowered the transit charges on “through” caravans, in respect of indigo and tea, to the equivalent of 2½ per cent. _ad valorem_ duty. This impost upon tea works out at the rate of 7 pies per pound, but the tax on tea intended for the markets of Afghanistan is much higher. This is returned at 125 rupees per camel-load of 360 pounds, thereby levying a charge of 5 annas against each pound which, although an exceedingly high rate, compares not unfavourably with the crushing Customs dues on the Russian frontier and the tax in England. A revival of the demand in Afghanistan for tea grown in India has shown itself during the past year or two; and, undoubtedly, if the import duty were lowered the Afghans would become better customers, especially for the green variety, which they most favour. If the Amir could be convinced that a smaller duty would involve no loss of revenue, owing to larger imports, a reduction of the tariff might possibly be sanctioned.

TABLE SHOWING PRINCIPAL IMPORTS AND EXPORTS IN CLOSING YEARS OF THE REIGN OF ABDUR RAHMAN

------------------------------------------------------------------ 1892-93. 1893-94. 1894-95. 1895-96. ------------------------------------------------------------------

_Imports._ Rupees. Rupees. Rupees. Rupees. Horses, ponies, mules 16,200 27,079 18,759 32,540 Drugs and medicines 14,849 11,320 11,962 9,661 Fruits, etc. 98,353 60,198 56,502 46,422 Hides, skins, and leather 13,788 17,943 14,019 17,775 Ghee 35,088 24,900 20,086 17,042 Wool, raw and 15,023 12,908 11,927 13,961 manufactured

_Exports._ Cotton yarn 5,215 6,083 8,674 11,530 ” piece-goods 430,978 275,235 151,400 172,488 Dyeing materials 10,552 9,004 15,218 17,823 Leather 14,433 10,446 7,599 15,251 Brass, copper and iron 14,945 12,404 11,421 11,688 Sugar 15,055 15,714 10,228 8,895 Tea 99,874 61,112 45,097 27,129 -------------------------------------------------------------------

[TN: Table continues]

------------------------------------------------------------------- 1896-97. 1897-98. 1898-99. 1899-1900. -------------------------------------------------------------------

_Imports._ Rupees. Rupees. Horses, ponies, mules 11,955 2,275 Drugs and medicines 2,258 7,766 Fruits, etc. 51,709 30,854 Hides, skins, and leather 19,416 8,895 Ghee 19,475 24,444 Wool, raw and manufactured 11,445 17,003 Not Not specified specified _Exports._ Cotton yarn 11,088 6,537 ” piece-goods 145,082 203,444 Dyeing materials 15,512 6,986 Leather 5,800 3,914 Brass, copper and iron 23,209 7,026 Sugar 10,569 8,672 Tea 35,770 15,860 --------------------------------------------------------------------

TABLE SHOWING IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF NORTHERN AND EASTERN AFGHANISTAN FOR THE YEARS 1892-1900

+-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ | | 1892-93. | 1893-94. | 1894-95. | 1895-96. | +-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ | | | | | | | | Rupees. | Rupees. | Rupees. | Rupees. | | Imports | 220,850 | 188,831 | 160,400 | 165,003 | | Exports | 610,501 | 405,215 | 267,365 | 306,233 | | +----------+----------+----------+----------+ | Combined values | 831,351 | 594,046 | 427,765 | 471,236 | +-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ [TN: Table continues] +-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ | | 1896-97. | 1897-98. | 1898-99. |1899-1900.| +-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ | | | | | | | | Rupees. | Rupees. | Rupees. | not | | Imports | 151,538 | 129,110 | 217,235 |specified | | Exports | 290,163 | 274,638 | 294,605 | — | | +----------+----------+----------+----------+ | Combined values | 441,701 | 403,748 | 511,840 | 442,087 | +-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

TABLE SHOWING IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF SOUTHERN AND WESTERN AFGHANISTAN FOR THE YEARS 1892-1900

+-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ | | 1892-93. | 1893-94. | 1894-95. | 1895-96. | +-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ | | | | | | | | Rupees. | Rupees. | Rupees. | Rupees. | | Imports | 234,428 | 335,849 | 299,090 | 410,541 | | Exports | 297,657 | 328,172 | 309,762 | 257,002 | +-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ | Combined values | 532,085 | 664,021 | 608,852 | 667,543 | +-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ [TN: Table continues] +-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ | | 1896-97. | 1897-98. | 1898-99. |1899-1900.| +-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ | | | | | | | | Rupees. | Rupees. | Rupees. | not | | Imports | 418,405 | 309,299 | 329,917 |specified | | Exports | 227,376 | 163,785 | 263,884 | — | +-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ | Combined values | 645,781 | 473,084 | 593,801 | 714,318 | +-----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

On the whole the fiscal policy of the present Amir encourages the belief that, in time, many of the existing obstacles to free commercial intercourse with India will be removed. The small benefits already offered to Indian merchants have produced immediate response and the prospect of further concessions is widely appreciated. Trade exports from Kabul during 1904-05 alone increased by 25 lakhs of rupees, the volume of trade proceeding from Kandahar showing an improvement no less emphatic. The total value of exports and imports combined, since indications of a more liberal fiscal policy first were manifested, in lakhs of rupees, is shown in the following table:

1900-01. 1901-02. 1902-03. 1903-04. 1904-05. Lakhs. Lakhs. Lakhs. Lakhs. Lakhs. Southern and Western Afghanistan 58.19 68.54 53.48 68.02 76.53 Northern and Eastern Afghanistan 48.01 61.00 63.99 70.56 95.36

The values of the principal imports from Kabul during 1904-05 were fruits and nuts, 7.9 lakhs; animals (horses, sheep, and goats), 4.4 lakhs; hides (including skins) and ghee, each about 2½ lakhs, the total being 26 lakhs as in the previous year. Exports during 1904-05 improved by 25 lakhs to 69⅓ lakhs. Cattle, sheep, and goats accounted for 8⅘ lakhs of this increase. Cotton fabrics, valued at 38⅓ lakhs (more than two-thirds being of foreign manufacture), increased by 12½ lakhs. The other principal articles were cotton yarn (mostly foreign), 3.2 lakhs, and leather, 2.5 lakhs. The exports of tea (nearly all green tea) were 397,265 pounds Indian, value 1.5 lakhs, 300,384 pounds foreign, value 3.1 lakhs. Among imports from Kandahar during 1904-05, valued at 40⅕ lakhs, were raw wool, 18.8 lakhs; fruits and nuts, 12.2 lakhs; and ghee, 2.6 lakhs, in all of which there has been a larger trade. The exports during 1904-05 reached 36⅓ lakhs, the two principal articles--Indian cottons, 14.7 lakhs, and foreign piece-goods, 10 lakhs--both showing an improvement.

The general character of the trade conducted between Afghanistan and India is indicated by the appended list of the principal imports and exports with their values during the last three years in lakhs of rupees:

_Exports from Afghanistan._

1902-03. 1903-04. 1904-05. Lakhs. Lakhs. Lakhs. Cattle 31.31 23.61 33.29 Other animals 36.66 24.41 38.38 Drugs and medicines, including charas 24.01 23.98 20.72 Fruits, vegetables and nuts 37.69 28.59 31.01 Grain and pulse (largely rice) 1.37.73 1.36.64 1.49.78 Hides, skins, and horns 26.70 26.49 35.41 Provisions: ghee 82.78 53.09 64.05 Pickled tea 15.02 17.62 22.06 Seeds (chiefly linseed and rapeseed) 53.28 39.97 34.80 Silk 25.69 20.10 17.44 Spices 13.86 20.25 17.17 Wood and timber, chiefly teak 74.60 86.31 1.22.35 Wool, raw 32.92 23.91 27.05 Woollen goods 14.19 9.47 11.16

_Imports into Afghanistan._

1902-03. 1903-04. 1904-05. Lakhs. Lakhs. Lakhs. Cotton, raw 12.76 12.49 7.60 Cotton yarn Foreign 35.68 32.58 28.28 Indian 26.11 25.63 33.30 Cotton goods: Foreign 1.78.57 1.55.28 1.50.31 Indian 64.37 52.60 63.34 Grain and pulse 10.35 18.65 17.39 Metals, mainly brass, copper, and iron 33.10 25.27 30.42 Oils 13.12 11.34 13.50 Provisions 21.47 20.49 19.43 Salt 43.14 31.42 31.46 Silk goods 11.24 9.54 8.22 Spices 16.69 16.76 14.04 Sugar 32.20 25.04 27.04 Tea 13.20 11.73 10.69 Tobacco 12.82 10.16 12.10

If India conducts with Afghanistan a trade which, although subject to fluctuations, enjoys considerable prosperity, the flow of commerce from the Trans-Oxus region towards the same markets is by no means contemptible. Indeed, articles imported into Afghanistan from Moscow, Merv, Bokhara and Samarkand figure in every bazaar in the Herat and Afghan Turkestan provinces. This trade passes through the customs stations of Kelif, Chushka Gusar, 40 miles to the east of Kelif, and Termes, 34 miles to the east of Chushka Gusar, the former of which is the principal seat of Russian Customs on the middle Oxus. Trade between Afghanistan and Russia has never been altogether prohibited by the Kabul authorities, Abdur Rahman permitting kafilas to travel by the routes on which he had established customs posts. On goods purchased in Russian territory by Afghan traders a rebate equal to the tax levied by the Amir’s officials is granted. Further, customs dues on goods imported from Afghanistan have been reduced by 50 per cent. Russian trade is therefore making rapid progress. The value of the goods which passed through the Russo-Afghan posts was £450,000 in 1902. To-day it probably exceeds half a million sterling. The import into Central Asia of goods from India has been strangled by the high Customs’ tariff of the Russians, plus the heavy transit dues in Afghanistan itself. The agents of Russian firms at Kelif and Chushka Guzar state that they can now compete successfully with British Indian trade in Northern Afghanistan owing to the comparative cheapness of transport from Europe, which means that the Trans-Caspian and Orenburg-Tashkent lines of railway are carrying Russian merchandise at specially low rates. None the less, the Russian traders complain of the Afghan transit dues, as their imposition causes delay on all the principal caravan routes and adds enormously to the transport charges. With the advantages which Russia now possesses, unless a determined effort is made to save the situation for the benefit of Indian trade, we may presently expect her to renew her efforts to open up direct relations with Kabul in order to obtain greater facilities for commerce. It may be, too, that it will be in this manner rather than by active aggression that she will seek to lessen British influence in Afghanistan, and even to raise complications with the Amir.

The principal Russian commodities are:

_Article._

Broad-cloth. Fine linens and calicoes. Silk goods. Velvet. Chintzes. Sewing thread and silk. Gold and silver lace. Gold and silver thread. Needles. Steel and copper wire. Russia leather. Paper. China-ware. Glass-ware. Cutlery. Loaf sugar. Pig iron. Steel ingots. Tin in plates. Copper in plates. Brass. Quicksilver. Cochineal. Tea. Honey. Wax, white and yellow.

In silk, linen and cotton goods the Russian fabrics are quite equal to those articles of Anglo-Indian manufacture which find their way into the country. Russian chintzes are more durable and of coarser texture than the Anglo-Indian article; although less elegant in appearance and of colours that are not so fast, they meet with a ready sale among the poorer classes. The silk goods imported from Bokhara are of Russian manufacture, but they might well be superseded by better and cheaper importations from India. Silk handkerchiefs of various colours, and even black ones, are in great demand. Foreign silks do not sell so readily as certain lines in cotton and linen fabrics, since Kandahar, Herat and Kabul possess their own silk looms, each loom paying an annual tax of 23 rupees to the State. The articles manufactured by the native looms are plain silks, called _kanavaz_; red, yellow and purple _durahee_ of slighter texture, less width and of the same colours; _suga khanmee_ of large and small widths, with perpendicular white lines on a red ground; _dushmals_ or handkerchiefs, black and red, with white spots, bound by females around their heads; and _broonghees hummam_, for the bath. To meet the demands of the Kabul market, raw and spun silks are imported from Bokhara, Kandahar and Herat, but the great bulk of either variety required by the Kabul looms comes from districts in the Kabul province. Velvets and satins are imported from both sides of the frontier; but wherever Indian or British goods meet the products of the Russian market in Afghanistan, the bounty-fed trade of Russia in Central Asia enjoys a conspicuous advantage.

Certain imports from Russia and India suffer from competition with the Kabul made product. In this respect the trade in gold and silver lace from Bokhara and India has fallen away very noticeably, although the quantity despatched from Bokhara still exceeds that imported from India. The trade in leather has also suffered by the development of local tanneries, but importations of the raw material are still necessary on account of the demands of the factory where the military equipment is made.

The trade in paper comes almost solely from the Russian market and quantities are imported from across the Oxus. The paper is of foolscap size, of stout, inferior quality and white or blue in colour. There are two assortments: glazed and unglazed. The blue glazed variety is preferred, the unglazed kind usually being sized at Kabul. A busy trade in this commodity passes between Kabul and Kandahar, the Russian product having captured the market to the practical exclusion of all other brands. The paper needs to be stout to allow facility of erasure; on this account, and with reference to the nature of the ink employed, glazed paper is most satisfactory.

The attention of the people is directed to the land rather than to trade and a very large proportion of the population takes naturally to cultivation. Farming is divided between the production of fruit and the growth of cereals. The Afghans are a fruit-loving people; in certain districts fruit, both in its fresh and preserved condition, forms the staple diet of a large section of the population throughout the year. A rapidly growing export in fresh and dried fruits exists with India. Indeed, so important has this industry become that, in the country round Kandahar, a marked increase in the number of orchards and fruit gardens has taken place within the last five years, the presence of the railway at New Chaman and its extension to Nushki making the exportation of fresh fruit not only practicable but profitable. Fruit farming is divided between orchard fruits, with which vegetable farming is usually combined and those fruits which may be grown in fields on a large scale. In the one class are apples, pears, almonds, peaches, apricots, plums, cherries, grapes, figs, quinces, pomegranates and mulberries, in addition to walnut, pistacia, the edible pine and rhubarb, which grow wild in the northern and eastern highlands. Vegetable produce, which holds a high position in the export trade, includes most domestic vegetables; while, of the uncultivated vegetable products, the castor-oil plant, the mustard, sesame and assafœtida grow in great abundance. The fruit fields also produce several varieties of melons, including musk, water and scented melons, cucumbers and pumpkins.

[Illustration: COTTON FIELDS UNDER IRRIGATION FROM THE AMU DARIA _Photo, Olufsen_]

In the direction of cereal production there are two harvests. One, reaped in summer, is the result of an autumn sowing and includes wheat, barley and certain varieties of peas and beans. The second harvest is gathered in autumn from a spring sowing, and embraces crops, rice, Indian corn, millet, arzun and jowari, besides other grains of less importance. In addition to these cereals, crops of madder, tobacco, cotton, opium, hemp, clover and lucerne are very generally cultivated. Clover and lucerne are produced for fodder, hemp for its intoxicating properties and madder, tobacco, cotton and opium for export. In relation to the other crops, wheat is the food of the people, barley and jowari are given to horses, and arzun and Indian corn are grown for culinary purposes.

In greater detail the distribution of the vegetation is as follows:

On the main range of the Safed Koh there are--

_Cedrus deodara_, the Deodar. _Abies excelsa_, Norway Spruce. _Pinus longifolia_, Turpentine Pine. _P. pinaster_, Cluster Pine. _P. pinea_, the Edible Pine. _Larix communis_, Larch. _Citrus limonum_, Lemon.

Yew, _Taxus baccata_. Hazel, _Corylus avellana_. Juniper, _Juniperus communis_. Walnut, _Juglans regia_. Wild peach, _Amygdalus persica_. Almond, _Amygdalus communis_. Wild vine, _Vitis vinifera_.

Protected by these there flourish several varieties of--

Rose, _Rosa canina_. Honeysuckle, _Lonicera_ (_caprifolium_). Currant, _Ribes rubrum_. Gooseberry, _Ribes grossularia_. Hawthorn, _Cratægus oxyacantha_. Rhododendron, _Rhododendron arboreum_.

Between the main crests of the summit and the secondary heights are found--

Walnut, _Juglans regia_. Alder, _Alnus glutinosa_. Ash, _Fraxinus excelsior_. Khinjak. Dwarf laburnum, _Cytisus laburnum_.

_Quercus_, Oak. _Arbor-vitæ_, Thuja. _Juniperus communis_, Juniper. _Astragalus_, Gum Tragacanth. _Indigo feræ_, Commercial Indigo.

At a lower altitude and descending to 3000 ft. there are--

Wild Olive, _Olea europæa_. Rock-rose, _Cistus_. Wild privet, _Ligustrum vulgare_. Acacia, _Acacia_. Mimosa, _Albizia_. Barberry, _Berberis vulgaris_. Edible fruit, _Zizyphus_.

_Chamtærops humilis_, Wild palm. _Bignonia_, Trumpet flower. _Dalbergia sissoo_, Sissu. _Salvadora persica_, Mustard tree of Scripture. _Verbena_, Lemon plant. Acanthus.

Ferns and mosses are confined to the higher ranges, while the lowest terminal ridges are scantily clothed with an almost wholly herbal vegetation.

The following plants, thorny in character, are to be found scattered over less elevated valley bottoms:

_Hedysarum Alhagi_, Camel-thorn. _Astragalus_, Milk Vitch. _Ononis spinosa mimoseæ_, Spiny rest-harrow. _Mimosa pudica_, Sensitive mimosa. _Lipad_ (plant of the Rue family), _Rutaceæ_.

Common wormwood, _Artemisia absinthium_. Rue, _Ruta graveolens_. Rose bay, _Nerium Oleander_. Wild laburnum, _Cytisus laburnum_. Commercial Indigo, _Indigo feræ_.

The following trees have been introduced into the cultivated districts, and they are now native to the country:

Mulberry, _Morus nigra_. Willow, _Salix_. Poplar, _Populus_. Ash, _Fraxinus excelsior_. Plane, _Platanus_.

The important uncultivated products are:

Gum-resin, _Narthex assafœtida_(grown chiefly on the plains between Kandahar and Herat). Walnut, _Juglans regia_. Pine-nut, _Pinus pinea_. Rhubarb (edible, chiefly grown in the highlands of Kabul). _Elæagnus orientalis Sanjit._ _Pistacia khinjak_, Gul-i-pista. _Fraxinus ornus_, Ash. Mushrooms, _Agaricus campestris_.

As regards vertebrate zoology Afghanistan lies on the frontier of three regions--the Eurasian, the Ethiopian and the Indo-Malayan. In the main the species are Eurasian.

The following wild animals are to be found:

⎧ _Felis catus_ Wild cat. ⎪ _F. chaus_ Jungle cat. _Felidæ_ ⎨ _F. caracal_ Kara-kul. ⎪ _Cynælurus jubatus_ Cheetah. ⎪ _F. pardus_ Common leopard. ⎩ _F. tigris_ Tiger.

⎧ _Caries aureus_ Jackal. ⎪ _C. bengalensis_ Wolf. _Canidæ_ ⎨ _Hyæna striata_ Hyæna. ⎪ _Vulpes bengalensis_ Wild dog. ⎩ _V. flavescens_ Small Indian fox.

⎧ _Herpestes_ Mongoose. ⎪ _Mustela erminea_ Stoat. _Mustelidæ_ ⎨ _M. flavigula_ Marten. ⎪ _Ursus torquatus_ Black bear. ⎩ _Ursus isabellinus_ Yellow bear.

⎧ _Capra ægagrus_ Ibex. ⎪ _C. megaceros_ Markhoor. ⎪ _Ovis vignei_ Wild sheep. _Ruminants_ ⎨ _Gazella subgutturosa_ Persian gazelle. ⎪ _Gazella dorcas_ Common gazelle. ⎪ _Cervus wallichii_ Indian barasingha. ⎪ _Sus scrofa_ Wild hog. ⎩ _Equus onager_ Wild ass.

⎧_Talpha europæa_ Mole. ⎪ _Sorex indicus_ Indian shrew. ⎪ _Erinaceus collaris_ Collared hedgehog. ⎪ _E. auritus_ Long-eared hedgehog. _Talpidæ_ ⎨ _Phyllorhinus cineraceus_ ⎫ ⎪ _Scotophilus bellii_ ⎬ Bats. ⎪ _Vespertilio auritus_ ⎪ ⎩ _V. barbastellus_ ⎭

⎧ _Sciurus syriacus_ Squirrel. ⎪ _Dipus telum_ Jerboa. ⎪ _Alactaga bactriana_ Bactria Jerboa. _Rodentia_ ⎨ _Gerbillus indicus_ Gerbit. ⎪ _G. erythrinus_ Gerbit. ⎪ _Lagomys nepalensis_ Pica, or Tailless Hare. ⎩ _Lepus ruficaudatus_ Hare.

_Birds._--There are 124 species of Afghan birds, comprised as follows:

95 Eurasian; 17 Indian; 10 both Eurasian and Indian; 1 Eurasian, Ethiopian and Indian; 1 _Carpodacus (Bucanetes) crassirostris_, peculiar to the country.

_Reptiles_:

_Pseudopus gracilis_ Glass “snake.” _Argyrophis horsfieldii_ ⎫ _Salea horsfieldii_ ⎪ _Calotes maria_ ⎬ Lizards. All Indian forms, without _C. versicolor_ ⎪ distinctive English names. _C. minor_ ⎪ _C. emma_ ⎪ _Phrynocephalus tickelii_ ⎭ _T. horsfieldii_ A tortoise peculiar to Kabul.

_Domestic Animals_:

Camels: Bactrian and Dromedary. Horses. Cows, humped.

Sheep--white and black, fat-tailed. Goats--black, parti-coloured. Dogs--pointers, greyhounds, _khandi_ (sporting dog).

The mineral wealth of Afghanistan is at present almost entirely undeveloped, the late Amir, Abdur Rahman, being possessed by an instinctive animus against company promoters and concession hunters. Habib Ullah, too, has not yet made any sign of permitting the evident resources of the country to be exploited. The localities, in which deposits are known to exist, are shown in the accompanying table:

_Mineral._ _Locality._

Gold Laghman and adjoining districts. Silver Panjshir Valley. Iron ore Bajaur; Permuli district and Hindu Kush. Copper ore Various districts. Lead Upper Bangash, Shinwari country, Kakar country, and in neighbourhood of Herat. Lead with antimony At Argandab; in the Wardak hills; Ghorband valley; Afridi country. Antimony Shah-Maksud. Silicate of zinc Zhob valley. Sulphur Herat; Hazara country; Pirkisri. Sal-ammoniac Pirkisri. Gypsum Plain of Kandahar. Coal Zurmat; near Ghazni; Afghan Turkestan. Nitre South-western Afghanistan.

Among the industries of Afghanistan, exclusive of the agricultural

## activities of a large section of the people, the production of silks,

the manufacture of felts, postins and rosaries, the cultivation of turmeric and ginger, and horse-breeding occupy important positions.

Silk is produced in considerable quantity at Kandahar, which is also the centre of other arts and crafts that afford occupation and support to numerous families. The quality of silk Kandahar is capable of much improvement. The cocoons are small, of unequal size and of different colours--yellow, white and grey. The majority of the worms are reared in neighbouring villages, but principally in those along the Argand-ab, where also the mulberry-trees are most abundant. The value of the mulberry-trees around Kandahar is estimated at several lakhs. The whole of the silk produced in the district pays a tax to the Government and its sale without permission is prohibited.

The manufacture of sheepskin coats is an important industry which once made Kandahar province its centre. Of late years the trade has so greatly increased, owing to the demands for this article from India, that other districts have devoted themselves to it with equal success. The leather is prepared and made up in Kandahar, Ghazni and Kabul on an extended scale, thus giving occupation to many hundreds of families. The method of manufacture is not without interest. The dried, unshorn sheepskin is immersed in running water until it is soft and pliant, while at the same time the wool is thoroughly washed with soap. After this the fleece is combed and the skin stretched on a board, when the inside surface is smeared with a thin paste, composed of equal parts of fine wheaten and rice flour, to which is added a small proportion of finely-powdered salt. This dressing is renewed daily for five or six days, throughout which time the pelt is exposed to the sun. Before the conclusion of this process the skin is again cleansed, washed and dried, after which all superfluous growths are removed. The surface is then treated with a tanning mixture made of dried pomegranate rinds, powdered alum, red ochre and sweet oil. After some days, when the requisite suppleness has been gained, this preparation is scraped off.

In the western districts a mixture of alum and white clay is used in preference to the pomegranate rinds. In such cases the skins, when cured, are white and somewhat coarser to the touch than those prepared with pomegranate rinds. In the Kabul process the pomegranate rind is used most freely; as the Kabul skins are prepared with the greatest care, they are esteemed more than those of Ghazni and Kandahar. Before the tanning is completed the skins are handed over to tailors, who reduce them to strips of 2 feet long by 4 or 5 inches wide, from which they make three varieties of coats. One class comprises small coats with short sleeves and requires only two or three skins; another description reaches to the knees and is furnished with full sleeves fitting close to the arm. This takes five or six pelts. A third pattern forms a large loose cloak of capacious dimensions extending from head to heel and furnished with long sleeves, very wide above the elbow and very narrow below it; it also projects several inches beyond the tips of the fingers. These require ten or twelve skins. Usually the edges and sleeves of the coats are embroidered with yellow silk. The completed articles cost from one to fifty rupees, according to size and finish. They are well adapted to the climate of the country; except in exposure to rain, when they are reversed, the woolly side is worn next the body. The full-length coat is a very cumbrous dress and is usually only worn in the house; it serves alike for bed, bedding, or as a cloak. The nature of the material favours the harbouring of insects, and few people are met whose coats do not serve as a breeding-ground for an immense colony of vermin.

An industry of equal importance with the postin trade is the manufacture of felts, which similarly centres in Kandahar. From there these goods are distributed throughout the country, besides being exported to India, Persia and the Trans-Oxus region.

Rosaries are also extensively manufactured at Kandahar from soft crystallised silicate of magnesia. This is quarried from a hill at Shah Maksud, about 30 miles north-west of the city, where soapstone and antimony are also obtained in considerable abundance. The stone varies in colour from a light yellow to a bluish white and is generally opaque. The most popular kind is straw coloured and semi-transparent. A few specimens are of a mottled greenish colour, brown or nearly black; they are used for the same purposes as the lighter varieties. Rosaries and charms of various sorts are made for exportation to Mecca. They range in price from a couple of annas to a hundred rupees. The refuse from the work is reduced to powder and utilised by native physicians as a remedy for heart-burn.

The land measure used by the Afghans is--

4 spans = 1 guz (Maimana). 4 spans = 1 pace. 60 paces = 1 tunnab. 1 tunnab square = 1 jereeb. 16 girahs (cloth) = 1 guz = 5 spans. 1 girah = 4 nookteh.

The English equivalent is--

_feet_ _inches_ 1 khoord = 0 0.632 1 girah = 0 2.531 1 guzishah = 0 40.500 1 guz (cloth) = 3 8 1 biswah = 4 0 1 sureeb = 80 0 1 koss = 2 miles. 1 munzil = 24 ”

The table of weights is--

6¾ rupees = 1 khoord. 4 khoords = 1 pow. 4 pows = 1 charrek. 4 charreks = 1 seer = 20 miscals = 24 nukhods. 1 seer = 432 rupees. 8 seers = 1 maund kham. 10 maunds = 1 kharwar. 1 mun (Tabriz) = 260 rupees.

The relative equivalent of some of the above in English weights is--

_pounds_ _ounces_ _grains_ 1 nukhod = 0 0 2.958 1 miscal = 0 0 71.000 1 pow = 0 12 .428 1 mum (Herati) = 7 0 0 1 seer = 12 15 0 1 kharwar (Afghan) = 1038 6 0 1 kharwar (Persian) = 649 0 0

It should be remembered, that everything, whether solid or liquid, is sold by weight in Afghanistan. In cloth the conventional measure in the bazaar is from the top of the middle finger to the point of the elbow.

[Illustration: ACROSS THE PASSES]

[34] One shahi equalled one penny; twelve shahis equalled one rupee Kandahar.

[35] One tungeh equals three farthings.

[Illustration]

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