CHAPTER VI

. SWITZERLAND SINCE 1798

[b] J. WILSON, _History of Switzerland_.

[c] W. MÜLLER, _Politische Geschichte der Neuersten Zeit_.

[d] VULLIEMIN, _Histoire de la Confédération Suisse_.

[e] W. A. B. COOLIDGE, article on Switzerland in _Encyclopædia Britannica_.

A GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SWISS HISTORY

BASED ON THE WORKS QUOTED, CITED, OR CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THE PRESENT WORK; WITH CRITICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

=Adams=, F. O., and C. D. =Cunningham=, The Swiss Confederation, London, 1889.--=Ah=, J. J. von, Die Bundesbriefe der ältern Eidgenossen, Einsiedeln, 1891.--=Alt=, F. N. de, Histoire de la Suisse, Fribourg, 1750-1755, 10 vols.

_François Joseph Nicholas_, baron of Alt, the son of an ancient patrician family of Fribourg, Switzerland, was born in 1689, and died in 1771. His history, which was admirably planned, would have greater value for the general student if much of the extraneous matter and all the violent Catholic partisanship were eliminated.

=Amtliche Sammlung der Akten aus der Zeit der Helvetischen Republik=, 2 vols., translated by J. Strickler, Bern, 1886-1890, 4 vols.--=Amtliche Sammlung der ältern eidgenössischen Abschiede= 1245-1798, 1839-1856, 8 vols. Reports of the old Federal diets, containing an enormous amount of historical matter.--=Anshelm=, Berner-Chronik, Bern, 1825-1833, 6 vols.--=Arx=, J. von, Geschichte von St. Gallen, St. Gallen, 1810, 2 vols.--=Aubigné=, T. A. d’, Histoire Universelle 1550-1601, Geneva, 1626, 3 vols.

_Théodore Agrippa d’Aubigné_, one of the most notable characters of the sixteenth century, was born at St. Maury, near Pons, February 8th, 1550, of an old and noble family which had embraced the religion of the Calvinists. The young d’Aubigné neglected none of the educational opportunities afforded him by his father, and at the age of six was already able to read Latin, Greek and Hebrew. At thirteen he escaped from the restraints of his tutor to take part in the siege of Orléans. After his father’s death he won reputation as a warrior under the prince of Condé, and later entered the service of the king of Navarre. In the wars of Henry IV for the recovery of his kingdom, d’Aubigné further distinguished himself; but he was finally obliged by the enmity of the queen-mother to retire from the court. During his exile he composed the history of his time, a work remarkable for its fearless frankness. The first two volumes were printed without opposition; but the third was condemned on account of its merciless criticisms. D’Aubigné, however, caused it to be printed, thereby incurring the burning of all three volumes; the confiscation of all his goods, and the savage persecution of his later years, until his death at Geneva, April 29, 1630.

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=Bachtold=, J., and F. =Vetter=, Bibliotek älterer Schriftwerke der deutschen Schweiz, Frauenfeld, 1882-1884, 5 vols.--=Baker=, T. G., The Model Republic, London, 1895.--=Baebler=, J. J., Die alten eidgenössischen Bunde, St. Gall., 1848.--=Baumgartner=, G. J., Die Schweiz in ihren Kämpfen und Umgestaltungen, 1830-1850, Zurich, 1853-66, 4 vols.; Erlebnisse auf dem Felde der Politik, Schaffhausen, 1844; Geschichte Spaniens zur Zeit der französichen Revolution, Berlin, 1861; Geschichte des Schweiz Freistaats und Kantons St. Gallen, Zurich, 1868, 2 vols.--=Berchtold=, J., Histoire du canton de Fribourg, Fribourg, 1841-1845.--=Berthold=, de Constance, continuator of the Chronicon de sex ætatibus mundi.--=Blochmann=, C. J., Heinrich Pestalozzi, Leipsic, 1846.--=Bloesch=, E., Rapport sur les affaires communales Berne, 1851.--=Blumer=, J. J., Staats- und Rechtsgeschriften der Schweiz. Demokratien, St. Gallen, 1850-59, 3 vols.; Handbuch des schweiz. Bundesstaatsrechts, Schaffhausen, 1877-87, 13 vols.--=Bluntschli=, J. K., Geschichte des schweiz. Bundesrechts, Stuttgart, 1875, 2 vols.; Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte der Stadt und Landschaft Zurich, Zurich, 1838, 2 vols.--=Bohmer=, J. F., Regesta Karolorum, Frankfort, 1833.--=Bonivard=, F., Les Chroniques de la Genève, Geneva, 1831, 2 vols.

_François Bonivard_, to whom we owe the vivid pictures of the agitations which marked the beginning of the sixteenth century, was born of Savoyard parents, in 1493, at Seyssel. At seventeen he became prior of St. Victor, a community of Benedictines near Geneva. Revolutionist at heart, he entered into the struggle against the duke of Savoy, who in 1519 imprisoned him and confiscated his priory. He died in 1570, aged seventy-seven years, after a troubled youth and a melancholy old age as pensioner in the city where he had once been a man of mark. He left behind him the invaluable chronicle of his time, written half in Latin, half in the quaint French of his day, in a style at once rude and naive, familiar and vigorous, and brimming with picturesque imagery and lively metaphor.

=Bonnechose=, E. de, Les Réformateurs avant la Réforme, Paris, 1860, 3rd edition, 2 vols.--=Brandstetter=, J. L., Repertorium über die Zeit und Sammelschriften der Jahre, 1812-1890, Bâle, 1892.--=Bulletin= official du Directoire Helvétique, 3 vols.--=Bullinger=, H., Reformationsgeschichte, Frauenfeld, 1838-40, 3 vols.

_Henry Bullinger_ was born at Bremgarten in 1504 and died at Zurich in 1575. After a preliminary course at Emmerich, his father having refused him the means necessary to continue his education, he made money by singing in the streets and in 1520 he recommenced his studies at Cologne, with the idea of joining the community of the Chartreux. But his resolution and his religion as well were changed by his association with Zwingli, whose doctrine he embraced and whose successor he became. In addition to his history of the Reformation and numerous theological writings he edited the complete works of Zwingli.

=Burckhardt=, Der Kirchenschatz des Münsters zu Basel, Bâle, 1867.

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=Cæsar=, J., De bello gallico.--=Casus S. Galli.= By Ekkehard IV. Translated by G. Meyer von Knonau, Leipsic, 1878.--=Chambrier=, F. de, Histoire de Neuchâtel et Valangin jusqu’à l’avènement de la maison de Prusse, Neuchâtel, 1840.

_Frédéric de Chambrier_, the real founder of the Academy of Neuchâtel, was a man of wide culture and varied resources. In his _Histoire_ he follows faithfully, century by century, the progress of the little but proud and independent people of Neuchâtel, handling his character analyses with skill and persisting in a style at once simple and dignified.

=Chauffour-Kestner=, Études sur les Réformateurs du XVI Siècle.--=Cherbuliez=, A., De la Democratie en Suisse, Geneva, 1843.--=Chronique d’Edlibach.=--=Chronica de Berno.=--=Chronique Anonyme.=--=Chronique des chanoines de Neuchâtel=, Michaud, 1839.--=Chronik des Hans Fründ=, Chur, 1875.--=Colton=, J. M., Annals of Switzerland, New York, 1897.--=Coxe=, W., A History of the House of Austria, London, 1807.--=Crétineau=, Joly J., Histoire du Sonderbund, Paris, 1850, 2 vols.--=Curti=, T., Geschichte der Schweizerischen Volksgesetzgebung, Zurich, 1885.

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=Daguet=, A., Biographie de Guillimann, Fribourg, 1843; Les barons de Forell, Lausanne, 1873; Histoire de la Confédération Suisse, Geneva, 1880, 2 vols.

_Alexander Daguet_, Swiss historian and professor was born at Fribourg, March 12, 1816, of a family of poor nobles. Since 1866 he has held the chair of history and pedagogy at the Academy of Neuchâtel. He has edited successively numerous educational journals and figures among the authors of the publications of the Société de la Suisse romande. In his own country and abroad he has gained innumerable distinctions. He is the founder of several literary and historical societies, and the honored member of many more.

=Dändliker=, C., Ursachen und Vorspiel der Burgunderkriege, Zurich, 1876; Geschichte der Schweiz, Zurich, 1884-88, 3 vols.; A short history of Switzerland, translation by E. Salisbury, London, 1899.

_Chas. Dändliker_, Swiss historian, was born at Staffa, May 6, 1849. He studied at Zurich and Munich and in 1871 was called to the chair of history at the Pedagogical Institute, Küssnacht, where he is still instructor. In 1887 he was named professor extraordinary in Swiss history at the University of Zurich. His history of Switzerland has been translated into English.

=Dawson=, W. H., Social Switzerland, London, 1897.--=Der Schweizerische Republikaner=, Zurich, Lucern, Bern, 1798-9, 3 vols.--=Dierauer=, J., Geschichte der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft, Gotha, 1887, 2 vols.--=Dottain=, E., La question suisse, éclaircissements historiques, Paris, 1860.--=Droz=, N., Instruction civique, Geneva and Lausanne, 1885; Die Schweiz im 19ten Jahrhundert, Lausanne, 1899.

_Numa Droz_, minister of foreign affairs for the Swiss Confederation, was born January 7, 1844, of a humble family of watchmakers. In 1864 he turned his attention to politics and became editor of a radical instrument, _Le National Suisse_. During the elections of 1869 he obtained a high place in the grand council, thanks to his facile elocution and his ardent liberalism. He was in 1882 one of the negotiators of the Franco-Swiss treaty. His writings are distinguished for clearness of presentation, beauty of style, and substantialness of matter.

=Dubs=, J., Das öffentliche Recht der Eidgenossenschaft, Zurich, 1855, 2 vols.--=Dufour=, G. H., Der Sonderbundskrieg, Bâle, 1882.

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=Eckhardus=, Jr. (monk of St. Gall), St. Galler Kloster-Chronik, Leipsic, 1891.--=Egli=, S. E., Die schlacht bei Kappel, Zurich, 1873.--=Elgger=, C. von, Kriegswesen und Kriegskunst der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft, Lucerne, 1873.--=Escher=, H., Die Glaubensparteien in der Eidgenossenschaft, Frauenfeld, 1882.--=Etterlin von Lucerne=, Petermann, Kronica von der löblichen Eydtgnoschaft, Bâle, 1507.

_Petermann Etterlin_, captain of Lucernois in the wars of Burgundy, was the first to give to the world a veritable Swiss chronicle. A good deal of fiction is mixed with his facts, but we glean from his writings many interesting details of the scenes in which he was an actor.

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=Fassbind=, T., Geschichte von Schwyz, Schwyz, 1832-1838, 5 vols.--=Feddersen=, Geschichte der Schweizerischen Regeneration, Zurich, 1867.--=Fetscherin=, W., Die eidgenössischen Abschiede aus den Jahren 1814 bis 1848.--=Fiala=, F., Archives pour l’histoire de la Réformation en Suisse, 1868-69, 2 vols.--=Fleury=, J., Franc-Comtois et Suisse, Besançon, 1869.

_Jean Fleury_, professor of French literature at St. Petersburg, member of numerous societies of savants in France, England, and Russia, was born at Vasteville, Feb. 14, 1816. He has published a considerable quantity of political, literary, pedagogical, and other papers, besides numerous books on a variety of subjects.

=Forel=, F., Introduction de Regeste des documents de la Suisse romande, Lausanne, 1862.--=Freeman=, E. A., “The Landsgemeinde of Ury and Appenzell,” in _History of Federal government_, London, 1863.--=Froment=, A., Acts et gestes merveilleux de la cité de Genève, 1548.

_Froment_ was a continuator of the chronicles of Bonivard and of Jeanne de Jussie.

=Furrer=, P., Geschichte von Wallis, Sitten, 1850-1854, 4 vols.

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=Galiffe=, J. B. G. (fils), Genève historique et archéologique, Geneva, 1869-72, 2 vols.--=Galiffe=, J. A. (père), Notices généalogiques.--=Gaullier=, E. H., La Suisse en 1847, Geneva, 1848.--=Gaullier=, E. H. A., and =Schaub=, C., La Suisse historique et pittoresque, Geneva, 1855-6, 2 vols.; Les armoiries et les couleurs de la Confédération et des cantons suisses, Geneva and Bâle, 1879.--=Gelpke=, Kirchengeschichte der Schweiz, Bern, 1856-1861, 2 vols.--=Gingins la Sarra=, F. de, Épisodes des Guerres de Bourgogne, Lausanne, 1850.--=Gisi=, W., Quellenbuch zur Schweizergeschichte, Berne, 1869.--=Grandpierre=, L., Mémoires politiques, Neuchâtel, 1877.--=Gelzer=, H., Die zwei ersten Jahrhunderte der Schweizergeschichte, Bâle, 1840; Die zweiletzten Jahrhunderte der Schweizergeschichte, Aarau and Thun, 1838-39.--=Gregory= of Tours, Historia Francorum.--=Grasser=, J. J., Schweizerisch Heldenbuch, Basel 1624.--=Grote=, G., Seven letters on the recent politics of Switzerland, London, 1847.--=Guérard=, Polyptyque d’Irminon, Paris, 1844, 2 vols.--=Guillimann de Fribourg=, F., De rebus helvetiorum, 1598.

_François Guillimann_ (or more properly Vuillemain), a distinguished savant, was born at Romont, a canton of Fribourg. He taught at Solothurn, afterwards became professor of history at Fribourg and historiographer to the emperor Rudolf II. His death is variously placed at 1612 and 1623. Besides numerous poems he has left us valuable historical works.

=Gut=, Der Überfall in Nidwalden, Stanz, 1862.--=Guye=, P. H., Die Schweiz in ihrer politischen Entwickelung als Föderativ-Staat, Bonn, 1877.

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=Haller=, C. L. von, Geschichte der Wirkungen und Folgen des österreichischen Feldzugs in der Schweiz, Weimar, 1801; Histoire de la Réforme protestante dans la Suisse occidentale, Lausanne, 1828.

_Charles Louis von Haller_, grandson of the great Albert von Haller, was born at Bern in 1768 and died at Solothurn May 17, 1854. In 1806 he was elected member of the two councils and was ejected from both in 1821 when it became known that he had embraced Catholicism. He sojourned for a time in France, but returned in 1830 to Solothurn, where he died at an advanced age.

=Haller=, C. L. de, Helvetischen Annalen.--=Heer=, J., Jahrbuch des historie Vereins des Cantons Glarus; Heft, 1865.--=Hegel=, C., Stadtchroniken, Leipsic, 1862-64, 19 vols.; Scriptores rerum Germanicarum, Munich, 1885.

_Charles Hegel_, an eminent German historian, son of the celebrated philosopher, was born at Nuremburg June 7, 1813; since 1856 he has been professor of history at the University of Erlangen.

=Heierli, J.=, Urgeschichte der Schweiz, Bern, 1901.

_Jacque Heierli_, Swiss litterateur, was born October 11, 1853, at Herisan (Appenzell); he devoted himself to pedagogy and has made the whole of the north of Europe the field of his researches.

=Henne=, A., Schweizerchronick, St. Gallen, 1840.--=Henne-am-Rhyn=, O., Geschichte von St. Gallen, 1863; Geschichte des Schweizervolkes, Leipsic, 1865, 3 vols.--=Hermann le Paralytique= (monk of Reichenau), Chronicon de sex ætatibus mundi, Bâle, 1529.

_Hermann of Reichenau_, surnamed the Paralytic on account of a contraction of the limbs, was the son of a count of Wehringen, born in 1013. In spite of his physical affliction he was possessed of unusual intelligence, and he became at an early age the most learned man of his day. He embraced the monastic life. He became abbot of Reichenau, where he died in 1054. He continued his chronicle up to the day of his death, after which it was continued by Berthold de Constance.

=Herminijard=, A. L., Correspondance des Réformateurs, Bâle, 1546; Harlem, 1868.--=Heusler=, A., Der Bauernkrieg von 1653, in der Landschaft Basel. (Bâle, 1864); Verfassungsgeschichte der Stadt Basel, Bâle, 1860.--=Hidber=, B., Schweizerisches Urkundenregister, Bern, 1863-1877, 2 vols.

_Basil Hidber_, Swiss historian, born at Mels, November 23, 1817; professor of natural history at the University of Bern.

=Hilty=, C., Vorlesungen über die Helvetik, Bern, 1878; Die Bundes Verfassung der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft, Bern, 1891.

_Charles Hilty_, Swiss jurisconsult, born at Werdenberg, February 28, 1833; called in 1873 to the chair of common (public) and federal law in the University of Bern.

=Hisely=, J. J., Cartulaire de Hautcrest; sur l’origine et le développment des libertés des Waldstelle, Uri, Schwyz, et Unterwalden, Lausanne, 1839; Histoire du comte de Gruyère, Lausanne, 1855.--=Hodler=, Geschichte des Sweizervolkes, neuere Zeit., 1865.--=Herzog=, J. A., Das Referendum in der Schweiz, Berlin, 1885.--=Hottinger=, J. J., Das Wiedererwachen der wissenschaftlichen Bestrebungen in der Schweiz während der Mediations und Restaurationsepoche; Vorlesungen über die Geschichte des Untergangs der alten Eidgenossenschaft, Zurich, 1844; Vorlesungen über den Untergang der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft, Zurich, 1866; Geschichte der Eidgenossen, Zurich, 1825-1827, 2 vols.

_Johann Jacob Hottinger_, born in 1783, professor of Greek at Zurich, must not be confounded with Jean Jacques Hottinger, also a professor at Zurich, who died in 1819.

=Hug=, L., and =Stead=, P., The story of Switzerland, New York, 1890.--=Hutten=, U. von, Œuvres complètes, Berlin, 1822-1825, 5 vols.

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=Imhof=, J. (Bourcard Leu), Die Jesuiten in Luzern.--=Istria=, Dora d’, Switzerland, London, 1858, 2 vols.

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=Jahn=, H. A., Chronik des Cantons Bern, Bern, 1857; Der Keltische Alterthum der Schweiz, Bern, 1860.

_Henry Albert Jahn_, Swiss historian and archæologist, professor at Bern, formerly secretary of the department of the interior, was born at Bern, October 9, 1811.

=Johannis=, Vitodurani, Chronicon, Zurich, 1856.--=Jovii=, P., Historiæ sui temporis, Bâle, 1567, 2 vols.--=Jullien=, Histoire de Genève, 1865.--=Jussie=, Jeanne de, Levain de calvinisme, 1605.

A religious abbess of the convent of St. Claire, whence she was driven in 1535, together with the other members of the community, to seek refuge at Annecy, where she later became abbess. She has pictured for us in all its crudity the conflict of popular passions in the most primitive style, and in language, which is in itself an index to the comedy, the tragedy, and the overwhelmingly gross superstition of her day and generation.

=Justinger=, C., Bernerchronik, Bern, 1871.

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=Keller=, A., Die kirchlich politischen Fragen bei der Eidg. Bundesrevision von 1871.--=Klingenberger=, Chronik, Gotha, 1861.--=Königshofen=, J. von, Chronique helvétique.--=Königshoven=, von Strasbourg, J. T., Chronicum latinum, Strasburg, 1678.

_Jacques Twinger Königshoven_, better known under the name of Twinger, a celebrated chronicler of the 14th century, was born at Strasburg in 1346, of rich and influential parents. At the age of thirty-six he changed his condition of citizen for the ecclesiastical state and died in 1420, aged seventy-four years.

=Kopp=, J. E., Urkunden zur Geschichte der Eidgenössischen Bunde, 1835; Geschichte der Eidgenössischen Bunde, Leipsic and Berlin, 1844-52, 11 vols.

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=Laharpe=, F. C., Mémoires, Bern, 1864.--=Liebenau=, T. von, Blicke in die Geschichte Engelbergs, 1876; Die Schlacht bei Sempach, Luzern, 1886; Indicateur de l’histoire suisse, 1876; Die Böcke von Zurich. Stanz., 1876.--=Lavater=, J. C., Letter to the French Directory, London, 1799.--=Lütolf=, Die Glaubensboten der Schweiz, Luzern, 1871.

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=Mallet=, J., Considérations sur la Révolution, Brussels, 1793.--=Mallet-Dupan=, J., Mémoires historiques et littéraires, Geneva, 1779-1782, 5 vols.--=Mallet=, P. H., Histoire des Suisses ou Helvétiens, Geneva, 1803, 4 vols.

_Paul Henri Mallet_, an eminent historian, was born at Geneva in 1730, of a family remarkable for the number of great men it has produced. He held the position of professor of history in several universities, and was a member of the academies of Upsal, Lyons, Cassel, and the Celtic Academy. He died of a paralytic stroke in the city of his birth, February 8, 1807.

=Marsauche=, L., La Confédération Helvétique, Neuchâtel, 1890.--=Matile=, G. A., Monuments de l’histoire de Neuchâtel, Musée historique, 3 vols.--=May de Romainmotier=, E., Histoire militaire des Suisses, Bern, 1772, 2 vols.

_E. M. de Romainmotier_ was born at Bern in 1734, and became known to the world chiefly through the military history. This, though a somewhat mediocre production as a literary work, contains important facts not to be found elsewhere.

=McCracken=, W. D., Rise of the Swiss Republic, New York, 1901.--=Mémoires et Documents= publié par la Société de la Suisse romande, Lausanne.--=Meyer von Knonau=, Gerold, Eidg. Abschiede; St. Gallische Geschichtsquellen, St. Gall, 1870-81, 5 vols.; Die Sage von der Befreiung der Waldstätte, Bâle, 1873.--=Meyer=, H., Die Denare und Bractealen in der Schweiz, Zurich, 1858-60; Geschichte der XIᵉ und XXIᵉ Legion, Mittheilungen de Zürich, Zurich, 1853.--=Meyer=, J., Geschichte des schweiz. Bundesrechts, Zurich, 1849-1852, 2 vols.--=Meyer von Knonau=, Ludwig, Handbuch der Geschichte der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft, Zurich, 1843, 2 vols.

_Louis Meyer von Knonau_ was born at Zurich September 12, 1769. He studied history, law, and philology at Halle, where he became an ardent disciple of Professor Wolf. He filled various diplomatic offices with firmness and intelligence, retired to private life in 1839, and died September 6, 1841. His history of the confederation is one of the most accurate and complete at the disposition of the student. His son, Gerold, born March 2, 1804, followed in his father’s footsteps and devoted himself to public life. The government confided to his care the archives of Zurich and charged him with the publication of the documents of the federal diet. He died November 1, 1858.

=Miles=, H., Chronik, St. Gall., 1902.--=Mohr=, T. von, Die Regesten der Benedictiner-Abtei Einsiedeln, Chur., 1848.--=Mommsen=, T., Römische Geschichte, Berlin, 1885, 5 vols.; Inscriptiones Confœderationes helveticæ, Mitt. d. antiq. Ges., Zurich, vols. 10 and 15.

_Theodor Mommsen_, an eminent historian, was born Nov. 30, 1817, at Garding, Schleswig, of a Danish family. He was displaced in 1852 from the chair of law at Leipsic for

## partisanship in political events, but was immediately called to

that of the University of Zurich. During the Franco-Prussian War he was among the bitterest enemies of France.

=Monnard=, C., Histoire de la Confédération suisse, Zurich, 1847-1853, 5 vols.

_Charles Monnard_ was born in 1790, and died at Bonn in 1865. His chief labor was the continuation of the history of Switzerland by J. von Müller. His classic style is apt to strike us of to-day as too stilted, but it is easily overlooked in the appreciation due to his solid merit, his simple modesty, his generous and liberal spirit.

=Moor=, Theodore, Historisch-chronologischer Wegweiser, Chur., 1873; Wegweiser durch da Curratien, 1873.--=Morel=, G., Mémoires et documents de la Soc. d’histoire de la Suisse romande; Die Registen der Benedictiner-Abtei Einsiedeln.--=Morell=, C., Die helvetische Gesellschaft.--=Morin=, A., Précis de l’histoire politique de la Suisse, Geneva and Paris, 1856-75.--=Müller=, J. von, Der Geist der Ahnen oder die Einheitsbestrebungen in der Schweiz vor der helvetischen Revolution, Zurich, 1874; Geschichte der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft, 1841-1847, 7 vols.; Indicateur d’antiquités suisses, 1875; Schweizergeschichte, Lausanne, 1795-1801, 11 vols.; Der Geschichten Schweizerischer Eidgenossenschaft, Liepsic and Zurich, 1805-16, 5 vols.--=Müller-Friedberg=, Schweizerische Annalen, 1830, 6 vols.--=Muralt=, C., Schweizergeschichte mit durchganziger Quellenangabe, Bern, 1885.

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=Nayler=, F. H., History of Helvetia, London, 1801, 2 vols.--=Nisard=, M., Études sur la renaissance, Paris, 1855.--=Nuscheler=, A., Die Siechenhäuser in der Schweiz, Zurich, 1866.

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=Ochs=, Geschichte der Stadt und Landschaft Basel, Bâle, 1796-1822, 8 vols.--=Ochsenbein=, Die Kriegsgründe und Kriegsbilder des Burgunderkrieges, 1876.--=Oe=, Die Anfänge der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft, Zurich, 1891.--=Oechsli=, W., Lehrbuch für den Geschichtsunterricht, Zurich, 1885; Quellenbuch zur Schweizergeschichte, Zurich, 1886; Die Anfänge der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft, Zurich, 1891.

_William Oechsli_, born October 6, 1851, at Riesbach, was destined by his family to the ministry; but he deserted theology for history, and after exhaustive study at Heidelberg, Berlin, and Paris, he was called in 1887 to the professorship of Swiss history in the Zurich Polytechnical Institute.

=Orelli=, A. von, Das Staatsrecht der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft, Fribourg, 1885.

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=Pierrefleur=, P. de, Mémoires.

_The Memoirs of Pierre de Pierrefleur_, grand banneret of Orbe, present an accurate picture of the progress of the Reformation. Modestly and without recrimination, though himself an ardent Catholic, he endeavours accurately to reproduce day by day the scenes which pass before his eyes--truth without passion, simplicity without grossness his chief object. Moderation is the keynote of this recital from the lips of the pious and honourable knight of Orbe. Unfortunately, the original chronicle having been lost, we are obliged to content ourselves with extracts.

=Peyssonel=, C. C. de, Discours sur l’alliance de la France avec les Suisses et les Grisons, Paris, 1790.--=Pfyffr=, C., Sammlung kleiner Schriften, Zurich, 1866.--=Pirkheimer=, W., Historia belli Suitensis sive Helvetici, Tiguri, 1735.--=Planta=, P. C. von, Die Schweiz in ihrer Entwicklung zum Einheitsstaate.--=Pupikofer=, Geschichte des Thurgavs, Bischoffzell, 1830.--=Pury=, S. de, Chronique des chanoines de Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, 1839.

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=Rahn=, J. N., Geschichte der bildenden Künste in der Schweiz, Zurich, 1876.--=Rambert=, E., Les Alps suisses, Geneva, 1875.

_Eugene Rambert_, born in 1830, first turned his studies in the direction of theology, but at twenty-four he was appointed to the chair of French literature at Lausanne, which he occupied until the Confederation called him to the Polytechnical School. His sojourn at Zurich lasted twenty-one years, when, in 1881, he returned to his own canton. He was not long, however, to breathe his native air, his laborious career being suddenly cut short in 1886. His works are numerous and varied, but all are remarkable for great power, authority, and calm.

=Rauchenstein=, H., Der Feldzug Cæsars gegen die Helvetier, Zurich, 1882.--=Relatio Conflictus Laupensis.=--=Reportorium= der Abschiede der Eidgenössischen Tagsatzungen, 1803-1848, 3 vols. (Additional reports of the old federal diets).--=Rilliet=, A., Les Origines de la Confédération suisse, Geneva, 1868.--=Rochholz=, Eidgenössische Liederchronik, Bern, 1835.--=Rodt=, E. von, Die Feldzüge der Schweizer gegen Karl den Kühnen. Geschichte des bernischen Kriegswesens, Schaffhausen, 1843-1844, 2 vols.--=Roget=, Amedee, Les Suisses et Genève, Geneva, 1864; Histoire du peuple de Genève, Geneva, 1870-83, 7 vols.--=Rossel=, V., Histoire littéraire de la Suisse romande, Bern, 1887-91, 2 vols.--=Rovéréa=, F. de, Mémoires, Bern.--=Ruchat=, A., Histoire de la Réformation en Suisse, Lausanne, 1727-28.

_Abraham Ruchat_, the father of Swiss (French) history, was born in 1678 of a peasant family. Educated in Germany and Holland, he returned to Switzerland to become professor of history at the University of Lausanne. The _Histoire de la Réformation en Suisse_ was but a part of a projected general history of Switzerland which was never completed. Ruchat says of his labours: “I have been tempted nine times to give up the enterprise and live in peace; but the desire to serve my country has ever reinvested me with courage. I seek not glory, but truth and the public good. I have always endeavoured to write as though some day I were to be called to account for the products of my pen.”

* * * * *

=Sarnen=, Livre blanc de Sarnen, in Les Origines de la Confédération suisse, by A. Rilliet, Geneva, 1868.--=Schilling=, D. (the younger), Luzerner Chronik, Luzern, 1862.--=Schreiber=, H., Loriti Glareanus, Fribourg, 1878.--=Schuler=, M., Geschichte des Landes Glarus; Thaten und Sitten der Eidgenossen, Zurich, 1856, 7 vols.--=Secrétan=, E., Galérie suisse, Biographies Nationales, Lausanne, 1874.--=Seehausen=, R., Schweizer Politik während des dreissigjahrigen Krieges, Halle, 1882.--=Segesser=, P. von, Eidgenössische Abschiede Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte von Luzern, Lucerne, 1839-1856, 17 vols.--=Simmler=, J., Vom Regiment der löblichen Eidgenossenschaft, Zurich, 1576.--=Steiger=, R. de, Coup d’œil général sur l’histoire militaire des Suisses, Lausanne, 1869.--=Steinauer=, Geschichte des Freistaates Schwyz, Einsiedeln, 1861.--=Stettler=, M., Annales oder Beschreibung der vornehmeten Geschichten, Bern, 1626, 2 vols.--=Studer=, H., Till-Eulenspiegel im Lande des Tell, Zurich, 1900.--=Strickler=, J., Lehrbuch der Schweizergeschichte, Zurich, 1874; Aktensammlung der helvetischen Republik, Frauenfeld, 1899; Die Quellen zur Reformationsgeschichte, 1884.--=Stumpf=, J., Swiss Chronicle, Zurich, 1547.

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=Tageblatt der Gesetze und Dekrete der gesetzgebenden Rathe der Helvetischen Republik=, Bern, 1800, 6 vols.--=Tillier=, J. A. von, Geschichte der Eidgenossen während der Zeit des sogeheissenen Fortschrifts, Bern, 1853-1855, 3 vols.; Geschichte der Eidgenossenschaft während der sogenannten Restaurationsepoche, Zurich, 1848-1850, 3 vols.; Geschichte der Eidgenossen während der Herrschaft der Vermittlungsakte, Zurich, 1845-1846, 2 vols.; Geschichte des Freistaates Bern, Bern, 1838-1839, 5 vols.; Geschichte der helvetischen Republik, Bern, 1843, 3 vols.--=Tschudi=, A., Chronicon Helveticum, Basel, 1734-1736, 2 vols.

The most complete of the early Swiss chronicles and the basis of Müller’s history.

* * * * *

=Vaucher=, P., Esquisses d’histoire Suisse, Lausanne, 1882.--=Vieusseux=, A., History of Switzerland, London, 1846.--=Vincent=, J. M., State and Federal Government of Switzerland, Baltimore, 1891.--=Vischer=, W., Geschichte det Schwäbischen Städtebünde, Göttingen, 1861.--=Vita S. Galli=, Translated by A. Potthast in Die Geschichtschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit, Vol. 1, Berlin, 1857.--=Vögeli=, Vaterländische Geschichte, Zurich, 1872.--=Vogelin=, A. and =Escher=, Geschichte der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft, Zurich, 1854, 4 vols.--=Vulliemin=, L., Histoire de la Confédération suisse, Lausanne, 1875-1876, 2 vols.

_Louis Vulliemin_ was the founder of the _Société d’histoire de la Suisse romande_, together with Felix Chavannes the poet and F. de Gingins the historian. Imaginative, ardent, patriotic, variously gifted, Vulliemin devoted all his talent to his country’s use, and merits the eternal gratitude of Switzerland.

* * * * *

=Wattenwyl=, Geschichte der Stadtund Landschaft Bern, Schaffhausen, 1867-1872, 2 vols.--=Weidmann, Father=, Geschichte der Landschaft St. Gallen, St. Gall, 1834.--=Wild=, K., Auszüge aus handschriftlichen chroniken und aus den Rathsprotokollen der Stadt und Republik St. Gallen, St. Gall, 1847.--=Wilson=, J., History of Switzerland, London, 1832.--=Wintherthur=, Morf de, Dittes Pædagogium, Heft, 1878.--=Wirth=, Statistik der Schweiz, Zurich, 1871-75, 3 vols.--=Wittekind=, (monk of Corvey), Chronique.--=Wyss=, G. von, Geschichte der Historiographie in der Schweiz, Zurich, 1895.--Indicateur d’histoire de Soleure, Solothurn, 1866.

_J. G. von Wyss_, Swiss historian, born at Zurich March 31st, 1816, is the son of the burgomaster David von Wyss. He was appointed president of the _Société d’histoire suisse_ in 1854, and is universally recognised as among the most learned of the historians of the century.

* * * * *

=Zellweger=, J. K., Geschichte des Appenzellischen Volkes, Trogen, 1830; Chronologische Uebersicht der Schweizergeschichte, Zurich, 1887; Geschichte der diplomatischen verhältnisse der Schweiz mit Frankreich, Bern, 1848.--=Zschokke=, J. H., Histoire de la lutte des cantons démocratiques, Geneva and Paris 1823; History of the Invasion of Switzerland by the French, translated by J. Aiken, London, 1803.

[Illustration]

A CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY OF THE HISTORY OF SWITZERLAND

BEFORE THE ROMAN CONQUEST

Before 3000 B.C. (Stone Age.) The lake-dwellers, the earliest people of which traces remain in what is now Switzerland, live in primitive huts built on piles in the shallow waters of various lakes. They do not know the use of metal; use stone axe-heads, fixed in stag’s horn and wood hafts, flint arrow-heads, etc.

3000-1000 B.C. (Bronze Age.) The lakemen learn to manipulate metal; advance in skill and mental culture; make artistically shaped bronze spear-heads, swords, etc.

1000-100 B.C. (Iron Age.) The lakemen substitute iron for bronze and achieve greater beauty and perfection of workmanship. Their weapons and implements become gradually identical with those of historic times. In their later days they come into contact with Gauls and Romans.

107 B.C. The Helvetians, one of the chief of the tribes then inhabiting Switzerland, led by the clan of the Tigurini and under command of their chief Diviko, joined the Cimbri and Teutones in a raid into southern Gaul. The allies defeat the Romans, under the consul Lucius Cassius, at Agen, and overrun Gaul.

102 B.C. The barbarians are defeated by the Romans under the consul Marius near Aquæ Sextiæ and one clan of the Helvetians, that of the Toygeni, is annihilated.

101 B.C. Another division of the invading barbarians is cut to pieces by the forces of Marius and his colleague Catullus, near Vercelli. The Helvetian clan of the Tigurini alone escapes.

60 B.C. The Helvetians prepare for a second migration into Gaul. A powerful chief, Orgetorix, promises to secure free passage through the lands of the Allobroges and Ædui. He is accused of treason and dies, by suicide or murder.

58 B.C. The Helvetians, accompanied by the Boii and neighboring tribes, begin the march. Julius Cæsar checks the Helvetians at the Rhone, and destroys the Tigurini at the Arar (Saône). At Bibracte Cæsar defeats the Helvetians. Their remnants return home.

UNDER ROMAN DOMINION

57 B.C. Cæsar’s lieutenant, Sergius Galba, subdues the Helvetian Veragri and Seduni. Helvetia is made a Roman province.

52 B.C. The Helvetians take part in the revolt of Vercingetorix.

43 B.C. Romans settle at Noviodunum (Nyon) and in various other parts of Helvetia.

27 B.C. Helvetia is made part of Belgica, one of the provinces of Gaul, and comes more directly under Roman control.

15 B.C. Rhætia (the Grisons) is subjugated by armies under Drusus and Tiberius Nero and made a Roman province.

A.D. 69 Aulus Cæcina lays waste Helvetia and massacres large numbers of the inhabitants. Claudius Corius, a Helvetian deputy, by his eloquence saves the people from complete destruction. Aventicum (Avenches) becomes a Roman city of importance. Roman civilisation makes much progress in Helvetia, especially in the western portion. Under the Romans military roads and fortresses are built.

FROM THE GERMAN INVASIONS THROUGH THE CARLOVINGIANS

260 Hordes of Alamanni devastate Switzerland. They partially destroy Aventicum.

300 Christianity makes some converts in Switzerland.

305 Alamanni again overrun Switzerland.

406 The Alamanni conquer eastern Switzerland.

409 The Burgundians march toward the Rhine and approach Switzerland.

443 The Burgundians settle in western Switzerland, receiving “Sabaudia” (Savoy) from the Romans.

496 The Franks subjugate the Alamanni, acquiring eastern Switzerland.

493 The Goths conquer Rhætia.

500 King Gondebaud rules in Burgundy. His laws become part of Swiss institutions.

524 The Franks, under Clodomir, capture Geneva.

534 The Franks subjugate the Burgundians, bringing western Switzerland into their power.

536 Rhætia is given up to the Franks by the Goths.

570 The Langobardi invade southern Switzerland.

574 The Frankish king Gontran checks the incursions of the Langobardi.

610 The Culdee monks, led by Columbanus and Gallus, spread Christianity in Switzerland.

687 The Carlovingians begin their rule over the Franks. They foster religious establishments in Switzerland.

768 Charlemagne ascends the Frankish throne. He gives an impetus to religion, education, and industry in Switzerland; founds schools and churches and increases their wealth.

774 The Franks gain possession of the Italian valleys of Switzerland till then held by the Langobardi.

843 By the Treaty of Verdum western or Burgundian Switzerland falls to Lothair, eastern or German Switzerland (Alamannia) with Rhætia to Ludwig the German. Feudalism is becoming well established in Switzerland. The church owns large estates and the bishops are powerful. Arts and sciences progress in the monasteries of St. Gall, Reichenau, and Pfäffers.

853 Ludwig the German founds the Fraumünster at Zurich.

TIME OF BURGUNDIAN AND ALAMANNIAN RULERS

888 Rudolf I is crowned king of Upper Burgundy and begins to rule over western Switzerland.

917 Count Burkhard of Rhætia is made duke of Alamannia (Swabia). He rules over eastern Switzerland.

919 Burkhard I, duke of Alamannia, defeats Rudolf II of Upper Burgundy at Winterthur.

920 Alamannia is formally incorporated with Germany. Eastern Switzerland thus becomes a part of Germany.

922 Rudolf II of Upper Burgundy marries Burkhard’s daughter Bertha who brings to Burgundy the upper Aargau.

930 Rudolf II acquires Arelat (Cisjurane Burgundy) as the result of a raid into Italy with Hugo of Provence. Thus the kingdom of Burgundy is reunited and Switzerland, as an important part of this kingdom, attains prominence.

937 Rudolf II of Burgundy dies. Good Queen Bertha, his widow, rules beneficently as regent for her son Conrad.

940 Conrad is placed under the guardianship of Otto I of Germany. Beginning of German influence in western Switzerland.

950 Conrad defeats the Hungarians that invade Switzerland.

962 Queen Bertha founds a religious house at Payerne. (Traditional.)

990 Ekkehard II of St. Gall, the most famous man of learning of his time, dies.

992 The serfs rise against the nobles of Aargau and Thurgau.

993 Rudolf III of Burgundy. Switzerland is turned over more and more to the clergy and the great nobles.

1016 Rudolf III abdicates in favor of Henry II of Germany. Henry is opposed by the nobles of Burgundy in several battles in Switzerland.

1022 The distinguished scholar Notker III of St. Gall dies.

FROM THE UNION OF SWITZERLAND UNDER THE GERMAN EMPERORS TO THE FOUNDING OF THE SWISS CONFEDERATION

1032 Conrad II of Germany defeats the Burgundians at Morat and Neuchâtel.

1033 He is crowned king of Burgundy and thus adds western Switzerland to Germany.

1038 Burgundy, Alamannia, and Rhætia fall to Henry III. All Switzerland is hereby reunited as part of Germany. St. Gall is a leader in learning. The abbeys of Zurich, Rheinau, and Einsiedeln and the bishoprics of Coire, Constance, and Bâle attain great eminence.

1045 Henry III of Germany by assuming the crown of Lombardy secures possession of all the territories of Switzerland not already within his dominions (Italian Switzerland). He is frequently at Bâle and Solothurn. He holds imperial diets at Zurich and lavishes gifts on her religious foundations.

1057 Rudolf of Rheinfelden begins his rule as duke of Alamannia and governor of Burgundy, thus controlling all Switzerland.

1077 Rudolf is elected king by the opponents of Henry IV. Switzerland is drawn into the struggle between Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII.

1080 Rudolf is slain and his army defeated at Mersburg. The Guelf-Zähringen faction wars against Frederick of Hohenstaufen for the possession of Alamannia. Many monasteries, castles, and towns are destroyed in Switzerland.

1090 Berthold II of Zähringen inherits the possessions of the Rheinfeldens in Switzerland.

1097 Berthold II surrenders his claims to the dukedom of Alamannia. He receives as recompense the imperial bailiwick of Zurich, and is made duke of that portion of Alamannia lying in what is now Switzerland.

1114 The people of Schwyz resist the encroachments of the monks of Einsiedeln. Henry V decides in favour of Einsiedeln.

1127 Conrad of Zähringen is created rector of Burgundy by the emperor Lothair. Most of the territories comprising modern Switzerland are now under the rule of the house of Zähringen. This family governs benevolently throughout the century.

1140 Arnold of Brescia finds asylum at Zurich.

1144 In the quarrel of Einsiedeln and Schwyz, Conrad III decides in favour of Einsiedeln.

1146 Bernard of Clairvaux preaches the crusade at Zurich. Many Swiss join the crusade.

1152 The Waldstätte are placed under an interdict by the bishop of Constance.

1173 By inheritance of the possessions of the house of Lenzburg in Aargau and in the forest states the house of Hapsburg gains in wealth and power.

1177 Berthold IV of Zähringen founds the free city of Fribourg.

1186 Berthold V succeeds. He develops the policy of walling in strong cities to offset the power of the nobles. He fortifies Burgdorf, Moudon, Yuerdon, Laupen, and Schaffhausen.

1190 Berthold V defeats the rebellious nobles at Avenches and in the Grindelwald.

1191 Berthold V founds the city of Bern.

1209 Franciscan monks begin to enter Switzerland.

1211 Berthold V is defeated by Count Thomas of Savoy, who seizes Moudon.

1215 Dominicans begin to enter Switzerland.

1218 Berthold V dies childless. With him the house of Zähringen and the rectorate of Burgundy ends. Switzerland reverts to Germany. Bern, Solothurn, Zurich, and other towns become immediately dependent on the emperor, and gain in freedom. Many nobles become subject to the empire alone and increase in power. The houses of Savoy, Kyburg (inheritors of the lands of the Zähringens), and Habsburg become most prominent. Religious orders flourish.

1231 The people of Uri obtain their first charter from King Henry, which nominally places them directly under the empire.

1240 The community of Schwyz is given a charter from the empire by Frederick II. Savoy extends her dominion to include Vaud and other portions of Southern Switzerland.

1245-1250 The people of Switzerland take sides in the struggle between Guelfs and Ghibellines. Risings occur in the Waldstätte against the house of Habsburg which has gained authority in middle and eastern Switzerland. The expulsion of oppressive bailiffs (referred to this period by modern investigators from its former position in 1307-08).

1250 Lucerne enters into alliance with Schwyz and Obwalden.

1254 The _antiqua confederatio_, the earliest league of the Waldstätte, is formed (uncertain date).

1255 Pierre of Savoy is acknowledged suzerain of Bern; later of Morat and Bâle.

1264 Pierre of Savoy is acknowledged suzerain of Geneva. The greatness of the house of Habsburg is founded through the inheritance of the possessions of the Kyburgs.

1266 Zurich with the aid of Rudolf of Habsburg defeats Ulrich of Regensburg. Rudolf gains in influence with several Swiss towns.

1267 Pierre of Savoy defeats an army sent against him by Rudolf of Habsburg at Löwenburg. Peace between Habsburg and Savoy.

1273 Rudolf of Habsburg besieges Bâle. He is chosen emperor of Germany. Bâle submits, Rudolf inherits the possessions of his cousins in the Waldstätte.

1275 Rudolf of Habsburg is consecrated emperor by Pope Gregory at Lausanne.

1277 Rudolf acquires Fribourg. He now holds in Switzerland territories equivalent to the modern cantons of Aar, Zug, Thurgau, Bern, and Lucerne, the towns of Sursee, Sempach, and Winterthur, the convent of Säckingen, and the wardenship of the Waldstätte.

1288 Rudolf twice unsuccessfully besieges Bern.

1289 The Bernese suffer loss in an Austrian ambuscade at the Schosshalde and Bern is compelled to make peace.

1291 The men of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden (the three Waldstätte) form the Everlasting League (_Ewige Bund_), for the defence of their common rights and interests. The Waldstätte form a temporary alliance with Zurich. In the struggle for the imperial throne between Adolf of Nassau and Albert, duke of Austria, the confederates with Zurich and Bâle side against Albert. War ensues. The territories of the bishop of Constance and the abbot of St. Gall are laid waste.

1292 The Austrians defeat the men of Zurich before Winterthur. Zurich is forced to make peace with Albert and her alliance with the forest states is annulled.

1294 The first Landsgemeinde of which record remains is held in Schwyz.

1297 Adolf of Nassau as king of Germany confirms the charter of 1240 to Schwyz and the same charter to Uri.

1298 The Bernese defeat the Austrian nobles at Dornbühl. Albert, duke of Austria, ascends the German throne and strengthens the power of Austria in Switzerland.

THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY

1307 Werner Stauffacher of Schwyz, Walter Fürst of Uri, and Arnold of the Melchthal in Unterwalden, with thirty companions take an oath on the Rütli to free the country from oppressors. William Tell shoots the Austrian bailiff Gessler. (These events are now regarded as legendary.)

1308 The expulsion of the bailiffs. (This event some historians now regard as merely traditional and refer it to the period 1245-50.) King Albert is murdered. Bern concludes a league with Solothurn.

1309 Henry VIII confirms the charters of Schwyz and Uri, and grants liberties to Unterwalden, placing all three under direct imperial jurisdiction. The confederates renew their alliance with Zurich.

1314 The men of Schwyz capture the abbey of Einsiedeln because of a quarrel over pasture land. Frederick of Austria places the Waldstätte under the ban of the empire. The Waldstätte conclude alliances with Glarus, Ursern, Art, and Interlaken. Louis of Bavaria, rival of Frederick for the German throne, declares the ban removed. The confederates take his side in the struggle for the throne.

1315 Duke Leopold of Austria, brother of Frederick, moves against the Waldstätte. The Swiss vanquish the Austrians at Morgarten. Leopold is slain. The three forest districts renew the Everlasting League of 1291.

1316 Louis of Bavaria recognises the new league, declares the political rights of the house of Austria forfeit in the forest districts, and confirms their several charters.

1318 Truce with Austria. The Habsburgs surrender all jurisdiction over the Waldstätte, but their rights merely as landowners are recognized. Risings against Austria in western Switzerland. Leopold besieges the free town of Solothurn, but soon withdraws. (Traditional rescue of the Austrians at the bridge by the men of Solothurn.)

1323 Bern and other Burgundian towns enter into an alliance with the forest districts for protection against Austria and the aristocracy.

1328 Lucerne revolts from Austria.

1332 Lucerne (fourth of the “old” places) joins the league.

1336 Civic revolution in Zurich places Rudolf Brun at the head of the city government and gives power to the craft-guilds.

1339 The Bernese with men from the forest districts defeat the nobles at Laupen.

1350 Massacre of Austrian conspirators at Zurich. The men of Zurich destroy the castle of Rapperschwyl, Zurich thereby incurs the enmity of Austria.

1351 Zurich (fifth of the “old” places) for protection against Austria enters the league. First regulations as to the aid that the confederates owe to each other, first federal rights and establishment of the circle of confederate defence. Duke Albert of Austria unsuccessfully besieges Zurich.

1352 Zug and Glarus (sixth and seventh of the “old” places) enter the league. The duke of Austria renews war on Zurich. By the terms of the peace of Brandenburg, Zug and Glarus are again brought into subjection to Austria.

THE CONFEDERATION OF THE EIGHT OLD PLACES

1353 Bern (completing the eight “old” places) enters the league, adding greatly to its strength.

1354 Zurich is besieged by the forces of Austria and the empire.

1355 Peace is declared at Regensburg (Ratisbon).

1361 Charles IV recognises the confederation of eight states as a lawful union for the preservation of the public peace (_Landfriedensverbindung_).

1364 Zug is freed from Austrian rule by the men of Schwyz.

1367 The Gotteshausbund (league of God’s house) is formed in the Engadine.

1368 The Peace of Thorberg adjusts matters between Austria and the confederates. Zug rejoins the league as a permanent member.

1370 The Parson’s Ordinance (_Pfaffenbrief_) abolishes special exemption of the clergy and provides for the preservation of peace among the confederates.

1375 Enguerrand de Coucy to assert claims to lands in Aargau invades Switzerland with a horde of irregulars in the Guglerkrieg, or English War. De Coucy is routed in the Entlebuch and at Freibrunnen.

1382 Rudolf of Kyburg, of the Habsburg line, is defeated by Bern and Solothurn, in the Kyburg War.

1384 Bern and Solothurn take Thun, Burgdorf, and other places from Rudolf of Kyburg. The Kyburgs are forced to accept citizenship in Bern.

1385 The Swiss cities join the league of the south German towns. The men of Lucerne demolish Rotenburg, the residence of the Austrian bailiff.

1386 The forest districts come to the aid of Lucerne against Austria. The Swiss defeat the Austrians in spite of great odds in the battle of Sempach (Arnold Winkelried).

1388 The men of Glarus aided by a few from Schwyz defeat the Austrians at Näfels. Glarus is delivered from Austria.

1389 The confederates are secured in their conquests by a seven years’ truce with Austria. Glarus permanently rejoins the league.

1393 Schöno’s attempt to deliver Zurich to Austria fails. By the Sempach Ordinance (_Sempacher Brief_) the confederates are drawn closer together by provision for an army and for the preservation of order.

1394 The truce with Austria is prolonged for twenty years. The Swiss Confederacy is recognised and political dependence on Habsburg is practically at an end. The country hereafter is commonly known as _Die Schweiz_ (Switzerland).

1395 Formation of the Upper (Grey) League in the western Grisons.

THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY

1402 Revolt of the people of Appenzell and St. Gall against the abbot of St. Gall.

1403 The Appenzellers defeat the abbot’s forces at Vögelinseck.

1405 The abbot’s troops, assisted by an Austrian army, are defeated in the battle of the Rheinthal or Stoss.

1408 The Appenzellers are beaten at Bregenz.

1411 Appenzell is placed under the protection of the Swiss League (save Bern).

1412 The truce of the league with Austria is prolonged for fifty years. During the first half of the century the league increases its territory, not giving political rights, however, to the acquired lands.

1414 The council of Constance is convened. Switzerland is visited by great numbers of ecclesiastics and great nobles.

1415 Duke Frederick of Austria helps John XXIII escape from Constance. The emperor Sigismund places Frederick under the ban. By Sigismund’s order the confederates conquer the Austrian Aargau. Bern receives the lion’s share. The first common bailiwicks (_Freie Amter_) are established. Uprising of the Valais against the baron von Raron, a despotic ruler.

1416 Lucerne, Uri, and Unterwalden form an alliance with Upper Valais.

1417 Uri and Upper Valais take the Val d’Ossola from Savoy.

1422 The attempts of Uri and the confederates to acquire territory to the south of the Alps receive a check in their defeat by the Milanese at Arbedo.

1424 The Grey League is formally renewed.

1436 The league of the Ten Jurisdictions is formed in the eastern Grisons. Conflicting claims over the territories left by Frederick, count of Toggenburg, cause dissension between Zurich and Schwyz. The other confederates take sides with Schwyz.

1440 The men of Zurich invade Schwyz but are compelled to retreat. Felix Hämmerlin, humanist, furthers the new learning at Zurich.

1442 Zurich allies itself with Austria and resists federal jurisdiction. Civil war (the Old Zurich War) breaks out.

1443 The Zurich troops are defeated at Sankt Jacob on the Sihl. Stüssi, the burgomaster of Zurich is slain.

1444 Zurich is besieged by the confederates. Charles VII of France sends to her aid wild bands of the Armagnacs under command of the dauphin Louis. They slaughter the confederates, who make a heroic defence at Sankt Jacob on the Birs before Bâle.

1450 Peace is concluded. Zurich is forced to renounce her alliance with Austria.

1452 The Swiss League concludes treaty of friendship with France. A new class of allies, the associate districts (_Zugwandte Orte_), begins to gather round the league.

1458 The league forms an alliance with Rapperschwyl. Sigismund, duke of Austria, irritated by its loss declares war.

1460 The confederates overrun the Austrian Thurgau. This results in the second accession of common bailiwicks. The art of printing is established at Bâle. Founding of the University of Bâle. Material and artistic culture flourishes.

1461 Sigismund gives up Thurgau which comes under the protection of the confederates.

1463 The confederates renew the French treaty with Louis XI.

1467 Zurich purchases Winterthur from Sigismund. The league makes a treaty of friendship with Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy.

1468 The Swiss lay siege to Waldshut. Sigismund buys them off.

1469 Sigismund obtains the protection and financial aid of Charles the Bold of Burgundy. He gives as security Alsace, the Waldshut, and the Black Forest. The alliance of Charles with Sigismund violates the treaty of 1467 and incenses the Swiss. Charles the Bold commits the mortgaged lands to Peter von Hagenbach, as vogt. His severity is complained of by the Swiss.

1470 Louis XI of France makes a treaty with the Swiss to secure their neutrality.

1471 The three leagues of the Grisons confirm an earlier alliance.

1473 Sigismund becomes the ally of Louis, who aims to reconcile Sigismund and the Swiss and turn them against Charles the Bold.

1474 The confederates attempt in vain to get redress from Charles the Bold for the wrongs done by Hagenbach to their friends in Alsace. As the result of the efforts of Louis XI, the Everlasting Compact (_Ewige Richtung_) is signed at Constance. By it Sigismund renounces all Austrian claims on the lands of the confederates and they agree to support him. The freedom of the Swiss Confederation from the Habsburgs is now formally established. The Swiss and Sigismund join a league of the Alsatian and Rhine cities. Hagenbach is put to death with the connivance of Bern. The confederates at the instance of Sigismund declare war against Charles. Bern takes the lead in westward aggression. Héricourt is taken by the confederates.

1475 Further successes of the Swiss. Bern captures sixty towns in Vaud, fighting against Savoy, which has joined Charles the Bold. Bern and Upper Valais form an alliance and the latter prevents the passage of the Milanese troops of Savoy. The emperor and Louis desert the confederates.

1476 Charles the Bold captures Granson and has the garrison executed by two of their own comrades. The Swiss gain a glorious victory in the battle of Granson and retake the town. Rich spoils and revenge. Charles besieges Morat. In the battle of Morat the Swiss decisively defeat the Burgundians. By intervention of Louis XI an arrangement is made with Savoy by which for the first time French-speaking districts become connected with the confederation. Savoy loses Fribourg, Granson, Morat, Orbe, Echallens, and Aigle. Bern profits most.

1477 The Swiss and the troops of René, duke of Lorraine, defeat Charles the Bold at the battle of Nancy. The foundation of Swiss nationality is firmly laid by these victories, and the fame of Swiss arms is world-wide; but internal jealousies arise. Riots in various states. The band of the Mad Life. Zurich, Bern, Lucerne, Fribourg, and Solothurn form a separate league and a perpetual treaty (_Burgrecht_).

1478 The men of Zurich, Lucerne, Uri, and Schwyz defeat the Milanese at the battle of Giornico. Switzerland expands toward the south.

1480 Fribourg and Solothurn seek admission to the league. This demand is opposed by the rural members and supported by the towns belonging to the separate league of the Burgrecht.

1481 The Compact of Stanz (_Stanzer Verkomnis_) prevents disruption. Nicholas von der Fluhe aids to an understanding. Fribourg and Solothurn (the ninth and tenth members) are admitted to the confederation. The separate league of the towns is dissolved. Dangerous societies are forbidden. The compact concentrates the government of the confederation.

1489 Hans Waldmann, burgomaster of Zurich, attempts to subordinate the peasants. He is overthrown and executed.

1490 Insurrection against the federal government in St. Gall is put down.

1496 The Swiss refuse to obey the imperial chamber, objecting to taxation without representation. They refuse to join the Swabian League.

1497 The confederates conclude a perpetual league with the Grey League of the Grisons.

1498 The confederates conclude a perpetual league with the League of God’s House (_Gotteshausbund_) of the Grisons.

1499 The Swiss go to the support of their allies in the Grisons against the emperor Maximilian and the Swabian League. Successes of the Swiss at Triesen, at Bruderholz near Bâle, at Calven, at Schwaderloo, and at Frastenz. The Swiss Confederation by the peace of Bâle secures freedom from German imperial regulations and rises to the rank of an allied state of the empire, having practical independence. The Swiss establish their rights in the Thurgau. The league of Ten Jurisdictions in the Grisons confirms an alliance with the Swiss League.

1500 Swiss mercenaries engaged by Louis Sforza surrender Novara to the French rather than fight the Swiss in the French army of Louis XII. By the help of the Swiss Milan becomes a property of France. The practice of Swiss serving in foreign armies has now become frequent.

THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY

1501 Bâle and Schaffhausen (the eleventh and twelfth members) are admitted to the confederation.

1510 Schinner, bishop of Sitten, induces Swiss troops to aid in the expulsion of the French from Italy.

1512 The Swiss conquer Milan and drive the French out of Italy; declare Maximilian duke of Milan. In return the confederates receive Ticino and the Grisons leagues get the Valtellina, Cleves, and Bormio.

THE CONFEDERATION OF THIRTEEN STATES

1513 Appenzell is admitted to the confederation, thus completing the confederation of Thirteen States. The Swiss defeat the French at Novara.

1515 Francis I defeats the Swiss at Marignano, breaking the Swiss power in northern Italy.

1516 The Swiss League concludes a treaty of Perpetual Peace with France. Hans Holbein at Bâle wins great reputation as a painter. His work marks the further advance of humanism in Switzerland.

1519 Ulrich (Huldreich) Zwingli preaches the Reformation at Zurich.

1521 Twelve states of the confederation (Zurich being restrained by Zwingli) conclude an alliance with France.

1522 The diet at Lucerne forbids the clergy to preach unauthorised doctrines.

1523 Zwingli’s teaching is sanctioned by the council at two “disputations” at Zurich. Zurich pushes forward the work of the Reformation, but is not supported by the other confederates. The first ecclesiastics are publicly married.

1524 Under Zwingli’s leadership Zurich dissolves the monasteries. The forest states prevail on the diet at Lucerne to pronounce for the old faith. Religious riots occur in the Thurgau. The monastery of Ittingen is burned down. The Reformation progresses in eastern Switzerland.

1525 The mass is discontinued at Zurich. The temporal rights of the Grossmünster are turned over to the state. The Carolinum, a school for humanists, founded by Zwingli and Zurich, is made a nursery of culture. Lausanne concludes an alliance with Fribourg and Bern. The disorders caused by the anabaptists are checked. The Swiss mercenaries are defeated with the French at Pavia.

1526 The disputation at Baden, Eck, and Faber, representing the Catholics, decides in favor of the old faith. Several executions follow. Geneva forms alliances with Bern and Fribourg.

1527 Evangelical coburghership of Zurich and Constance (_Evangelisches Burgrecht_). Execution of Max Wehrli, the Catholic bailiff in the Thurgau. Troubles in Toggenburg and St. Gall widen the breach between Catholics and Evangelicals.

1528 Bern joins Zurich and Constance in favour of religious freedom and is followed by Bâle, Schaffhausen, St. Gall and Mülhausen. The confederation is in danger of breaking up.

1529 Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, and Zug form the Christian Alliance (_Christliche Vereinigung_), and ally themselves with Austria. First war of Kappel. The Austrian alliance is annulled and religious parity for each member of the confederation is declared by the first Peace of Kappel.

1530 Genoa with confederate aid secures freedom from Savoy.

1531 Second war of Kappel. The Catholic members of the confederation advance on Zurich. Near Kappel the men of Zurich are defeated and Zwingli is slain. Second Peace of Kappel. The Reformation in Switzerland is considerably checked. Catholic reaction. The league is now completely split into Catholics and evangelicals.

1532 William Farel begins to preach the Reformation in Geneva.

1535 The Reformation is successfully planted in Geneva by Farel.

1536 Bern conquers Vaud and Lausanne and takes them from Savoy. Calvin comes to Geneva. The first Helvetic confession is published.

1538 By influence of the papal party Calvin is exiled from Geneva.

1541 Calvin returns to Geneva and there establishes a theoretic government, the _consistorium_. He enters upon a harsh rule, imprisoning and executing his opponents.

1548 Constance is captured by the Austrians in the war of Smalkalden and is cut off from the Swiss Confederation.

1549 Calvin’s theological disputes with the Zurich reformers are partly settled by the Compromise of Zurich (_Consensus Tigurinus_).

1553 Michael Servetus is burned at the stake at Geneva at the instance of Calvin.

1555 Calvin expels from Geneva many who uphold municipal liberty and replaces them by foreigners. The city gains the name of the “Protestant Rome.” Evangelicals driven out of Locarno take refuge in Zurich.

1559 Calvin founds the University of Geneva.

1564 Calvin dies. Théodore de Beze succeeds him as head of the church. Emanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy, supported by the Catholic members of the league, demands back the districts seized by Bern in 1536. The Treaty of Lausanne restores several of them. The counter-Reformation (Catholic reaction) makes itself strongly felt in Switzerland. It is furthered by Carlo Borromeo, archbishop of Milan, and at Lucerne by Ludwig Pfyffer, the “Swiss king.”

1565 The Catholic states of Switzerland ally themselves with Pope Pius IV.

1566 The second Helvetic Confession is published as a basis for union between the Calvinists and the Zurich reformers.

1574 The Catholic reaction advances by the establishment of the Jesuits at Lucerne.

1580 A papal nuncio comes to Lucerne. Borromeo founds at Milan the “Collegium Helveticum” for the education of Swiss priests.

1581 The Capuchins become active in Switzerland for the Catholic reaction.

1582 The Protestants object to the introduction of the Gregorian calendar.

1586 The Golden or Borromean League for support of Catholicism is formed by the seven Catholic members of the confederation (Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Lucerne, Zug, Freiburg, Solothurn).

1588 The reformed states form a separate league with Strasburg.

1597 Appenzell is divided into two parts, “Inner Rhodes,” Catholic, and “Outer Rhodes,” Protestant.

THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

1602 The Duke of Savoy attempts to get hold of Geneva (the “Escalade”).

1620 Massacre of Protestants in the Valtellina. The valley is won for the Catholics. The Swiss Confederation remains nominally neutral in the Thirty Years’ War, but various members become involved from time to time.

1622 The Austrians conquer the Prätigau.

1624 French troops take the Valtellina.

1629 The Valtellina is taken by the imperial troops.

1632 The Baden Compromise adjusts the religious status of the “common bailiwicks.”

1635 The French once more capture the Valtellina.

1637 George Jenatsch with help of the Spaniards drives the French out of the Valtellina.

1639 The independence of the Grisons is established.

1648 By the Treaty of Westphalia the Swiss Confederation is formally separated from Germany and recognized as independent. Religious divisions continue to cripple the energy of the confederation. Poverty, a result of the Thirty Years’ War, causes discontent.

1653 The Peasants’ War breaks out in Bern, Solothurn, Lucerne, and Bâle because of the oppression of the governing class. The peasants form a league of Sumiswald. They are defeated at Wohlenschwyl.

1654 The Protestant Swiss intercede for the Waldenses. They win the friendship of Oliver Cromwell, who pays great honor to their envoys.

1655 Protestant fugitives from Schwyz find refuge in Zurich.

1656 The first Villmergen War results. Christopher Pfyffer of Lucerne with a body of Catholics defeats the Protestants at Villmergen. A treaty is concluded which provides for the individual sovereignty of each member of the confederation in religious matters.

1663 The confederation makes a treaty with Louis XIV of France, by which Protestant Swiss mercenaries are taken into the king’s pay.

1668 As the result of encroachments by Louis in the Franche-Comté the confederates provide for joint action against outside enemies by putting into execution the agreement known as the Defensionale. French Protestant refugees find shelter in Switzerland.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

1707 Pierre Fatio at the head of a committee of the council at Geneva demands a more liberal government.

1712 The abbot of St. Gall by his oppressions rouses the people of Toggenburg to insurrection. The second Villmergen War (or war of Toggenburg) between Catholics and Protestants from these troubles. The Catholics are defeated at Villmergen. The Treaty of Aarau assures the “common bailiwicks” religious liberty and gives advantages to the Protestants.

1715 The Catholic members of the confederation by the Truckli Bund agree to put France in the position of guarantor of the confederation. A period of decline. The confederation has little unity. Unsatisfactory relations of the classes.

1723 The conspiracy of Davel to free Vaud from the oppression of Bern is crushed.

1729 The “_Harten_” (hard ones) opponents of the government, and the “_Linden_” (soft ones) at Zug struggle for supremacy.

1732 The “Harten” gain a victory over the “Linden” in the Outer Rhodes of Appenzell.

1737 The democrats win a victory for liberal government in Geneva.

1744 Demands for a more liberal government are made in Bern.

1749 Hentzi’s conspiracy attempts in vain to overthrow the oligarchy at Bern.

1748 Discontents of the common people cause disorder in Neuchâtel.

1755 Popular uprisings in the Leventina are crushed by the government of Uri.

1762 The Helvetic Society is founded and fosters aspirations for liberty. Rousseau, then a citizen of Geneva, publishes the _Contrat Social_. These books are publicly burned by order of the city government. The popular party wins in the Outer Rhodes of Appenzell.

1764 The “Harten” are victorious in Zug.

1768 Armed intervention of France, Zurich, and Bern in Geneva to suppress popular revolts of the “natives.” Disorders occur in the patriciate of Lucerne.

1770 The “natives” rise in revolt in Geneva.

1777 All of the thirteen states of the confederation join in making a new alliance with France. Political disturbances occur in Zurich.

1780 The meetings of the Helvetic Society are forbidden.

1781 Anarchy in Geneva. Pastor Waser is executed at Zurich for opposition to the city government. France, Bern, and Sardinia intervene. Emigration from Geneva. Insurrection at Fribourg under Chenaux.

1784 Joseph Suter, a popular leader in the Inner Rhodes of Appenzell, is executed.

1789 The French Revolution begins to find sympathizers in Switzerland.

1790 Exiles from Vaud and Fribourg organise the Helvetic Club at Paris to spread the new ideas in Switzerland. The club stirs up risings in the western part of the confederation. Lower Valais rises against the oppressive rule of the upper districts.

1792 Porrentruy defies the prince-bishop of Bâle; with the help of the French drives out the imperial troops; forms the Rauracian Republic. This afterward becomes the French department of Mont Terrible. Geneva is saved from France by a force from Zurich and Bern. Massacre of the Swiss guards at the Tuileries by the Paris mob. The diet of Aarau orders the recall of the Swiss regiments.

1793 A reign of terror begins in Geneva because of uprising of the “natives.”

1794 The revolutionary party assumes control in Geneva. Arrests and murders. Demands for greater freedom are made at Stäfa in the territory of Zurich.

1795 A reaction sets in in Geneva. The insurrection at Stäfa is suppressed.

1797 Bonaparte incorporates the Italian bailiwicks of the Valtellina with the Cisalpine Republic. La Harpe calls on the Directory to protect the liberties of Vaud against the oppression of Bern.

THE HELVETIC REPUBLIC

1798 French troops in response occupy Mülhausen, Bienne, and part of the lands of the prince-bishop of Bâle. Insurgents open the prison of Chillon. Another French army enters Vaud and the Lemanic Republic is proclaimed there. The French occupy Fribourg and Solothurn; defeat the Bernese after fierce fighting at Neueneck; take Bern, the stronghold of the aristocratic party, and pillage the treasury. The Revolution triumphs over the Confederation. By order of the Directory, the Helvetic Republic, one and indivisible, is proclaimed. Peter Ochs of Bâle supplies a constitution. Ten of the thirteen members of the old confederation accept the new government. Twenty-three “cantons,” or administrative districts, are created. The forest districts rebel. Their resistance, headed by Alois Reding, of Schwyz, is put down after desperate conflicts at Schindellegi, Morgarten, and at Rothenthurm. An insurrection of the mountaineers of Upper Valais against the French is bloodily repressed. The French put down an insurrection in Nidwald with great bloodshed. (The days of terror of Nidwald end.)

1799 Zurich, the forest cantons, and Rhætia become the scene of the struggle of the Austrian and Russians against the French in the wars of the Coalition.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

1802 Strife between the centralists and the federalists. Bonaparte withdraws the French troops. The Helvetian government is driven from Bern. Bonaparte convenes Swiss statesmen at Paris in the _consulta_, and acts as mediator. The Frickthal, the last Austrian possession in Switzerland, is given to the Helvetic Republic by Bonaparte.

THE CONFEDERATION OF NINETEEN CANTONS

1803 Napoleon’s Act of Mediation is made the constitution of “Switzerland.” This name for the first time is used as the official name of the country. The thirteen members of the old confederation are set up again and six new cantons are added. There are to be no more privileged classes or subject lands. Switzerland enjoys ten years of peace and prosperity.

1804 Insurrection breaks out at Horgen in the canton Zurich.

1806 Neuchâtel is given to Marshal Berthier.

1810 Valais, which has been a separate republic, is made into the French department of the Simplon. The Swiss Society of the Public Good is founded. Pestalozzi and Fellenberg work out an educational system.

1813 Austrian and Russian troops, supported by the reactionary party, enter Switzerland; the diet abolishes the constitution of 1803.

1814 “The long diet” at Zurich attempts to adjust party differences. Bern heads a party anxious to restore the old order. Zurich and the majority stand out for the nineteen cantons of Napoleon. The allies enter Switzerland.

THE LEAGUE OF TWENTY-TWO STATES

1815 The Swiss diet accepts the decisions of the congress of Vienna and a new constitution, the Federal Pact, is adopted. The league of States (_Staatenbund_) is made to include twenty-two members. The sovereign rights of each canton are recognised. The federal diet exercises supreme sovereignty only in purely national concerns. The great powers at the congress of Vienna guarantee the neutrality of Switzerland. Switzerland is freed from subserviency to France. New aristocracies make themselves felt.

1817 Switzerland becomes a party to the Holy Alliance.

1819 The Helvetic Society again takes up political reforms.

1823 Freedom of the press is restricted under influence of the great powers. Intellectual reaction and ultra-montanism become noticeable and cause dissensions.

1830 The July revolution in Paris finds an echo in Switzerland. Twelve cantons reform their constitutions in a democratic sense. Popular demonstrations at the assembly of Uster.

1831 The aristocracy of Bern submits to liberal reforms.

1832 The cantons Zurich, Bern, Lucerne, Solothurn, St. Gall, Aargau, and Thurgau agree to united action looking toward reform (_Siebener Concordat_). They are opposed by the reactionary cantons, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Valais, and Neuchâtel which form the league of Sarnen (Sarner Bund).

1833 Bâle is divided into a rural (Baselland) and an urban (Baselstadt) half-canton because of the desire of the rural population for proportional representation in the Diet.

1834 Political refugees to Switzerland increase to such an extent that measures are taken by the diet to prevent abuse of the privilege of asylum.

1835 Religious tumults in Aargau.

1836 Difficulties with France over tariff regulations. Religious tumults in the Bernese Jura.

1838 The Society of the Grütli is founded at Geneva.

1839 Reaction in Zurich against radicals and freethinkers. (Strauss’ _Life of Jesus_).

1840 Clericals revolt against the radicals in Aargau.

1841 They are put down. Eight monasteries in Aargau are suppressed. The quarrel provokes disputes in the diet.

1843 The diet effects a compromise in the religious quarrel in Aargau by which four instead of eight of the monasteries are suppressed. The seven Catholic cantons, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Lucerne, Zug, Fribourg, and Valais hereupon form a separate league, the Sonderbund.

1844 The Sonderbund declares for the reopening of all the monasteries in Aargau. The clericals in Lucerne, the Vorort, give high posts to Jesuits. Parties of free-lances attempt to capture the city.

1845 The attack on Lucerne is renewed but is unsuccessful. The radicals gain control in Zurich.

1846 The radicals become the majority in Bern and Geneva.

1847 The radicals get a majority in St. Gall. The diet in which the radicals are now in the majority declares the Sonderbund contrary to the Federal Pact. The diet resolves to revise the pact and asks the cantons to expel the Jesuits. The attempt to enforce the decree leads to the Sonderbund War. This is quickly ended by the defeat of the rebellious Catholic cantons at Gislikon, largely because of the good generalship of Dufour.

SWITZERLAND AS A FEDERAL STATE

1848 A new constitution is accepted by the majority of the cantons. Switzerland becomes a federal state (_Bundesstaat_). A central government is organised consisting of a council of states (_Ständerath_), a national council (_National Rath_) and a federal council or executive (_Bundesrath_). German, French, and Italian are recognised as national languages. Bern is chosen the national capital.

1855 The federal polytechnic school is opened at Zurich. Improvements in the educational system are introduced.

1856 A royalist conspiracy in Neuchâtel is put down and causes a dispute between Switzerland and the king of Prussia, the overlord of Neuchâtel.

1857 Neuchâtel is definitely ceded to Switzerland.

1859 Switzerland posts troops on the Italian frontier to preserve neutrality in the Italian War and puts an end to foreign enlistments.

1860 The Swiss government protests against the cession of Nice and Savoy to France.

1861 French troops occupy the Valée de Dappes.

1862 The question of the frontiers in the Valée de Dappes is arranged with France by mutual cession of territory.

1864 The convention of Geneva introduces humanitarian reforms in warfare. Election riots at Geneva lead to bloodshed.

1865 International social science congress meets at Bern.

1866 Restrictions on religious liberty of Jesuits, etc., are removed. An attempt is made to revise the constitution in a democratic sense but fails.

1867 An international congress of workmen is held at Lausanne.

1869 The construction of the St. Gotthard tunnel is decided upon.

1871 Switzerland shelters French refugees of the Franco-German War though insisting on the maintenance of neutrality. The growth in power of the “old Catholics” causes disturbances in western Switzerland (the struggle against Ultramontanism). The Alabama Arbitration Commission meets in Geneva.

1872 An attempt at revision of the constitution is defeated by a small majority.

1873 Abbé Mermillod, appointed by the pope “apostolic vicar” of Geneva, is banished from Switzerland. The see of Bishop Lachat of Bâle is suppressed by several cantons because he upholds the doctrine of papal infallibility.

SWITZERLAND UNDER THE CONSTITUTION OF 1874

1874 A new constitution, a revision of that of 1848, is accepted by the people. The referendum hereby becomes a part of the machinery of the federal government as it had already been part of that of most of the cantons. The new constitution increases centralisation in the government. The international postal congress meets at Bern and lays the foundation for the international postal union.

1876 Religious and political differences cause an armed encounter in Ticino.

1877 A law regulating the working hours in factories is passed, marking an advance in labour legislation.

1878 James Fazy, noted statesman, dies.

1879 Legislation puts an end to dissensions over the financeering of the St. Gotthard railway.

1882 The St. Gotthard railway is opened.

1883 Mermillod is appointed bishop of Lausanne.

1884 Bishop Lachat is made apostolic vicar of Ticino. An international conference is held at Bern to secure the protection of copyright.

1887 Alcohol is made a state monopoly.

1888 The creation of a see at Lugano excites the opposition of the radicals. An important law for the protection of patents is passed.

1889 Bismarck’s spy Wohlgemuth is expelled. Germany protests. Difficulties arising out of the Swiss custom of granting political asylum are settled.

1890 Religious riot at Ticino. The principal compulsory insurance against sickness and accident is accepted by popular vote.

1891 The federal constitution is amended so that fifty thousand citizens by the “initiative” can compel the federal authorities to prepare and submit to the people any reform in the constitution demanded by the petitioners. The establishment of a state or federal bank is approved by the people. The purchase of the Central Railway by the confederation is rejected by popular vote.

1893 The killing of animals in Jewish fashion is prohibited by exercise of the initiative.

1894 An attempt by the initiative to secure the adoption for the government of a socialist scheme to provide employment fails.

1896 A National exhibition is held at Geneva. Labour riots directed against the employment of Italians cause many of these to leave Zurich. The eighteenth international congress on copyright meets at Bern and takes steps for copyright reform in Germany and Great Britain.

1897 The national council adopts a bill authorising the confederation to purchase the five principal railroads when the terms of the concessions expire. The proposals of the government as to a federal bank are rejected by the people. An international congress for the protection of labor is held at Zurich. It votes in favor of the prohibition of Sunday labor, except under special conditions for the restriction of unhealthful trades and night-work, for the betterment of the conditions of employment for women and for a working day of eight hours by legal enactment.

1898 The government authorises the construction of the Simplon tunnel. The people vote for the unification of the cantonal laws civil and criminal into a set of federal codes. The principle of the purchase by the confederation of the principal railroads is approved by popular vote. The empress Elizabeth of Austria is assassinated by an Italian anarchist in Geneva. Expulsion of anarchists follows.

1899 The scheme for the establishment of the “double initiative” is launched. The law for the compulsory insurance of working men against sickness and accident is passed by the legislature.

1900 This proposal, however, is rejected by the people by a large majority. The proposals for proportional representation in the national council and for the election of the federal council by the people (the “double initiative”) are rejected by popular vote.

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

1901 On representation of the Turkish government the federal council suppresses publications of the party of Young Turkey criticising the sultan for the Armenian massacres. Public opinion condemning the action of the council as a violation of the right of asylum finds expression in many places. Anti-Russian demonstrations are made at Geneva and Bern by socialists. The socialist movement gains in strength.

1902 Difficulties with Italy over the publication in an anarchist organ at Geneva of an article reflecting on the murdered king Humbert causes the temporary withdrawal of the diplomatic representatives of the two countries. A general strike in Geneva leads to disturbances which are put down by troops. The federal council issues a decree suppressing such religious congregations or orders as have not been authorised by law. The radical democratic majority in the national council is considerably strengthened.

1903 A new protective tariff is adopted by popular vote. The Zionist congress at Bâle votes to investigate Great Britain’s offer of land in East Africa for Jewish colonisation.

[Illustration]

## PART XXI

THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA

BASED CHIEFLY UPON THE FOLLOWING AUTHORITIES

R. BELL, R. N. BESTUZHEV-RIUMIN, V. A. BILBASOV, A. BRÜCKNER, A. DE HAXTHAUSEN, E. HERMANN, N. M. KARAMZIN, W. K. KELLY, N. I. KOSTOMAROV, M. KOVALEVSKI, A. LEROY-BEAULIEU, P. MÉRIMÉE, NESTOR, A. RAMBAUD, T. SCHIEMANN, J. H. SCHNITZLER, A. A. SCHUMAKR, N. K. SHILDER, G. M. SOLOVIEV, P. STRAHL, N. TURGENIEV, D. M. WALLACE

TOGETHER WITH A STUDY OF THE INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIA

BY S. RAPPOPORT

WITH ADDITIONAL CITATIONS FROM

ALEXANDER II, A. ALISON, R. N. BAIN, T. VON BERNHARDI, A. J. BEVERIDGE, CATHERINE II, A. P. DE CUSTINE, T. DELORD, J. ECKHARDT, A. DE FERRAND, I. GOLIKOV, P. DE LA GORCE, R. GOSSIP, A. N. KUROPATKIN, LEO, M. LÉVESQUE, C. A. DE LOUVILLE, H. MARTIN, MAURICIUS, A. MIKHAILOVSKI-DANILEVSKI, H. NORMAN, PROCOPIUS, C. C. DE RULHIÈRE, F. SCHLOSSER, P. DE SÉGUR, P. SHCHEBALSKI, F. H. SKRINE, STORCK, H. TYRRELL, VOLTAIRE

COPYRIGHT, 1904, BY HENRY SMITH WILLIAMS.

_All rights reserved_

RUSSIA

INTRODUCTION

THE INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIA

WRITTEN SPECIALLY FOR THE PRESENT WORK

BY DR. A. S. RAPPOPORT

School of Oriental Languages, Paris

“Russia evolves very slowly, like an empire that is not of yesterday and that has ample time before it,” is one of Nietzsche’s remarks before his reason had hopelessly gone adrift in the vast ocean of insanity. This remark of the German poet-philosopher is true enough. What Nietzsche, however, did not know or did not say is that one can hardly speak of any evolution, as far as general civilisation, intellectual culture, and development are concerned, of Russia as a whole. Only a small minority, the so-called _intelligentia_, has evolved intellectually, not Russia itself. Here lies the fundamental difference between Russia and the rest of Europe.

There is a vast gulf, ever broadening, between the Russian intelligentia and the _muyiks_. Thought and culture, nay even civilisation, seem to be limited to a select few. The bulk of the people has not only failed to advance from a state in which it was surprised by Jenghiz Khan, but it has actually retrograded to a more savage condition. Revolutions have passed over their heads without in the least affecting them. “The Russian masses,” says Leroy-Beaulieu (_The Empire of the Czars_), “have not felt the breath of either the Renaissance, or the Reformation, or the Revolution. All that has been done in Europe or America for the last four centuries, since the time of Columbus and Luther, Washington and Mirabeau, is, as far as Russia is concerned, non-existent.”

The people never think, or at least have not yet left that crude state of barbarism which precedes the dawn of civilisation; the first rays of thought have scarcely tinted with orient hues the dark horizon of ignorance and superstition of the Russian population; the great events have failed to stir its mental inertia. I am, however, far from maintaining that the fault lies with the nature and national character of the people. The rich nature, the subtle spirit of the Slav, his power of adaptation and imitation make him not only accessible to western civilisation and culture but also capable of producing something which bears the impress of the peculiarity of the Slavonic genius. The intelligentia is now giving ample proof corroborating this statement. The Russian intelligentia has passed the phases of growing and changing and doubting and has reached a condition of maturity, asserting its manhood and right. Before examining the intellectual development of the Russian intelligentia and the point it has reached, as compared with western Europe, we must try to find out the causes that first produced that gulf between the few and the many, and the circumstances that were instrumental in widening it.

It is a mistake to imagine that the very first foundations of Russian intellectual development were laid by Peter the Great and that Russia, although behind western Europe in culture and civilisation, is still in her youthful vigour and freshness and will soon overtake the old world. There was a time, at the beginning of the eleventh century, when the Slavonic countries under the rule of the Norman conquerors were on the same level of civilisation as western Europe. The foundations were laid before the Norman invasion and very frequent were the relations between this people in the east and those in the north of Europe. Long before the ninth century, Kiev was known to the inhabitants of Scandinavia. Many a jarl sought refuge there and many a merchant ship found its way to the shores of Russia. On the road along which the commercial connection between the East Sea and Byzantium developed were situated the towns of Smolensk, Tchernigov, Pereiaslavl (cf. V. der Brüggen, _Wie Russland Europaisch Wurde_, p. 22). When the Norman princes, the warags as they were called by the Slavonic nations, conquered these towns and subdued one tribe after the other, the already existing civilisation developed rapidly under the protection of the new rulers. Forth from Byzantium and Greece, from Italy, Poland, and Germany, with which countries the descendants of Rurik kept up a connection, western influence came to the north. Learned monks came from Byzantium, architects, artisans, and merchants from Greece, Italy and Germany, and were instrumental in spreading the languages, customs and ideas of the west. Not only did the _kniazi_ (princes) of Kiev build churches and edifices after the model of Greek and Italian art, but they established schools to which Vladimir compelled his nobles and boyars to send their children. The commercial relations with the west and the south were very vivid and frequent, and on the market places of Kiev and Novgorod a motley crowd of Normans and Slavs, Hungarians, Greeks, Venetians, Germans, Arabs, and Jews were to be seen.

The intellectual culture of the time had not yet, one must admit, penetrated the masses of the Slavonic tribes. Yet the Normans, as the propagators of culture, speedily and easily merged into one with the conquered tribes, much easier perhaps than the Normans who came with William the Conqueror amalgamated with Britons and Saxons in England. Had the Tatar invasion not taken place, it is highly probable that the intellectual development of Russia would have followed the same lines as that of western Europe. The commercial and intellectual relations with the rest of Europe, so eagerly sought after and cultivated by the Norman princes, would have continued and brought the Slav countries in increasingly closer contact with the west and under the influence of all the currents that were destined to traverse Europe later on. The Renaissance and the revival of learning which shed their light upon the dark mediæval age (and only a few rays of which found their way to Russia by way of Poland at a much later period) would have made themselves felt in Russia. This was, however, not to happen. The Mongolian invasion had actually cut off Russia from Europe, and brought it under the Tatar influence. The Norman civilisation, which was in a nascent state, was crushed; the threads connecting Russia with Europe were cut off. The wave of Mongolian invasion had inundated the flat land situated between Europe and Asia, carried away and destroyed every vestige of western influence. Kiev, Moscow, Tver, Riazan, Tchernigov, and Smolensk were conquered by the hordes of the Great Khan, who from his seat somewhere in the heart of China or in the centre of Asia sent down his generals and tax collectors.

Hundreds of thousands of Mongols came to Russia, mixed with the Slavs, and influenced habits, customs, civilisation, social life, administration and even language. The influence was a very far-reaching and deep one; Mongolism has penetrated Russian life to a much higher degree than a Russian would care to admit or western Europeans have realised. Greater and greater became the gulf between the Russian and the Romance and Teutonic worlds. But that gulf might have been bridged over and Russia might have been saved, when the dawn of better and happier days broke in, by another power: the influence of the church. Here again, however, owing to circumstances, this in many respects civilising agent was powerless.

In spite of all the reproaches hurled at the church, it must be admitted that it had all the education in its hands. In Russia, however, the case was different. From the very beginning, ever since Christianity was introduced, ever since Vladimir had accepted baptism in Kiev, the Russian people as Christians were divided into two distinct groups. Whilst the enthusiastic adherents of the new religion endeavoured to introduce the piety of Byzantium, the mass of the people, although nominally Christian, remained heathen in reality and has remained so up to the present. This was due to two reasons. Vladimir had accepted the Greek form of worship with its asceticism. Asceticism and monasticism, a retirement from the world, became the Christian ideal. This ideal was too high, too unattainable and too foreign for reality and for daily life, whilst on the other hand the perfect Christians considered the life of the world as sinful and dangerous. Thus the clergy sought retirement in cloisters and monasteries and the mass, whilst accepting the ceremonies of Byzantium, had learned nothing of its ethical teachings. The gulf thus arising between clergy and people was also due to another reason. The first members of the clergy were Greeks, monks coming from Byzantium, who spoke a language incomprehensible to the Slavs. The Russian bishops, who gradually took the place of the learned eastern monks, and who could communicate with the people, were still too ignorant themselves. And then suddenly the Tatar invasion came. Connection with Byzantium was cut off. The influx of the Greek clergy and Byzantine learning had ceased too early, before the Russians had had time to acquire some amount of knowledge to replace it. Thus whilst the intellectual development of the mass took place very slowly, the intellectual level of the clergy sank rapidly. The consequence was that when the Russian clergy met the people they were both on the same intellectual level, the priests had nothing to teach and had no prestige. This also explains, psychologically, the origin of so many religious sects in Russia. Having no respect and no admiration for the ignorant priest, addicted to drink, the peasant goes his own way when he suddenly feels a craving for religious ideals.

Thus the Mongolian invasion had cut off Russia from Europe and whilst the latter was passing through the phases of transition, approaching slowly but gradually the times of light and learning, Russia stood still. The Europe of the Renaissance was not a _creatio ex nihilo_. It was the result of a slow process of development. The barbarians who had built their realms on the ruins of the ancient worlds, Hellas and Rome, had taken over the classical heritage left to them after the disappearance of the Roman Empire. Rude and barbarous, however, these new conquerors had no understanding for the value of the heritage and destroyed many of its richest treasures. Worlds of intellectual culture were lost. But slowly the age of understanding dawned and the former barbarians brought forth many of the treasures which they had relegated to the lumber-room, added many of their own, and blended them into one whole. The result was the Græco-Roman, Romance, and Teutonic civilisation. Crusades, Arabian civilisation passing by way of Spain, scholasticism, Reformation, Renaissance, revival of learning, the discovery of new worlds, the spread of commerce, scientific inventions and discoveries, stimulating the desire for learning and creating impulses in every new direction--all these new and stirring events were so many phases through which European society and European life passed before they reached the state of modern development. Many were the streams and cross-currents that traversed Europe separately before they united and continued the more rapid advance of a new life and civilisation. All this was lacking in Russia. Russia missed during its Mongolian period, the time of general transition. None of the forces which, although invisibly, were steadily furrowing the European soil and preparing it for the influx of fresh air and new light, were at work in Russia. The phase of transition had not yet commenced. That period of constant change, of mingled decadence and spiritual growth, that ceaseless blending of the old and the new, unnoticed at the time but clearly distinguished from the distance of later ages, was lacking in Russia. There was no pope, no powerful church, and consequently no Reformation and no spirit of individualism--no feudalism, no knights, no Crusades and no acquaintance with foreign lands, no spread of commerce, and no widening of the mental horizon of the people. There were no learned monks copying Greek and Latin manuscripts, paving the way for scholasticism and modern thought. There was even no language in which the treasures of the ancient world could be communicated to the Slavs. Few people could write, few even count properly.

There were no schools and the attempts to establish some such institutions during the seventeenth century failed. A school was founded at Moscow under Alexis, but here only a foreign language or two were taught. Its aim was to train translators for the government. There was no art, nor technical science. There were no medical men. The two or three foreign practitioners were considered as sorcerers.

Towards the end of the seventeenth century therefore Russia had absolutely no culture of her own. All that the Normans had established had been wiped out. The Byzantine influence had no effect. And when after a struggle extending over three centuries the czardom of Moscow had thrown off the shackles of the Great Khan, liberated itself from thraldom and laid the foundations of the great empire of Russia, it had only established, on the ruins of the old Mongolian, a new state which was Mongolian and Tatar in its essence and spirit, in its customs and institutions, and had little or nothing in common with the rest of Europe.

Moscow was the inheritor of Mongolism, the Czar was spiritually, and even physically, a descendant of Mongol princes. Ivan IV married a Mongolian princess, his son married a sister of the Mongol Godunov. They had actually taken over the inheritance of the khans of Kiptchak. It was in this barren soil that Peter sowed the seed of European culture. What happened?

Peter was undoubtedly great and deserves this title. He was one of the great makers of history. But though great in his plans, great in what he wished to accomplish, he was not great in what he really attained. He only saw the superficiality of European civilisation. He introduced it like some foreign product, like some fashionable article, like some exotic plant, without first asking whether the national soil was propitious for its cultivation. He, at the utmost, created a hot-house atmosphere where his plants could vegetate, and they remained what they originally were: exotic. He failed to see that civilisation is the product of a long process of evolution, the natural product of the social and national conditions, drawing its life and sap from the inner forces of the people. Instead of making use of these inner forces of his people, he endeavoured to introduce civilisation by his power of will. He only had an eye for the effects but not for the causes that were working as the hidden springs.

In France, in England, in Germany, in all western Europe, civilisation, the moral and intellectual evolution, was a natural phenomenon, the effect of previous causes. In Russia, civilisation was the outcome of a sudden revolution, the slavish, reluctant and half-hearted compliance with the commands of an individual will. The former was natural, the latter artificial. An evolution is a slow change, an unconscious and imperceptible process, finding a state prepared for innovation, a soil, furrowed and fertile, ready to receive the seed and to bring forth fruit. A revolution, on the other hand, is a radical, sudden change which seldom succeeds and, in most cases, calls forth reactions. In Western Europe there was, as we have see above, a time of transition from the barbarous to the civilised state. The morning of the Renaissance had dawned upon mediæval Europe and tinted with orient colours the sombre sky. The first rays appeared on the horizon of the Italian poets, dissipating the darkness here and there. The sun gradually rose higher and higher, penetrated the houses of the people and woke them (who had been lulled to sleep by the mysterious whisperings of superstition) from their prolonged slumbers. They awoke, opened their windows and allowed the light of the morning to penetrate into their dark abodes. Not so in Russia. There the people were suddenly awakened, dragged out from the utter darkness, without any transition, into the broad midday of an artificial light. They opened their eyes, but the light was too strong, too glaring; so they shut them again. Peter wanted to jump over three centuries and catch up with Europe. He established a fleet without Russian sailors, an administration with foreign administrators, an academy of science in a land without elementary schools. He began a race with Europe but his people could not follow him. He borrowed everything from Europe and instead of giving his people a chance to develop naturally and freely, he crushed the spirit of independence and introduced a knout civilisation. Everything had to be done by order. He forced his people to swallow Europeanism. The bulk of his subjects, however, could not digest it. The consequence was that they could not follow the few, and remained far behind them. The gulf therefore between the few, who form the present intelligentia, and the great mass--a gulf which was but narrow towards the end of the sixteenth century when by way of Poland and Livonia a glimpse of the western sun penetrated into Russia--suddenly widened considerably. Thus the origin of the striking phenomenon which Russia offers in her intellectually high developed intelligentia and her uneducated, ignorant masses is to be sought in Russia’s past, in the absence of a period of transition, and in Peter’s misunderstanding the process of European civilisation, in his admiration for the effects, but utter ignorance of the causes that brought about these effects.

There is, however, yet another factor--a factor which, whilst accounting for the existence of an intelligentia, or a coterie of intellectuals, and of an utterly ignorant mass, will also throw some light upon the intellectual development of this very intelligentia and explain the reasons which compelled it to choose certain channels by which it sends forth the currents of its thoughts. This factor is the despotic government of the czars. If Russia’s unhappy past and Peter’s good intentions but great blunders produced the present state of intellectual development in that country, the government of the Reformer’s successors has done its very best to preserve this condition.

The continuous policy of the Russian government to civilise by means of the knout has on the one hand brought about the result that not Russia but only a few Russians evolved intellectually and, on the other, it has given a certain direction to the thought and intellectual productions of these few. Even during the reign of Peter I or Catherine II, when the spirit of civilisation began to move its wings, independent thought has had to sustain a fierce struggle against authority. In the most civilised countries of western Europe ever and anon a cross-current of reaction traverses the stream of intellectual evolution: narrow-minded zealots, hypocritical bigots, false patriots, literary Gibeonites, gossiping old women arrayed in the mantles of philosophers, do their best to put fetters on the independent thought of man, to nip the free and natural intellectual development in the very bud by forcing it under the iron grip of tradition and authority. These reactionary tendencies of the lovers of darkness are only exceptions, and will lead thought for a while into a side channel, but cannot stop the triumphant march onwards. Not so in Russia.

In the empire of the czar thought is almost a crime and every means is employed to keep it within the boundaries prescribed by the governing power. To overstep these boundaries, to develop itself freely, and I might say naturally, is to declare war against authority, to revolt. The history of evolution of thought in Russia is therefore almost identical with the revolutionary movement. If whilst working on the construction of the temple with the right hand, the left has to wield the sword against a sudden attack of the enemy, the edifice can rise only very slowly. Renan says (in his _Future of Science_) that the great creations of thought appear in troublous times and that neither material ease nor even liberty contributes much to the originality and the energy of intellectual development. On the contrary the work of mind would only be seriously threatened if humanity came to be too much at its ease. Thank God! exclaims the Breton philosopher, that day is still far distant. The customary state of Athens, he continues, was one of terror; the security of the individual was threatened at every moment, to-day an exile, to-morrow he was sold as a slave. And yet in such a state Phidias produced the Propylæa statues, Plato his dialogues and Aristophanes his satires. Dante would never have composed his cantos in an atmosphere of studious ease. The sacking of Rome did not disturb the brush of Michael Angelo. In a word, the most beautiful things are born amid tears and it is in the midst of struggle, in the atmosphere of sorrow and suffering that humanity develops itself, that the human mind displays the most energy and activity in all directions. Renan was an individualist, and aristocratic in his teachings, and seems only to have in view the individual, nay the genius. Suffering and oppression, physical, intellectual and moral, are schools where the strong gather more strength and come forth triumphant, but where the weaker are destroyed. What is true for the _élite_, for the very limited number of the chosen few, does not hold good for humanity at large, which is not strong enough to think when it is hungry, to fight against opposing forces and to hurl down the barriers erected against the advance of thought. Few indeed are those who can carry on the struggle to a successful issue. The Russian government, with its Mongolian traditions of autocracy, threw the great nation, which remained behind Peter’s forward march, back into complete indifference and apathy, into a state of submissive contentment, where, like a child, it kisses the rod that punishes it, sometimes cries like a child, and is lulled to sleep by the whisperings of mystic superstition and the vapours of _vodki_.

Has not the populace a terrifying example in the martyrs of Russian thought? A terrible destiny awaits him who dares to step beyond the line traced by the hand of the government, who ventures to look over the wall erected by imperial ukase. “The history of Russian thinkers,” says Alexander Herzen (_Russland’s Sociale Zustände_, page 136), “is a long list of martyrs and a register of convicts.” Those whom the hand of the imperial government has spared died in the prime of youth, before they had time to develop, like blossoms hurrying to quit life before they could bear fruit. A Pushkin and a Lermontov fell in the prime of youth, one thirty-eight and the other twenty-seven years old, victims of the unnatural state of society. Russia’s Beaumarchais, Griboiedov, found a premature end in Persia in his thirty-fifth year; Kolzov, the Russian Burns, Bielinski, the Russian Lessing, died in misery, the latter at the age of thirty-eight. Czerncevski was torn from his literary activity and sent to Siberia. Dobrolubov sang his swan-song in his twenty-fifth year. Chaadaev, the friend of Schelling, was declared mad by order of the government. If such measures have kept the people in a state of ignorance and still lowered the already low level of civilisation, the autocratic rule has further, as it was unable to crush it, caused the intelligentia to turn its thoughts into a certain direction.

If we follow the development of the Russian intelligentia we notice at once that all the currents of its intellectual life are, at the present time at least, converging into one centre, swelling the stream, that is already running high, to a vast and mighty ocean, which is sending its waters, through many channels, all over Europe. This centre is literature. Since the foundation of the Academy of Science by Peter the Great Russian achievements in the domains of science, technical education, art, sculpture, music, painting, history and philosophy have been very small.

In science and art the Russians have produced nothing of importance, nothing original. Mendeleev, Lobatshevski, Pirogov, Botkin, Soloviev are a few scientific names of some eminence but they are few as compared with Europe and America. Many others, who are known to the western world as Russians, are in reality Germans or Armenians. The great historian, Karamzin, was of Tatar extraction. In the domain of art Vereshchagin is a Russian but Ainasowski is an Armenian, Brulov a Prussian and Antokolski a Jew (cf. Brüggen, _Das heutige Russland_, p. 182).

Russia has had no Spinoza and no Kant, no Newton and no Spencer. Since the foundation of the University of Moscow in 1755, some semblance of Russian philosophy has appeared but a Soloviev and a Grote, a Troitski and a Preobrajenski have only introduced the philosophy of Germany, France, and England into Russia, but not worked out their own philosophical systems. Thus, whilst Russian scientists, technicians, artists and even musicians have to go abroad to complete their education, Russian philosophers borrow from Hegel or Descartes, from Locke or Comte. This is, however, not the case with Russian literature. Russia has quickened her development in the realm of literature. Her decades were centuries. Rapidly she has lived through phases of growth and evolution, of achievement and reflection which have filled long periods in other people’s lives. The peaks of Russian creative power in this domain, the productions of Pushkin and Turgeniev, of Lermontov, Dostoievski and Tolstoi proudly face the heights of literary western Europe.

Whilst, however, the Russian genius of the intelligentia centred its force in literature, this literature bears the unmistakable trait, that distinguishes it from European literature, of having a tendency to teach and of taking a moral aspect. Russian literature on the whole has not entered the sphere of artistic interest, it has always been a pulpit whence the word of instruction came forth. With very few exceptions, like Merejkovski and Andreiev, the Russian author is not practising art for art’s sake (_l’art pour l’art_) but is pursuing a goal, is accomplishing a task.

The Russian literature is a long cry of revolt, a continuous sigh or an admonition. Taine says, somewhere, when speaking of Stendhal and Balzac: “They love art more than men--they are not writing out of sympathy for the poor, but out of love for the beautiful.” This is just what the Russian modern author is not doing. The intellectual and instructive moments predominate over the emotional and artistic.

This state of the intellectual development is explained by what has been stated above. It is due to the sudden introduction of western ceremonies and superficial civilisation, followed by a powerful foreign influence on the one hand, and the general social and political state of the country. When Peter had suddenly launched Russia--which was floating like some big hulk between Asia and Europe--towards the west, the few who helped him in this endeavour came under the complete influence of western thought and manners. St. Petersburg soon became a Versailles in miniature. Voltaire, Diderot, and the encyclopædists governed and shaped Russian thought and Russian society. But not only France--Germany too, and England, Byron and his individualism, had gained great sway in Russia. The independence of Russian thought and its intellectual development only dates from about 1840. When it awoke at that time, when it became conscious of itself, it felt that it had a great work, a great mission to fulfil. Surrounded on one side by a people that was ignorant, ready to sink lower and lower; opposed, on the other, by a government that did its best to check individualism and independence in every possible way--the Russian intelligentia felt its great responsibility.

Surrounded by a population whose mental development was on a very low level, the atmosphere was and still is not propitious for the cultivation of art or science, whilst the Russian author had no time simply to admire the beautiful in nature but was compelled to look round and try what good he could do. Thus Russian genius concentrated itself in literature as the best vehicle to expose the state of Russian society. The Russian writer became an apostle. He is not anxious to be artistic, to shape his style and to be fascinating, but to give as true a picture of Russian life as he possibly can, to show the evil and to suggest the remedy.

Such, in broad lines, is the present state which the few, whom we termed the Russian intelligentia, have reached in their intellectual development. In a moment of strength the Russian genius has attained itself, with self-asserting individuality. Its task is great, its obstacles are manifold, but it fights valiantly and moves on steadily. This only applies to the few. When the day of political freedom will dawn for Russia, then and then only the great evolution and the intellectual development of Russia itself, of the Russian people as a whole, will begin. On the day when civil and religious despotism, that everywhere crushes individuality, will cease, then the genius of the Russian people will spread its pinions, and the masses will awake from their inertia to new life, like the gradual unfolding of spring into summer.

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