Part 3

Each of the two circuits constituting the oscillation transformer taken separately has a natural time period of oscillation; that is to say, if the electric charge in it is disturbed, it oscillates to and fro in a certain constant period like a pendulum and therefore with a certain frequency. If the circuits have the same frequency when separated they are said to be isochronous. If n stands for the natural frequency of each circuit, where n = p/2[pi] the above equations show that when the two circuits are coupled together, oscillations set up in one circuit create oscillations of two frequencies in the secondary circuit. A mechanical analogue to the above electrical effect can be obtained as follows: Let a string be strung loosely between two fixed points, and from it let two other strings of equal length hang down at a certain distance apart, each of them having a weight at the bottom and forming a simple pendulum. If one pendulum is set in oscillation it will gradually impart this motion to the second, but in so doing it will bring itself to rest; in like manner the second pendulum being set in oscillation gives back its motion to the first. The graphic representation, therefore, of the motion of each pendulum would be a line as in fig. 4. Such a curve represents the effect in music known as beats, and can easily be shown to be due to the combined effect of two simple harmonic motions or simple periodic curves of different frequency superimposed. Accordingly, the effect of inductively coupling together two electrical circuits, each having capacity and inductance, is that if oscillations are started in one circuit, oscillations of two frequencies are found in the secondary circuit, the frequencies differing from one another and differing from the natural frequency of each circuit taken alone. This matter is of importance in connexion with wireless telegraphy (see TELEGRAPH), as in apparatus for conducting it, oscillation transformers as above described, having two circuits in resonance with one another, are employed.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.]

REFERENCES.--J. A. Fleming, _The Alternate Current Transformer_ (2 vols., London, 1900), containing a full history of the induction coil; id., _Electric Wave Telegraphy_ (London, 1906), dealing in chap. i., with the construction of the induction coil and various forms of interrupter as well as with the theory of oscillation transformers; A. T. Hare, _The Construction of Large Induction Coils_ (London, 1900); J. Trowbridge, "On the Induction Coil," _Phil. Mag._ (1902), 3, p. 393; Lord Rayleigh, "On the Induction Coil," _Phil. Mag._ (1901), 2, p. 581; J. E. Ives, "Contributions to the Study of the Induction Coil," _Physical Review_ (1902), vols. 14 and 15. (J. A. F.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] For a full history of the early development of the induction coil see J. A. Fleming, _The Alternate Current Transformer_, vol. ii., chap. i.

[2] See A. Oberbeck, _Wied. Ann._ (1895), 55, p. 623; V. F. R. Bjerknes, d. (1895), 55, p. 121, and (1891), 44, p. 74; and P. K. L. Drude, _Ann. Phys._ (1904), 13, p. 512.

INDULGENCE (Lat. _indulgentia_, _indulgere_, to grant, concede), in theology, a term defined by the official catechism of the Roman Catholic Church in England as "the remission of the temporal punishment which often remains due to sin after its guilt has been forgiven." This remission may be either total (_plenary_) or partial, according to the terms of the Indulgence. Such remission was popularly called a _pardon_ in the middle ages--a term which still survives, e.g. in Brittany.

The theory of Indulgences is based by theologians on the following texts: 2 Samuel (Vulgate, 2 Kings) xii. 14; Matt. xvi. 19 and xviii. 17, 18; 1 Cor. v. 4, 5; 2 Cor. ii. 6-11; but the practice itself is confessedly of later growth. As Bishop Fisher says in his Confutation of Luther, "in the early church, faith in Purgatory and in Indulgences was less necessary than now.... But in our days a great part of the people would rather cast off Christianity than submit to the rigour of the [ancient] canons: wherefore it is a most wholesome dispensation of the Holy Ghost that, after so great a lapse of time, the belief in purgatory and the practice of Indulgences have become generally received among the orthodox" (_Confutatio_, cap. xviii.; cf. Cardinal Caietan, _Tract. XV. de Indulg._ cap. i.). The nearest equivalent in the ancient Church was the local and temporary African practice of restoring lapsed Christians to communion at the intercession of confessors and prospective martyrs in prison. But such reconciliations differed from later Indulgences in at least one essential particular, since they brought no remission of ecclesiastical penance save in very exceptional cases. However, as the primitive practice of public penance for sins died out in the Church, there grew up a system of equivalent, or nominally equivalent, private penances. Just as many of the punishments enjoined by the Roman criminal code were gradually commuted by medieval legislators for pecuniary fines, so the years or months of fasting enjoined by the earlier ecclesiastical codes were commuted for proportionate fines, the recitation of a certain number of psalms, and the like. "Historically speaking, it is indisputable that the practice of Indulgences in the medieval church arose out of the authoritative remission, in exceptional cases, of a certain proportion of this canonical penalty." At the same time, according to Catholic teaching, such Indulgence was not a mere permission to omit or postpone payment, but was in fact a _discharge_ from the debt of temporal punishment which the sinner owed. The authority to grant such discharge was conceived to be included in the power of binding and loosing committed by Christ to His Church; and when in the course of time the vaguer theological conceptions of the first ages of Christianity assumed scientific form and shape at the hands of the Schoolmen, the doctrine came to prevail that this discharge of the sinner's debt was made through an application to the offender of what was called the "Treasure of the Church" (Thurston, p. 315). "What, then, is meant by the 'Treasure of the Church'?... It consists primarily and completely of the merit and satisfaction of Christ our Saviour. It includes also the superfluous merit and satisfaction of the Blessed Virgin and the Saints. What do we mean by the word 'superfluous'? In one way, as I need not say, a saint has no superfluous merit. Whatever he has, he wants it all for himself, because, the more he merits on earth (by Christ's grace) the greater is his glory in heaven. But, speaking of mere satisfaction for punishment due, there cannot be a doubt that some of the Saints have done more than was needed in justice to expiate the punishment due to their own sins.... It is this 'superfluous' expiation that accumulates in the Treasure of the Church" (Bp. of Newport, p. 166). It must be noted that this theory of the "Treasure" was not formulated until some time after Indulgences in the modern sense had become established in practice. The doctrine first appeared with Alexander of Hales (c. 1230) and was at once adopted by the leading schoolmen. Clement VI. formally confirmed it in 1350, and Pius VI. still more definitely in 1794.

The first definite instance of a _plenary_ Indulgence is that of Urban II. for the First Crusade (1095). A little earlier had begun the practice of _partial_ Indulgences, which are always expressed in terms of days or years. However definite may have been the ideas originally conveyed by these notes of time, their first meaning has long since been lost. Eusebius Amort, in 1735, admits the gravest differences of opinion; and the Bishop of Newport writes (p. 163) "to receive an Indulgence of a year, for example, is to have remitted to one so much temporal punishment as was represented by a year's canonical penance. If you ask me to define the amount more accurately, I say that it cannot be done. No one knows how severe or how long a Purgatory was, or is, implied in a hundred days of canonical penance." The rapid extension of these time-Indulgences is one of the most remarkable facts in the history of the subject. Innocent II., dedicating the great church of Cluny in 1132, granted as a great favour a forty days' Indulgence for the anniversary. A hundred years later, all churches of any importance had similar indulgences; yet Englishmen were glad even then to earn a pardon of forty days by the laborious journey to the nearest cathedral, and by making an offering there on one of a few privileged feast-days. A century later again, Wycliffe complains of Indulgences of two thousand years for a single prayer (ed. Arnold, i. 137). In 1456, the recitation of a few prayers before a church crucifix earned a Pardon of 20,000 years for every such repetition (Glassberger in _Analecta Franciscana_, ii. 368): "and at last Indulgences were so freely given that there is now scarcely a devotion or good work of any kind for which they cannot be obtained" (Arnold & Addis, _Catholic Dictionary_, s.v.). To quote again from Father Thurston (p. 318): "In imitation of the prodigality of her Divine Master, the Church has deliberately faced the risk of depreciation to which her treasure was exposed.... The growing effeminacy and corruption of mankind has found her censures unendurable ... and the Church, going out into the highways and the hedges, has tried to entice men with the offer of generous Indulgence." But it must be noted that, according to the orthodox doctrine, not only can an Indulgence not remit future sins, but even for the past it cannot take full effect unless the subject be truly contrite and have confessed (or intend shortly to confess) his sins.

This salutary doctrine, however, has undoubtedly been obscured to some extent by the phrase _a poena et a culpa_, which, from the 13th century to the Reformation, was applied to Plenary Indulgences. The prima-facie meaning of the phrase is that the Indulgence itself frees the sinner not only from the temporal penalty (_poena_) but also from the guilt (_culpa_) of all his sins: and the fact that a phrase so misleading remained so long current shows the truth of Father Thurston's remark: "The laity cared little about the analysis of it, but they knew that the _a culpa et poena_ was the name for the biggest thing in the nature of an Indulgence which it was possible to get" (_Dublin Review_, Jan. 1900). The phrase, however, was far from being confined to the unlearned. Abbot Gilles li Muisis, for instance, records how, at the Jubilee of 1300, all the Papal Penitentiaries were in doubt about it, and appealed to the Pope. Boniface VIII. did indeed take the occasion of repeating (in the words of his Bull) that confession and contrition were necessary preliminaries; but he neither repudiated the misleading words nor vouchsafed any clear explanation of them. (_Chron. Aegidii li Muisis_ ed. de Smet, p. 189.) His predecessor, Celestine V., had actually used them in a Bull.

The phrase exercised the minds of learned canonists all through the middle ages, but still held its ground. The most accepted modern theory is that it is merely a catchword surviving from a longer phrase which proclaimed how, during such Indulgences, ordinary confessors might absolve from sins usually "reserved" to the Bishop or the Pope. Nobody, however, has ventured exactly to reconstitute this hypothetical phrase; nor is the theory easy to reconcile with (i.) the uncertainty of canonists at the time when the locution was quite recent, (ii.) the fact that Clement V. and Cardinal Cusanus speak of absolution _a poena et a culpa_ as a separate thing from (a) plenary absolution and (b) absolution from "reserved" sins (Clem. lib. v. tit. ix. c. 2, and Johann Busch (d. c. 1480) _Chron. Windeshemense_, cap. xxxvi.). But, however it originated, the phrase undoubtedly contributed to foster popular misconceptions as to the intrinsic value of Indulgences, apart from repentance and confession; though Dr Lea seems to press this point unduly (p. 54 ff.), and should be read in conjunction with Thurston (p. 324 ff.).

These misconceptions were certainly widespread from the 13th to the 16th century, and were often fostered by the "pardoners," or professional collectors of contributions for Indulgences. This can best be shown by a few quotations from eminent and orthodox churchmen during those centuries. Berthold of Regensburg (c. 1270) says, "Fie, penny-preacher! ... thou dost promise so much remission of sins for a mere halfpenny or penny, that thousands now trust thereto, and fondly dream to have atoned for all their sins with the halfpenny or penny, and thus go to hell" (ed. Pfeiffer, i. 393).[1] A century later, the author of _Piers Plowman_ speaks of pardoners who "give pardon for pence poundmeal about" (i.e. wholesale; B. ii. 222); and his contemporary, Pope Boniface IX., complained of their absolving even impenitent sinners for ridiculously small sums (_pro qualibet parva pecuniarum summula_, Raynaldus, _Ann. Ecc._ 1390). In 1450 Thomas Gascoigne, the great Oxford Chancellor, wrote: "Sinners say nowadays 'I care not how many or how great sins I commit before God, for I shall easily and quickly get plenary remission of any guilt and penalty whatsoever (_cujusdam culpae et poenae_) by absolution and indulgence granted to me from the Pope, whose writing and grant I have bought for 4d. or 6d. or for a game of tennis'"--or sometimes, he adds, by a still more disgraceful bargain (_pro actu meretricio_, _Lib._ Ver. p. 123, cf. 126). In 1523 the princes of Germany protested to the Pope in language almost equally strong (Browne, _Fasciculus_, i. 354). In 1562 the Council of Trent abolished the office of "pardoner."

The greatest of all Plenary Indulgences is of course the Roman Jubilee. This was instituted in 1300 by Boniface VIII., who pleaded a popular tradition for its celebration every hundredth year, though no written evidence could be found. Clement VI. shortened the period to 50 years (1350): it was then further reduced to 33, and again in 1475 to 25 years.

See also the article on LUTHER. The latest and fullest authority on this subject is Dr H. C. Lea, _Hist, of Auricular Confession and Indulgences in the Latin Church_ (Philadelphia, 1896); his standpoint is frankly non-Catholic, but he gives ample materials for judgment. The greatest orthodox authority is Eusebius Amort, _De Origine, &c., indulgentiarum_ (1735). More popular and more easily accessible are Father Thurston's _The Holy Year of Jubilee_ (1900), and an article by the Bishop of Newport in the _Nineteenth Century_ for January 1901, with a reply by Mr Herbert Paul in the next number. (G. G. Co.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Equally strong assertions were made by the provincial council of Mainz in 1261; and Lea (p. 287) quotes the complaints of 36 similar church councils before 1538.

INDULINES, a series of dyestuffs of blue, bluish-red or black shades, formed by the interaction of para-amino azo compounds with primary monamines in the presence of a small quantity of a mineral acid. They were first discovered in 1863 (English patent 3307) by J. Dale and H. Caro, and since then have been examined by many chemists (see O. N. Witt, _Ber._, 1884, 17, p. 74; O. Fischer and E. Hepp, _Ann._, 1890, 256, pp. 233 et seq.; F. Kehrmann, _Ber._, 1891, 24, pp. 584, 2167 et seq.). They are derivatives of the eurhodines (aminophenazines, aminonaphthophenazines), and by means of their diazo derivatives can be de-amidated, yielding in this way azonium salts; consequently they may be considered as amidated azonium salts. The first reaction giving a clue to their constitution was the isolation of the intermediate _azophenin_ by O. Witt (_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1883, 43, p. 115), which was proved by Fischer and Hepp to be dianilidoquinone dianil, a similar intermediate compound being found shortly afterwards in the naphthalene series. _Azophenin_, C30H24N4, is prepared by warming quinone dianil with aniline; by melting together quinone, aniline and aniline hydrochloride; or by the action of aniline on para-nitrosophenol or para-nitrosodiphenylamine. The indulines are prepared as mentioned above from aminoazo compounds:

// N------\ NH2·C6H4N2·C6H5 + C5H5NH2 -> HN:C6H3 // \ C6H4, \ N·C6H5 /

(aposafranine)

or by condensing oxy- and amido-quinones with phenylated ortho-diamines (F. Kehrmann, _Ber._, 1895, 28, p. 1714):

HO\ // O H2N \ \ C6H2 // + \ C6H4 = O// \ OH C6H5NH /

O \\ / N·C6H5 \ 2H2O + \\ C6H2 / \ C6H4. HO / \\ N------//

The indulines may be subdivided into the following groups:-- (1) benzindulines, derivatives of phenazine; (2) isorosindulines; and (3) rosindulines, both derived from naphthophenazine; and (4) naphthindulines, derived from naphthazine.

// N------\ // N------\ NH:C6H3 // \ C6H4 NH:C6H3 // \ C10H6 \ N·C6H5 / \ N·C6H5 /

I. Benzindulines. II. Isorosindulines.

// N------\ // N------\ NH:C10H5 // \ C6H4 NH:C10H5 // \ C10H6 \ N·C6H5 / \ N·C6H5 /

III. Rosindulines. IV. Naphthindulines.

The rosindulines and naphthindulines have a strongly basic character, and their salts possess a marked red colour and fluorescence. _Benzinduline_ (aposafranine), C18H13N3, is a strong base, but cannot be diazotized, unless it be dissolved in concentrated mineral acids. When warmed with aniline it yields anilido-aposafranine, which may also be obtained by the direct oxidation of ortho-aminodiphenylamine. _Isorosinduline_ is obtained from quinone dichlorimide and phenyl-[beta]-naphthylamine; _rosinduline_ from benzene-azo-[alpha]-naphthylamine and aniline and _naphthinduline_ from benzene-azo-[alpha]-naphthylamine and naphthylamine.

INDULT (Lat. _indultum_, from _indulgere_, grant, concede, allow), a, papal licence which authorizes the doing of something not sanctioned by the common law of the church; thus by an indult the pope authorizes a bishop to grant certain relaxations during the Lenten fast according to the necessities of the situation, climate, &c., of his diocese.

INDUNA, a Zulu-Bantu word for an officer or head of a regiment among the Kaffir (Zulu-Xosa) tribes of South Africa. It is formed from the inflexional prefix _in_ and _duna_, a lord or master. Indunas originally obtained and retained their rank and authority by personal bravery and skill in war, and often proved a menace to their nominal lord. Where, under British influence, the purely military system of government among the Kaffir tribes has broken down or been modified, indunas are now administrators rather than warriors. They sit in a consultative gathering known as an indaba, and discuss the civil and military affairs of their tribe.

INDUS, one of the three greatest rivers of northern India.

In the Himalaya.

The Shyok affluent.

The Gilgit affluent.

A considerable accession of exact geographical knowledge has been gained of the upper reaches of the river Indus and its tributaries during those military and political movements which have been so constant on the northern frontiers of India of recent years. The sources of the Indus are to be traced to the glaciers of the great Kailas group of peaks in 32° 20´ N. and 81° E., which overlook the Mansarowar lake and the sources of the Brahmaputra, the Sutlej and the Gogra to the south-east. Three great affluents, flowing north-west, unite in about 80° E. to form the main stream, all of them, so far as we know at present, derived from the Kailas glaciers. Of these the northern tributary points the road from Ladakh to the Jhalung goldfields, and the southern, or Gar, forms a link in the great Janglam--the Tibetan trade route--which connects Ladakh with Lhasa and Lhasa with China. Gartok (about 50 m. from the source of this southern head of the Indus) is an important point on this trade route, and is now made accessible to Indian traders by treaty with Tibet and China. At Leh, the Ladakh capital, the river has already pursued an almost even north-westerly course for 300 m., except for a remarkable divergence to the south-west which carries it across, or through, the Ladakh range to follow the same course on the southern side that had been maintained on the north. This very remarkable instance of transverse drainage across a main mountain axis occurs in 79° E., about 100 m. above Leh. For another 230 m., in a north-westerly direction, the Indus pursues a comparatively gentle and placid course over its sandy bed between the giant chains of Ladakh to the north and Zaskar (the main "snowy range" of the Himalaya) to the south, amidst an array of mountain scenery which, for the majesty of sheer altitude, is unmatched by any in the world. Then the river takes up the waters of the Shyok from the north (a tributary nearly as great as itself), having already captured the Zasvar from the south, together with innumerable minor glacier-fed streams. The Shyok is an important feature in Trans-Himalayan hydrography. Rising near the southern foot of the well-known Karakoram pass on the high road between Ladakh and Kashgar, it first drains the southern slopes of the Karakoram range, and then breaks across the axis of the Muztagh chain (of which the Karakoram is now recognized as a subsidiary extension northwards) ere bending north-westwards to run a parallel course to the Indus for 150 m. before its junction with that river. The combined streams still hold on their north-westerly trend for another 100 m., deep hidden under the shadow of a vast array of snow-crowned summits, until they arrive within sight of the Rakapushi peak which pierces the north-western sky midway between Gilgit and Hunza. Here the great change of direction to the south-west occurs, which is thereafter maintained till the Indus reaches the ocean. At this point it receives the Gilgit river from the north-west, having dropped from 15,000 to 4000 ft. (at the junction of the rivers) after about 500 m. of mountain descent through the independent provinces of northern Kashmir. (See GILGIT.) A few miles below the junction it passes Bunji, and from that point to a point beyond Chilas (50 m. below Bunji) it runs within the sphere of British interests. Then once again it resumes its "independent" course through the wild mountains of Kohistan and Hazara, receiving tribute from both sides (the Buner contribution being the most noteworthy) till it emerges into the plains of the Punjab below Darband, in 34° 10´ N. All this part of the river has been mapped in more or less detail of late years. The hidden strongholds of those Hindostani fanatics who had found a refuge on its banks since Mutiny days have been swept clean, and many ancient mysteries have been solved in the course of its surveying.

Indus of the plains.