CHAPTER XIII

. REACTION, EXPANSION, AND THE WAR WITH JAPAN (1881-1904 A.D.)

[b] D. M. WALLACE, article on Russian history in the _New Volumes_ of the _Encyclopædia Britannica_.

[c] ALBERT J. BEVERIDGE, _The Russian Advance_.

[d] HENRY NORMAN, _All the Russias_.

[e] A. N. KUROPATKIN, quoted in F. H. Skrine and E. D. Ross’s _The Heart of Asia_.

APPENDIX. DOCUMENTS RELATING TO RUSSIAN HISTORY

These documents, given in a somewhat condensed form, are from the following sources: The Treaty of Paris, from H. TYRRELL’S _History of the War with Russia_; The Treaty of Berlin and The Hague Peace Conference, from SIR EDWARD HERTSLET’S _State Papers_, Vol. CX.

[Illustration]

A GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RUSSIAN HISTORY

BASED ON THE WORKS QUOTED, CITED, OR CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THE PRESENT HISTORY; WITH CRITICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

=Anon.=, La guerre d’Orient en 1877-1878, par un tacticien, Paris, 1880; Tainy nashei gosudarstvennoi politiki v Polshye. Sbornik sekretnykh dokumentov (The secrets of our governmental policy in Poland. A collection of secret documents), London, 1899; Secret Memoirs of the Court of St. Petersburg, particularly towards the end of the reign of Catherine II and the commencement of that of Paul I (translated from the French), London, 1895; The Persecution of the Jews in Russia, published by the Russo-Jewish Committee, London, 1890; Russia, Its Industries and Trade (Official report prepared for the Glasgow Exhibition), Glasgow, 1901; Erinnerungen eines Dorfgeistlichen. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Leibeigenschaft und ihrer Aufhebung. Aus dem russischen übertragen von M. Oettingen, Stuttgart, 1894 (Bibliothek russischer Denkwürdigkeiten. Edited by Th. Schiemann, vol. 5); An early news-sheet. The Russian Invasion of Poland in 1563. An exact facsimile of a contemporary account in Latin, published at Douay. Together with an introduction and historical notes, and a full translation into English, London, 1874; The French bulletins relating to the war in Russia, London, 1813; Russia’s March Towards India, by an Indian officer, London, 1893, 2 vols.; Russia Before and After the War. By the author of “Society in St. Petersburg,” etc. Translated from the German, with later additions by the author, by E. F. Taylor, London and New York, 1880; Von Nicolaus I zu Alexander III: St. Petersburger Beiträge zur neuesten russischen Geschichte, Leipsic, 1881; Russisch-Baltische Blaetter, Beiträge zur Kenntniss Russlands und seiner Grenzmarken, 4 vol., Leipzig, 1886-1888; Russland vor und nach dem Kriege; auch “Aus der petersburger Gesellschaft,” Leipsic, 1879; Russland am Scheidewege: Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Slawophilenthums, Berlin, 1888; Lose Blätter aus dem Geheim-Archive der russischen Regierung; Ein aktenmässiger Beitrag zur neuesten Geschichte der russischen Verwaltung und Beamten-Korruption, Leipsic, 1882.--=Abaza=, V. A. Istorya Rossii (History of Russia), St. Petersburg, 1893.--=Abbott=, J., Narrative of a Journey from Herat to Khiva, Moscow and St. Petersburg, during the late Russian invasion of Khiva, London, 1856, 2 vols.--=Adam=, Mme., Le général Skobélef, Paris, 1886.--=Adelung=, F. von, Kritisch-literarische Übersicht der Reisenden in Russland bis 1700, St. Petersburg, 1846, 2 vols.--=Alexander II=, Manifest (The proclamation of emancipation) printed by the Senate, St. Petersburg, 1861.--=Alison=, A., History of Europe, London and New York, 1849-1850, 14 vols.--=Arnaud=, C. A. de, The New Era in Russia, Washington, 1890.--=Arnheim=, F., Der ausserordentliche Finländische Landtag, Leipsic, 1900.--=Avril=, A. d’, Négociations relatives au traité de Berlin et aux arrangements qui ont suivi, Paris, 1886.

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=Bain=, R. N., Charles XII and the Collapse of the Swedish empire (Heroes of the Nations series) New York, 1895; The Pupils of Peter the Great. A History of the Russian Court and Empire from 1697 to 1740, Westminster, 1897; The Daughter of Peter the Great. A History of Russian Diplomacy and of the Russian Court under the Empress Elizabeth Petrovna (1741-1762), Westminster, 1899.--=Bakunin=, A., M. =Herzen=, and others, Sozial-politischer Briefwechsel. Mit einer biographischen Einleitung von M. Dragomanov. Autorisirte Übersetzung aus dem russischen von B. Minzer, Stuttgart, 1895. (Bibliothek russischer Denkwürdigkeiten, vol. 6).--=Bantysh-Kamenski=, D. N. Istorya maloi Rossii (History of Little Russia) Moscow, 1842.

_Bantysh-Kamenski_ was born in Moscow in 1788. Between 1825 and 1828 he was governor of Tobolsk, and from 1836 to 1838, governor of Vilna. After that he was engaged in the ministry of the interior. He died at St. Petersburg in 1850. Besides his “History of Little Russia,” which is to this day the only complete history in this department, he also wrote a biographical dictionary and the lives of a number of Russian statesmen and commanders.

=Bantysh-Kamenski=, N., Diplomatitcheskoe sobranie dyel mezhdu Rossiiskim i Kitaiskim gosudarstvom s 1619 po 1792 god (a collection of diplomatic papers between the Russian and Chinese empires from 1619 to 1792) Kazan, 1882; Obzor vnyeshnikh snoshenyi Rossii po 1800 g (a review of the foreign relations of Russia up to the year 1800, Courland, Livonia, Esthonia, Poland, and Portugal), Moscow, 1897.--=Bell=, R., Russia (Cabinet Cyclopædia series), London, 1836, 3 vol.--=Bernhardi=, T. von, Geschichte Russlands und der europäischen Politik in den Jahren 1814-1831, Leipsic, 1868-1878, 3 vols.--=Bestuzhev-Riumin=, K. N., Russkaya istorya (Russian history) St. Petersburg, 1872, 2 vol.

_Konstantin Nikelaievitch Bestuzhev-Riumin_ was born in 1829. From 1865 to 1882 he was a professor at the university of St. Petersburg. Besides the History, he has been the author of a number of monographs. His method is thorough, painstaking, and minute. He insists on a many-sided study of the national life, and of the exclusion of all philosophical or general theories, and devotes much more space to internal than to external history, paying special attention to forms of family life, political organisation, law, religion, and literature. The introductory chapters give a valuable account of the source and authorities of Russian history. At his death, in 1897, he left his History a torso. It was translated into German by Dr. Schiemann (Mitau, 1873-1875).

=Beveridge=, A. J., The Russian Advance, New York, 1903.--=Bigelow=, P., The German Emperor and his Eastern Neighbors, New York, 1892.--=Bilbassov=, V. A., Istorya Ekateriny II (History of Catherine II), London, 1895, 2 vols.--=Bilbassov=, B., Katherina II, Kaiserin von Russland, im Urtheile der Weltlitteratur. Übersetzt aus dem russischen mit einem Vorwort von T. Schiemann, Berlin, 1897, 2 vols.; Geschichte Katharina II. Übersetzt aus dem russischen von M. von Petzold, Berlin, 1893, 2 vols.--=Bodenstedt=, F. von, Die Völker des Kaukasus und ihre Freiheitskämpfe gegen die Russen, Berlin, 1855, 2 vols.--=Bogdanovitch=, M. I., Istorya tsarstvovanya imperatora Alexandra I i Rossii v yevo vremya (History of the reign of Alexander I and of Russia during his time) St. Petersburg, 1869-1871, 6 vols.--=Bond=, E. A., Russia at the Close of the 16th Century; comprising the treatise “Of the Russ Commonwealth,” by G. Fletcher, and the travels of Sir J. Horsey (Hakluyt Society Publications, vol. 20), London, 1856.--=Bookwalter=, J. W., Siberia and Central Asia, New York, 1899.--=Boulger=, D. C., England and Russia in Central Asia, London, 1873, 5 vols.--=Brodhead=, J. M. N., Slav and Moslem: historical sketches, Charleston, S. C., 1894.--=Brooks=, C. W. S., Russians of the South, London, 1854.--=Browning=, O., Charles XII of Sweden, London, 1899.--=Brueckner=, A. Finanzgeschichtliche Studien: Kupfergeldkrisen, St. Petersburg, 1867; Kulturhistorische Studien: die Russen im Ausland: die Ausländer in Russland im 17. Jahrhundert, Riga, 1878; Ivan Possoschkow: Ideen und Zustände in Russland zur Zeit Peters des Grossen, Leipsic, 1878; Peter der Grosse, in Oncken’s Allgemeine Geschichte in Einzeldarstellungen, Berlin, 1879; Der Zarewitsch Alexei, Heidelberg, 1880; Katharina II, in Oncken’s Weltgeschichte in Einzeldarstelungen, Berlin, 1883; Istorya Yekateriny II (History of Catherine II), St. Petersburg, 1885, 3 vols.; Bilder aus Russlands Vergangenheit, Leipsic, 1887; Beiträge zur Kulturgeschichte Russlands im 17. Jahrhundert, Leipsic, 1887; Die Europäisierung Russlands, Gotha, 1888; Geschichte Russlands: Überblick der Entwicklung bis zum Tode Peters des Grossen, in Geschichte der europäischen Staaten, Gotha, 1896.

_Alexander Brueckner_ was born August 5, 1834, at St. Petersburg. After engaging for six years in business, he turned his attention to the study of history, which he pursued at Heidelberg, Jena, and Berlin. After returning to St. Petersburg he became professor of history at the Imperial School of law, in 1867 professor at the university of Odessa, and in 1872 at Dorpat. Owing to his German origin, he was removed in 1891 from Dorpat and transferred to the university of Kazan, but at his request he was permitted to settle at Jena. Brueckner is, like Schiemann and Eckhardt, a German-Russian, and as such has a special qualification for the presentation of Russian history to a West-European audience. He has written numerous works both in Russian and in German, and takes rank with the foremost historians of Russia.

=Brueggen=, E. von der, Polens Auflösung, Leipsic, 1878; Wie Russland europäisch wurde, Leipsic, 1885.--=Bunge=, F. G. von, Geschichtliche Entwicklung der Standesverhältnisse in Livonia, Esthonia, und Kurland bis 1561, Dorpat, 1838; der Orden der Schwertbrüder, Leipsic, 1875.--=Burtsev=, V., and S. M. =Kravtchinski=, Za sto lyet (1800-1896). Sbornik po istorii polititcheskikh i obshtchestvennikh dvizhenyi v Rossii (One hundred years. Documents Relating to the History of Political and Social Movements in Russia), London, 1897.--=Buturlin=, Knyaz D. P., Histoire militaire de la campagne de Russia en 1812, Paris, 1824, 2 vols.

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=Cary=, C., The Trans-Siberian Route, New York, 1902.--=Catherine II=, empress of Russia, Memoirs of the Empress Catherine II, written by herself, with a preface by A. Herzen, translated from the French, New York, 1859.--=Celestin=, Fr. J., Russland seit Aufhebung der Leibeigenschaft, Laibach, 1875.--=Choiseul-Gouffier=, (Tisenhaus), comtesse de, Historical Memoirs of the Emperor Alexander I and the Court of Russia. Translated by M. B. Patterson, Chicago, 1901.--=Colquhoun=, A. R., Russia against India: The Struggle for Asia, New York, 1900.--=Coxe=, W., An Account of the Russian Discoveries between Asia and America: added, The Conquest of Siberia, and the history of the transactions and commerce between Russia and China, London, 1803.--=Crusenstolpe=, M. I. von, Der russische Hof von Peter I bis auf Nikolaus I, Hamburg, 1855-1859.--=Curzon=, G. N., Russia in Central Asia in 1889 and the Anglo-Russian Question, London, 1889; Persia and the Persian Question, London, 1892; Problems of the Far-East: Japan, Corea, China, London, 1894; The Pamirs and the Source of the Oxus, London, 1896.--=Custine=, le marquis de, La Russie en 1839, Paris, 1844, 4 vols.

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=Danilevski=, N. Y., Rossiya i Evropa: Vzgliad na kulturnyia i polititcheskyia otnoshenya slavianskavo mira k germano-romanskomu (Russia and Europe: a glance at the cultural and political relations of the Slav world to the German-Romance world), St. Petersburg, 1895.--=Day=, W. A., The Russian Government in Poland. With a narrative of the Polish insurrection in 1863, London, 1867.--=De la Gorce=, P., Histoire du second Empire, Paris, 1894, 4 vols.--=Delord=, T., Histoire du second Empire, Paris, 1868-1875, 6 vols.--=Deutsch=, L. G., Sixteen Years in Siberia, New York, 1903.--=De Windt=, H., Finland as It Is, London, 1901.--=Drage=, G., Russian Affairs, New York, 1904.--=Dubrovin=, N. F., Pugatchev i yevo soobshtchniki (Pugatchev and his accomplices), St. Petersburg, 1884, 3 vols.; Prisoedinenie Krima k Rossii (The annexation of the Crimea to Russia), St. Petersburg, 1885-1889, 4 vols.--=Duggan=, S. P. H., The Eastern Question: A Study in Diplomacy (Columbia studies in history, economics, and public law), New York, 1902.

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=Eckardt=, J., Jungrussisch und Altlivländisch. Politische und culturgeschichtliche Aufsätze, Leipsic, 1871; Distinguished persons in Russian society (translated from the Author’s Aus der Petersburger Gesellschaft), London, 1873; Aus der Petersburger Gesellschaft, 5th edition, Leipsic, 1880; Neue Folge, Leipsic, 1881; Von Nikolaus I zu Alexander III, Leipsic, 1881; Russische Wandlungen. Neue Beiträge zur russischen Geschichte von Nikolaus I zu Alexander III, Leipsic, 1882.

_Julius von Eckhardt_ was born August 1, 1836, at Wolmar in Livonia. From 1860 to 1867 he was the secretary of the Evangelical-Lutheran Consistory at Riga, one of the editors of the Riga _Zeitung_, and an active member of the Liberal-German party in the Baltic provinces of Russia. After the leaders of this party had been removed from their offices on account of their Germanising tendencies, Eckardt emigrated to Germany, where he was active first as a journalist, then as secretary of the Hamburg senate, and finally as German consul at Tunis, Marseilles and Stockholm. Eckardt was the author of numerous works and pamphlets, many of which were published anonymously, on Russian, Baltic, and German affairs. He was less an historian than a publicist and politician; but he had an intimate knowledge of the Russia of his own day, the Russia of Alexander II and Alexander III, and his works are indispensable for an understanding of Russian parties and the vacillations of Russian public opinion. His own point of view is that of a conservative liberal.

=Edwards=, H. D., Russian Projects against India, London, 1885.--=Engelmann=, J., Peter der Grosse, seine Jugend und seine Reformen, Dorpat, 1872; Die Leibeigenschaft in Russland, Leipsic, 1884; Das Staatsrecht Russlands, in Marquardsen’s Handbuch des öffentlichen Rechts, vol. 4, Freiburg, 1888.--=Engels=, F., Die auswärtige Politik des russischen Zarenthums, in _Neue Zeit_, Stuttgart, 1890.

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=Favre=, L., Histoire de la guerre entre la Russie et la Turquie, Niort, 1879.--=Fenton=, F. de, La Russie dans l’Asie-Mineure; ou, Campagnes du Maréchal Paskewitch en 1828 et 1829, Paris, 1840.--=Ferrand=, A. de, Les trois démembrements de la Pologne, Paris, 1865, 3 vols.--=Fischer=, I. E., Sibirskaya istorya s samavo otkrytya (A history of Siberia from its discovery), St. Petersburg, 1774.--=Fisher=, J. R., Finland and the Tsars, London, 1899.--=Flerovski=, N., Tri polititcheskya sistemy: Nikolai I, Alexander II, Alexander III, (Three political systems: Nicholas I, Alexander II, Alexander III), Geneva, 1897, (German translation, Berlin, 1898).--=Foster-Fraser=, J., The Real Siberia, London, 1902.--=Foulke=, W. D., Slav or Saxon: A Study of the Growth and Tendencies of Russian Civilisation, New York, 1887.--=Fowler=, G., History of the War between Turkey and Russia to the End of 1854, London, 1855.--=Fraehn=, C. M., Ibn Fosslans und anderer Araber Berichte über die Russen älterer Zeit, St. Petersburg, 1823.--=Fraser=, J. F., The Real Siberia; with an account of a dash through Manchuria, New York, 1902.--=Frederica=, Sophia Wilhelmina, Princess Royal of Russia, Memoirs, London, 1812, 2 vols.

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=Galakhov=, A. D., Istorya russkoi slovesnosti (History of Russian literature), Moscow, 1894, 2 vols.--=Galitsyne=, A., Le faux Pierre III, trad. de Pouchkine, Paris, 1858.--=George=, H. B., Napoleon’s Invasion of Russia, New York, 1899.--=Gerebtzov=, N. de, Essai sur l’histoire de la civilisation en Russie, Paris, 1858, 2 vols.--=Gerrare=, W., The Story of Moscow (Mediæval Towns series), London, 1900; Greater Russia, London, 1903.--=Gogol=, N. V., Home Life in Russia, by a Russian noble; revised by the editor of “Revelations in Siberia,” London, 1854, 2 vols.--=Golovin=, Knyas I, Russia under the Autocrat Nicholas I, London, 1846, 2 vols.--=Gossip=, R., History of Russia, London, 1800.--=Grigorev=, V. V., Rossya i Azya, Sbornik izslyedovanyi i statey po istorii, etnografii i geografii (Russia and Asia. Researches in history, ethnography, and geography), St. Petersburg, 1876.--=Grodekov=, N. G., A Ride from Samarcand to Herat, translated by C. Marvin, London, 1885.--=Gurowski=, A., Russia As It Is, New York, 1854.

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=Hagemeister=, I. A., Rozyskanya o finansakh drevney Rossii (Investigations concerning the finances of ancient Russia), St. Petersburg, 1833.--=Hakluyt=, R., Discovery of Muscovy (Cassel’s Nat. Lib.)--=Hamley=, E. R., The Story of the Campaign: a complete narrative of the war in southern Russia. Written in a tent in the Crimea, Boston, 1855.--=Hanna=, H. B., Indian Problems, Westminster, 1895-1896, 3 vols.--=Hare=, A. J. C., Studies in Russia, London, 1885.--=Haumant=, E., La guerre du Nord (1655-1660), Paris, 1893.--=Haxthausen=, A. von, Studien über die inneren Zustände, das Volksleben, und insbesondere die ländlichen Einrichtungen Russlands, Hanover, 1847-1852, 3 vols.; Die Kriegsmacht Russlands, Berlin, 1852; Transcaucasia: sketches of the nations and races between the Black Sea and the Caspian, translated by J. E. Taylor, London, 1854; Tribes of the Caucasus: with an account of Schamyl and the Murids, translated by J. E. Taylor, London, 1855; Transkaukasia, Leipsic, 1856, 2 vols.; The Russian Empire, Its People, Institutions and Resources, translated by R. Farie, London, 1856, 2 vols.; Die ländliche Verfassung Russlands, Leipsic, 1866.

_Baron August von Haxthausen_ was born on his father’s estate near Paderborn in Westphalia, February 3, 1792. He studied in a mining school and took part in the War of Liberation, 1813-1815. His life was mainly devoted to the study of agrarian conditions in eastern Prussia and in Russia. His researches in the latter country were undertaken at the request of Nicholas I, and he is generally regarded as the discoverer of the _mir_ or Russian village community. He died at Hanover, January 1, 1867.

=Hedin=, Sven, Through Asia, New York, 1899, 2 vols.--=Hehn=, V., De moribus Ruthenorum. Zur Charakteristik der russischen Volksseele. Edited by Th. Schiemann, Stuttgart, 1892.--=Hellwald=, F. A. H. von, The Russians in Central Asia, translated from the German by Theo. Wirgman, London, 1874.--=Herzen=, A. I., Die russische Verschwörung und der Aufstand vom 14. Dezember 1825, Hamburg, 1858; Russlands soziale Zustände. Aus dem russischen, Hamburg, 1854; Du développement des idées révolutionnaires en Russie, par A. Iscander (pseud), Paris, 1851; Le monde russe et la révolution; mémoires, 1812-1835, traduits par H. Delaveau, Paris, 1860-1862, 3 vols.--=Himmelstjerna=, S. H. von, Russland unter Alexander III., Leipsic, 1891, English translation, Russia under Alexander III., and in the preceding period, New York, 1893; Verlumpung der Bauern und des Adels in Russland, nach G. I. Uspensky und A. N. Terpigoriew, Leipsic, 1892.--=Historischer Atlas von Russland, Polen, etc.=, vom Jahre 1155 bis zum Jahre 1816, Leipsic, 1817.--=Holland=, Th. E., A Lecture on the Treaty Relations of Russia and Turkey from 1774 to 1853, London, 1877.--=Hourwich=, I. A., The Economics of the Russian Village (Columbia studies in history, economics, and public law), New York, 1892.--=Howard=, B., Prisoners of Russia: a personal study of convict life in Sakhalin and Siberia, New York, 1902.--=Howorth=, H. H., History of the Mongols from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century, London, 1876-1880, 4 vols.

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=Ignatovitch=, I., Pomyeshtchitchi krestyane nakanune osvobozhdenya (Proprietor’s peasants on the eve of emancipation), in “Russkoe Bogatstvo,” 1900.--=Ilovaiski=, D. I., Istorya Rossii (History of Russia), Moscow, 1876-1890, 3 vols.; Smutnoe vremya moskocskavo gosudarstva (The Troublous Period in the Muscovite Empire), Moscow, 1894.--=Ivanin=, M. L., O voyennom iskustvye i zavoevanyakh Mongolo-Tatar i srednyeazyatskikh narodov pri Tchingis Khanye i Tammerlanye, (The Art of War and the Conquests of the Mongol-Tatars and Central-Asian peoples under Jenghiz Khan and Tamerlane), St. Petersburg, 1875.

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=Jauffret=, P. E., Catherine II., et son règne, Paris, 1860.

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=Kapnist=, J., Code d’organisation judiciaire russe, Paris, 1893.--=Karamzin=, N. M., Istorya gosudarstva rossiiskavo (History of the Russian Empire), St. Petersburg, 1818-1829, 12 vols.

_Nikolai Mikhailovitch Karamzin_ was born December 12, 1765, at the village of Mikhailovka, in the government of Orenburg, and died June 3, 1826, at Tsarskoi Selo. His first literary efforts consisted of translations of essays and poems from foreign languages. In 1789 he undertook a journey to Germany, France, Switzerland and England, the literary result of which was his _Letters of a Russian Traveller_, elegant, poetical and sentimental. These letters were first published in the _Moscow Journal_, of which he was the founder, and which he edited in 1791-1792. In the same periodical also appeared some of his original stories, one of which treats of the fall of Novgorod. From 1794 to 1799 he published a number of miscellanies, _Aglaia_, _The Aonides_, and the _Pantheon_, containing original as well as translated matter. In 1802-1803 Karamzin edited the _European Messenger_, destined to become one of the most important Russian reviews, and of which he was the founder. He then turned to the work of his life, the great _History of the Russian Empire_, which was to occupy him till his death. In this last enterprise he was aided and encouraged by the emperor Alexander I, who contributed 60,000 rubles to the cost of publication. The history terminates at the accession of Michael Romanov in 1613. Karamzin’s work is the first great Russian history. Its style is elegant and flowing, its erudition large and solid, and it abounds in curious information. It is owing to these qualities that the book still maintains its place, although much of it has by this time become obsolete. The book is especially strong in description of battles and analysis of character. Its spirit is frankly reactionary. The barbarism of early Russia is glossed over by a glittering veil of romanticism, the material, intellectual and moral condition of the Russian people is almost entirely ignored, and the book has been styled the “epic of despotism.” A French translation appeared at Paris in 1819-1820, and a German one at Leipsic in 1820-1833.

=Kelly=, W. K., History of Russia, London, 1854, 2 vols.--=Kennan=, G., Tent Life in Siberia, and Adventures Among the Koraks and Other Tribes in Kamtchatka and Northern Asia, New York, 1870; Siberia and the Exile System, New York, 1891, 2 vols.--=Kinglake=, A. W., The Invasion of the Crimea, London, 1863-1887, 8 vols.--=Klaczko=, J., Études de diplomatie contemporaine (1861-1864), Paris, 1866; Deux chanceliers (Gortchakov and Bismarck), Paris, 1877.--=Kleinschmidt=, A., Drei Jahrhunderte russischer Geschichte (1598-1898), Berlin, 1898.--=Knorr=, E., Die polnischen Aufstände seit 1830, Berlin, 1880.--=Kohl=, J. G., Russia: Travels, London, 1842.--=Kostomarov=, N. I., Istoritcheskya monografii i izslyedovanya (Historical Monographs and Researches), St. Petersburg, 1863-1867, 3 vols.; Russkaya istorya v zhiznye opisanyakh yeya glavnyeisliikh dyeiyatelyei (Russian History in the Biographies of its Chief Actors), St. Petersburg, 1892-1896, 4 vols.; Smutnoe vremya moskovskavo gosudarstva v natchalye XVII. stolyetya (The Troublous Period in the Muscovite Empire at the Beginning of the Seventeenth Century), St. Petersburg, 1868; Poslyednie gody ryetchi-pospolitoi (The Last Years of the Polish Republic), St. Petersburg, 1870; Predanya pervonatchalnoi russkoi lyetopisi (The Traditions of the Earliest Russian Chronicles), St. Petersburg, 1881; Bogdan Khmelnitski: istoritcheskaya monografia (Bogdan Khmelnitsky: an Historical Monograph), St. Petersburg, 1884, 3 vols.; Syevernorusskie narodopravstva vo vremya udyelno-vyetchevovo uklada (Popular Rights in Northern Russia During the Period of Appanages and Republics. The History of Novgorod, Pskov, and Vyatka), St. Petersburg, 1886, 2 vols.; Otcherk domashney zhizni i nravov velikorusskavo Naroda v 16. i 17. stolyetii i starinnye zemskie sbory (A Sketch of the Domestic Life and Manners of the Great-Russians in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries; and the Ancient Provincial Assemblies), St. Petersburg, 1887; Otcherk torgovli moskovskavo gosudarstva v 16. i 17. stolyetyakh (A Sketch of the Commerce of the Muscovite Empire During the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries), St. Petersburg, 1889.

_Nikolai Ivanovitch Kostomarov_ was born May 4th, 1817, at Ostrogosh, in the government of Voronezh. In 1846 he was appointed to a professorship of history in the university of Kiev. Owing to his activity for the reviving of Little Russian literature he was accused of harbouring separatist tendencies, arrested, imprisoned for a whole year, and then banished to Saratov and forbidden to teach or publish his writings. On the accession of Alexander II he was pardoned, and in 1859 he was appointed professor of history at the university of St. Petersburg. But in 1862, when the university was closed in consequence of students’ disorders, he resigned his post, and henceforth devoted himself exclusively to writing. He died at St. Petersburg, April 19th, 1885. His poetical works, which were written in the Little Russian dialect under the _nom de plume_ of Jeremiah Halka, were published collectively at Odessa, 1875. Some of them have been translated into German. As an historian Kostomarov occupies a very high place in Russian literature. His work has assumed the form of monographs, owing to his idea that Russian history cannot be understood without an exhaustive study of the numerous ethnological elements and the separate territorial divisions of which the Russian empire is composed. In his own words, “the Russian empire represents an integration of parts that once led an independent existence, and for a considerable time after unification the life of the parts expressed itself in separate tendencies within the general political structure. To discover and disclose these peculiarities of national life in the divisions that make up the Russian empire, was the problem I set before myself in my historical labours.” The justification of this view lies in the comparative recency of the Russian empire, its weakness in the assumption that the national or provincial character is unchangeable and immobile. Kostomarov had at his command a vigorous, dramatic style and a lively imagination, and his books contributed greatly toward the popularisation of historical studies in Russia: but he was also possessed in a high degree of the critical faculty, and more than one historical legend has been demolished in his pages. His “Russian History in Biographies” was translated into German and published at Leipsic, 1886-1889.

=Kovalevski=, M., Modern Customs and Ancient Laws of Russia, London, 1891; Le Régime économique de la Russie, Paris, 1896; L’Agriculture en Russie, Paris, 1897; Russian Political Institutions, Chicago, 1902.

_Maxim Kovalevski_ was born at Kharkov in 1851, of a rich and noble family that is remarkable for the number of men--and one woman--of science it has given to Russia. He studied at Berlin, Paris, and London, and in 1877-1887 he was professor of comparative law at the university of Moscow. Owing to his liberal views he was compelled to give up his position. Since then he has settled at Paris, where he has collected a valuable library, and lectured at various seats of learning in Europe and America--Stockholm, Oxford, Brussels, Chicago. He has written numerous and important works on the history of Russia, France, England, the Caucasus, etc., and is a recognised authority in the departments of pre-history, public and private law, and economic history.

=Koyalovitch=, M. I., Dnyevnik poslyednyavo pokhoda Stefana Batorya na Rossiyu, 1581-1582. Osada Pskova (A diary of the last campaign of Stephen Batory against Russia in 1581-1582. The siege of Pskov), St. Petersburg, 1867; Tchtenya po istorii zapadnoi Rossii (Lectures on the history of Southern Russia), St. Petersburg, 1884.--=Kravchinski=, S. M., (Stepniak). The Russian Peasantry: Their Origin, Condition, Social Life and Religion, London, 1888, 2 vols.--=Kropotkin=, P. A., Memoirs of a Revolutionist, Boston, 1899.--=Kulish=, P. A., Istorya vozsoedinenya Rusi (A history of the unification of Russia), St. Petersburg, 1874.--=Kunik=, E., Die Berufung der schwedischen Rodsen durch die Finnen und Slawen, St. Petersburg, 1844-1845.--=Kuropatkin=, Gen. A. N., Les confins anglo-russe, translated by G. Le Marchand, Paris, 1879; Kashgaria, translated by Col. W. E. Gore, Calcutta, 1882; Kritische Rückblicke auf den russisch-türkischen Krieg 1877-1878, Berlin, 1885-1890, 3 vols.

_Alexei Nikolaievitch Kuropatkin_ was born March 29, 1848. In 1866 he joined the army of Turkestan as a lieutenant, served with distinction in the expedition of General Kaufman in 1867-1868, was sent at the head of a diplomatic-military mission to the emir of Kashgar, and studied in 1872-1874 at the academy of the general staff. He joined the French army in Algeria as a volunteer, was active on his return in Turkestan, and then became chief of the Asiatic section of the general staff. In 1877-1878 he was chief of General Skobelev’s staff, under whom he also served in the campaign against the Akhal-Tekke Turkomans, 1880-1881. In 1890 he became a lieutenant-general and governor of the Transcaspian territory, and later minister of war.

He is the author of two important works on the last Russo-Turkish War, which have been translated into French and German, and of a book of travels on Kashgar.

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=Labensky=, A., A Russian’s Reply to the Marquis de Custine’s “Russia in 1839,” London, 1844.--=Laferté=, V., Alexander II: Détails inédits sur sa vie intime et sa mort, Paris, 1882.--=Lamartine=, A. de, Histoire de la Russie, Paris, 1855, 2 vols.--=Lansdell=, H., Russian Central Asia, including Kuldja, Bokhara, Khiva and Merv, Boston, 1885.--=Latham=, R. G., Native Races of the Russian Empire, London, 1854; Russian and Turk, from a Geographical, Ethnological and Historical Point of View, London, 1878.--=Latimer=, Mrs. W. E., Russia and Turkey in the Nineteenth Century, Chicago, 1893.--=Leger=, L., Cyrille et Méthode, étude historique sur la conversion de Slaves au christianisme, Paris, 1868; De Nestore rerum russicarum scriptore, Paris, 1868; Traduction de la chronique de Nestor, Paris, 1884.--=Lehmann=, C. and =Parvus= (pseud.), Das hungernde Russland, Stuttgart, 1900.--=Lemke=, M., Otcherki po istorii tsenzuri (Studies in the History of the Russian Censorship), in “Russkoe Bogatstvo,” 1903.--=Leonov=, R., Documents secrets de la politique russe en Orient (1888-1890), Berlin, 1893.--=Leroy-Beaulieu=, A., L’empire des Tsars et les Russes, Paris, 1881-1889, 3 vols.; Un homme d’état russe: Nicolas Milutin, Paris, 1884; La France, La Russie et l’Europe, Paris, 1888; Israël chez les nations, Paris, 1893.

_Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu_ was born in 1842 at Lisieux. Since 1881 he has been professor of modern history at the _école libre de sciences politiques_ in Paris. His chief work, “_L’empire des Tsars et les Russes_,” is one of the most important works on Russia ever published in western Europe. The first two volumes treat of the geography, ethnology, and the economic and political institutions, while the third is devoted to a study of the Russian church and the sects.

=Leroy-Beaulieu=, P., The Awakening of the East: Siberia, Japan, China, New York, 1900.--=Lestrade=, Combes de, La Russie économique et sociale, Paris, 1896.--=Lessar=, P., La Russie et l’Angleterre dans l’Asie centrale, Paris, 1886.--=Lévesque=, P. C., Histoire de Russie, Yverdun, 1782, 8 vols., Paris, 1812, 4 vols.--=Livov=, G., Michel Katkoffet son époque: quelque pages d’histoire contemporaine en Russie (1855-1887), Paris, 1897.--=Loris-Melikov=, M. T. T., Konstitutsya grafa Lorisa-Melikova (The Constitution of Count Loris-Melikov), London, 1893.--=Lyaskoronski=, V., Istorya Pereyaslovskoi zemli s drevneyshikh vremyon do polovinny XIII stolyetya (A History of Pereyaslavl from the earliest times to the middle of the thirteenth century), Kiev, 1897.

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=Maggiolo=, A. de, France et Russie; Pozzo di Borgo, 1764-1842, Paris, 1890.--=Maltsev=, A., Die russische Kirche, Berlin, 1893.--=Manstein=, Baron de, Memoirs of Russia 1727-1744, translated from the original manuscript, London, 1773.--=Martens=, F. F., Étude historique sur la politique russe dans la question d’Orient, Gand, 1877; Recueil de traités et conventions conclus par la Russie avec les puissances étrangères, St. Petersburg, 1878-1889, 10 vols.; Russia and England in Central Asia, London, 1879.--=Martin=, H., Histoire de France depuis 1789 jusqu’à nos jours, Paris, 2nd edition, 1878-1885, 8 vols.--=Marvin=, C., The Eye Witnesses’ Account of the Disastrous Russian Campaign against the Akhal-Tekke Turkomans, London, 1880; The Russian Advance Towards India: conversations with Skobelev, Ignatiev, and other distinguished Russian generals and statesmen, London, 1882; The Russians at Merv and Herat and their Power of Invading India, London, 1883; The Russians at the Gates of Herat, London and New York, 1885.--=Marx=, F., The Pacific and the Amoor: Naval, military, and diplomatic operations from 1855 to 1861, London, 1861.--=Marx=, K., The Eastern Question: a reprint of letters written 1853-1856 dealing with the events of the Crimean War, London, 1897; Secret Diplomatic History of the Eighteenth Century, London, 1899; Lord Palmerston, London, 1899.--=Massa=, Isaac de Harlem, Histoire des guerres de Moscovie 1601-1611, Brussels, 1876; Skazanya Massy i Herkmana o smutnom vremeni v Rossii (The Accounts of Massa and Herkmann of the Troublous Period in Russia), St. Petersburg, 1874.--=Masson=, C. F. P., Mémoires secrets sur la Russie pendant les regnes de Catherine II et de Paul I, (in Bibliothèque des mémoires relatifs à l’histoire de France pendant le 18ᵉ siècle, vol. 22), Paris, 1859.--=Maxwell=, J. S., The Czar, his Court and People, New York, 1849.--=Mechlin=, R., Das Staatsrecht des Grossfürstenthums Finland, Freiburg, 1889.--=Mérimée=, P., Les faux Démétrius, Paris, 1852; Épisode de l’histoire de Russie, Paris, 1854; Les cosaques d’autrefois, Paris, 1865; Mélanges historiques et littéraires, Paris, 1867; Portraits historiques et littéraires, Paris, 1874.--=Michelin=, L. H. S., Finland in the Nineteenth Century, Helsingfors, 1894.--=Milukov=, P. N., Glavnyia tetchenya russkoi istoritcheskoi mysli (The Main Currents of Russian Historical Thought), Moscow, 1898; Skizzen russischer Kulturgeschichte. Deutsche vom Verfasser durchgesehene Ausgabe von E. Davidson, Leipsic, 1898-1901, 2 vols.

_Milukov_ was born in 1859. From 1886 to 1895 he taught at the university of Moscow. But like so many other Russian professors of history and social science, he came in conflict with the government, and accepted a professorship at the university of Sofia, Bulgaria. He is one of the ablest of the younger generation of Russian historians, his method being the realistic or economic. During several years he was a regular contributor of reviews on Russian literature to the London _Athenæum_.

=Milutin=, D. A., Istorya voiny Rossii s Frantsieu v tsarstvovanie imperatora Pavla I v 1799 g. (A History of the War Between Russia and France During the Reign of the Emperor Paul I in the Year 1799), St. Petersburg, 1852-1853, 5 vols.

_Dmitri Alexeievitch Milutin_ was born July 10, 1816, at Moscow. In 1833 he entered the army as lieutenant, then served in the army of the Caucasus, in which he advanced in 1843 to the post of chief of the commissariat department, and in 1856 to that of chief of the general staff. In 1860 he became first adjutant to the war minister, and in 1862 war minister. In this capacity he devoted himself toward reorganising the army on a modern basis, and in 1874 he introduced universal military service. The campaigns of 1877-1878 showed the shortcomings as well as the improvements of the army under his administration. In 1878 the title of count was conferred on him. In 1881 he was dismissed by Alexander III owing to his expressed dissatisfaction with the reactionary, strictly absolutist manifesto of May 11 of that year. He was the author of a number of works on military history and science, and his history of Souvorov’s campaign in Italy appeared in a German translation, at Munich, 1856-1858.

=Moltke=, H. C. B., The Russians in Bulgaria, in 1828-1829, London, 1854.--=Monteith=, W., Kars and Erzeroum: with the campaigns of Prince Paskiewitch, London, 1856.--=Morane=, P., Finlande et Caucase, Paris, 1900.--=Morfill=, W. R., Russia (Story of the Nations series), New York, 1891; A History of Russia from the Birth of Peter the Great to Nicholas II., New York, 1902.--=Motley=, J. L., Peter the Great, London, 1887.--=Munro=, H. H., Rise of the Russian Empire, Boston, 1900.

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=Nagasee=, H., Die Entwicklung der russischen und englischen Politik Persien und Afghanistan betreffend bis 1838, Halle, A. S. 1894.--=Nestor=, Prepodobnavo Nestora rossiski lyetopisets (Holy Nestor’s Russian Chronicle), St. Petersburg, 1767; La chronique de Nestor, translation by Louis Paris, Paris, 1834, 2 vols.--=Neuburger=, F., Russland unter Kaiser Alexander III., Berlin, 1895.--=Nicolai=, on (pseud. of Danielson) Histoire de développment économique de la Russie depuis l’abolition du servage, Paris, 1899; Die Volkswirthschaft in Russland nach der Bauernemancipation. Autorisierte Übersetzung aus dem russischen von Dr. G. Polansky, Munich, 1899.--=Nikitin=, P., Istorya goroda Smolenska, (History of the City of Smolensk), Moscow, 1848.--=Nikitski=, A., Otcherk vnutrennei istorii Pskova (Outline of the Internal History of Pskov), St. Petersburg, 1873.--=Noble=, E., The Russian Revolt: its causes, condition and prospects, Boston, 1885; Russia and the Russians, Boston, 1901.--=Norman=, H., All the Russias: travels and studies in contemporary European Russia, Finland, Siberia, New York, 1902.--=Novikov=, Mme. O. K., Skobelev and the Slavonic Cause, London, 1883; Russia and England from 1876 to 1880: a protest and an appeal: with a preface by J. A. Froude, London, 1880.

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=O’Donovan=, E., The Merv Oasis, London, 1882.--=Ordega=, V., Die Gewerbepolitik Russlands von Peter I bis Katharina II, Tübingen, 1885.--=Oxley=, T. L., Character and Reign of Alexander II, London, 1881.

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=Palmer=, F. H. E., Russian Life in Town and Country, New York, 1901.--=Parmele=, M. P., A Short History of Russia. New York, 1900.--=Pavlov=, N. M., Russkaya istorya ot drevneyskikh vremyon (Russian History from the Earliest Times, 862-1362), Moscow, 1896-1899, 2 vols.--=Pekarski=, P. P., Nauka i literatura v Rossii pri Petrye Velikom (Science and Literature in Russia at the Time of Peter the Great), St. Petersburg, 1862, 2 vols.--=Pember=, A., Ivan the Terrible, London, 1895.--=Pfuel=, E. von, Der Rückzug der Franzosen aus Russland, Berlin, 1867.--=Pierling=, P., Rome et Démétrius, Paris, 1878; La Sorbonne et la Russie, Paris, 1882; Un Nonce du pape en Moscovie: préliminaires de la trêve de 1582, Paris, 1884; La Saint-Siège, la Pologne et Moscou (1582-1587), Paris, 1885; Bathory et Possevino, Paris, 1887; Papes et Tsars (1547-1597), Paris, 1890; La Russie et l’Orient: marriage d’un Tsar au Vatican, Ivan III et Sophie Paléologue, Paris, 1891; L’Italie et la Russie au XVI siècle, Paris, 1892.--=Pingaud=, L., Les Français en Russie et les Russes en France, Paris, 1886.--=Pogodin=, M. P., Izslyedovanya, zamyetchanya i lektsii o russkoi istorii (Researches, Comments and Lectures on Russian History), Moscow, 1846-1857, 7 vols.; Nestor: eine historisch-kritische Untersuchung über den Anfang der russischen Chroniken. Übersetzt von F. Loewe, (Beiträge zur Kenntniss des russischen Reiches, vol. 10), St. Petersburg, 1884.--=Popowski=, J., The Rival Powers in Central Asia, London, 1893.--=Porter=, R. K., Narrative of the Campaign in Russia During the Year 1812, London, 1814.--=Possevino=, A., Antonii Possevini missio moscovitica ex annuis litteris Societatis Jesu excerpta et adnotationibus illustrata curante P. Pierling, Paris, 1882.--=Pozzo Di Borgo=, Ch., Correspondance diplomatique du comte Pozzo di Borgo, Paris, 1891.--=Pyzyrewsky=, A., Der polnisch-russische Krieg von 1831, Wien, 1892-1893, 3 vols.

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=Rafn=, K. C., Antiquités Russes, Copenhagen, 1850-1854, 3 vols.--=Ralston=, W. R. S., The Songs of the Russian People, London, 1872; Russian Folk-tales, London, 1873; Early Russian History, London, 1876.--=Rambaud=, La Russie épique, Paris, 1876; Souvorof, (conférances de Saint-Cyr), Paris, 1889; Français et Russes, Moscou et Sevastopol, Paris, 1892; L’armée du tsar Alexandre III, in la Revue Bleue, November 10, 1894; Histoire de la Russie, Paris, 1900; The Expansion of Russia: Problems of the East and of the Far East, New York, 1904.

_Alfred Nicolas Rambaud_ was born July 21st, 1842 at Besançon. Appointed in 1864 a teacher at the lyceum of Nancy, he advanced steadily until his appointment to a professorship in the university of Paris in 1882. In 1896 he was minister of education in the Méline cabinet. He is the author of many works on the history of France, and in conjunction with Lavisse he is editing the “Histoire générale du IVᵉ siècle jusqu’à nos jours.” His “History of Russia” is regarded as the best of its kind that has ever been written by a West-European.

=Ravenstein=, E. G., The Russians on the Amur; its discovery, conquest, and colonisation and personal accounts of Russian travellers, London, 1861.--=Rawlinson=, H. C., England and Russia in the East; a series of papers on the political and geographical condition of Central Asia, London, 1875.--=Reinholdt=, A. von, Geschichte der russischen Litteratur von ihren Anfängen bis auf die neueste Zeit, in Geschichte der Weltlitteratur in Einzeldarstellungen, vol. 7, Leipsic, 1886.--=Reinsch=, P. S., World Politics at the End of the Nineteenth Century, New York, 1900.--=Rivière=, Ch. de la, Catherine II et la révolution française, Paris, 1895. =Rocca=, F. de, Les assemblées politiques dans la Russie ancienne, Paris, 1899.--=Rozhkov=, N., Gorod i derevnia v russkoi istorii: kratki otcherk ekonomitcheskoi istorrii Rossii (City and village in Russian history; a rapid survey of Russian economical history), in “Mir Bozhi,” 1902; Obzor russkoi istorii s sotsiologitcheskoi totchki zryenya. Tchast pervaya: Kievskaya Rus (A survey of Russian history from the sociological point of view. Part first: Kievan Russia), in “Mir Bozhi,” 1903.--=Rulhière=, C. C. de, Révolution de Pologne, Paris, 1862, 3 vols.

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=Saraw=, Chr. von, Die Feldzüge Karl’s XII, Leipsic, 1881.--=Schiemann=, Th., Russland, Polen, und Livland bis im XVII. Jahrhundert, in Oncken’s Allgemeine Geschichte in Einzeldarstellungen, Berlin, 1886-1887, 2 vols.; Die Ermordung Pauls und die Thronbesteigung Nikolaus I: neue Materialien veröffentlicht und eingeleitet, Berlin, 1902.--=Schlözer=, K. von, Russlands älteste Beziehungen zu Skandinavien und Konstantinopel, Berlin, 1847.--=Schmucker=, S. M., Memoirs of the Court and Reign of Catherine the Second, New York, 1855.--=Schnitzler=, J. H., Geheime Geschichte Russlands unter den Kaisern Alexander und Nikolaus, unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Krisis von 1825, Grimma, 1847, 2 vols., English translation, Secret History of the Court and Government of Russia Under the Emperors Alexander and Nicholas, London, 1847, 2 vols.; L’Empire des Tsars ou point actuél de la science, Paris, 1856-1869, 4 vols.; La Russie en 1812, Rostopchine et Koutouzof, Paris, 1863; Les institutions de la Russie depuis les réformes de l’empereur Alexander II, Paris, 1866, 2 vols.; Geschichte des russischen Reiches von der ältesten Zeit bis zum Tode des Kaisers Nikolaus, Leipsic, 1874.--=Schuyler=, E., Turkistan. Notes of a Journey in Russian Turkistan, Khokand, Bokhara, and Kuldja, London and New York, 1876, 2 vols.; Peter the Great, London and New York, 1884, 2 vols.--=Ségur=, P. P. Comte de, History of Russia and Peter the Great, London, 1829.--=Semyovski=, V. I., Gornozavodskie krestyane v vtoroi polovinye 18vo vyeka (The Peasants in Metallurgic Works During the Second Half of the Eighteenth Century), in “Russkaya Mysl,” 1900.--=Sergeevitch=, V. I., Vetche i knyaz: russkoe gosudarstvennoe ustroistvo i upravlyenie vo vremena knyazei rurikovitchei (Folkmote and Prince: the Russian Political System in the Days of the Rurik Princes), Moscow, 1867.--=Shilder=, N. K., Imperator Alexandr I (The Emperor Alexander I), St. Petersburg, 1897, 4 vols.; Tsarstvovanie imperatora Nikolaya I (The Reign of Emperor Nicholas I), St. Petersburg, 1901.--=Shoemaker=, M. M., The Great Siberian Railway, New York, 1903.--=Shpilevski=, S. M., Drevnie goroda i drugie bulgarsko-tatarskie pamyatniki v Kazanskoi gubernii (Ancient Cities and Other Bulgaro-Tatar Monuments in the Government of Kazan), Kazan, 1877.--=Shtchebalsky=, P., La régence de la tzarewna Sophie: épisode de l’histoire de Russie, 1682-1689, translation by Prince S. Galitzine, Carlsruhe, 1857; Tchtenie iz russkoi istorii (Readings from Russian History), Moscow, 1861, 6 vols.--=Shumakr=, A. A., Tsar-Osvoboditel (The Czar Liberator), St. Petersburg, 1901.--=Skrine=, F. H., The Expansion of Russia, 1815-1900, Cambridge, 1903.--=Soloviov=, S. M., Istorya Rossii s drevneyshikh vremyon (History of Russia from the Earliest Times), Moscow, 1863-1875, 29 vols.

_Sergei Mikhailovitch Soloviov_ was born May 17th, 1820. In 1850 he became a professor at the university of Moscow. In 1877 he came into conflict with the reactionary policy of the government toward the universities, and demanded and obtained his dismissal. He died October 16th, 1879. Besides his monumental _History of Russia_ he was the author of numerous monographs. _The Relations Between the Russian Princes of the House of Rurik_ was of epoch-making importance in Russian historical literature. His _History of the Fall of Poland_ has become the standard work on the subject and was translated into German (Gotha, 1865). But all his other works are cast into the shade by his stupendous _History of Russia from the Earliest Times_, in which he proposed to himself a task excelling, perhaps, the power of any single human being--the presentation of the entire history of his country, based exclusively on original research. The result has, therefore, been not wholly successful, and the later volumes present the appearance of a mere aggregation of materials hastily arranged. But the material is of the finest quality and will serve as a rich quarry for all future historians. Soloviov’s method of presentation is calm and dispassionate, his style tranquil and somewhat dry, but admirably clear. From Karamzin to Soloviov the gulf is wide indeed, and perhaps it will be well to present a few of the latter’s ideas in order to show the indebtedness that all modern historians of Russia owe to him. Russian society, like all primitive society, was in its origin tribal and based on kinship. The introduction of Varangian rule represents the beginnings of the dissolution of that society and the introduction of political society, based on territory. But society was still in a transitional stage. The warlike followers of the princes were free to renounce their allegiance to one master and to choose another in his stead, and the principle of kinship was still dominant within the house of Rurik itself, thus counteracting the separatist tendencies of the appanages. It was the colonisation of the north and east and the removal of the center of Russian life to the Volga, that first makes possible, as well as necessary, the centralisation of power: for the colonists settle on land that belongs to the prince and in cities founded by him, while the colonists themselves come from different parts of Russia and are unconnected by the bond of kinship. In the struggle that follows between the prince and the refractory, unsubmissive elements--whether of the common people or of the noble followers--the prince is victorious and the irreconcileables flee to the forests of the north or to the steppes of the south. Thus we have the origin of the robber bands, and of the Cossacks--another name for the same thing. But the removal of the centre to the Volga also implies the estrangement of Russia from European influences, and the Tatar rule plays in this only a subordinate and external part. The grand princes of Moscow in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries are thus seen to be the continuators of the policy of the grand princes of Suzdal in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, while the episode of the period of confusion represents an abortive attempt at the establishment of a milder rule by the Cossacks. Ivan III and Ivan IV, in their struggle with the foreigner, begin to appreciate the superior potency of European civilisation, and are the precursors of Peter the Great. But the new tendencies work with unceasing force during the intervening period, and those who resist the new tendencies become the nonconformists or Raskolniki (Old Ritualists). This tendency finds its parallel in Western Europe, where the task had been accomplished two centuries earlier; but not so the effort to reach the sea, which is a peculiar Russian phenomenon. Soloviov’s work reaches down to 1774.

=Sorel=, A., Histoire du traité de Paris, Paris, 1873; La question d’Orient au XVIII. siècle, Paris, 1889.--=Stepniak=, S. (pseudonym of Kravtchinski, S. M.), Underground Russia, New York, 1883; Russia under the Tsars. Rendered into English by W. Westall, New York, 1885; King Log and King Stork, a Study of Modern Russia, London, 1896.

_Stepniak_, whose real name was Sergius Mikhailovitch Kravtchinski, was born in South Russia, in 1852, of a noble family. When he left school he became an officer in the artillery, but his sympathy with the peasants soon led him into the revolutionary agitation, and he became identified with the terrorist party. In 1880 he was obliged to leave Russia, and after a few years’ stay in Switzerland and Italy he came to London, where he lived until 1895, when he was killed by a railway engine at a level crossing at Bedford Park, Chiswick. He was the author of numerous works on contemporary Russia, dealing chiefly with the revolutionary agitation and the condition of the peasantry.

=Strahl=, P. and E. =Herrmann=, Geschichte des russischen Staates, Hamburg, and Gotha, 1832-1866, 7 vols.--=Stevens=, W. B., Through Famine-Stricken Russia, London, 1892.--=Stumm=, H., Russia in Central Asia, London, 1885.--=Sugenheim=, S., Russlands Einfluss auf und Beziehungen zu Deutschland (1689-1855), Frankfort on Main, 1856, 2 vols.; Geschichte der Aufhebung der Leibeigenschaft, St. Petersburg, 1861.

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=Tatishtchev=, V. N., Istorya Rossii s samykh drevnyeishikh vremyon (History of Russia from the very Earliest Times), Moscow, 1768.--=Tchitchagov=, L’Admiral, Mémoires de (1767-1849), Leipsic, 1862.--=Tchitcherin=, N., Oblastnyia utchrezhdenya Rossii v 17 vyeke (The Provincial Institutions of Russia in the Seventeenth Century), Moscow, 1856.--=Thun=, A., Geschichte der revolutionären Bewegungen in Russland, Leipsic, 1883; Landwirtschaft und Gewerbe in Mittelrussland, in Schmoller’s Staats- und Sozialwissenschaftliche Forschungen, Leipsic, 1880.--=Thomson=, V. L. P., The Relation Between Ancient Russia and Scandinavia, and the Origin of the Russian State, London, 1877.--=Tilly=, H. A., Eastern Europe and Western Asia, London, 1864.--=Tissot=, V., Russians and Germans: translated from the French by S. L. Simon, London, 1882; La Russie et les Russes, Paris, 1884; Russes et Allemands, New York, 1888.--=Tikhomirov=, L., Russia, Political and Social, translated from the French by E. Aveling, London, 1888, 2 vols.--=Tolstoi=, L. N., La Famine, Paris, 1893.--=Tooke=, W., Russia; or a Complete Historical Account of all the Nations which Comprise the Russian Empire, London, 1780-1783, 4 vols.; The Life of Catherine II, London, 1800, 3 vols.; A History of Russia from A. D. 862 to 1762, London, 1806, 2 vols.--=Turgeniev=, N., La Russie et les Russes, Paris, 1847, 3 vols.--=Tugan-Baranovski=, M., Russkaya fabrika v proshlom i nastoyashtchem (The Russian Factory, Past and Present), St. Petersburg, 1898.--=Tyrrell=, H., History of the (Crimean) War with Russia, London, n. d. 4 vols.

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=Ustrialov=, N., Skazanya knyazya Kurbskavo (The Accounts of Prince Kurbski), St. Petersburg, 1868.

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=Valikhanov=, =Veniukov= and others, The Russians in Central Asia, translated from the Russian by J. and R. Mitchell, London, 1865.--=Vambéry=, A., Central Asia and the Anglo-Russian Frontier Question, London, 1874.--=Vannovski=, P. S., Doklad po povodu studentcheskikh bezporyadkov 1899 g. (Report on the Students’ Disorders in the Year 1899), Publication of the “Rabotchnoe znamya,” 1900.--=Vereshtchagin=, V., “1812,” Napoleon in Russia, London, 1899.--=Viniarski=, L., Les finances russes (1867-1894), Geneva, 1894.--“=Vladimir=,” (pseud.), Russia on the Pacific and the Siberian Railway, London, 1899.--=Vogüé=, E. de, La révolte de Pugatchef (Revue des Deux Mondes, 1879); Spectacles contemporains (Loris-Melikov; Lettres d’Asie), Paris, 1891.--=Voltaire=, F. M. A. de, Histoire de l’empire de Russie, sous Pierre le Grand, Paris, 1809.

* * * * *

=Waliszewski=, K., Peter the Great, London, 1897, 2 vols.; A History of Russian Literature, London and New York, 1900. (Short History of the Literature of the World, vol. 8); L’héritage de Pierre le Grand: règne de femmes, gouvernements des favoris (1725-1741), Paris, 1900.--=Wallace=, D. M., Russia, London, 1877, 2 vols.

_Donald Mackenzie Wallace_ was born November 11th, 1841. Studied at the universities of Edinburgh, Berlin, Heidelberg, and the École de Droit of Paris. Resided and travelled in various foreign countries, chiefly in France, Germany, Russia, and Turkey, during the years 1863-1884. From 1884 to 1889 he was private secretary to Lords Dufferin and Lansdowne while they were viceroys of India, and during 1890-1891 he accompanied the czarevitch during his tour in India and Ceylon. In 1883 he published a work on “Egypt and the Egyptian Question.” His work on “Russia” is universally regarded as the best book on that country that has ever been issued from the pen of an Englishman.

=Westlaender=, A., Russland vor einen Regime-Wechsel: politische und wirthschaftliche Zustände im heutigen Russland, Stuttgart, 1894.--=Wilson=, R., Brief Remarks on the Character and Composition of the Russian Army, and a Sketch of the Campaigns in Poland in 1806 and 1807, London, 1810.--=Winckler=, A., Die deutsche Hansa in Russland, Berlin, 1886.--=Windt=, H. de, The New Siberia, London, 1896.--=Witte=, S. J., Samoderzhavie i zemstvo (Autocracy and Local Representative Government. A Confidential Communication by the Minister of Finance, S. J. Witte, in 1899), Stuttgart, 1901.--=Wolkonski=, Prince S., Pictures of Russian History and Russian Literature, Boston, 1897.--=Wright=, G. F., Asiatic Russia, New York, 1902, 2 vols.

* * * * *

=Yozefovitch=, T., Dogovori Rossii s Vostokom, polititcheskie i torgovye (The Commercial and Political Treaties of Russia with the East), St. Petersburg, 1869.

[Illustration]

A CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY OF THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA

862 The Varangian chieftains =Rurik=, Sineus, and Truvor settle at Ladoga, Bielo-ozero and Izborsk. This date is purely conventional.

865 Askold and Dir, two Varangian chieftains who had settled at Kiev, lead an unsuccessful expedition against Constantinople.

879 Rurik dies, leaving the regency of the principality and the guardianship of his son Igor to =Oleg=.

882 Oleg takes possession of Kiev after killing Askold and Dir, and makes that city his capital.

907 Oleg leads an expedition consisting of eighty thousand men and two thousand boats against Constantinople. A treaty of peace and commerce is concluded.

911 Oleg renews the treaty with the emperor of Constantinople securing valuable trading privileges for the Russians.

913 Oleg dies, and is succeeded by =Igor=.

941 Igor leads an expedition against Constantinople. His ships are destroyed by the Greek fire, and with great difficulty he brings his troops back to Kiev.

944 Igor leads a second expedition against Constantinople. The Byzantines rid themselves of the barbarians by renewing the treaty that had been made with Oleg and also paying a ransom. The treaty is given in full by Nestor. Of the fifty names attached to it three are Slavonic and the rest Norse, which shows that the two races, the conquerors and the conquered, are beginning to be fused.

945 Igor is killed by the Drevlians, a Slavonic tribe. His wife Olga assumes the regency during the minority of his son Sviatoslav.

955 Olga embraces Greek Christianity. Her subjects, however, remain on the whole pagans.

964 =Sviatoslav= assumes the rule. He is the first of the Varangians to bear a Slavonic name.

968 Sviatoslav, in the pay of the Byzantine emperor Nicephoros, leads an army of 60,000 men against the Bulgarians of the Danube.

970 Sviatoslav, after dividing the country among his three sons, again marches to Bulgaria, this time on his own account.

972 Sviatoslav is defeated at Silistria and compelled to evacuate the Balkan peninsula.

973 On his retreat, Sviatoslav is surprised and killed by the Petchenegs of the Dnieper.

977 Rout of Oleg by Iaropolk and his death.

980 =Vladimir=, after killing Iaropolk, becomes sole ruler.

988 Vladimir is baptized and makes Greek Christianity the state religion. On the day of his baptism he marries a daughter of the Byzantine emperor Romanos II.

1015 Vladimir dies and the country is divided among his eight sons and a nephew.

1019 =Iaroslav=, prince of Novgorod and the youngest son of Vladimir, finally becomes grand prince, and removes his capital to Kiev.

1054 Iaroslav dies. The country is divided among his five sons, one of whom, Iziaslav, is recognised as grand prince of Kiev. The custom, first introduced by Sviatoslav of breaking up the country into appanages, has now reached its full fruition. Russia has become an extremely loose federation of principalities. The central authority has been reduced to a nullity, and the period is filled with wars among the petty princes. This, of course, weakened the power of Russia for resisting foreign invaders, and made it an easy prey to the eastern nomadic tribes, from the Polovtsi to the Tatars. The chief events during this period are the foundation of Moscow (1147), the rise of Suzdal in Vladimir, and the pillaging of Kiev (1169) by Prince Andrew Bogoliubski of Suzdal. The hegemony of Kiev comes to an end for all time. The principal figures during this period are those of Vladimir II, surnamed Monomakh (1113-1125), and of Andrew Bogoliubski (1157-1175), who strove to re-establish some sort of unity and was assassinated by his nobles.

1068 The people of Kiev liberate Vseslav and make him grand prince.

1069 Iziaslav is restored by Boleslaw the Bold of Poland.

1073 Iziaslav is again expelled from Kiev by his brothers Sviatoslav and Vsevolod. =Sviatoslav= becomes grand prince.

1076 Death of Sviatoslav. He is succeeded by Vsevolod.

1077 Iziaslav is again restored to the grand princedom.

1078 Iziaslav dies and is succeeded by =Vsevolod=.

1084 Failure of Vsevolod’s attempt to conquer Tmoutorakan (Tmutarakan).

1093 Death of Vsevolod and accession of =Sviatopolk=, the second son of Iziaslav. The Polovtsi defeat the Russians in the battle of Tripole.

1097 The congress of princes at Lubetz.

1100 The congress of princes at Uvetitchi.

1111 Defeat of the Polovtsi on the Sula.

1113 Death of Sviatopolk and accession of =Vladimir Monomakh=.

1125 Death of Monomakh.

1147 Legendary date for the foundation of Moscow.

1157 Andrew Bogoliubski becomes prince of Suzdal.

1169 Kiev is captured and plundered by Andrew Bogoliubski.

1175 Andrew Bogoliubski is assassinated.

1221 Nijni-Novgorod is founded by Iuri, grand prince of Suzdal.

1223 First invasion of Russia by the Mongols under Jenghiz Khan. The Russians are defeated on the banks of the Kalka, near where it flows into the Sea of Azov and adjoining the present site of the town of Mariupol.

1237-38 The Mongols, under Jenghiz Khan’s grandson, Batu, invade northern Russia, burn Moscow, defeat twice the army of Suzdal (at Kolomna on the Oku and on the Sit), and plunder Riazan, Suzdal, Iaroslavl, and Tver. But Novgorod is spared.

1239-40 The Mongols ravage southern Russia, burn Tchernigov and Kiev, and extend their conquests as far west as Volhinia and Galicia. All Russia is now under the yoke of the Mongols, except the territory of Novgorod.

1240 Alexander, prince of Novgorod, defeats the Swedes on the Neva; whence his surname Nevski.

1242 Batu establishes the Golden Horde of Kiptchak, with Sarai, on one of the mouths of the Volga, as its capital. It constituted one of the five divisions of the great empire of Jenghiz Khan.

1245 Alexander Nevski defeats the German Sword-bearing Knights on Lake Peipus, in the “battle of the ice.”

1260 Novgorod submits to the Mongols and consents to pay tribute.

1263 Death of Alexander Nevski.

1303 Death of =Daniel Alexandrovitch=, founder of the Moscow dynasty.

1320 Prince Michael of Tver is executed by order of the khan.

1321 Vladimir in Volhinia is conquered by the Lithuanians. Kiev and all west Russia soon become Lithuanian.

1404 Smolensk is annexed to Lithuania. A son of Alexander Nevski, named Daniel, was the founder of the principality of Moscow, to which he added the cities of Kolomna and Pereiaslavl. He was succeeded by his son =Iuri Danilovitch= (1303-1325), who annexed Mozhaisk. In 1313 he marries a sister of Usbek Khan. In 1320 he is appointed grand prince in place of his murdered rival, Michael of Tver. Iuri is the initiator of the Muscovite policy to dominate Russia with the aid of the Tatars, for whom the Muscovite princes henceforth act as tax collectors. In 1325 he was assassinated by Dmitri, son of Michael of Tver, and =Alexander=, Michael’s second son is appointed grand prince. But the grand princedom soon reverts to Moscow, and Alexander is executed in 1329. Iuri is succeeded by his brother =Ivan Kalita= (1328-1340), who receives from Usbek Khan Vladimir and Novgorod together with the grand princedom, and who also adds Tver to his dominions. He assures the pre-eminence of Moscow in the Russian church by inducing the metropolitan to reside there, thereby also securing the alliance of the all-powerful church in the realisation of his political schemes. =Simeon the Proud=, son of Kalita (1340-1353), =Ivan II=, (1353-1359), brother of Simeon, and =Dmitri Donskoi= (1359-1389), son of Ivan II, continue the policy of dominating Russia with the aid of the Tatars, whom they conciliate with Russian gold, while they gain the support of the nobles by enhancing their power at the expense of the princes of appanages. Towards the end of his reign Dmitri feels himself strong enough to resist the Tatars, whom he defeats in the battle of Kulikovo (1380); but two years later the Mongol general, Toktamish, invades Russia, burns Moscow and puts to death a great number of the inhabitants. Dmitri was succeeded by his son =Vasili= (1389-1425). On the death of the latter, first his brother, and then his brother’s son, laid claim to the succession; but the direct lineal succession triumphed twice in the person of Vasili’s son, known as =Vasili the Blind= (1425-1462).

THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY

1407 The river Ugra is made the boundary between Moscow and Lithuania.

1408 Invasion of Moscow by the Tatars, who burn many towns and villages, but fail to capture the Kremlin.

1412 Vasili Dmitrievitch goes to the Horde, pays tribute, and the khan confirms to him the grand princedom.

1435 Vasili Vasilievitch blinds his cousin Vasili Kossoi.

1446 Vasili Vasilievitch is blinded by Dmitri Shemiaka of Galicia.

1448 The archbishop Jonas is elected metropolitan by an assembly of the Russian bishops, without regard to the patriarch of Constantinople.

1453 Dmitri Shemiaka is poisoned.

1462 =Ivan III=, son of Vasili ascends the throne. He assumes the title _gossudar_ (lord, autocrat), and is regarded as the founder of autocracy.

1463 The princes of Iaroslav cede their domain to Moscow.

1464 Ivan gives the hand of his sister to Vasili, prince of Riazan, thus making sure of the approximate annexation of that appanage.

1469 The khanate of Kazan becomes a dependency of Moscow.

1472 Ivan conquers Perm. Marries the Byzantine princess Sophia, niece of the last emperor of Constantinople, Constantine Palæologus. Assumes the title of czar and adopts the two-headed eagle as the symbol of his authority. In consequence of this marriage many Greeks come to Moscow, bringing with them Byzantine culture.

1474 The princes of Rostov sell their domain to Moscow.

1478 The republic of Novgorod is annexed. The principal citizens are brought prisoners to Moscow, their property is confiscated, the possessions of the clergy serve to endow the boyar followers of Ivan. Ahmed, khan of the Golden Horde, sends ambassadors demanding homage. Ivan puts the envoys to death, except one, who was to take back the news to his master. The reply of Ahmed to this outrage is a declaration of war.

1479 Ivan issues Sudebnik, or Books of Laws, second Russian code after the Russkaia Pravda of Iaroslav. A comparison of two codes shows how much the Russian character was lowered by Mongol domination; it is in the reign of Ivan that we first hear of the use of the knout.

1480 The Mongols invade Russia. The two armies meet on the banks of the Oka and flee from each other in mutual fear. On his retreat Ahmed is killed and his army is annihilated by the Nogai Tatars.

1482 Cannon is used for first time at the siege of Fellin in Livonia. It was founded by the architect and engineer Aristotle Fioraventi of Bologna, the builder of the Kremlin.

1485 The principality of Tver is annexed to Moscow.

1485 The last prince of Vereya leaves his domains by will to Ivan.

1489 Viatka, a daughter of the city of Novgorod and Pskov, and like them a republic, is annexed.

1489 Poppel comes to Moscow as the first German ambassador.

1491 Mines of Petchora discovered. For first time silver and copper money is coined at Moscow from produce of Russian mines.

1492-1503 A large part of Little Russia is reconquered from Lithuanians.

1494 Alexander of Lithuania marries Ivan’s daughter Helen.

1495 Ivan, considering himself to have been insulted by a Hanseatic city, orders all merchants of all the cities of that union at Novgorod to be put in chains and their property confiscated. This marks the end of Novgorod’s commercial greatness.

1499 The princes of Tchernigov and Novgorod-Seversk come over to Moscow.

THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY

1501 Russians routed in the battle of the Siritza, near Izborsk, by the grand-master of the Teutonic order, Hermann von Plettenberg.

1503 A treaty is concluded with Lithuania. Moscow retains all her conquests, and Ivan is granted the title of sovereign of all Russia.

1505 Death of Ivan. =Vasili=, second son of Ivan, succeeds him.

1508 The Russian army is defeated by the revolted people of Kazan. The victors unite with the Tatars of the Crimea, invade Russia and carry their ravages up to the gates of Moscow. Vasili pays a large ransom for the safety of his capital, and signs a treaty by which he engages to become tributary to the khan. Thirty thousand prisoners are carried off by the invaders, and sold at Kaffa to the Turks.

1510 Pskov, last Slavonic republic, annexed.

1514 Smolensk is taken from the Lithuanians after being held by them for 110 years. But in the same year the Lithuanians defeat the Russian force at Orsha, on left bank of the Dnieper. Thirty thousand Russians are said to have fallen in battle.

1521 Riazan and Novgorod-Seversk, the last independent principalities, are annexed. Crimean Tatars devastate the country.

1523 A second expedition against Kazan, consisting of 150,000 men, fails of its object; one of its two divisions is almost annihilated.

1530 Third expedition against Kazan. The city is surprised by night and 60,000 inhabitants are massacred. But the Russian commander, bribed, it is said, by the remaining Kazanians, enters into a treaty of peace with them.

1533 Vasili dies. Regency of his wife, Helena Glinska, 1533-37. Supremacy of the Shuiski, 1537-43. Ivan is under the influence of the Glinski till 1547, when they were torn in pieces by the infuriated Moscow populace. Such was the youth of Ivan the Terrible.

1547 =Ivan= is crowned and takes the title of Czar.

1550 The Sudebnik of his grandfather Ivan III is revised.

1551 The Stoglav, or Book of the Hundred Chapters, by which the affairs of the church were regulated, is issued.

1552 Kazan, which had freed itself during his father’s reign, is annexed.

1553 Chancellor arrives at Archangel and proceeds to Moscow. The English secure great trading privileges and establish factories in the country.

1556 Astrakhan is annexed. The power of the Mongols is now almost completely broken.

1558 Treaty with Elizabeth of England. A Russian army invades Livonia and takes several towns. The Teutonic Order thereupon makes an alliance with Poland.

1564 Ivan, with a few personal friends, retires to Alexandrovskoe, near Moscow, and does not return until after repeated supplications by his nobles. A printing press established at Moscow.

1571 The Mongols of Crimea invade Russia, burn Moscow, drag 100,000 Russians into slavery. Next year they make another raid, but are defeated.

1580 Conquest of Siberia by the Cossack Iermak as far as the Irtish river.

1581 Ivan kills his eldest son in a fit of fury.

1582 Peace of Sapolye. Ivan is forced to surrender to Stephen Bathori (Battori) king of Poland all his conquests in Livonia. The attempt to open for Russia a passage in the Baltic fails for the present.

1584 Death of Ivan. =Feodor=, his weak-minded son, succeeds Ivan. Boris Godunov, Feodor’s brother-in-law, is the real ruler.

1587 A company of Parisian merchants obtains trading privileges.

1590 War with Sweden.

1591 Dmitri, the younger brother of Feodor (Ivan’s son by his seventh wife), and the only obstacle to Godunov’s ambition, dies at Uglitch. The khan of Crimea makes one of his periodical raids against Moscow, but is repulsed with great slaughter.

1592 Godunov issues a ukase (edict) binding the peasant to the soil, thus reducing him to unmitigated serfdom. As a result, peasants emigrate in large numbers to the Cossacks in order to preserve their freedom.

1597 An edict is issued prescribing the most vigorous measures for the recovery of fugitive serfs.

1598 Death of Feodor, last of the Ruriks. =Boris Godunov= is elected to succeed him, first by the Council of Boyars (douma) and then by a General Assembly (Sobór).

THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

1601 A terrible famine, accompanied by pestilence, devastates Russia. Boris causes immense quantities of provisions to be distributed in Moscow, whither multitudes flock from all the provinces. Five hundred thousand are said to have perished in Moscow alone, which had become a city of cannibals.

1604 Dmitri the Impostor invades Russia and is victorious on the Desna.

1605 Dmitri is defeated on the plain of Dobrinitchi, not far from Ord. Godunov dies. His son =Feodor= is proclaimed his successor. Basmanov, commander of the army, proclaims Dmitri. Feodor and his mother are strangled and Dmitri enters Moscow.

1606 A rebellion breaks out under Vasili Shuiski. Dmitri is killed. =Shuiski= is proclaimed emperor.

1608 A second false Dmitri defeats Shuiski’s army near Volkhov, but fails in an attack on the Troitsa monastery, near Moscow. He is murdered by one of his followers in 1610.

1609 The Poles invade Russia and lay siege to Smolensk.

1610 Shuiski is defeated at Klushino and =Wladislaw=, son of the Polish king, is crowned czar.

1611 Revolt of the patriots led by Minin and Prince Pojarski.

1612 The Poles are driven out of Moscow.

1613 =Michael Romanov= is chosen czar.

1617 Wladislaw appears with an army under the walls of Moscow, but is repulsed. The Treaty of Stolbovna is brought about by the mediation of England and Holland: the Russians give up Kexholm, Karelia and Ingria to Sweden, and receive in return Novgorod, which was lost during the Troublous Period.

1618 Wladislaw consents to abandon his claim to the Russian throne, the czar gives up his claims to Livonia, Tchernigov and Smolensk, and an armistice is concluded for fourteen years.

1619 Philarete, the father of Czar Michael, comes back from the Polish captivity, is elected patriarch, and becomes his son’s associate in the government of the country.

1627 The Cossacks of the Don conquer Azov, which they offer to the czar. After convoking a sobor, which shows little enthusiasm for the enterprise, the czar orders the Cossacks to evacuate it.

1633 War with Lithuania.

1634 Peace of Polianovka: the czar surrenders all claims to Livonia and all the country that once belonged to the Order, as well as to Smolensk, Tchernigov and Seversk. The Polish king abandons his claim to the Russian throne.

1645 Death of Michael. He is succeeded by =Alexis=.

1648 Revolt at Moscow against misgovernment of the czar’s favorites, particularly Morosov, and depreciation of the coinage. This revolt led to a new codification of the laws (the Ulozhenie), which was based on the preceding codes of Ivan III and IV, and was sanctioned by a sobor convoked at Moscow. A new police institution, the “chamber of secret affairs,” is created for the prevention and suppression of popular uprisings. The Cossacks of the Ukraine revolt from Poland under the leadership of Bogdan Chmielnicki.

1649-50 Khabarov occupies the course of the Amur.

1654 The Ukraine becomes a Russian protectorate. War with Poland.

1655 Outbreak of war between Sweden and Poland. The Russians occupy Vilna and join the Swedes in their march upon Warsaw.

1656 Truce with Poland. The Russian arms are turned against Sweden. At first they were successful, and Narva, Dorpat and other places in Esthonia were taken, Livonia was conquered, but Riga was besieged in vain, and after many losses all the conquests are restored.

1655-56 The patriarch Nicon calls two councils of the church for the purpose of revising the Bible and service-books. In consequence of this change a great schism takes place in the Russian church. The adherents of the old books are known as Raskolniki, and are to this day subjects of persecution.

1667 Peace of Andrussov with Poland: Little Russia east of the Dnieper, including Smolensk, Kiev, Seversk, Vitebsk, and Polotsk are acquired by Russia. Thus the territory which had been taken by the Lithuanians and annexed to Poland by Treaty of Lublin (1569) became Russian again.

1670 Rebellion of Stenka Kazin. He takes Tzaritzin, Astrakhan, Saratov, Samara, Nijni-Novgorod, Tambov, and Penza.

1671 Stenka Radzin is defeated near Simbirsk and executed at Moscow.

1676 Death of Alexis. He is succeeded by his eldest son, =Feodor=. During his reign the books of pedigrees (_razviadnie Knigi_), which determines the rank of each family and the office to which it was entitled (_mestnichestvo_), were destroyed.

1682 Death of Feodor. After a sanguinary outbreak of the Strelitz, which lasted three days, =Ivan= and =Peter= were declared joint sovereigns, and their sister Sophia was to act as regent during their minority.

1689 Treaty of Nertchinsk: the fertile region of the Amur, conquered by a handful of Cossacks, is restored to the Chinese, and the fortress Albazin is rased.

1696 Peter takes from the Turks the fort of Azov, situated at the mouth of the Don, and converts it into a naval port. In its vicinity he commences the building of the new town of Taganrog.

1697-98 Peter makes his first journey through Europe.

1698 The Strelitz break out into open revolt, which is suppressed with great bloodshed. Their corps is dissolved.

1699 Peter forms a coalition with Poland and Denmark against Sweden.

1700 Beginning of the Northern War. The Russian forces sustain a severe defeat at Narva. The beginning of the new Russian year is changed from the first of September to the first of January.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

1703 Peter begins the building of St. Petersburg.

1706 The Cossacks of the Don revolt.

1707 The secret marriage of Peter with Catherine takes place.

1709 Mazeppa, hetman of the Little-Russian Cossacks, revolts. Battle of Pultowa.

1710 Turkey declares war against Russia.

1711 The old supreme council of boyars (_douma_) is replaced by the senate, into which merit and service might obtain admission independently of noble origin. By the terms of the Treaty of the Pruth Peter surrenders to the Turks his artillery, gives back Azov, and undertakes to rase Taganrog.

1714 The Russians gain over the Swedes the important naval victory of Åland or Hankül. Peter becomes master of Finland.

1717 Peter makes a second tour through Europe. A general police, modelled on that of France, is instituted.

1718 Peter’s eldest son, Alexis, is executed. The old prikaz is replaced by colleges for foreign affairs, finance, justice, and commerce.

1719 The Russians ravage Sweden almost up to the gates of Stockholm.

1720 The Russians renew their devastation of Sweden, notwithstanding the presence of an English fleet.

1721 Treaty of Nystad with Sweden: Peter is left master of Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, and the districts of Viborg and Kexholm in Finland. Peter promulgates an ukase (afterwards abrogated by Paul) that the sovereign has the right of naming his successor. The Patriarchate is abolished and its income united to the public revenue. In its place the holy synod is established for the supreme direction of church affairs.

1722 The _tchin_ is established: whoever enters the service of that state becomes a gentleman. The exporting of merchandise through Archangel is prohibited in favor of St. Petersburg.

1722-24 War with Persia. The provinces of Ghilan, Mazandaran, and Astrabad (Astarabath) are annexed to Russia.

1725 Death of Peter. He is succeeded by his second wife, =Catherine=.

1726-27 The St. Petersburg Academy of Science founded.

1727 Death of Catherine. She is succeeded by =Peter II=, son of Alexis. Menshikov, who was the real ruler of Russia under Catherine, is banished to Siberia.

1730 Death of Peter II. =Anna=, daughter of Ivan, the brother of Peter the Great, is chosen his successor after submitting to the terms dictated by the great nobles--terms intended to convert the government into an oligarchy.

1733-35 War of the Polish Succession: Russia intervenes on behalf of the elector of Saxony, Augustine III, and defeats the French attempt to replace Stanislaus Leszczynski on the throne of Poland.

1735 Russia surrenders her Persian possessions in return for extensive trading privileges to Russian merchants.

1735-39 War with Turkey, in conjunction with Austria. The Russians conquer Otchakov at the mouth of the Dnieper and the important fortress of Khotin on the same river. But at the peace of Belgrade, hastily concluded by the Austrians, they retain only Azov.

1740 Death of Anna. =Ivan VI=, her grand-nephew, succeeds her, with Biron, duke of Courland, as regent during his minority.

1741 A coup d’état, led by Field-marshal Münich deposed Biron and raises Princess Anna, mother of Ivan, to the regency. But Münich is the real ruler. A palace revolution deposes Ivan, sends Münich to Siberia, and raises to the throne =Elizabeth=, a daughter of Peter the Great by Catherine. Sweden, urged on by France, declares war. The Swedes are defeated at Vilmanstrand.

1742 Seventeen thousand Swedes surrender at Helsingfors. The Armenian churches in both capitals are suppressed by order of the holy synod.

1743 Treaty of Åbo with Sweden; Russia acquires the southern part of Finland as far as the river Kymmene.

1753 The custom-houses of the interior, as well as many toll duties, are suppressed.

1755 The first Russian university is founded at Moscow.

1756 The first Russian public theatre is established at St. Petersburg. Three years later another theatre is established at Moscow.

1757 The Russians under Apraxin defeat at Jägerndorf the Prussians under Lewald.

1758 The Russians under Fermor are defeated by Frederick the Great at Zorndorf. The Academy of Fine Arts is established at St. Petersburg.

1759 Saltikov defeats Frederick at Kunersdorf.

1760 The Russians plunder Berlin.

1762 Death of Elizabeth. She is succeeded by her nephew, =Peter III=, son of her sister Anna. He makes peace with Frederick, restores to him east Prussia, which was entirely in the hands of the Russians, and orders his army to aid Frederick against the Austrians. Peter issues an ukase freeing the nobility from the obligation of entering upon some state employment; is assassinated and is succeeded by his wife, =Catherine=. Catherine recalls the Russian armies from Prussia.

1764 Assassination of Prince Ivan. Resumption of the ecclesiastical lands with their one million serfs by the state.

1766-68 A great _sobor_ is convened, first at Moscow and then at St. Petersburg, for the compilation of a new code. It fails of its object.

1767 An ukaze forbids serfs to bring complaints against their masters, who were authorised to send them at will to Siberia or to force them into the army.

1767-74 War with Turkey.

1768 Massacre of Jews at Uman, in the Government of Kiev, under the leadership of the Cossack Gonta.

1769 The Russians under Galitzin take Khotin.

1770 Rumiantzev is victorious over the Tatars on the banks of the Larga and over the grand vizir at Kagul. Three hundred thousand Kalmucks, with their wives and children, their cattle and their tents, flee from Russia to China.

1771 Conquest of the Crimea by Dolgoruki. Annihilation of the Turkish fleet at Tchesme.

1772 The Congress of Fokshani fails to bring about peace and the war is renewed. First division of Poland. Russia acquires White Russia, including Polotsk, Vitebsk, Orsha, Mohilev, Mstislavl, Gomel.

1773-74 Pugatchev’s revolt.

1774 Peace of Kutchuk-Kainardji: the sultan acknowledges the independence of the Tatars of the Crimea, the Bug and the Kuban, and cedes to Russia Azov on the Don, Kinburn at the mouth of the Dnieper, and all the fortified places of the Crimea.

1775 The Zaparog military republic of the Cossacks is dissolved. The empire is reorganized. Instead of fifteen provinces there are created fifty governments subdivided into districts.

1783 Formal annexation of the Crimea and the country of the Kuban.

1787-92 Second war with Turkey in conjunction with Austria.

1788-89 War with Sweden. The Peace of Varela restores the _status quo ante bellum_.

1788 The storming of Otchakov by Potemkin, accompanied by an indiscriminate massacre.

1789 Suvarov wins the battles of Fokshani and Rimnik. Potemkin takes Bender.

1790 Suvarov takes Ismail. The Austrians sign the Peace of Sistova, but the Russians continue the war. Repnin defeats the grand vizir at Matchin.

1792 Treaty of Jassy. The Russians retain only Otchakov and the seaboard between the Bug and the Dniester.

1793 Second division of Poland. Russia obtains an enormous extension of territory in Lithuania and absorbs the rest of Volhinia, Podolia, and Ukraine.

1794 Kosciuszko is defeated by Fersen at Maciejowice and Suvarov storms Praga, a suburb of Warsaw.

1795 Third division of Poland. Russia obtains the rest of Lithuania, besides other territories which at one time had been Russian, while Poland proper is divided between Austria and Prussia. The former power also obtains Galicia or Red Russia. Courland is annexed by Russia. Its last duke, Peter Biron, voluntarily renounces it in return for a yearly revenue.

1796 Death of Catherine. Accession of her son =Paul=.

1798 Paul promulgates the line of succession according to primogeniture, with precedence in the male line. Russia joins the second coalition against France, with England, Austria, Naples and Turkey.

1799 Suvarov defeats Moreau on the Adda, Macdonald on the Trebbia, and Joubert at Novi. Korsakov is defeated by Massena at Zurich, and Suvarov is forced to make his memorable retreat across the Alps.

1800 Reconciliation with France, chiefly owing to the English occupation of Malta.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

1801 Assassination of Paul. His son =Alexander= succeeds him. The new emperor concludes treaties of peace with England, France, and Spain. Georgia, or Grusia, is formally annexed, and a war with Persia follows in consequence.

1802 Eight ministries are established in place of the colleges founded by Peter the Great.

1804 The Persians are defeated at Etchmiadzin.

1805 Alexander joins the third coalition with Austria and England. Battle of Austerlitz.

1806 Conquest of the Persian province of Shirvan, and the taking of Derbent.

1806 War with Turkey. Alexander joins fourth coalition, of which Prussia is also a member. Battles of Pultusk and Golymin.

1807 Battles of Eylau and Friedland. Peace of Tilsit. Russia acquires Bielostok, a part of Prussian Poland.

1808 War with Sweden. Finland is overrun by a Russian army.

1809 By the Treaty of Fredrikshamn Sweden surrenders Finland. The Finns are allowed complete autonomy, the czar being its grand duke. War with Turkey. The Russians are defeated at Silistria.

1810 The Russians are victorious over the Turks at Batyen on the Danube.

1811 The Russians are victorious at Rustchuk. Twenty thousand Turks surrender at Giurgevo.

1812 By the Treaty of Bukharest Russia acquires Bessarabia and a large part of Moldavia, with the fortresses of Khotin and Bender. The Pruth becomes its boundary. The district of Viborg, which was acquired from Sweden in 1744, is added to Finland. Count Speranski, leader of the liberal party, is dismissed. Later he was exiled to Peru. Invasion of Russia by Napoleon. Battles of Smolensk and Borodino. Firing of Moscow. Napoleon orders a retreat (October 18). Battle of Malojaroslavetz compels Napoleon to retreat by his old route. The Beresina crossed (November 26th-29th).

1813 By the Treaty of Kalish Alexander engages not to lay down his arms until Prussia had recovered all its lost territories. The Russians and Prussians are defeated at Lützen and Bautzen. The allies are repulsed before Dresden. Battle of Leipsic. Peace of Gulistan with Persia. Russia obtains Baku and the western shore of the Caspian.

1814 The Russians invade France together with the allies. At the congress of Vienna Alexander insists on the creation of a kingdom of Poland under his rule.

1815 By the Treaty of Vienna Alexander obtains all of Poland, except Galicia, Cracow, and Posen. Conclusion of the Holy Alliance.

1816 Abolition of serfdom in Esthonia.

1817 Abolition of serfdom in Courland.

1818 Abolition of serfdom in Livonia. In all Baltic provinces the emancipated peasants receive no portion of the land, which remains in possession of the nobles. A constitution and separate administration are granted to the Polish kingdom.

1819 Establishment of military colonies in the border provinces of the north, west and south.

1825 Death of Alexander. His brother =Nicholas I= succeeds him. Revolt of the Dekabrists.

1826 War with Persia.

1827 War with Turkey. The Turkish fleet is destroyed at Navarino by the combined fleets of England, France, and Russia.

1828 Peace of Turkmanchai. Persia cedes the provinces of Erivan and Nakhitchevan, pays a war indemnity, and grants important trading privileges. The Russians invade the Danubian principalities and take Varna. Paskievitch takes Kars.

1829 Diebitsch defeats the Turks at Kluvetchi, takes Silistria, crosses the Balkans, and takes Adrianople. Peace of Adrianople. Russia gets control of the mouths of the Danube, of a portion of Armenia including Erzerum, and receives a war indemnity.

1830 The new code, a complete collection of the laws of the Russian Empire, is promulgated. Polish insurrection. The Russians are compelled to evacuate the country.

1831 Paskievitch takes Warsaw. The building of new Roman Catholic churches in Poland is prohibited.

1832 Poland is incorporated with Russia. The constitution granted by Alexander is annulled, and Poland is divided into five governments.

1833 By the Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi Russia obtains additional rights to meddle in the internal affairs of Turkey.

1839 A Russian expedition to the khanate of Khiva is compelled to return.

1849 A Russian army is sent into Hungary. Capitulation of Görgei at Villagos.

1853 The Crimean War. The Russians occupy the Danubian principalities. Destruction of the Turkish fleet at Sinope.

1854 France and England join Turkey. Battle of the Alma. Siege of Sebastopol. Fall of Bomarsund.

1855 Sardinia joins the allies. Battles of Balaklava, Inkerman, and Tchernaia. Fall of Sebastopol. Bombardment of Sveaborg. The Russians take Kars. Nicholas I dies. His son =Alexander II= succeeds him.

1856 Treaty of Paris. Russia relinquishes the mouths of the Danube and a portion of Bessarabia, restores Kars, gives up the protectorate over the Oriental Christians and the Danubian principalities, and agrees to have no war vessels in the Black Sea.

1858 General Muraviev signs the treaty of Aigun with the Chinese, by which Russia acquires the entire left bank of the Amur.

1859 Capture of Schamyl.

1861 Emancipation of the serfs.

1863 Polish insurrection.

1864 Final pacification of the Caucasus. Reforms in judicial administration. Institution of representative assemblies (zemstvos) for governments and districts. By ukase, Polish peasants are given in fee-simple the lands which they had cultivated as tenants-at-will.

1865 Tashkend taken from the emir of Bokhara; organisation of the province of Turkestan.

1866 Karakozov fires at the emperor at St. Petersburg.

1867 Governor-generalship of Turkestan created. Sale of Alaska to the United States. A Slavophil congress is held at Moscow. The prince of Mingrelia relinquishes his sovereign rights for one million rubles. Russian is substituted for German as the official language of Livonia, Esthonia, and Courland. Peasants are given the ownership of the lands which they occupied as tenants.

1868 Samarkand taken from Bokhara.

1870 Khiva is stormed by General Kauffman.

1871 The Pontus Conference, held at London, abolishes paragraph 11 of the Paris treaty delimiting Russian fortifications and naval forces on the Black Sea.

1873 The right bank of the Amu Daria (Jaxartes) is annexed and the rest of Khiva becomes a vassal state.

1874 Universal compulsory military service is introduced. The vice-royalty of Poland is abolished, and its administrative fusion with Russia becomes complete.

1875 Russia cedes to Japan the Kurile islands. Japan gives up its claims to the southern part of Sakhalin.

1876 The khanate of Khokand is absorbed and transformed into the province of Ferghana.

1877 War with Turkey. The Russian advance is beaten back in Europe and in Asia. The Shipka pass alone remains in Russian hands. Three defeats before Plevna, which is besieged and forced to capitulate with 40,000 men. Kars is taken.

1878 The Russians cross the Balkans. The Shipka army is captured, Adrianople taken, the last Turkish army is almost annihilated, and the Russians reach the Sea of Marmora. Treaty of San Stefano: Treaty of Berlin. Assassination of General Trepov at St. Petersburg, and acquittal of Vera Zassulitch. Assassination of General Mezentsev, chief of gendarmerie.

1879 Soloviov fires six shots at the emperor. An attempt is made to wreck the train by which the czar was travelling from Moscow to St. Petersburg.

1880 An attempt is made to blow up the Winter Palace. Loris-Melikov is placed at the head of a commission with dictatorial powers.

1881 Assassination of the emperor. The Tekke-Turkomans are subjected by Skobelev. Anti-Jewish riots in southern Russia.

1882 The “May laws” of Ignatiev issued against the Jews. Agrarian disturbances in the Baltic provinces give the government a welcome pretext for additional measures of russification.

1883 =Alexander III= is crowned at Moscow.

1884 The Turkomans of the Merv oasis make submission to Russia. The emperors of Russia, Germany and Austria meet at Skierniewice, where they form the Three Emperors’ League for the term of three years.

1885 The Afghans are defeated by General Komarov at Penjdeh. The Trans-Caspian railway is begun.

1886 Contrary to Article 59 of the Treaty of Berlin, Batum is transformed into a fortified naval port.

1887 A convention between England and Russia is signed for the delimitation of the Russo-Afghan frontier. The Russian advance in the direction of Herat is stopped.

1888 An army officer named Timoviev makes an attempt on the czar’s life. The Trans-Caspian railway is completed. Samarkand is linked with the Caspian. The imperial train is derailed at Borki. The czar and his family escape injury.

1890 Three commissions are appointed to prepare plans for assimilating the Finnish postal, monetary, and fiscal systems with those of the empire.

1891 A French squadron under Admiral Gervais visits Kronstadt. A succession of famines begins. An ukase is issued directing the construction of a railway line which should connect the European system with the Pacific coast. Work is commenced on seven sections simultaneously.

1893 A Russian squadron under Admiral Avelan visits Toulon.

1894 A military convention, arranged by the military authorities of Russia and France, is ratified. Death of Alexander III and accession of =Nicholas II=.

1895 An Anglo-Russian convention is signed settling the disputes as to the Pamirs. Russia, in conjunction with Germany and France, forces Japan to revise the terms of the Treaty of Shimonoseki by giving up the Liao-tung peninsula. Russia obtains the right to carry the Siberian railway across Chinese territory from Stretensk to Vladivostok, thus avoiding a long detour, besides getting control of North Manchuria.

1896 Coronation of the czar at Moscow. Catastrophe on the Khodinski plain. The emperor visits Germany, Austria, England, and France.

1897 President Faure makes an official visit to St. Petersburg, and the term “alliance” is for the first time used in the complimentary speeches. Specie payment is established.

1898 Russia leases Port Arthur and Talienwan, and obtains leave to carry a branch of the Trans-Siberian line through Manchuria to the sea. An imperial decree declares that the powers of the Finnish diet are to be limited to matters of strictly local, not imperial, concern. General Bobrikov is appointed Governor-general of Finland.

1899 During the Boxer uprising the Chinese authorities in Manchuria declare war against Russia. The Russian authorities retaliate with the massacre of Blagovestchensk. Russia assumes the civil and military administration of Manchuria. Peace Conference held at the Hague.

1900 The Bank of Persian Loans is founded by the Russian government.

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

1901 The state monopoly in the manufacture and sale of spirits is extended to the whole empire.

1903 Vice-Admiral Alexiev appointed as first Russian viceroy of the Far East.

1904 Outbreak of the Russo-Japanese war.

[Illustration]

[Illustration: THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE showing the Accessions since Peter the Great]