part 2

, _Les Coelentérés_ (1901); G. H. Fowler, "The Hydromedusae and Scyphomedusae" in E. R. Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_, ii. chapters iv. and v. (1900); S. J. Hickson, "Coelenterata and Ctenophora," _Cambridge Natural History_, i. chapters x.-xv. (1906). (E. A. M.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] See further under SCYPHOMEDUSAE.

HYENA, a name applicable to all the representatives of the mammalian family _Hyaenidae_, a group of Carnivora (q.v.) allied to the civets. From all other large Carnivora except the African hunting-dog, hyenas are distinguished by having only four toes on each foot, and are further characterized by the length of the fore-legs as compared with the hind pair, the non-retractile claws, and the enormous strength of the jaws and teeth, which enables them to break the hardest bones and to retain what they have seized with unrelaxing grip.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The Striped Hyena (_Hyaena striata_).]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--The Spotted Hyena (_Hyaena crocuta_).]

The striped hyena (_Hyaena striata_) is the most widely distributed species, being found throughout India, Persia, Asia Minor, and North and East Africa, the East African form constituting a distinct race, _H. striata schillingsi_; while there are also several distinct Asiatic races. The species resembles a wolf in size, and is greyish-brown In colour, marked with indistinct longitudinal stripes of a darker hue, while the legs are transversely striped. The hairs on the body are long, especially on the ridge of the neck and back, where they form a distinct mane, which is continued along the tail. Nocturnal in habits, it prefers by day the gloom of caves and ruins, or of the burrows which it occasionally forms, and issues forth at sunset, when it commences its unearthly howling. When the animal is excited, the howl changes into what has been compared to demoniac laughter, whence the name of "laughing-hyena." These creatures feed chiefly on carrion, and thus perform useful service by devouring remains which might otherwise pollute the air. Even human dead are not safe from their attacks, their powerful claws enabling them to gain access to newly interred bodies in cemeteries. Occasionally (writes Dr W. T. Blanford) sheep or goats, and more often dogs, are carried off, and the latter, at all events, are often taken alive to the animal's den. This species appears to be solitary in habits, and it is rare to meet with more than two together. The cowardice of this hyena is proverbial; despite its powerful teeth, it rarely attempts to defend itself. A very different animal is the spotted hyena, _Hyaena (Crocuta) crocuta_, which has the sectorial teeth of a more cat-like type, and is marked by dark-brown spots on a yellowish ground, while the mane is much less distinct. At the Cape it was formerly common, and occasionally committed great havoc among the cattle, while it did not hesitate to enter the Kaffir dwellings at night and carry off children sleeping by their mothers. By persistent trapping and shooting, its numbers have now been considerably reduced, with the result, however, of making it exceedingly wary, so that it is not readily caught in any trap with which it has had an opportunity of becoming acquainted. Its range extends from Abyssinia to the Cape. The Abyssinian form has been regarded as a distinct species, under the name of _H. liontiewi_, but this, like various more southern forms, is but regarded as a local race. The brown hyena (_H. brunnea_) is South African, ranging to Angola on the west and Kilimanjaro on the east. In size it resembles the striped hyena, but differs in appearance, owing to the fringe of long hair covering the neck and fore part of the back. The general hue is ashy-brown, with the hair lighter on the neck (forming a collar), chest and belly; while the legs are banded with dark brown. This species is not often seen, as it remains concealed during the day. Those frequenting the coast feed on dead fish, crabs and an occasional stranded whale, though they are also a danger to the sheep and cattle kraal. Strand-wolf is the local name at the Cape.

Although hyenas are now confined to the warmer regions of the Old World, fossil remains show that they had a more northerly range during Tertiary times; the European cave-hyena being a form of the spotted species, known as _H. crocuta spelaea_. Fossil hyenas occur in the Lower Pliocene of Greece, China, India, &c.; while remains indistinguishable from those of the striped species have been found in the Upper Pliocene of England and Italy.

HYÈRES, a town in the department of the Var in S.E. France, 11 m. by rail E. of Toulon. In 1906 the population of the commune was 17,790, of the town 10,464; the population of the former was more than doubled in the last decade of the 19th century. Hyères is celebrated (as is also its fashionable suburb, Costebelle, nearer the seashore) as a winter health resort. The town proper is situated about 2½ m. from the seashore, and on the south-western slope of a steep hill (669 ft., belonging to the Maurettes chain, 961 ft.), which is one of the westernmost spurs of the thickly wooded Montagnes des Maures. It is sheltered from the north-east and east winds, but is exposed to the cold north-west wind or _mistral_. Towards the south and south-east a fertile plain, once famous for its orange groves, but now mainly covered by vineyards and farms, stretches to the sea, while to the south-west, across a narrow valley, rises a cluster of low hills, on which is the suburb of Costebelle. The older portion of the town is still surrounded, on the north and east, by its ancient, though dilapidated medieval walls, and is a labyrinth of steep and dirty streets. The more modern quarter which has grown up at the southern foot of the hill has handsome broad boulevards and villas, many of them with beautiful gardens, filled with semi-tropical plants. Among the objects of interest in the old town are: the house (Rue Rabaton, 7) where J. B. Massillon (1663-1742), the famous pulpit orator, was born; the parish church of St Louis, built originally in the 13th century by the Cordelier or Franciscan friars, but completely restored in the earlier part of the 19th century; and the site of the old château, on the summit of the hill, now occupied by a villa. The plain between the new town and the sea is occupied by large nurseries, an excellent _jardin d'acclimatation_, and many market gardens, which supply Paris and London with early fruits and vegetables, especially artichokes, as well as with roses in winter. There are extensive salt beds (_salines_) both on the peninsula of Giens, S. of the town, and also E. of the town. To the east of the Giens peninsula is the fine natural harbour of Hyères, as well as three thinly populated islands (the Stoechades of the ancients), Porquerolles, Port Cros and Le Levant, which are grouped together under the common name of Îles d'Hyères.

The town of Hyères seems to have been founded in the 10th century, as a place of defence against pirates, and takes its name from the aires (_hierbo_ in the Provençal dialect), or threshing-floors for corn, which then occupied its site. It passed from the possession of the viscounts of Marseilles to Charles of Anjou, count of Provence, and brother of St Louis (the latter landed here in 1254, on his return from Egypt). The château was dismantled by Henri IV., but thanks to its walls, the town resisted in 1707 an attack made by the duke of Savoy.

See Ch. Lenthéric, _La Provence Maritime ancienne et moderne_ (chap. 5) (Paris, 1880). (W. A. B. C.)

HYGIEIA, in Greek mythology, the goddess of health. It seems probable that she was originally an abstraction, subsequently personified, rather than an independent divinity of very ancient date. The question of the original home of her worship has been much discussed. The oldest traces of it, so far as is known at present, are to be found at Titane in the territory of Sicyon, where she was worshipped together with Asclepius, to whom she appears completely assimilated, not an independent personality. Her cult was not introduced at Epidaurus till a late date, and therefore, when in 420 B.C. the worship of Asclepius was introduced at Athens coupled with that of Hygieia, it is not to be inferred that she accompanied him from Epidaurus, or that she is a Peloponnesian importation at all. It is most probable that she was invented at the time of the introduction of Asclepius, after the sufferings caused by the plague had directed special attention to sanitary matters. The already existing worship of Athena Hygieia had nothing to do with Hygieia the goddess of health, but merely denoted the recognition of the power of healing as one of the attributes of Athena, which gradually became crystallized into a concrete personality. At first no special relationship existed between Asclepius and Hygieia, but gradually she came to be regarded as his daughter, the place of his wife being already secured by Epione. Later Orphic hymns, however, and Herodas iv. 1-9, make her the wife of Asclepius. The cult of Hygieia then spread concurrently with that of Asclepius, and was introduced at Rome from Epidaurus in 293, by which time she may have been admitted (which was not the case before) into the Epidaurian family of the god. Her proper name as a Romanized Greek importation was Valetudo, but she was gradually identified with Salus, an older genuine Italian divinity, to whom a temple had already been erected in 302. While in classical times Asclepius and Hygieia are simply the god and goddess of health, in the declining years of paganism they are protecting divinities generally, who preserve mankind not only from sickness but from all dangers on land and sea. In works of art Hygieia is represented, together with Asclepius, as a maiden of benevolent appearance, wearing the chiton and giving food or drink to a serpent out of a dish.

See the article by H. Lechat in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquités_, with full references to authorities; and E. Thrämer in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_, with a special section on the modern theories of Hygieia.

HYGIENE (Fr. _hygiène_, from Gr. [Greek: hygiainein], to be healthy), the science of preserving health, its practical aim being to render "growth more perfect, decay less rapid, life more vigorous, death more remote." The subject is thus a very wide one, embracing all the agencies which affect the physical and mental well-being of man, and it requires acquaintance with such diverse sciences as physics, chemistry, geology, engineering, architecture, meteorology, epidemiology, bacteriology and statistics. On the personal or individual side it involves consideration of the character and quality of food and of water and other beverages; of clothing; of work, exercise and sleep; of personal cleanliness, of special habits, such as the use of tobacco, narcotics, &c.; and of control of sexual and other passions. In its more general and public aspects it must take cognizance of meteorological conditions, roughly included under the term climate; of the site or soil on which dwellings are placed; of the character, materials and arrangement of dwellings, whether regarded individually or in relation to other houses among which they stand; of their heating and ventilation; of the removal of excreta and other effete matters; of medical knowledge relating to the incidence and prevention of disease; and of the disposal of the dead.

These topics will be found treated in such articles as DIETETICS, FOOD, FOOD-PRESERVATION, ADULTERATION, WATER, HEATING, VENTILATION, SEWERAGE, BACTERIOLOGY, HOUSING, CREMATION, &c. For legal enactments which concern the sanitary well-being of the community, see PUBLIC HEALTH.

HYGINUS, eighth pope. It was during his pontificate (c. 137-140) that the gnostic heresies began to manifest themselves at Rome.

HYGINUS (surnamed GROMATICUS, from _gruma_, a surveyor's measuring-rod), Latin writer on land-surveying, flourished in the reign of Trajan (A.D. 98-117). Fragments of a work on legal boundaries attributed to him will be found in C. F. Lachmann, _Gromatici Veteres_, i. (1848).

A treatise on Castrametation (_De Munitionibus Castrorum_), also attributed to him, is probably of later date, about the 3rd century A.D. (ed. W. Gemoll, 1879; A. von Domaszewski, 1887).

HYGINUS, GAIUS JULIUS, Latin author, a native of Spain (or Alexandria), was a pupil of the famous Cornelius Alexander Polyhistor and a freedman of Augustus, by whom he was made superintendent of the Palatine library (Suetonius, _De Grammaticis_, 20). He is said to have fallen into great poverty in his old age, and to have been supported by the historian Clodius Licinus. He was a voluminous author, and his works included topographical and biographical treatises, commentaries on Helvius Cinna and the poems of Virgil, and disquisitions on agriculture and bee-keeping. All these are lost.

Under the name of Hyginus two school treatises on mythology are extant: (1) _Fabularum Liber_, some 300 mythological legends and celestial genealogies, valuable for the use made by the author of the works of Greek tragedians now lost; (2) _De Astronomia_, usually called _Poetica Astronomica_, containing an elementary treatise on astronomy and the myths connected with the stars, chiefly based on the [Greek: Katasterismoi] of Eratosthenes. Both are abridgments and both are by the same hand; but the style and Latinity and the elementary mistakes (especially in the rendering of the Greek originals) are held to prove that they cannot have been the work of so distinguished a scholar as C. Julius Hyginus. It is suggested that these treatises are an abridgment (made in the latter half of the 2nd century) of the _Genealogiae_ of Hyginus by an unknown grammarian, who added a complete treatise on mythology.

EDITIONS.--_Fabulae_, by M. Schmidt (1872); _De Astronomia_, by B. Bunte (1875); see also Bunte, _De C. Julii Hygini, Augusti Liberti, Vita et Scriptis_ (1846).

HYGROMETER (Gr. [Greek: hygros], moist, [Greek: metron], a measure), an instrument for measuring the absolute or relative amount of moisture in the atmosphere; an instrument which only qualitatively determines changes in the humidity is termed a "hygroscope." The earlier instruments generally depended for their action on the contraction or extension of substances when exposed to varying degrees of moisture; catgut, hair, twisted cords and wooden laths, all of which contract with an increase in the humidity and vice versa, being the most favoured materials. The familiar "weather house" exemplifies this property. This toy consists of a house provided with two doors, through which either a man or woman appears according as the weather is about to be wet or fine. This action is effected by fixing a catgut thread to the base on which the figures are mounted, in such a manner that contraction of the thread rotates the figures so that the man appears and extension so that the woman appears.

Many of the early forms are described in C. Hutton, _Math. and Phil. Dictionary_ (1815). The modern instruments, which utilize other principles, are described in METEOROLOGY: II. _Methods and Apparatus_.

HYKSOS, or "SHEPHERD KINGS," the name of the earliest invaders of Egypt of whom we have definite evidence in tradition. Josephus (c. _Apion._ i. 14), who identifies the Hyksos with the Israelites, preserves a passage from the second book of Manetho giving an account of them. (It may be that Josephus had it, not direct from Manetho's writings, but through the garbled version of some Alexandrine compiler.) In outline it is as follows. In the days of a king of Egypt named Timaeus the land was suddenly invaded from the east by men of ignoble race, who conquered it without a struggle, destroyed cities and temples, and slew or enslaved the inhabitants. At length they elected a king named Salatis, who, residing at Memphis, made all Egypt tributary, and established garrisons in different parts, especially eastwards, fearing the Assyrians. He built also a great fortress at Avaris, in the Sethroite nome, east of the Bubastite branch of the Nile. Salatis was followed in succession by Beon, Apachnas, Apophis, Jannas and Asses. These six kings reigned 198 years and 10 months, and all aimed at extirpating the Egyptians. Their whole race was named Hyksos, i.e. "shepherd kings," and some say they were Arabs (another explanation found by Josephus is "captive shepherds"). When they and their successors had held Egypt for 511 years, the kings of the Thebais and other parts of Egypt rebelled, and a long and mighty war began. Misphragmuthosis worsted the "Shepherds" and shut them up in Avaris; and his son Thutmosis, failing to capture the stronghold, allowed them to depart; whereupon they went forth, 240,000 in number, established themselves in Judea and built Jerusalem.

In Manetho's list of kings, the six above named (with many variations in detail) form the XVth dynasty, and are called "six foreign Phoenician kings." The XVIth dynasty is of thirty-two "Hellenic (_sic?_) shepherd kings," the seventeenth is of "shepherds and Theban kings" (reigning simultaneously). The lists vary greatly in different versions, but the above seems the most reasonable selection of readings to be made. For "Hellenic" see below. The supposed connexion with the Israelites has made the problem of the Hyksos attractive, but light is coming upon it very slowly. In 1847 E. de Rougé proved from a fragment of a story in the papyri of the British Museum, that Apopi was one of the latest of the Hyksos kings, corresponding to Aphobis; he was king of the "pest" and suppressed the worship of the Egyptian gods, and endeavoured to make the Egyptians worship his god Setekh or Seti; at the same time an Egyptian named Seqenenre reigned in Thebes, more or less subject to Aphobis. The city of Hawari (Avaris) was also mentioned in the fragment.

In 1850 a record of the capture of this city from the Hyksos by Ahmosi, the founder of the eighteenth dynasty, was discovered by the same scholar. A large class of monuments was afterwards attributed to the Hyksos, probably in error. Some statues and sphinxes, found in 1861 by Mariette at Tanis (in the north-east of the Delta), which had been usurped by later kings, had peculiar "un-Egyptian" features. One of these bore the name of Apopi engraved lightly on the shoulder; this was evidently a usurper's mark, but from the whole circumstances it was concluded that these, and others of the same type of features found elsewhere, must have belonged to the Hyksos. This view held the field until 1893, when Golénischeff produced an inferior example bearing its original name, which showed that in this case it represented Amenemhe III. In consequence it is now generally believed that they all belong to the twelfth dynasty. Meanwhile a headless statue of a king named Khyan, found at Bubastis, was attributed on various grounds to the Hyksos, the soundest arguments being his foreign name and the boastful un-Egyptian epithet "beloved of his _ka_," where "beloved of Ptah" or some other god was to be expected. His name was immediately afterwards recognized on a lion found as far away from Egypt as Bagdad. Flinders Petrie then pointed out a group of kings named on scarabs of peculiar type, which, including Khyan, he attributed to the period between the Old Kingdom and the New, while others were in favour of assigning them all to the Hyksos, whose appellation seemed to be recognizable in the title Hek-khos, "ruler of the barbarians," borne by Khyan. The extraordinary importance of Khyan was further shown by the discovery of his name on a jar-lid at Cnossus in Crete. Semitic features were pointed out in the supposed Hyksos names, and Petrie was convinced of their date by his excavations of 1905-1906 in the eastern Delta. Avaris is generally assigned to the region towards Pelusium on the strength of its being located in the Sethroite nome by Josephus, but Petrie thinks it was at Tell el-Yahudiyeh (Yehudia), where Hyksos scarabs are common. From the remains of fortifications there he argues that the Hyksos were uncivilized desert people, skilled in the use of the bow, and must thus have destroyed by their archery the Egyptian armies trained to fight hand-to-hand; further, that their hordes were centered in Syria, but were driven thence by a superior force in the East to take refuge in the islands and became a sea-power--whence the strange description "Hellenic" in Manetho, which most editors have corrected to [Greek: alloi], "others." Besides the statue of Khyan, blocks of granite with the name of Apopi have been found in Upper Egypt at Gebelen and in Lower Egypt at Bubastis. The celebrated Rhind mathematical papyrus was copied in the reign of an Apopi from an original of the time of Amenemhe III. Large numbers of Hyksos scarabs are found in Upper and Lower Egypt, and they are not unknown in Palestine. Khyan's monuments, inconspicuous as they are, actually extend over a wider area--from Bagdad to Cnossus--than those of any other Egyptian king.

It is certain that this mysterious people were Asiatic, for they are called so by the Egyptians. Though Seth was an Egyptian god, as god of the Hyksos he represents some Asiatic deity. The possibility of a connexion between the Hyksos and the Israelites is still admitted in some quarters. Hatred of these impious foreigners, of which there is some trace in more than one text, aroused amongst the Egyptians (as nothing ever did before or since) that martial spirit which carried the armies of Tethmosis to the Euphrates.

Besides the histories of Egypt, see J. H. Breasted, _Ancient Records of Egypt_; Historical Documents ii. 4, 125; G. Maspero, _Contes populaires_, 3me éd. p. 236; W. M. F. Petrie, _Hyksos and Israelite Cities_, p. 67; Golénischeff in _Recueil de travaux_, xv. p. 131. (F. Ll. G.)

HYLAS, In Greek legend, son of Theiodamas, king of the Dryopians in Thessaly, the favourite of Heracles and his companion on the Argonautic expedition. Having gone ashore at Kios in Mysia to fetch water, he was carried off by the nymphs of the spring in which he dipped his pitcher. Heracles sought him in vain, and the answer of Hylas to his thrice-repeated cry was lost in the depths of the water. Ever afterwards, in memory of the threat of Heracles to ravage the land if Hylas were not found, the inhabitants of Kios every year on a stated day roamed the mountains, shouting aloud for Hylas (Apollonius Rhodius i. 1207; Theocritus xiii.; Strabo xii. 564; Propertius i. 20; Virgil, _Ecl._ vi. 43). But, although the legend is first told in Alexandrian times, the "cry of Hylas" occurs long before as the "Mysian cry" in Aeschylus (_Persae_, 1054), and in Aristophanes (_Plutus_, 1127) "to cry Hylas" is used proverbially of seeking something in vain. Hylas, like Adonis and Hyacinthus, represents the fresh vegetation of spring, or the water of a fountain, which dries up under the heat of summer. It is suggested that Hylas was a harvest deity and that the ceremony gone through by the Kians was a harvest festival, at which the figure of a boy was thrown into the water, signifying the dying vegetation-spirit of the year.

See G. Türk in _Breslauer Philologische Abhandlungen_, vii. (1895); W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (1884).

HYLOZOISM (Gr. [Greek: hylê], matter, [Greek: zôê], life), in philosophy, a term applied to any system which explains all life, whether physical or mental, as ultimately derived from matter ("cosmic matter," _Weldstoff_). Such a view of existence has been common throughout the history of thought, and especially among physical scientists. Thus the Ionian school of philosophy, which began with Thales, sought for the beginning of all things in various material substances, water, air, fire (see IONIAN SCHOOL). These substances were regarded as being in some sense alive, and taking some active part in the development of being. This primitive hylozoism reappeared in modified forms in medieval and Renaissance thought, and in modern times the doctrine of materialistic monism is its representative. Between modern materialism and hylozoism proper there is, however, the distinction that the ancients, however vaguely, conceived the elemental matter as being in some sense animate if not actually conscious and conative.

HYMEN, or HYMENAEUS, originally the name of the song sung at marriages among the Greeks. As usual the name gradually produced the idea of an actual person whose adventures gave rise to the custom of this song. He occurs often in association with Linus and Ialemus, who represent similar personifications, and is generally called a son of Apollo and a Muse. As the son of Dionysus and Aphrodite, he was regarded as a god of fruitfulness. In Attic legend he was a beautiful youth who, being in love with a girl, followed her in a procession to Eleusis disguised as a woman, and saved the whole band from pirates. As reward he obtained the girl in marriage, and his happy married life caused him ever afterwards to be invoked in marriage songs (Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ i. 651). According to another story, he was a youth who was killed by the fall of his house on his wedding day; hence he was invoked, to propitiate him and avert a similar fate from others (Servius, loc. cit.). He is represented in works of art as an effeminate-looking, winged youth, carrying a bridal torch and wearing a nuptial veil. The marriage song was sung, with musical accompaniment, during the procession of the bride from her parents' house to that of the bridegroom, Hymenaeus being invoked at the end of each portion.

See R. Schmidt, _De Hymenaeo el Talasio_ (1886), and J. A. Hild in Daremberg and Saglis's _Dictionnaire des antiquités_.

HYMENOPTERA (Gr. [Greek: hymên], a membrane, and [Greek: pteron], a wing), a term used in zoological classification for one of the most important orders of the class _Hexapoda_ (q.v.). The order was founded by Linnaeus (_Systema Naturae_, 1735), and is still recognized by all naturalists in the sense proposed by him, to include the saw-flies, gall-flies, ichneumon-flies and their allies, ants, wasps and bees. The relationship of the Hymenoptera to other orders of insects is discussed in the article HEXAPODA, but it may be mentioned here that in structure the highest members of the order are remarkably specialized, and that in the perfection of their instincts they stand at the head of all insects and indeed of all invertebrate animals. About 30,000 species of Hymenoptera are now known.

[Illustration: After C. L. Marlatt, _Bur. Ent. Bull. 3, N.S., U.S. Dept. Agric._

FIG. 1.--A, Front of head of Saw-fly (_Pachynematus_); a, labrum; b, clypeus; c, vertex; d, d, antennal cavities. C and D, Mandibles. E, First maxilla; a, cardo; b, stipes; c, galea; d, lacinia; e, palp. B, Second maxillae (Labium); a, mentum; b, ligula (between the two galeae); c, c, palps. Magnified.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Jaws of Hive-bee (_Apis mellifica_). Magnified about 6½ times. a, mandible; b, c, palp and lacinia of first maxilla; d, e, g, h, mentum, palp, fused laciniae (ligula or "tongue") and galea of 2nd maxillae.]

[Illustration: After C. Janet, _Mem. Soc. Zool. France_ (1898).

FIG. 3.--Median section through mid-body of female Red Ant (_Myrmica rubra_). H, Head; 1, 2, 3, the thoracic segments; i., ii., the first and second abdominal segments; i., being the propodeum.]

_Characters._--In all Hymenoptera the mandibles (fig. 1, C, D) are well developed, being adapted, as in the more lowly winged insects, such as the Orthoptera, for biting. The more generalized Hymenoptera have the second maxillae but slightly modified, their inner lobes being fused to form a _ligula_ (fig. 1, B, b). In the higher families this structure becomes elongated (fig. 2, g) so as to form an elaborate sucking-organ or "tongue." These insects are able, therefore, to bite as well as to suck, whereas most insects which have acquired the power of suction have lost that of biting. Both fore- and hind-wings are usually present, both pairs being membranous, the hind-wings small and not folded when at rest, each provided along the costa with a row of curved hooks which catch on to a fold along the dorsum of the adjacent fore-wing during flight. A large number of Hymenoptera are, however, entirely wingless--at least as regards one sex or form of the species. One of the most remarkable features is the close union of the foremost abdominal segment (fig. 3, i.) with the metathorax, of which it often seems to form a part, the apparent first abdominal segment being, in such case, really the second (fig. 3, ii.). The true first segment, which undergoes a more or less complete fusion with the thorax is known as the "median segment" or _propodeum_. In female Hymenoptera the typical insectan ovipositor with its three pairs of processes is well developed, and in the higher families this organ becomes functional as a sting (fig. 5),--used for offence and defence. As regards their life history, all Hymenoptera undergo a "complete" metamorphosis. The larva is soft-skinned (eruciform), being either a caterpillar (fig. 6, b) or a legless grub (fig. 7, a), and the pupa is free (fig. 7, c), i.e. with the appendages not fixed to the body, as is the case in the pupa of most moths.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Fore-Wings of Hymenoptera.

1. Tenthredinidae (_Hylotoma_)-- 1, marginal; 2, appendicular; 3, 4, 5, 6, radial or submarginal; 7, 8, 9, median or discoidal; 10, sub-costal; 11, 12, cubital or branchial; and 13, anal or lanceolate cellules; a, b, c, submarginal nervures; d, basal nervures; e, f, recurrent nervures; st, stigma; co, costa. 2. Cynipidae (_Cynips_). 3. Chalcididae (_Perilampus_). 4. Proctotrypidae (_Codrus_). 5. Mymaridae (_Mymar_). 6. Braconidae (_Bracon_). 7. Ichneumonidae (_Trogus_). 8. Chrysididae (_Cleptes_). 9. Formicidae (_Formica_). 10. Vespidae (_Vespa_). 11. Apidae (_Apathus_).]

_Structure._--The head of a hymenopterous insect bears three simple eyes (ocelli) on the front and vertex in addition to the large compound eyes. The feelers are generally simple in type, rarely showing serrations or prominent appendages; but one or two basal segments are frequently differentiated to form an elongate "scape," the remaining segments--carried at an elbowed angle to the scape--making up the "flagellum"; the segments of the flagellum often bear complex sensory organs. The general characters of the jaws have been mentioned above, and in detail there is great variation in these organs among the different families. The sucking tongue of the Hymenoptera has often been compared with the hypopharynx of other insects. According to D. Sharp, however, the hypopharynx is present in all Hymenoptera as a distinct structure at the base of the "tongue," which must be regarded as representing the fused laciniae of the second maxillae. In the thorax the pronotum and prosternum are closely associated with the mesothorax, but the pleura of the prothorax are usually shifted far forwards, so that the fore-legs are inserted just behind the head. A pair of small plates--the tegulae--are very generally present at the bases of the fore-wings. The union of the first abdominal segment with the metathorax has been already mentioned. The second (so-called "first") abdominal segment is often very constricted, forming the "waist" so characteristic of wasps and ants for example. The constriction of this segment and its very perfect articulation with the propodeum give great mobility to the abdomen, so that the ovipositor or sting can be used with the greatest possible accuracy and effect.

Mention has already been made of the series of curved hooks along the costa of the hind-wing; by means of this arrangement the two wings of a side are firmly joined together during flight, which thus becomes

## particularly accurate. The wings in the Hymenoptera show a marked

reduction in the number of nervures as compared with more primitive insects. The main median nervure, and usually also the sub-costal become united with the radial, while the branches of radial, median and cubital nervures pursuing a transverse or recurrent course across the wing, divide its area into a number of areolets or "cells," that are of importance in classification. Among many of the smaller Hymenoptera we find that the wings are almost destitute of nervures. In the hind-wings--on account of their reduced size--the nervures are even more reduced than in the fore-wings.

The legs of Hymenoptera are of the typical insectan form, and the foot is usually composed of five segments. In many families the trochanter appears to be represented by two small segments, there being thus an extra joint in the leg. It is almost certain that the distal of these two segments really belongs to the thigh, but the ordinary nomenclature will be used in the present article, as this character is of great importance in discriminating families, and the two segments in question are referred to the trochanter by most systematic writers.

[Illustration: After C. Janet, _Aiguillon de la Myrmica rubra_ (Paris, 1898).

FIG. 5.--Ovipositor or Sting of Red Ant (_Myrmica rubra_) Queen. Magnified. The right sheath C (outer process of the ninth abdominal segment--9) is shown in connexion with the guide B formed by the inner processes of the 9th segment. The stylet A (process of the 8th abdominal segment--8) is turned over to show its groove a, which works along the tongue or rail b.]

The typical insectan ovipositor, so well developed among the Hymenoptera, consists of three pairs of processes (gonapophyses) two of which belong to the ninth abdominal segment and one to the eighth. The latter are the cutting or piercing stylets (fig. 5, A) of the ovipositor, while the two outer processes of the ninth segment are modified into sheaths or feelers (fig. 5, C) and the two inner processes form a guide (fig. 5, B) on which the stylets work, tongues or rails on the "guide" fitting accurately into longitudinal grooves on the stylet. In the different families of the Hymenoptera, there are various modifications of the ovipositor, in accord with the habits of the insects and the purposes to which the organ is put. The sting of wasps, ants and bees is a modified ovipositor and is used for egg-laying by the fertile females, as well as for defence. Most male Hymenoptera have processes which form claspers or genital armature. These processes are not altogether homologous with those of the ovipositor, being formed by inner and outer lobes of a pair of structures on the ninth abdominal segment.

Many points of interest are to be noted in the internal structure of the Hymenoptera. The gullet leads into a moderate-sized crop, and several pairs of salivary glands open into the mouth. The crop is followed by a proventriculus which, in the higher Hymenoptera, forms the so-called "honey stomach," by the contraction of whose wails the solid and liquid food can be separated, passed on into the digestive stomach, or held in the crop ready for regurgitation into the mouth. Behind the digestive stomach are situated, as usual, intestine and rectum, and the number of kidney (Malpighian) tubes varies from only six to over a hundred, being usually great.

In the female, each ovary consists of a large number of ovarian tubes, in which swollen chambers containing the egg-cells alternate with smaller chambers enclosing nutrient material. In connexion with the ovipositor are two poison-glands, one acid and the other alkaline in its secretion. The acid gland consists of one, two or more tubes, with a cellular coat of several layers, opening into a reservoir whence the duct leads to the exterior. The alkaline gland is an irregular tube with a single cellular layer, its duct opening alongside that of the acid reservoir. These glands are most strongly developed when the ovipositor is modified into a sting.

_Development._--Parthenogenesis is of normal occurrence in the life-cycle of many Hymenoptera. There are species of gall-fly in which males are unknown, the unfertilized eggs always developing into females. On the other hand, in certain saw-flies and among the higher families, the unfertilized eggs, capable of development, usually give rise to male insects (see BEE). The larvae of most saw-flies feeding on the leaves of plants are caterpillars (fig. 6, b) with numerous abdominal pro-legs, but in most families of Hymenoptera the egg is laid in such a situation that an abundant food-supply is assured without exertion on the part of the larva, which is consequently a legless grub, usually white in colour, and with soft flexible cuticle (fig. 7, a). The organs and instincts for egg-laying and food-providing are perhaps the most remarkable features in the economy of the Hymenoptera. Gall-fly grubs are provided with vegetable food through the eggs being laid by the mother insect within plant tissues. The ichneumon pierces the body of a caterpillar and lays her eggs where the grubs will find abundant animal food. A digging-wasp hunts for insect prey and buries it with the egg, while a true wasp feeds her brood with captured insects, as a bird her fledglings. Bees store honey and pollen to serve as food for their young. Thus we find throughout the order a degree of care for offspring unreached by other insects, and this family-life has, in the best known of the Hymenoptera--ants, wasps and bees--developed into an elaborate social organization.

_Social Life._--The development of a true insect society among the Hymenoptera is dependent on a differentiation among the females between individuals with well-developed ovaries ("queens") whose special function is reproduction; and individuals with reduced or aborted ovaries ("workers") whose duty is to build the nest, to gather food and to tend and feed the larvae. Among the wasps the workers may only differ from the queens in size, and individuals intermediate between the two forms of female may be met with. Further, the queen wasp, and also the queen humble-bee, commences unaided the work of building and founding a new nest, being afterwards helped by her daughters (the workers) when these have been developed. In the hive-bee and among ants, on the other hand, there are constant structural distinctions between queen and worker, and the function of the queen bee in a hive is confined to egg-laying, the labour of the community being entirely done by the workers. Many ants possess several different forms of worker, adapted for special duties. Details of this fascinating subject are given in the special articles ANT, BEE and WASP (q.v.).

_Habits and Distribution._--Reference has been already made to the various methods of feeding practised by Hymenoptera in the larval stage, and the care taken of or for the young throughout the order leads in many cases to the gathering of such food by the mother or nurse. Thus, wasps catch flies; worker ants make raids and carry off weak insects of many kinds; bees gather nectar from flowers and transform it into honey within their stomachs--largely for the sake of feeding the larvae in the nest. The feeding habits of the adult may agree with that of the larva, or differ, as in the ease of wasps which feed their grubs on flies, but eat principally vegetable food themselves. The nest-building habit is similarly variable. Digging wasps make simple holes in the ground; many burrowing bees form branching tunnels; other bees excavate timber or make their brood-chambers in hollow plant-stems; wasps work up with their saliva vegetable fibres bitten off tree-bark to make paper; social bees produce from glands in their own bodies the wax whence their nest-chambers are built. The inquiline habit ("cuckoo-parasitism"), when one species makes use of the labour of another by invading the nest and laying her eggs there, is of frequent occurrence among Hymenoptera; and in some cases the larva of the intruder is not content with taking the store of food provided, but attacks and devours the larva of the host.

Most Hymenoptera are of moderate or small size, the giants of the order--certain saw-flies and tropical digging-wasps--never reach the bulk attained by the largest beetles, while the wing-spread is narrow compared with that of many dragon-flies and moths. On the other hand, there are thousands of very small species, and the tiny "fairy-flies" (_Mymaridae_), whose larvae live as parasites in the eggs of various insects, are excessively minute for creatures of such complex organization. Hymenoptera are probably less widely distributed than Aptera, Coleoptera or Diptera, but they are to be found in all except the most inhospitable regions of the globe. The order is, with few exceptions, terrestrial or aerial in habit. Comparatively only a few species are, for part of their lives, denizens of fresh water; these, as larvae, are parasitic on the eggs or larvae of other aquatic insects, the little hymenopteron, _Polynema natans_, one of the "fairy-flies"--swims through the water by strokes of her delicate wings in search of a dragon-fly's egg in which to lay her own egg, while the rare _Agriotypus_ dives after the case of a caddis-worm. It is of interest that the waters have been invaded by the parasitic group of the Hymenoptera, since in number of species this is by far the largest of the order. No group of terrestrial insects escapes their attacks--even larvae boring in wood are detected by ichneumon flies with excessively long ovipositors. Not a few cases are known in which a parasitic larva is itself pierced by the ovipositor of a "hyperparasite," and even the offspring of the latter may itself fall a victim to the attack of a "tertiary parasite."

_Fossil History._--Very little is known of the history of the Hymenoptera previous to the Tertiary epoch, early in which, as we know from the evidence of many Oligocene and Miocene fossils, all the more important families had been differentiated. Fragments of wings from the Lias and Oolitic beds have been referred to ants and bees, but the true nature of these remains is doubtful.

_Classification._--Linnaeus divided the Hymenoptera into two sections--the Terebrantia, whose females possess a cutting or piercing ovipositor, and the Aculeata, in which the female organ is modified into a sting. This nomenclature was adopted by P. A. Latreille and has been in general use until the present day. A closely similar division of the order results from T. Hartig's character drawn from the trochanter--whether of two segments or undivided--the groups being termed respectively Ditrocha and Monotrocha. But the most natural division is obtained by the separation of the saw-flies as a primitive sub-order, characterized by the imperfect union of the first abdominal segment with the thorax, and by the broad base of the abdomen, so that there is no median constriction or "waist," and by the presence of thoracic legs--usually also of abdominal pro-legs--in the larva. All the other families of Hymenoptera, including the gall-flies, ichneumons and aculeates, have the first abdominal segment closely united with the thorax, the second abdominal segment constricted so as to form a narrow stalk or "waist," and legless larvae without a hinder outlet to the food-canal. These two sub-orders are usually known as the _Sessiliventra_ and _Petioliventra_ respectively, but the names _Symphyta_ and _Apocrita_ proposed in 1867 by C. Gerstaecker have priority, and should not be replaced.

_Symphyta._

This sub-order, characterized by the "sessile," broad-based abdomen, whose first segment is imperfectly united with the thorax, and by the usually caterpillar-like larvae with legs, includes the various groups of saw-flies. Three leading families may be mentioned. The _Cephidae_, or stem saw-flies, have an elongate pronotum, a compressed abdomen, and a single spine on the shin of the fore-leg. The soft, white larvae have the thoracic legs very small and feed in the stems of various plants. _Cephus pygmaeus_ is a well-known enemy of corn crops. The _Siricidae_ ("wood-wasps") are large elongate insects also with one spine on each fore-shin, but with the pronotum closely joined to the mesothorax. The ovipositor is long and prominent, enabling the female insect to lay her eggs in the wood of trees, where the white larvae, whose legs are excessively short, tunnel and feed. These insects are adorned with bands of black and yellow, or with bright metallic colours, and on account of their large size and formidable ovipositors they often cause needless alarm to persons unfamiliar with their habits. The _Tenthredinidae_, or true saw-flies, are distinguished by two spines on each fore-shin, while the larvae are usually caterpillars, with three pairs of thoracic legs, and from six to eight pairs of abdominal pro-legs the latter not possessing the hooks found on the pro-legs of lepidopterous caterpillars. Most saw-fly larvae devour leaves, and the beautifully serrate processes of the ovipositor are well adapted for egg-laying in plant tissues. Some saw-fly larvae are protected by a slimy secretion (fig. 6, c) and a few live concealed in galls. In the form of the feelers, the wing-neuration and minor structural details there is much diversity among the saw-flies. They have been usually regarded as a single family, but W. H. Ashmead has lately differentiated eleven families of them.

_Apocrita._

This sub-order includes the vast majority of the Hymenoptera, characterized by the narrowly constricted waist in the adult and by the legless condition of the larva. The trochanter is simple in some genera and divided in others. With regard to the minor divisions of this group, great difference of opinion has prevailed among students. In his recent classification Ashmead (1901) recognizes seventy-nine families arranged under eight "super-families." The number of species included in this division is enormous, and the multiplication of families is, to some extent, a natural result of increasingly close study. But the distinctions between many of these rest on comparatively slight characters, and it is likely that the future discovery of new genera may abolish many among such distinctions as may now be drawn. It seems advisable, therefore, in the present article to retain the wider conception of the family that has hitherto contented most writers on the Hymenoptera. Ashmead's "super-families" have, however, been adopted as--founded on definite structural characters--they probably indicate relationship more nearly than the older divisions founded mostly on habit. The Cynipoidea include the gall-flies and their parasitic relations. In the Chalcidoidea, Ichneumonoidea and Proctotrypoidea will be found nearly all the "parasitic Hymenoptera" of older classifications. The Formicoidea are the ants. The group of Fossores, or "digging-wasps," is divided by Ashmead, one section forming the Sphecoidea, while the other, together with the Chrysidae and the true wasps, make up the Vespoidea. The Apoidea consists of the bees only.

[Illustration: After Marlatt, _Ent. Circ._ 26, U.S. Dept. Agric.

FIG. 6.--a, Pear Saw-fly (_Eriocampoides limacina_); b, larva without, and c, with its slimy protective coat; e, cocoon; f, larva before pupation; g, pupa, magnified; d, leaves with larvae.]

[Illustration: After Howard, _Ent. Tech. Bull._ 5 U.S. Dept. Agric.

FIG. 7.--Chalcid (_Dibrachys boucheanus_), a hyper-parasite.

a, Larva. d, Its head more highly magnified. b, Female fly. c, Pupa of male. e, Feeler.]

_Cynipoidea._--In this division the ovipositor issues from the ventral surface of the abdomen; the pronotum reaches back to the tegulae; the trochanter has two segments; the fore-wing (fig. 4, 2) has no stigma, but one or two areolets. The feelers with twelve to fifteen segments are thread-like and straight. All the insects included in this group are small and form two families--the Cynipidae and the Figitidae. They are the "gall-flies," many of the species laying eggs in various plant-tissues where the presence of the larva causes the formation of a pathological growth or gall, always of a definite form and characteristic of the species; the "oak-apple" and the bedeguar of the rose are familiar examples. Other flies of this group have the inquiline habit, laying their eggs in the galls of other species, while others again pierce the cuticle of maggots or aphids, in whose bodies their larvae live as parasites.

_Chalcidoidea._--This division resembles the Cynipoidea in the position of the ovipositor, and in the two segmented trochanters. The fore-wing also has no stigma, and the whole wing is almost destitute of nervures and areolets, while the pronotum does not reach back to the tegulae, and the feelers are elbowed (fig. 7). The vast majority of this group, including nearly 5000 known species, are usually reckoned as a single family, the _Chalcididae_, comprising small insects, often of bright metallic colours, whose larvae are parasitic in insects of various orders. The "fig-insects," whose presence in ripening figs is believed essential to the proper development of the fruit, belong to _Blastophaga_ and other genera of this family. They are remarkable in having wingless males and winged females. The "polyembryonic" development of an _Encyrtus_, as studied by P. Marchal, is highly remarkable. The female lays her egg in the egg of a small ermine moth (_Hyponomeuta_) and the egg gives rise not to a single embryo but to a hundred, which develop as the host-caterpillar develops, being found at a later stage within the latter enveloped in a flexible tube.

The _Mymaridae_ or "fairy-flies" are distinguished from the _Chalcididae_ by their narrow fringed wings (figs. 4, 5) and by the situation of the ovipositor just in front of the tip of the abdomen. They are among the most minute of all insects and their larvae are probably all parasitic in insects' eggs.

[Illustration: After Riley and Howard, _Insect Life_, vol. i.

FIG. 8.--Ichneumon Fly (_Rhyssa per-suasoria_) ovipositing.]

_Ichneumonoidea._--The ten thousand known species included in this group agree with the Cynipoidea and Chalcidoidea in the position of the ovipositor and in the jointed trochanters, but are distinguished by the fore-wing possessing a distinct stigma and usually a typical series of nervures and areolets (figs. 4, 8). Many of the species are of fair size. They lay their eggs (fig. 8) in the bodies of insects and their larvae belonging to various orders. A few small families such as the _Evaniidae_ and the _Stephanidae_ are included here, but the vast majority of the group fall into two large families, the _Ichneumonidae_ and the _Braconidae_, the former distinguished by the presence of two median (or discoidal) cells in the fore-wing (figs. 4, 7), while the latter has only one (figs. 4, 6). Not a few of these insects, however, are entirely wingless. On account of their work in destroying plant-eating insects, the ichneumon-flies are of great economic importance.

_Proctotrypoidea._--This group may be distinguished from the preceding by the position of the ovipositor at the extreme apex of the abdomen, and from the groups that follow (with very few exceptions) by the jointed trochanters of the legs. The pronotum reaches back to the tegulae. The _Pelecinidae_--included here by Ashmead--are large insects with remarkably elongate abdomens and undivided trochanters. All the other members of the group may be regarded as forming a single family--the _Proctotrypidae_, including an immense number of small parasitic Hymenoptera, not a few of which are wingless. Of special interest are the transformations of _Platygaster_, belonging to this family, discovered by M. Ganin, and familiarized to English readers through the writings of Sir J. Lubbock (Lord Avebury). The first larva is broad in front and tapers behind to a "tail" provided with two divergent processes, so that it resembles a small crustacean. It lives in the grub of a gall-midge and it ultimately becomes changed into the usual white and fleshy hymenopterous larva. The four succeeding sections, in which the ovipositor is modified into a sting (always exserted from the tip of the abdomen) and the trochanters are with few exceptions simple, form the _Aculeata_ of Linnaeus.

_Formicoidea._--The ants which form this group are readily distinguished by the differentiation of the females into winged "queens" and wingless "workers." The pronotum extends back to the wing-bases, and the "waist" is greatly constricted and marked by one or two "nodes." The differentiation of the females leads to a complex social life, the nesting habits of ants and the various industries that they pursue being of surpassing interest (see ANT).

_Vespoidea._--This section includes a number of families characterized by the backward extension of the prothorax to the tegulae and distinguished from the ants by the absence of "nodes" at the base of the abdomen. The true wasps have the fore-wings folded lengthwise when at rest and the fore-legs of normal build--not specialized for digging. The _Vespidae_ or social wasps have "queens" and "workers" like the ants, but both these forms of female are winged; the claws on their fret are simple. In the _Eumenidae_ or solitary wasps the female sex is undifferentiated, and the foot claws are toothed. (For the habits of these insects see WASP.) The _Chrysididae_ or ruby wasps are small insects with a very hard cuticle exhibiting brilliant metallic colours--blue, green and crimson. Only three or four abdominal segments are visible, the hinder segments being slender and retracted to form a telescope-like tube in which the ovipositor lies. When the ovipositor is brought into use this tube is thrust out. The eggs are laid in the nests of various bees and wasps, the chrysid larva living as a "cuckoo" parasite. The _Trigonalidae_, a small family whose larvae are parasitic in wasps' nests, also probably belong here.

The other families of the _Vespoidea_ belong to the series of "Fossores" or digging-wasps. In two of the families--the _Mutillidae_ and _Thynnidae_--the females are wingless and the larvae live as parasites in the larvae of other insects; the female _Mutilla_ enters bumble-bees' nests and lays her eggs in the bee-grubs. In the other families both sexes are winged, and the instinct and industry of the females are among the most wonderful in the Hymenoptera. They make burrows wherein they place insects or spiders which they have caught and stung, laying their eggs beside the victim so that the young larvae find themselves in presence of an abundant and appropriate food-supply. Valuable observations on the habits of these insects are due to J. H. Fabre and G. W. and E. Peckham. The prey is sometimes stung in the neighbourhood of the nerve ganglia, so that it is paralysed but not killed, the grub of the fossorial wasp devouring its victim alive; but this instinct varies in perfection, and in many cases the larva flourishes equally whether its prey be killed or not. The females have a wonderful power of finding their burrows on returning from their hunting expeditions. Among the Vespoid families of fossorial wasps, the _Pompilidae_ are the most important. They are recognizable by their slender and elongate hind-legs; many of them provision their burrows with spiders. The _Sapygidae_ are parasitic on bees, while the _Scoliidae_ are large, robust and hairy insects, many of which prey upon the grubs of chafers.

_Sphecoidea._--In this division are included the rest of the "digging-wasps," distinguished from the _Vespoidea_ by the short pronotum not reaching backward to the tegulae. They have usually been reckoned as forming a single, very large family--the _Sphegidae_--but ten or twelve subdivisions of the group are regarded as distinct families by Ashmead and others. Great diversity is shown in the details of structure, habits and nature of the prey. Species of _Sphex_, studied by Fabre, provisioned their brood-chambers with crickets. _Pelopoeus_ hunts spiders, while _Ammophila_ catches caterpillars for the benefit of her young. Fabre states that the last-named insect uses a stone for the temporary closing of her burrow, and the Peckhams have seen a female _Ammophila_ take a stone between her mandibles and use it as a hammer for pounding down the earth over her finished nest. The habits of _Bembex_ are of especial interest. The female, instead of provisioning her burrow with a supply of food that will suffice the larva for its whole life, brings fresh flies with which she regularly feeds her young. In this instinct we have a correspondence with the habits of social wasps and bees. Yet it may be thought that the usual instinct of the "digging-wasps" to capture and store up food in an underground burrow for the benefit of offspring which they will never see is even more surprising. The habit of some genera is to catch the prey before making their tunnel, but more frequently the insect digs her nest, and then hunts for prey to put into it.

_Apoidea._--The bees which make up this group agree with the Sphecoidea in the short pronotum, but may be distinguished from all other Hymenoptera by the widened first tarsal segment and the plumose hairs on head and body. They are usually regarded as forming a single family--the _Apidae_--but there is very great diversity in structural details, and Ashmead divides them into fourteen families. The "tongue," for example, is short and obtuse or emarginate in _Colletes_ and _Prosopis_, while in all other bees it is pointed at the tip. But in _Andrena_ and its allies it is comparatively short, while in the higher genera, such as _Apis_ and _Bombus_, it is elongate and flexible, forming a most elaborate and perfect organ for taking liquid food. Bees feed on honey and pollen. Most of the genera are "solitary" in habit, the female sex being undifferentiated; but among the humble-bees and hive-bees we find, as in social wasps and ants, the occurrence of workers, and the consequent elaboration of a wonderful insect-society. (See BEE.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature of several special families of the Hymenoptera will be found under the articles ANT, BEE, ICHNEUMON-FLY, WASP, &c., referred to above. Among earlier students on structure may be mentioned P. A. Latreille, _Familles naturelles du règne animal_ (Paris, 1825), who recognized the nature of the "median segment." C. Gerstaecker (_Arch. f. Naturg._ xx., 1867) and F. Brauer (_Sitzb. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien._ lxxxv., 1883) should also be consulted on this subject. For internal anatomy, specially the digestive organs, see L. Dufour, _Mém. savants étrangers_, vii. (1841), and _Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool._ (4), i. 1854. For nervous system H. Viallanes, _Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool._ (7), ii. iv. 1886-1887, and F. C. Kenyon, _Journ. Comp. Neurol._ vi., 1896. For poison and other glands, see L. Bordas, _Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool._ (7) xix., 1895. For the sting and ovipositor H. Dewitz, _Zeits. wiss. Zool._ xxv., 1874, xxviii., 1877, and F. Zander, _ib._ lxvi., 1899. For male genital armature S. A. Peytoureau, _Morphologie de l'armure génitale des insectes_ (Bordeaux, 1895), and E. Zander, Zeits. wiss. Zool. lxvii., 1900. The systematic student of Hymenoptera is greatly helped by C. G. de Dalla Torre's _Catalogus Hymenopterorum_ (10 vols., Leipzig, 1893-1902). For general classifications see F. W. Konow, _Entom. Nachtr._ (1897), and W. H. Ashmead, _Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus._ xxiii., 1901; the latter paper deals also especially with the Ichneumonoidea of the globe. For habits and life histories of Hymenoptera see J. Lubbock (Lord Avebury), _Ants, Bees and Wasps_ (9th ed., London, 1889); C. Janet, _Études sur les fourmis, les guêpes et les abeilles_ (Paris, &c., 1893 and onwards); and G. W. and E. G. Peckham, _Instincts and Habits of Solitary Wasps_ (Madison, Wis. U.S.A., 1898). Monographs of most of the families of British Hymenoptera have now been published. For saw-flies and gall-flies, see P. Cameron's _British Phytophagous Hymenoptera_ (4 vols., London, _Roy. Soc._, 1882-1893). For Ichneumonoidea, C. Morley's _Ichneumons of Great Britain_ (Plymouth, 1903, &c.), and T. A. Marshall's "British Braconidae," _Trans. Entom. Soc._, 1885-1899. The smaller parasitic Hymenoptera have been neglected in this country since A. H. Haliday's classical papers _Entom. Mag._ i.-v., (1833-1838) but Ashmead's "North American Proctotrypidae" (_Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus._ xlv., 1893) is valuable for the European student. For the Fossores, wasps, ants and bees see E. Saunders, _Hymenoptera Aculeata of the British Islands_ (London, 1896). Exhaustive references to general systematic works will be found in de Dalla Torre's _Catalogue_ mentioned above. Of special value to English students are C. T. Bingham's _Fauna of British India_, "Hymenoptera" (London, 1897 and onwards), and P. Cameron's volumes on Hymenoptera in the _Biologia Centrali-Americana_. F. Smith's _Catalogues of Hymenoptera in the British Museum_ (London, 1853-1859) are well worthy of study. (G. H. C.)

HYMETTUS (Ital. Monte Matto, hence the modern name Trello Vouni), a mountain in Attica, bounding the Athenian plain on the S.E. Height, 3370 ft. It was famous in ancient times for its bees, which gathered honey of peculiar flavour from its aromatic herbs; their fame still persists. The spring mentioned by Ovid (_Ars Amat._ iii. 687) is probably to be recognized near the monastery of Syriani or Kaesariani on the western slope. This may be identical with that known as [Greek: Kyllon Pêra], said to be a remedy for barrenness in women. The marble of Hymettus, which often has a bluish tinge, was used extensively for building in ancient Athens, and also, in early times, for sculpture; but the white marble of Pentelicus was preferred for both purposes.

See E. Dodwell, _Classical and Topographical Tour_ (1819), i. 483.

HYMNS.--1. _Classical Hymnody._--The word "hymn" ([Greek: hymnos]) was employed by the ancient Greeks[1] to signify a song or poem composed in honour of gods, heroes or famous men, or to be recited on some joyful, mournful or solemn occasion. Polymnia was the name of their lyric muse. Homer makes Alcinous entertain Odysseus with a "hymn" of the minstrel Demodocus, on the capture of Troy by the wooden horse. The _Works and Days_ of Hesiod begins with an invocation to the Muses to address hymns to Zeus, and in his _Theogonia_ he speaks of them as singing or inspiring "hymns" to all the divinities, and of the bard as "their servant, hymning the glories of men of old, and of the gods of Olympus." Pindar calls by this name odes, like his own, in praise of conquerors at the public games of Greece. The Athenian dramatists (Euripides most frequently) use the word and its cognate verbs in a similar manner; they also describe by them metrical oracles and apophthegms, martial, festal and hymeneal songs, dirges and lamentations or incantations of woe.

Hellenic hymns, according to this conception of them, have come down to us, some from a very early and others from a late period of Greek classical literature. Those which passed by the name of Homer[2] were already old in the time of Thucydides. They are mythological poems (several of them long), in hexameter verse--some very interesting. That to Apollo contains a traditionary history of the origin and progress of the Delphic worship; those on Hermes and on Dionysus are marked by much liveliness and poetical fancy. Hymns of a like general character, but of less interest (though these also embody some fine poetical traditions of the Greek mythology, such as the story of Teiresias, and that of the wanderings of Leto), were written in the 3rd century before Christ, by Callimachus of Cyrene. Cleanthes, the successor of Zeno, composed (also in hexameters) an "excellent and devout hymn" (as it is justly called by Cudworth, in his _Intellectual System_) to Zeus, which is preserved in the _Eclogae_ of Stobaeus, and from which Aratus borrowed the words, "For we are also His offspring," quoted by St Paul at Athens. The so-called Orphic hymns, in hexameter verse, styled [Greek: teletai], or hymns of initiation into the "mysteries" of the Hellenic religion, are productions of the Alexandrian school,--as to which learned men are not agreed whether they are earlier or later than the Christian era.

The Romans did not adopt the word "hymn"; nor have we many Latin poems of the classical age to which it can properly be applied. There are, however, a few--such as the simple and graceful "Dianae sumus in fide" ("Dian's votaries are we") of Catullus, and "Dianam tenerae dicite virgines" ("Sing to Dian, gentle maidens") of Horace--which approach much more nearly than anything Hellenic to the form and character of modern hymnody.

2. _Hebrew Hymnody._--For the origin and idea of Christian hymnody we must look, not to Gentile, but to Hebrew sources. St Augustine's definition of a hymn, generally accepted by Christian antiquity, may be summed up in the words, "praise to God with song" ("cum cantico"); Bede understood the "canticum" as properly requiring metre; though he thought that what in its original language was a true hymn might retain that character in an unmetrical translation. Modern use has enlarged the definition; Roman Catholic writers extend it to the praises of saints; and the word now comprehends rhythmical prose as well as verse, and prayer and spiritual meditation as well as praise.

The modern distinction between psalms and hymns is arbitrary (see PSALMS). The former word was used by the LXX. as a generic designation, probably because it implied an accompaniment by the psaltery (said by Eusebius to have been of very ancient use in the East) or other instruments. The cognate verb "psallere" has been constantly applied to hymns, both in the Eastern and in the Western Church; and the same compositions which they described generically as "psalms" were also called by the LXX. "odes" (i.e. songs) and "hymns." The latter word occurs, e.g. in Ps. lxxii. 20 ("the hymns of David the son of Jesse"), in Ps. lxv. 1, and also in the Greek titles of the 6th, 54th, 55th, 67th and 76th (this numbering of the psalms being that of the English version, not of the LXX.). The 44th chapter of Ecclesiasticus, "Let us now praise famous men," &c., is entitled in the Greek [Greek: paterôn hymnos], "The Fathers' Hymn." Bede speaks of the whole book of Psalms as called "liber hymnorum," by the universal consent of Hebrews, Greeks and Latins.

In the New Testament we find our Lord and His apostles singing a hymn ([Greek: hymnêsantes exêlthon]), after the institution of the Lord's Supper; St Paul and Silas doing the same ([Greek: hymnoun ton theon]) in their prison at Philippi; St James recommending psalm-singing ([Greek: psalletô]), and St Paul "psalms and hymns and spiritual songs" ([Greek: psalmois kai hymnois kai ôdais pneumatikais]) St Paul also, in the 14th chapter of the first epistle to the Corinthians, speaks of singing ([Greek: psalô]) and of every man's psalm ([Greek: hekastos hymôn psalmon echei]). In a context which plainly has reference to the assemblies of the Corinthian Christians for common worship. All the words thus used were applied by the LXX. to the Davidical psalms; it is therefore possible that these only may be intended, in the different places to which we have referred. But there are in St Paul's epistles several passages (Eph. v. 14; 1 Tim. iii. 16; 1 Tim. vi. 15, 16; 2 Tim. ii. 11, 12) which have so much of the form and character of later Oriental hymnody as to have been supposed by Michaelis and others to be extracts from original hymns of the Apostolic age. Two of them are apparently introduced as quotations, though not found elsewhere in the Scriptures. A third has not only rhythm, but rhyme. The thanksgiving prayer of the assembled disciples, recorded in Acts iv., is both in substance and in manner poetical; and in the canticles, "Magnificat," "Benedictus," &c., which manifestly followed the form and style of Hebrew poetry, hymns or songs, proper for liturgical use, have always been recognized by the church.

3. _Eastern Church Hymnody._--The hymn of our Lord, the precepts of the apostles, the angelic song at the nativity, and "Benedicite omnia opera" are referred to in a curious metrical prologue to the hymnary of the Mozarabic Breviary as precedents for the practice of the Western Church. In this respect, however, the Western Church followed the Eastern, in which hymnody prevailed from the earliest times.

Therapeutae.

Philo describes the Theraputae (q.v.) of the neighbourhood of Alexandria as composers of original hymns, which (as well as old) were sung at their great religious festivals--the people listening in silence till they came to the closing strains, or refrains, at the end of a hymn or stanza (the "acroteleutia" and "ephymnia"), in which all, women as well as men, heartily joined. These songs, he says, were in various metres (for which he uses a number of technical terms); some were choral, some not; and they were divided into variously constructed strophes or stanzas. Eusebius, who thought that the Theraputae were communities of Christians, says that the Christian practice of his own day was in exact accordance with this description.

Antiphonal singing.

The practice, not only of singing hymns, but of singing them antiphonally, appears, from the well-known letter of Pliny to Trajan, to have been established in the Bithynian churches at the beginning of the 2nd century. They were accustomed "stato die ante lucem convenire, carmenque Christo, quasi Deo, dicere _secum invicem_." This agrees well, in point of time, with the tradition recorded by the historian Socrates, that Ignatius (who suffered martyrdom about A.D. 107) was led by a vision or dream of angels singing hymns in that manner to the Holy Trinity to introduce antiphonal singing into the church of Antioch, from which it quickly spread to other churches. There seems to be an allusion to choral singing in the epistle of Ignatius himself to the Romans, where he exhorts them, "[Greek: choros genomenoi]" ("having formed themselves into a choir"), to "sing praise to the Father in Christ Jesus." A statement of Theodoret has sometimes been supposed to refer the origin of antiphonal singing to a much later date; but this seems to relate only to the singing of Old Testament Psalms ([Greek: tên Dauidikên melôdian]), the alternate chanting of which, by a choir divided into two parts, was (according to that statement) first introduced into the church of Antioch by two monks famous in the history of their time, Flavianus and Diodorus, under the emperor Constantius II.

2nd century.

3rd century.

Other evidence of the use of hymns in the 2nd century is contained in a fragment of Caius, preserved by Eusebius, which refers to "all the psalms and odes written by faithful brethren from the beginning," as "hymning Christ, the Word of God, as God." Tertullian also, in his description of the "Agapae," or love-feasts, of his day, says that, after washing hands and bringing in lights, each man was invited to come forward and sing to God's praise something either taken from the Scriptures or of his own composition ("ut quisque de Sacris Scripturis vel proprio ingenio potest"). George Bull, bishop of St David's, believed one of those primitive compositions to be the hymn appended by Clement of Alexandria to his _Paedagogus_; and Archbishop Ussher considered the ancient morning and evening hymns, of which the use was enjoined by the _Apostolical Constitutions_, and which are also mentioned in the "Tract on Virginity" printed with the works of St Athanasius, and in St Basil's treatise upon the Holy Spirit, to belong to the same family. Clement's hymn, in a short anapaestic metre, beginning [Greek: stomion pôlôn adaôn] (or, according to some editions, [Greek: basileu hagiôn, loge pandamatôr]--translated by the Rev. A. Chatfield, "O Thou, the King of Saints, all-conquering Word"), is rapid, spirited and well-adapted for singing. The Greek "Morning Hymn" (which, as divided into verses by Archbishop Ussher in his treatise _De Symbolis_, has a majestic rhythm, resembling a choric or dithyrambic strophe) is the original form of "Gloria in Excelsis," still said or sung, with some variations, in all branches of the church which have not relinquished the use of liturgies. The Latin form of this hymn (of which that in the English communion office is an exact translation) is said, by Bede and other ancient writers, to have been brought into use at Rome by Pope Telesphorus, as early as the time of the emperor Hadrian. A third, the Vesper or "Lamp-lighting" hymn ("[Greek: phôs hilaron hagias doxês]"--translated by Canon Bright "Light of Gladness, Beam Divine"), holds its place to this day in the services of the Greek rite. In the 3rd century Origen seems to have had in his mind the words of some other hymns or hymn of like character, when he says (in his treatise _Against Celsus_): "We glorify in hymns God and His only begotten Son; as do also the Sun, the Moon, the Stars and all the host of heaven. All these, in one Divine chorus, with the just among men, glorify in hymns God who is over all, and His only begotten Son." So highly were these compositions esteemed in the Syrian churches that the council which deposed Paul of Samosata from the see of Antioch in the time of Aurelian justified that act, in its synodical letter to the bishops of Rome and Alexandria, on this ground (among others) that he had prohibited the use of hymns of that kind, by uninspired writers, addressed to Christ.

After the conversion of Constantine, the progress of hymnody became closely connected with church controversies. There had been in Edessa, at the end of the 2nd or early in the 3rd century, a Gnostic writer of conspicuous ability, named Bardesanes, who was succeeded, as the head of his sect or school, by his son Harmonius. Both father and son wrote hymns, and set them to agreeable melodies, which acquired, and in the 4th century still retained, much local popularity. Ephraem Syrus, the first voluminous hymn-writer whose works remain to us, thinking that the same melodies might be made useful to the faith, if adapted to more orthodox words, composed to them a large number of hymns in the Syriac language, principally in tetrasyllabic, pentasyllable and heptasyllabic metres, divided into strophes of from 4 to 12, 16 and even 20 lines each. When a strophe contained five lines, the fifth was generally an "ephymnium," detached in sense, and consisting of a prayer, invocation, doxology or the like, to be sung antiphonally, either in full chorus or by a separate part of the choir. The _Syriac Chrestomathy_ of August Hahn (Leipzig, 1825), and the third volume of H. A. Daniel's _Thesaurus Hymnologicus_ (Leipzig, 1841-1856), contain specimens of these hymns. Some of them have been translated into (unmetrical) English by the Rev. Henry Burgess (_Select Metrical Hymns of Ephrem Syrus_, &c., 1853). A considerable number of those so translated are on subjects connected with death, resurrection, judgment, &c., and display not only Christian faith and hope, but much simplicity and tenderness of natural feeling. Theodoret speaks of the spiritual songs of Ephraem as very sweet and profitable, and as adding much, in his (Theodoret's) time, to the brightness of the commemorations of martyrs in the Syrian Church.

The Greek hymnody contemporary with Ephraem followed, with some licence, classical models. One of its favourite metres was the Anacreontic; but it also made use of the short anapaestic, Ionic, iambic and other lyrical measures, as well as the hexameter and pentameter. Its principal authors were Methodius, bishop of Olympus, who died about A.D. 311, Synesius, who became bishop of Ptolemais in Cyrenaica in 410, and Gregory Nazianzen, for a short time (380-381) patriarch of Constantinople. The merits of these writers have been perhaps too much depreciated by the admirers of the later Greek "Melodists." They have found an able English translator in the Rev. Allen Chatfield (_Songs and Hymns of Earliest Greek Christian Poets_, London, 1876). Among the most striking of their works are [Greek: mnôeo Christe] ("Lord Jesus, think of me"), by Synesius; [Greek: se ton aphthiton monarchên] ("O Thou, the One Supreme") and [Greek: ti soi theleis genesthai] ("O soul of mine, repining"), by Gregory; also [Greek: anôthen parthenoi] ("The Bridegroom cometh"), by Methodius. There continued to be Greek metrical hymn-writers, in a similar style, till a much later date. Sophronius, patriarch of Jerusalem in the 7th century, wrote seven Anacreontic hymns; and St John Damascene, one of the most copious of the second school of "Melodists," was also the author of some long compositions in trimeter iambics.

Period of Arian controversy.

An important development of hymnody at Constantinople arose out of the Arian controversy. Early in the 4th century Athanasius had rebuked, not only the doctrine of Arius, but the light character of certain hymns by which he endeavoured to make that doctrine popular. When, towards the close of that century (398), St John Chrysostom was raised to the metropolitan see, the Arians, who were still numerous at Constantinople, had no places of worship within the walls; but they were in the habit of coming into the city at sunset on Saturdays, Sundays and the greater festivals, and congregating in the porticoes and other places of public resort, where they sung, all night through, antiphonal songs, with "acroteleutia" (closing strains, or refrains), expressive of Arian doctrine, often accompanied by taunts and insults to the orthodox. Chrysostom was apprehensive that this music might draw some of the simpler church people to the Arian side; he therefore organized, in opposition to it, under the patronage and at the cost of Eudoxia, the empress of Arcadius (then his friend), a system of nightly processional hymn-singing, with silver crosses, wax-lights and other circumstances of ceremonial pomp. Riots followed, with bloodshed on both sides, and with some personal injury to the empress's chief eunuch, who seems to have officiated as conductor or director of the church musicians. This led to the suppression, by an imperial edict, of all public Arian singing; while in the church the practice of nocturnal hymn-singing on certain solemn occasions, thus first introduced, remained an established institution.

Greek system of hymnody.

It is not improbable that some rudiments of the peculiar system of hymnody which now prevails throughout the Greek communion, and whose affinities are rather to the Hebrew and Syriac than to the classical forms, may have existed in the church of Constantinople, even at that time. Anatolius, patriarch of Constantinople in the middle of the 5th century, was the precursor of that system; but the reputation of being its proper founder belongs to Romanos, of whom little more is known than that he wrote hymns still extant, and lived towards the end of that century. The importance of that system in the services of the Greek church may be understood from the fact that Dr J. M. Neale computed four-fifths of the whole space (about 5000 pages) contained in the different service-books of that church to be occupied by hymnody, all in a language or dialect which has ceased to be anywhere spoken.

The system has a peculiar technical terminology, in which the words "troparion," "ode," "canon" and "hirmus" ([Greek: eirmos]) chiefly require explanation.

The _troparion_ is the unit of the system, being a strophe or stanza, seen, when analysed, to be divisible into verses or clauses, with regulated caesuras, but printed in the books as a single prose sentence, without marking any divisions. The following (turned into English, from a "canon" by John Mauropus) may be taken as an example: "The never-sleeping Guardian, | the patron of my soul, | the guide of my life, | allotted me by God, | I hymn thee, Divine Angel | of Almighty God." Dr Neale and most other writers regard all these "troparia" as rhythmical or modulated prose. Cardinal J. B. Pitra, on the other hand, who in 1867 and 1876 published two learned works on this subject, maintains that they are really metrical, and governed by definite rules of prosody, of which he lays down sixteen. According to him, each "troparion" contains from three to thirty-three verses; each verse varies from two to thirteen syllables, often in a continuous series, uniform, alternate or reciprocal, the metre being always syllabic, and depending, not on the quantity of vowels or the position of consonants, but on an harmonic series of accents.

In various parts of the services solitary troparia are sung, under various names, "contacion," "oecos," "cathisma," &c., which mark distinctions either in their character or in their use.

An _ode_ is a song or hymn compounded of several similar "troparia,"--usually three, four or five. To these is always prefixed a typical or standard "troparion," called the _hirmus_, by which the syllabic measure, the periodic series of accents, and in fact the whole structure and rhythm of the stanzas which follow it are regulated. Each succeeding "troparion" in the same "ode" contains the same number of verses, and of syllables in each verse, and similar accents on the same or equivalent syllables. The "hirmus" may either form the first stanza of the "ode" itself, or (as is more frequently the case) may be taken from some other piece; and, when so taken, it is often indicated by initial words only, without being printed at length. It is generally printed within commas, after the proper rubric of the "ode." A hymn in irregular "stichera" or stanzas, without a "hirmus," is called "idiomelon." A system of three or four odes is "triodion" or "tetraodion."

A _canon_ is a system of eight (theoretically nine) connected odes, the second being always suppressed. Various pauses, relieved by the interposition of other short chants or readings, occur during the singing of a whole "canon." The final "troparion" in each ode of the series is not unfrequently detached in sense (like the "ephymnia" of Ephraem Syrus), particularly when it is in the (very common) form of a "theotokion," or ascription of praise to the mother of our Lord, and when it is a recurring refrain or burden.

There were two principal periods of Greek hymnography constructed on these principles--the first that of Romanos and his followers, extending over the 6th and 7th centuries, the second that of the schools which arose during the Iconoclastic controversy in the 8th century, and which continued for some centuries afterwards, until the art itself died out.

School of Romanos.

The works of the writers of the former period were collected in _Tropologia_, or church hymn-books, which were held in high esteem till the 10th century, when they ceased to be regarded as church-books, and so fell into neglect. They are now preserved only in a very small number of manuscripts. From three of these, belonging to public libraries at Moscow, Turin and Rome, Cardinal Pitra has printed, in his _Analecta_, a number of interesting examples, the existence of which appears to have been unknown to Dr Neale, and which, in the cardinal's estimation, are in many respects superior to the "canons," &c., of the modern Greek service-books, from which all Neale's translations (except some from Anatolius) are taken. Cardinal Pitra's selections include twenty-nine works by Romanos, and some by Sergius, and nine other known, as well as some unknown, authors. He describes them as having generally a more dramatic character than the "melodies" of the later period, and a much more animated style; and he supposes that they may have been originally sung with dramatic accompaniments, by way of substitution for the theatrical performances of Pagan times. As an instance of their peculiar character, he mentions a Christmas or Epiphany hymn by Romanos, in twenty-five long strophes, in which there is, first, an account of the Nativity and its accompanying wonders, and then a dialogue between the wise men, the Virgin mother and Joseph. The magi arrive, are admitted, describe the moral and religious condition of Persia and the East, and the cause and adventures of their journey, and then offer their gifts. The Virgin intercedes for them with her Son, instructs them in some parts of Jewish history, and ends with a prayer for the salvation of the world.

Melodists.

The controversies and persecutions of the 8th and succeeding centuries turned the thoughts of the "melodists" of the great monasteries of the Studium at Constantinople and St Saba in Palestine and their followers, and those of the adherents of the Greek rite in Sicily and South Italy (who suffered much from the Saracens and the Normans), into a less picturesque but more strictly theological course; and the influence of those controversies, in which the final success of the cause of "Icons" was largely due to the hymns, as well as to the courage and sufferings, of these confessors, was probably the cause of their supplanting, as they did, the works of the older school. Cardinal Pitra gives them the praise of having discovered a graver and more solemn style of chant, and of having done much to fix the dogmatic theology of their church upon its present lines of near approach to the Roman.

Among the "melodists" of this latter Greek school there were many saints of the Greek church, several patriarchs and two emperors--Leo the Philosopher, and Constantine Porphyrogenitus, his son. Their greatest poets were Theodore and Joseph of the Studium, and Cosmas and John (called Damascene) of St Saba. Neale translated into English verse several selected portions, or centoes, from the works of these and others, together with four selections from earlier works by Anatolius. Some of his translations--particularly "The day is past and over," from Anatolius, and "Christian, dost thou see them," from Andrew of Crete--have been adopted into hymn-books used in many English churches; and the hymn "Art thou weary," which is rather founded upon than translated from one by Stephen the Sabaite, has obtained still more general popularity.

4. _Western Church Hymnody._--It was not till the 4th century that Greek hymnody was imitated in the West, where its introduction was due to two great lights of the Latin Church--St Hilary of Poitiers and St Ambrose of Milan.

Hilary was banished from his see of Poitiers in 356, and was absent from it for about four years, which he spent in Asia Minor, taking part during that time in one of the councils of the Eastern Church. He thus had full opportunity of becoming acquainted with the Greek church music of that day; and he wrote (as St Jerome, who was thirty years old when Hilary died, and who was well acquainted with his acts and writings, and spent some time in or near his diocese, informs us) a "book of hymns," to one of which Jerome particularly refers, in the preface to the second book of his own commentary on the epistle to the Galatians. Isidore, archbishop of Seville, who presided over the fourth council of Toledo, in his book on the offices of the church, speaks of Hilary as the first Latin hymn-writer; that council itself, in its 13th canon, and the prologue to the Mozarabic hymnary (which is little more than a versification of the canon), associate his name, in this respect, with that of Ambrose. A tradition, ancient and widely spread, ascribed to him the authorship of the remarkable "Hymnum dicat turba fratrum, hymnum cantus personet" ("Band of brethren, raise the hymn, let your song the hymn resound"), which is a succinct narrative, in hymnal form, of the whole gospel history; and is perhaps the earliest example of a strictly didactic hymn. Both Bede and Hincmar much admired this composition, though the former does not mention, in connexion with it, the name of Hilary. The private use of hymns of such a character by Christians in the West may probably have preceded their ecclesiastical use; for Jerome says that in his day those who went into the fields might hear "the ploughman at his hallelujahs, the mower at his hymns, and the vine-dresser singing David's psalms." Besides this, seven shorter metrical hymns attributed to Hilary are still extant.

Ambrose.

Of the part taken by Ambrose, not long after Hilary's death, in bringing the use of hymns into the church of Milan, we have a contemporary account from his convert, St Augustine. Justina, mother of the emperor Valentinian, favoured the Arians, and desired to remove Ambrose from his see. The "devout people," of whom Augustine's mother, Monica, was one, combined to protect him, and kept guard in the church. "Then," says Augustine, "it was first appointed that, after the manner of the Eastern churches, hymns and psalms should be sung, lest the people should grow weary and faint through sorrow; which custom has ever since been retained, and has been followed by almost all congregations in other parts of the world." He describes himself as moved to tears by the sweetness of these "hymns and canticles":--"The voices flowed into my ears; the truth distilled into my heart; I overflowed with devout affections, and was happy." To this time, according to an uncertain but not improbable tradition which ascribed the composition of the "Te Deum" to Ambrose, and connected it with the conversion of Augustine, is to be referred the commencement of the use in the church of that sublime unmetrical hymn.

It is not, however, to be assumed that the hymnody thus introduced by Ambrose was from the first used according to the precise order and method of the later Western ritual. To bring it into (substantially) that order and method appears to have been the work of St Benedict. Walafrid Strabo, the earliest ecclesiastical writer on this subject (who lived at the beginning of the 9th century), says that Benedict, on the constitution of the religious order known by his name (about 530), appointed the Ambrosian hymns to be regularly sung in his offices for the canonical hours. Hence probably originated the practice of the Italian churches, and of others which followed their example, to sing certain hymns (Ambrosian, or by the early successors of the Ambrosian school) daily throughout the week, at "Vespers," "Lauds" and "Nocturns," and on some days at "Compline" also--varying them with the different ecclesiastical seasons and festivals, commemorations of saints and martyrs and other special offices. Different dioceses and religious houses had their own peculiarities of ritual, including such hymns as were approved by their several bishops or ecclesiastical superiors, varying in detail, but all following the same general method. The national rituals, which were first reduced into a form substantially like that which has since prevailed, were probably those of Lombardy and of Spain, now known as the "Ambrosian" and the "Mozarabic." The age and origin of the Spanish ritual are uncertain, but it is mentioned in the 7th century by Isidore, bishop of Seville. It contained a copious hymnary, the original form of which may be regarded as canonically approved by the fourth council of Toledo (633). By the 13th canon of that council, an opinion (which even then found advocates) against the use in churches of any hymns not taken from the Scriptures--apparently the same opinion which had been held by Paul of Samosata--was censured; and it was ordered that such hymns should be used in the Spanish as well as in the Gallican churches, the penalty of excommunication being denounced against all who might presume to reject them.

The hymns of which the use was thus established and authorized were those which entered into the daily and other offices of the church, afterwards collected in the "Breviaries"; in which the hymns "proper" for "the week," and for "the season," continued for many centuries, with very few exceptions, to be derived from the earliest epoch of Latin Church poetry--reckoning that epoch as extending from Hilary and Ambrose to the end of the pontificate of Gregory the Great. The "Ambrosian" music, to which those hymns were generally sung down to the time of Gregory, was more popular and congregational than the "Gregorian," which then came into use, and afterwards prevailed. In the service of the mass it was not the general practice, before the invention of sequences in the 9th century, to sing any hymns, except some from the Scriptures esteemed canonical, such as the "Song of the Three Children" ("Benedicite omnia opera"). But to this rule there were, according to Walafrid Strabo, some occasional exceptions; particularly in the case of Paulinus, patriarch of Aquileia under Charlemagne, himself a hymn-writer, who frequently used hymns, composed by himself or others, in the eucharistic office, especially in private masses.

Some of the hymns called "Ambrosian" (nearly 100 in number) are beyond all question by Ambrose himself, and the rest probably belong to his time or to the following century. Four, those beginning "Aeterne rerum conditor" ("Dread Framer of the earth and sky"), "Deus Creator omnium" ("Maker of all things, glorious God"), "Veni Redemptor Gentium" ("Redeemer of the nations, come") and "Jam surgit hora tertia" ("Christ at this hour was crucified"), are quoted as works of Ambrose by Augustine. These, and others by the hand of the same master, have the qualities most valuable in hymns intended for congregational use. They are short and complete in themselves; easy, and at the same time elevated in their expression and rhythm; terse and masculine in thought and language; and (though sometimes criticized as deficient in theological precision) simple, pure and not technical in their rendering of the great facts and doctrines of Christianity, which they present in an objective and not a subjective manner. They have exercised a powerful influence, direct or indirect, upon many of the best works of the same kind in all succeeding generations. With the Ambrosian hymns are properly classed those of Hilary, and the contemporary works of Pope Damasus I. (who wrote two hymns in commemoration of saints), and of Prudentius, from whose _Cathemerina_ ("Daily Devotions") and _Peristephana_ ("Crown-songs for Martyrs"), all poems of considerable, some of great length--about twenty-eight hymns, found in various Breviaries, were derived. Prudentius was a layman, a native of Saragossa, and it was in the Spanish ritual that his hymns were most largely used. In the Mozarabic Breviary almost the whole of one of his finest poems (from which most churches took one part only, beginning "Corde natus ex parentis") was appointed to be sung between Easter and Ascension-Day, being divided into eight or nine hymns; and on some of the commemorations of Spanish saints long poems from his _Peristephana_ were recited or sung at large. He is entitled to a high rank among Christian poets, many of the hymns taken from his works being full of fervour and sweetness, and by no means deficient in dignity or strength.

5th and 6th centuries.

These writers were followed in the 5th and early in the 6th century by the priest Sedulius, whose reputation perhaps exceeded his merit; Elpis, a noble Roman lady (considered, by an erroneous tradition, to have been the wife of the philosophic statesman Boetius); Pope Gelasius I.; and Ennodius, bishop of Pavia. Sedulius and Elpis wrote very little from which hymns could be extracted; but the small number taken from their compositions obtained wide popularity, and have since held their ground. Gelasius was of no great account as a hymn-writer; and the works of Ennodius appear to have been known only in Italy and Spain. The latter part of the 6th century produced Pope Gregory the Great and Venantius Fortunatus, an Italian poet, the friend of Gregory, and the favourite of Radegunda, queen of the Franks, who died (609) bishop of Poitiers. Eleven hymns of Gregory, and twelve or thirteen (mostly taken from longer poems) by Fortunatus, came into general use in the Italian, Gallican and British churches. Those of Gregory are in a style hardly distinguishable from the Ambrosian; those of Fortunatus are graceful, and sometimes vigorous. He does not, however, deserve the praise given to him by Dr Neale, of having struck out a new path in Latin hymnody. On the contrary, he may more justly be described as a disciple of the school of Prudentius, and as having affected the classical style, at least as much as any of his predecessors.

The poets of this primitive epoch, which closed with the 6th century, wrote in the old classical metres, and made use of a considerable variety of them--anapaestic, anacreontic, hendecasyllabic, asclepiad, hexameters and pentameters and others. Gregory and some of the Ambrosian authors occasionally wrote in sapphics; but the most frequent measure was the iambic dimeter, and, next to that, the trochaic. The full alcaic stanza does not appear to have been used for church purposes before the 16th century, though some of its elements were. In the greater number of these works, a general intention to conform to the rules of Roman prosody is manifest; but even those writers (like Prudentius) in whom that conformity was most decided allowed themselves much liberty of deviation from it. Other works, including some of the very earliest, and some of conspicuous merit, were of the kind described by Bede as not metrical but "rhythmical"--i.e. (as he explains the term "rhythm"), "modulated to the ear in imitation of different metres." It would be more correct to call them metrical--(e.g. still trochaic or iambic, &c., but, according to new laws of syllabic quantity, depending entirely on accent, and not on the power of vowels or the position of consonants)--laws by which the future prosody of all modern European nations was to be governed. There are also, in the hymns of the primitive period (even in those of Ambrose), anticipations--irregular indeed and inconstant, but certainly not accidental--of another great innovation, destined to receive important developments, that of assonance or rhyme, in the final letters or syllables of verses. Archbishop Trench, in the introduction to his _Sacred Latin Poetry_, has traced the whole course of the transition from the ancient to the modern forms of versification, ascribing it to natural and necessary causes, which made such changes needful for the due development of the new forms of spiritual and intellectual life, consequent upon the conversion of the Latin-speaking nations to Christianity.

6th century downwards.

From the 6th century downwards we see this transformation making continual progress, each nation of Western Christendom adding, from time to time, to the earlier hymns in its service-books others of more recent and frequently of local origin. For these additions, the commemorations of saints, &c., as to which the devotion of one place often differed from that of another, offered especial opportunities. This process, while it promoted the development of a medieval as distinct from the primitive style, led also to much deterioration in the quality of hymns, of which, perhaps, some of the strongest examples may be found in a volume published in 1865 by the Irish Archaeological Society from a manuscript in the library of Trinity College, Dublin. It contains a number of hymns by Irish saints of the 6th, 7th and 8th centuries--in several instances fully rhymed, and in one mixing Erse and Latin barbarously together, as was not uncommon, at a much later date, in semi-vernacular hymns of other countries. The Mozarabic Breviary, and the collection of hymns used in the Anglo-Saxon churches, published in 1851 by the Surtees Society (chiefly from a Benedictine MS. In the college library of Durham, supplemented by other MSS. in the British Museum), supply many further illustrations of the same decline of taste:--such Sapphics, e.g., as the "Festum insigne prodiit coruscum" of Isidore, and the "O veneranda Trinitas laudanda" of the Anglo-Saxon books. The early medieval period, however, from the time of Gregory the Great to that of Hildebrand, was far from deficient in the production of good hymns, wherever learning flourished. Bede in England, and Paul "the Deacon"--the author of a fairly classical sapphic ode on St John the Baptist--in Italy, were successful followers of the Ambrosian and Gregorian styles. Eleven metrical hymns are attributed to Bede by Cassander; and there are also in one of Bede's works (_Collectanea et flores_) two rhythmical hymns of considerable length on the Day of Judgment, with the refrains "In tremendo die" and "Attende homo," both irregularly rhymed, and, in parts, not unworthy of comparison with the "Dies Irae." Paulinus, patriarch of Aquileia, contemporary with Paul, wrote rhythmical trimeter iambics in a manner peculiar to himself. Theodulph, bishop of Orleans (793-835), author of the famous processional hymn for Palm Sunday in hexameters and pentameters, "Gloria, laus, et honor tibi sit, Rex Christe Redemptor" ("Glory and honour and laud be to Thee, King Christ the Redeemer"), and Hrabanus Maurus, archbishop of Mainz, the pupil of Alcuin, and the most learned theologian of his day, enriched the church with some excellent works. Among the anonymous hymns of the same period there are three of great beauty, of which the influence may be traced in most, if not all, of the "New Jerusalem" hymns of later generations, including those of Germany and Great Britain:--"Urbs beata Hierusalem" ("Blessed city, heavenly Salem"); "Alleluia piis edite laudibus" ("Alleluias sound ye in strains of holy praise"--called, from its burden, "Alleluia perenne"); and "Alleluia dulce carmen" ("Alleluia, song of sweetness"), which, being found in Anglo-Saxon hymnaries certainly older than the Conquest, cannot be of the late date assigned to it, in his _Mediaeval Hymns and Sequences_, by Neale. These were followed by the "Chorus novae Hierusalem" ("Ye Choirs of New Jerusalem") of Fulbert, bishop of Chartres. This group of hymns is remarkable for an attractive union of melody, imagination, poetical colouring and faith. It represents, perhaps, the best and highest type of the middle school, between the severe Ambrosian simplicity and the florid luxuriance of later times.

Veni Creator.

Notker.

Another celebrated hymn, which belongs to the first medieval period, is the "Veni Creator Spiritus" ("Come, Holy Ghost, our souls inspire"). The earliest recorded occasion of its use is that of a translation (898) of the relics of St Marcellus, mentioned in the _Annals_ of the Benedictine order. It has since been constantly sung throughout Western Christendom (as versions of it still are in the Church of England), as part of the appointed offices for the coronation of kings, the consecration and ordination of bishops and priests, the assembling of synods and other great ecclesiastical solemnities. It has been attributed--probably in consequence of certain corruptions in the text of Ekkehard's _Life of Notker_ (a work of the 13th century)--to Charlemagne. Ekkehard wrote in the Benedictine monastery of St Gall, to which Notker belonged, with full access to its records; and an ignorant interpolator, regardless of chronology, added, at some later date, the word "Great" to the name of "the emperor Charles," wherever it was mentioned in that work. The biographer relates that Notker--a man of a gentle, contemplative nature, observant of all around him, and accustomed to find spiritual and poetical suggestions in common sights and sounds--was moved by the sound of a mill-wheel to compose his "sequence" on the Holy Spirit, "Sancti Spiritus adsit nobis gratia" ("Present with us ever be the Holy Spirit's grace"); and that, when finished, he sent it as a present to "the emperor Charles," who in return sent him back, "by the same messenger," the hymn "Veni Creator," which (says Ekkehard) the same "Spirit had inspired him to write" ("Sibi idem Spiritus inspiraverat"). If this story is to be credited--and, from its circumstantial and almost dramatic character, it has an air of truth--the author of "Veni Creator" was not Charlemagne, but his grandson the emperor Charles the Bald. Notker himself long survived that emperor, and died in 912.

Sequences.

The invention of "sequences" by Notker may be regarded as the beginning of the later medieval epoch of Latin hymnody. In the eucharistic service, in which (as has been stated) hymns were not generally used, it had been the practice, except at certain seasons, to sing "laud," or "Alleluia," between the epistle and the gospel, and to fill up what would otherwise have been a long pause, by extending the cadence upon the two final vowels of the "Alleluia" into a protracted strain of music. It occurred to Notker that, while preserving the spirit of that part of the service, the monotony of the interval might be relieved by introducing at that point a chant of praise specially composed for the purpose. With that view he produced the peculiar species of rhythmical composition which obtained the name of "sequentia" (probably from following after the close of the "Alleluia"), and also that of "prosa," because its structure was originally irregular and unmetrical, resembling in this respect the Greek "troparia," and the "Te Deum," "Benedicite" and canticles. That it was in some measure suggested by the forms of the later Greek hymnody seems probable, both from the intercourse (at that time frequent) between the Eastern and Western churches, and from the application by Ekkehard, in his biography and elsewhere (e.g. in Lyndwood's _Provinciale_), of some technical terms, borrowed from the Greek terminology, to works of Notker and his school and to books containing them.

Dr Neale, in a learned dissertation prefixed to his collection of sequences from medieval Missals, and enlarged in a Latin letter to H. A. Daniel (printed in the fifth volume of Daniel's _Thesaurus hymnologicus_), investigated the laws of caesura and modulation which are discoverable in these works. Those first brought into use were sent by their author to Pope Nicholas I., who authorized their use, and that of others composed after the same model by other brethren of St Gall, in all churches of the West.

Although the sequences of Notker and his school, which then rapidly passed into most German, French and British Missals, were not metrical, the art of "assonance" was much practised in them. Many of those in the Sarum and French Missals have every verse, and even every clause or division of a verse, ending with the same vowel "a"--perhaps with some reference to the terminal letter of "Alleluia." Artifices such as these naturally led the way to the adaptation of the same kind of composition to regular metre and fully developed rhyme. Neale's full and large collection, and the second volume of Daniel's _Thesaurus_, contain numerous examples, both of the "proses," properly so called, of the Notkerian type, and of those of the later school, which (from the religious house to which its chief writer belonged) has been called "Victorine." Most Missals appear to have contained some of both kinds. In the majority of those from which Neale's specimens are taken, the metrical kind largely prevailed; but in some (e.g. those of Sarum and Liége) the greater number were Notkerian.

Of the sequence on the Holy Ghost, sent by Notker (according to Ekkehard) to Charles the Bald, Neale says that it "was in use all over Europe, even in those countries, like Italy and Spain, which usually rejected sequences"; and that, "in the Missal of Palencia, the priest was ordered to hold a white dove in his hands, while intoning the first syllables, and then to let it go." Another of the most remarkable of Notker's sequences, beginning "Media in vita" ("In the midst of life we are in death"), is said to have been suggested to him while observing some workmen engaged in the construction of a bridge over a torrent near his monastery. Catherine Winkworth (_Christian Singers of Germany_, 1869) states that this was long used as a battle-song, until the custom was forbidden, on account of its being supposed to exercise a magical influence. A translation of it ("Mitten wir im Leben sind") is one of Luther's funeral hymns; and all but the opening sentence of that part of the burial service of the Church of England which is directed to be "said or sung" at the grave, "while the corpse is made ready to be laid into the earth," is taken from it.

The "Golden Sequence," "Veni, sancte Spiritus" ("Holy Spirit, Lord of Light"), is an early example of the transition of sequences from a simply rhythmical to a metrical form. Archbishop Trench, who esteemed it "the loveliest of all the hymns in the whole circle of Latin sacred poetry," inclined to give credit to a tradition which ascribes its authorship to Robert II., king of France, son of Hugh Capet. Others have assigned to it a later date--some attributing it to Pope Innocent III., and some to Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury. Many translations, in German, English and other languages, attest its merit. Berengarius of Tours, St Bernard of Clairvaux and Abelard, in the 11th century and early in the 12th, followed in the same track; and the art of the Victorine school was carried to its greatest perfection by Adam of St Victor (who died between 1173 and 1194)--"the most fertile, and" (in the concurrent judgment of Archbishop Trench and Neale) "the greatest of the Latin hymnographers of the Middle Ages." The archbishop's selection contains many excellent specimens of his works.

Dies Irae.

Stabat Mater.

Aquinas.

But the two most widely celebrated of all this class of compositions--works which have exercised the talents of the greatest musical composers, and of innumerable translators in almost all languages--are the "Dies Irae" ("That day of wrath, that dreadful day"), by Thomas of Celano, the companion and biographer of St Francis of Assisi, and the "Stabat Mater dolorosa" ("By the cross sad vigil keeping") of Jacopone, or Jacobus de Benedictis, a Franciscan humorist and reformer, who was persecuted by Pope Boniface VIII. for his satires on the prelacy of the time, and died in 1306. Besides these, the 13th century produced the famous sequence "Lauda Sion salvatorem" ("Sion, lift thy voice and sing"), and the four other well-known sacramental hymns of St Thomas Aquinas, viz. "Pange lingua gloriosi corporis mysterium" ("Sing, my tongue, the Saviour's glory"), "Verbum supernum prodiens" ("The Word, descending from above"--not to be confounded with the Ambrosian hymn from which it borrowed the first line), "Sacris solemniis juncta sint gaudia" ("Let us with hearts renewed our grateful homage pay"), and "Adoro Te devote, latens Deitas" ("O Godhead hid, devoutly I adore Thee")--a group of remarkable compositions, written by him for the then new festival of Corpus Christi, of which he induced Pope Urban IV. (1261-1265) to decree the observance. In these (of which all but "Adoro Te devote" passed rapidly into breviaries and missals) the doctrine of transubstantiation is set forth with a wonderful degree of scholastic precision; and they exercised, probably, a not unimportant influence upon the general reception of that dogma. They are undoubtedly works of genius, powerful in thought, feeling and expression.

Medieval hymns.

These and other medieval hymn-writers of the 12th and 13th centuries may be described, generally, as poet-schoolmen. Their tone is contemplative, didactic, theological; they are especially fertile and ingenious in the field of mystical interpretation. Two great monasteries in the East had, in the 8th and 9th centuries, been the principal centres of Greek hymnology; and, in the West, three monasteries--St Gall, near Constance (which was long the especial seat of German religious literature), Cluny in Burgundy and St Victor, near Paris--obtained a similar distinction. St Gall produced, besides Notker, several distinguished sequence writers, probably his pupils--Hartmann, Hermann and Gottschalk--to the last of whom Neale ascribes the "Alleluiatic Sequence" ("Cantemus cuncti melodum nunc Alleluia"), well known in England through his translation, "The strain upraise of joy and praise." The chief poets of Cluny were two of its abbots, Odo and Peter the Venerable (1122-1156), and one of Peter's monks, Bernard of Morlaix, who wrote the remarkable poem on "Contempt of the World" in about 3000 long rolling "leonine-dactylic" verses, from parts of which Neale's popular hymns, "Jerusalem the golden," &c., are taken. The abbey of St Victor, besides Adam and his follower Pistor, was destined afterwards to produce the most popular church poet of the 17th century.

Bernard of Clairvaux.

There were other distinguished Latin hymn-writers of the later medieval period besides those already mentioned. The name of St Bernard of Clairvaux cannot be passed over with the mere mention of the fact that he was the author of some metrical sequences. He was, in truth, the father, in Latin hymnody, of that warm and passionate form of devotion which some may consider to apply too freely to Divine Objects the language of human affection, but which has, nevertheless, been popular with many devout persons, in Protestant as well as Roman Catholic churches. F. von Spee, "Angelus Silesius," Madame Guyon, Bishop Ken, Count Zinzendorf and Frederick William Faber may be regarded as disciples in this school. Many hymns, in various languages, have been founded upon St Bernard's "Jesu dulcis memoria" ("Jesu, the very thought of Thee"), "Jesu dulcedo cordium" ("Jesu, Thou joy of loving hearts") and "Jesu Rex admirabilis" ("O Jesu, King most wonderful")--three portions of one poem, nearly 200 lines long. Pietro Damiani, the friend of Pope Gregory VII, Marbode, bishop of Rennes, in the 11th, Hildebert, archbishop of Tours, in the 12th, and St Bonaventura in the 13th centuries, are other eminent men who added poetical fame as hymnographers to high public distinction.

Before the time of the Reformation, the multiplication of sequences (often as unedifying in matter as unpoetical in style) had done much to degrade the common conception of hymnody. In some parts of France, Portugal, Sardinia and Bohemia, their use in the vernacular language had been allowed. In Germany also there were vernacular sequences as early as the 12th century, specimens of which may be seen in the third chapter of C. Winkworth's _Christian Singers of Germany_. Scoffing parodies upon sequences are said to have been among the means used in Scotland to discredit the old church services. After the 15th century they were discouraged at Rome. They retained for a time some of their old popularity among German Protestants, and were only gradually relinquished in France. A new "prose," in honour of St Maxentia, is among the compositions of Jean Baptiste Santeul; and Dr Daniel's second volume closes with one written in 1855 upon the dogma of the Immaculate Conception.

Roman revision of hymns.

The taste of the Renaissance was offended by all deviations from classical prosody and Latinity. Pope Leo X. directed the whole body of the hymns in use at Rome to be reformed; and the _Hymni novi ecclesiastici juxta veram metri et Latinitatis normam_, prepared by Zacharie Ferreri (1479-1530), a Benedictine of Monte Cassino, afterwards a Carthusian and bishop of Guardia, to whom Leo had committed that task, appeared at Rome in 1525, with the sanction of a later pope, Clement VII. The next step was to revise the whole Roman Breviary. That undertaking, after passing through several stages under different popes (particularly Pius V. and Clement VIII.), was at last brought to a conclusion by Urban VIII., in 1631. From this revised Breviary a large number of medieval hymns, both of the earlier and the later periods, were excluded; and in their places many new hymns, including some by Pope Urban himself, and some by Cardinal Bellarmine and another cardinal (Silvius Antonianus) were introduced. The hymns of the primitive epoch, from Hilary to Gregory the Great, for the most part retained their places (especially in the offices for every day of the week); and there remained altogether from seventy to eighty of earlier date than the 11th century. Those, however, which were so retained were freely altered, and by no means generally improved. The revisers appointed by Pope Urban (three learned Jesuits--Strada, Gallucci and Petrucci) professed to have made "as few changes as possible" in the works of Ambrose, Gregory, Prudentius, Sedulius, Fortunatus and other "poets of great name." But some changes, even in those works, were made with considerable boldness; and the pope, in the "constitution" by which his new book was promulgated, boasted that, "with the exception of a very small number ('perpaucis'), which were either prose or merely rhythmical, all the hymns had been made conformable to the laws of prosody and Latinity, those which could not be corrected by any milder method being entirely rewritten." The latter fate befel, among others, the beautiful "Urbs beata Hierusalem," which now assumed the form (to many, perhaps, better known), of "Caelestis urbs Jerusalem." Of the "very few" which were spared, the chief were "Ave maris stella" ("Gentle star of ocean"), "Dies Irae," "Stabat Mater dolorosa," the hymns of Thomas Aquinas, two of St Bernard and one Ambrosian hymn, "Jesu nostra Redemptio" ("O Jesu, our Redemption"), which approaches nearer than others to the tone of St Bernard. A then recent hymn of St Francis Xavier, with scarcely enough merit of any kind to atone for its neglect of prosody, "O Deus, ego amo Te" ("O God, I love Thee, not because"), was at the same time introduced without change. This hymnary of Pope Urban VIII. is now in general use throughout the Roman Communion.

Parisian revisions.

The Parisian hymnary underwent three revisions--the first in 1527, when a new "Psaltery with hymns" was issued. In this such changes only were made as the revisers thought justifiable upon the principle of correcting supposed corruptions of the original text. Of these, the transposition, "Urbs Jerusalem beata," instead of "Urbs beata Hierusalem," may be taken as a typical example. The next revision was in 1670-1680, under Cardinal Péréfixe, preceptor of Louis XIV., and Francis Harlay, successively archbishops of Paris, who employed for this purpose Claude Santeul, of the monastery of St Magloire, and, through him, obtained the assistance of other French scholars, including his more celebrated brother, Jean Baptiste Santeul, of the abbey of St Victor--better known as "Santolius Victorinus." The third and final revision was completed in 1735, under the primacy of Cardinal Archbishop de Vintimille, who engaged for it the services of Charles Coffin, then rector of the university of Paris. Many old hymns were omitted in Archbishop Harlay's Breviary, and a large number of new compositions, by the Santeuls and others, was introduced. It still, however, retained in their old places (without further changes than had been made in 1527) about seventy of earlier date than the 11th century--including thirty-one Ambrosian, one by Hilary, eight by Prudentius, seven by Fortunatus, three by Paul the Deacon, two each by Sedulius, Elpis, Gregory and Hrabanus Maurus, "Veni Creator" and "Urbs Jerusalem beata." Most of these disappeared in 1735, although Cardinal Vintimille, in his preface, professed to have still admitted the old hymns, except when the new were better--("veteribus hymnis locus datus est, nisi quibus, ob sententiarum vim, elegantiam verborum, et teneriores pietatis sensus, recentiores anteponi satius visum est"). The number of the new was, at the same time, very largely increased. Only twenty-one more ancient than the 16th century remained, of which those belonging to the primitive epoch were but eight, viz. four Ambrosian, two by Fortunatus and one each by Prudentius and Gregory. The number of Jean Baptiste Santeul's hymns rose to eighty-nine; those by Coffin--including some old hymns, e.g. "Jam lucis orto sidere" ("Once more the sun is beaming bright"), which he substantially re-wrote--were eighty-three; those of other modern French writers, ninety-seven. Whatever opinion may be entertained of the principles on which these Roman and Parisian revisions proceeded, it would be unjust to deny very high praise as hymn-writers to several of their poets, especially to Coffin and Jean Baptiste Santeul. The noble hymn by Coffin, beginning--

"O luce qui mortalibus "O Thou who in the light dost dwell, Lates inaccessa, Deus, To mortals unapproachable, Praesente quo sancti tremunt Where angels veil them from Thy rays, Nubuntque vultus angeli," And tremble as they gaze,"

and several others of his works, breathe the true Ambrosian spirit; and though Santeul (generally esteemed the better poet of the two) delighted in alcaics, and did not greatly affect the primitive manner, there can be no question as to the excellence of such hymns as his "Fumant Sabaeis templa vaporibus" ("Sweet incense breathes around"), "Stupete gentes, fit Deus hostia" ("Tremble, ye Gentile lands"), "Hymnis dum resonat curia caelitum" ("Ye in the house of heavenly morn"), and "Templi sacratas pande, Sion, fores" ("O Sion, open wide thy gates"). It is a striking testimony to the merits of those writers that such accomplished translators as the Rev. Isaac Williams and the Rev. John Chandler appear (from the title-page of the latter, and the prefaces of both) to have supposed their hymns to be "ancient" and "primitive." Among the other authors associated with them, perhaps the first place is due to the Abbé Besnault, of Sens, who contributed to the book of 1735 the "Urbs beata vera pacis Visio Jerusalem," in the opinion of Neale "much superior" to the "Caelestis urbs Jerusalem" of the Roman Breviary. This stood side by side with the "Urbs Jerusalem beata" of 1527 (in the office for the dedication of churches) till 1822, when the older form was at last finally excluded by Archbishop de Quelen.

The Parisian Breviary of 1735 remained in use till the national French service-books were superseded (as they have lately been, generally, if not universally) by the Roman. Almost all French dioceses followed, not indeed the Breviary, but the example, of Paris; and before the end of the 18th century the ancient Latin hymnody was all but banished from France.

Modern Latin hymns.

In some parts of Germany, after the Reformation, Latin hymns continued to be used even by Protestants. This was the case at Halberstadt until quite a recent date. In England, a few are still occasionally used in the older universities and colleges. Some, also, have been composed in both countries since the Reformation. The "Carmina lyrica" of Johann Jakob Balde, a native of Alsace, and a Jesuit priest in Bavaria, have received high commendation from very eminent German critics,

## particularly Herder and Augustus Schlegel. Some of the Latin hymns of

William Alard (1572-1645), a Protestant refugee from Belgium, and pastor in Holstein, have been thought worthy of a place in Archbishop Trench's selection. Two by W. Petersen (printed at the end of Haberkorn's supplement to Jacobi's _Psalmodia Germanica_) are good in different ways--one, "Jesu dulcis amor meus" ("Jesus, Thee my soul doth love"), being a gentle melody of spiritual devotion, and the other, entitled _Spes Sionis_, violently controversial against Rome. An English hymn of the 17th century, in the Ambrosian style, "Te Deum Patrem colimus" ("Almighty Father, just and good"), is sung on every May-Day morning by the choristers of Magdalen College, Oxford, from the top of the tower of their chapel; and another in the style of the Renaissance, of about the same date, "Te de profundis, summe Rex" ("Thee from the depths, Almighty King"), long formed part of a grace formerly sung by the scholars of Winchester College.

Luther.

5. _German Hymnody._--Luther was a proficient in and a lover of music. He desired (as he says in the preface to his hymn-book of 1545) that this "beautiful ornament" might "in a right manner serve the great Creator and His Christian people." The persecuted Bohemian or Hussite Church, then settled on the borders of Moravia under the name of "United Brethren," had sent to him, on a mission in 1522, Michael Weiss, who not long afterwards published a number of German translations from old Bohemian hymns (known as those of the "Bohemian Brethren"), with some of his own. These Luther highly approved and recommended. He himself, in 1522, published a small volume of eight hymns, which was enlarged to 63 in 1527, and to 125 in 1545. He had formed what he called a "house choir" of musical friends, to select such old and popular tunes (whether secular or ecclesiastical) as might be found suitable, and to compose new melodies, for church use. His fellow labourers in this field (besides Weiss) were Justus Jonas, his own especial colleague; Paul Eber, the disciple and friend of Melanchthon; John Walther, choirmaster successively to several German princes, and professor of arts, &c., at Wittenberg; Nicholas Decius, who from a monk became a Protestant teacher in Brunswick, and translated the "Gloria in Excelsis," &c.; and Paul Speratus, chaplain to Duke Albert of Prussia in 1525. Some of their works are still popular in Germany. Weiss's "Funeral Hymn," "Nun lasst uns den Leib begraben" ("Now lay we calmly in the grave"); Eber's "Herr Jesu Christ, wahr Mensch und Gott" ("Lord Jesus Christ, true Man and God"), and "Wenn wir in höchsten Nöthen sein" ("When in the hour of utmost need"); Walther's "New Heavens and new Earth" ("Now fain my joyous heart would sing"); Decius's "To God on high be thanks and praise"; and Speratus's "Salvation now has come for all," are among those which at the time produced the greatest effect, and are still best remembered.

Luther's own hymns, thirty-seven in number (of which about twelve are translations or adaptations from Latin originals), are for the principal Christian seasons; on the sacraments, the church, grace, death, &c.; and paraphrases of seven psalms, of a passage in Isaiah, and of the Lord's Prayer, Ten Commandments, Creed, Litany and "Te Deum." There is also a very touching and stirring song on the martyrdom of two youths by fire at Brussels, in 1523-1524. Homely and sometimes rugged in form, and for the most part objective in tone, they are full of fire, manly simplicity and strong faith. Three rise above the rest. One for Christmas, "Vom Himmel hoch da komm ich her" ("From Heaven above to earth I come"), has a reverent tenderness, the influence of which may be traced in many later productions on the same subject. That on salvation through Christ, of a didactic character, "Nun freuet euch, lieben Christen g'mein" ("Dear Christian people, now rejoice"), is said to have made many conversions, and to have been once taken up by a large congregation to silence a Roman Catholic preacher in the cathedral of Frankfort. Pre-eminent above all is the celebrated paraphrase of the 46th Psalm: "Ein' feste Burg ist unser Gott" ("A sure stronghold our God is He")--"the production" (as Ranke says) "of the moment in which Luther, engaged in a conflict with a world of foes, sought strength in the consciousness that he was defending a divine cause which could never perish." Carlyle compares it to "a sound of Alpine avalanches, or the first murmur of earthquakes." Heine called it "the Marseillaise of the Reformation."

Luther spent several years in teaching his people at Wittenberg to sing these hymns, which soon spread over Germany. Without adopting the hyperbolical saying of Coleridge, that "Luther did as much for the Reformation by his hymns as by his translation of the Bible," it may truly be affirmed, that, among the secondary means by which the success of the Reformation was promoted, none was more powerful. They were sung everywhere--in the streets and fields as well as the churches, in the workshop and the palace, "by children in the cottage and by martyrs on the scaffold." It was by them that a congregational character was given to the new Protestant worship. This success they owed partly to their metrical structure, which, though sometimes complex, was recommended to the people by its ease and variety; and partly to the tunes and melodies (many of them already well known and popular) to which they were set. They were used as direct instruments of teaching, and were therefore, in a large measure, didactic and theological; and it may be partly owing to this cause that German hymnody came to deviate, so soon and so generally as it did, from the simple idea expressed in the ancient Augustinian definition, and to comprehend large classes of compositions which, in most other countries, would be thought hardly suitable for church use.

Followers of Luther

The principal hymn-writers of the Lutheran school, in the latter part of the 16th century, were Nikolaus Selnecker, Herman and Hans Sachs, the shoemaker of Nuremberg, also known in other branches of literature. All these wrote some good hymns. They were succeeded by men of another sort, to whom F. A. Cunz gives the name of "master-singers," as having raised both the poetical and the musical standard of German hymnody:--Bartholomäus Ringwaldt, Ludwig Helmbold, Johannes Pappus, Martin Schalling, Rutilius and Sigismund Weingartner. The principal topics of their hymns (as if with some foretaste of the calamities which were soon to follow) were the vanity of earthly things, resignation to the Divine will, and preparation for death and judgment. The well-known English hymn, "Great God, what do I see and hear," is founded upon one by Ringwaldt. Of a quite different character were two of great beauty and universal popularity, composed by Philip Nicolai, a Westphalian pastor, during a pestilence in 1597, and published by him, with fine chorales, two years afterwards. One of these (the "Sleepers wake! a voice is calling," of Mendelssohn's oratorio, _St Paul_) belongs to the family of Advent or New Jerusalem hymns. The other, a "Song of the believing soul concerning the Heavenly Bridegroom" ("Wie schön leucht't uns der Morgenstern"--"O morning Star, how fair and bright"), became the favourite marriage hymn of Germany.

Period of Thirty Years' War.

The hymns produced during the Thirty Years' War are characteristic of that unhappy time, which (as Miss Winkworth says) "caused religious men to look away from this world," and made their songs more and more expressive of personal feelings. In point of refinement and graces of style, the hymn-writers of this period excelled their predecessors. Their taste was chiefly formed by the influence of Martin Opitz, the founder of what has been called the "first Silesian school" of German poetry, who died comparatively young in 1639, and who, though not of any great original genius, exercised much power as a critic. Some of the best of these works were by men who wrote little. In the famous battle-song of Gustavus Adolphus, published (1631) after the victory of Breitenfeld, for the use of his army, "Verzage nicht du Häuflein klein" ("Fear not, O little flock, the foe"), we have almost certainly a composition of the hero-king himself, the versification corrected by his chaplain Jakob Fabricius (1593-1654) and the music composed by Michael Altenburg, whose name has been given to the hymn. This, with Luther's paraphrase of the 67th Psalm, was sung by Gustavus and his soldiers before the battle of Lützen in 1632. Two very fine hymns, one of prayer for deliverance and peace, the other of trust in God under calamities, were written about the same time by Matthäus Löwenstern, a saddler's son, poet, musician and statesman, who was ennobled after the peace by the emperor Ferdinand III. Martin Rinckhart, in 1636, wrote the "Chorus of God's faithful children" ("Nun danket alle Gott"--"Now thank we all our God"), introduced by Mendelssohn in his "Lobgesang," which has been called the "Te Deum" of Germany, being usually sung on occasions of public thanksgiving. Weissel, in 1635, composed a beautiful Advent hymn ("Lift up your heads, ye mighty gates"), and J. M. Meyfart, professor of theology at Erfurt, in 1642, a fine adaptation of the ancient "Urbs beata Hierusalem." The hymn of trust in Providence by George Neumark, librarian to that duke of Weimar ("Wer nur den lieben Gott lässt walten"--"Leave God to order all thy ways"), is scarcely, if at all, inferior to that of Paul Gerhardt on the same theme. Paul Flemming, a great traveller and lover of nature, who died in 1639, also wrote excellent compositions, coloured by the same tone of feeling; and some, of great merit, were composed, soon after the close of the war, by Louisa Henrietta, electress of Brandenburg, granddaughter of the famous admiral Coligny, and mother of the first king of Prussia. With these may be classed (though of later date) a few striking hymns of faith and prayer under mental anxiety, by Anton Ulrich, duke of Brunswick.

Rist.

Dach.

The most copious, and in their day most esteemed, hymn-writers of the first half of the 17th century, were Johann Heermann and Johann Rist. Heermann, a pastor in Silesia, the theatre (in a peculiar degree) of war and persecution, experienced in his own person a very large share of the miseries of the time, and several times narrowly escaped a violent death. His _Devoti musica cordis_, published in 1630, reflects the feelings natural under such circumstances. With a correct style and good versification, his tone is subjective, and the burden of his hymns is not praise, but prayer. Among his works (which enter largely into most German hymn-books), two of the best are the "Song of Tears" and the "Song of Comfort," translated by Miss Winkworth in her _Christian Singers of Germany_. Rist published about 600 hymns, "pressed out of him," as he said, "by the cross." He was a pastor, and son of a pastor, in Holstein, and lived after the peace to enjoy many years of prosperity, being appointed poet-laureate to the emperor and finally ennobled. The bulk of his hymns, like those of other copious writers, are of inferior quality; but some, particularly those for Advent, Epiphany, Easter Eve and on Angels, are very good. They are more objective than those of Heermann, and written, upon the whole, in a more manly spirit. Next to Heermann and Rist in fertility of production, and above them in poetical genius, was Simon Dach, professor of poetry at Königsberg, who died in 1659. Miss Winkworth ranks him high among German poets, "for the sweetness of form and depth of tender contemplative emotion to be found in his verses."

Gerhardt.

Franck.

Scheffler.

The fame of all these writers was eclipsed in the latter part of the same century by three of the greatest hymnographers whom Germany has produced--Paul Gerhardt (1604-1676), Johann Franck (1618-1677) and Johann Scheffler (1624-1677), the founder of the "second Silesian school," who assumed the name of "Angelus Silesius." Gerhardt is by universal consent the prince of Lutheran poets. His compositions, which may be compared, in many respects, to those of the _Christian Year_, are lyric poems, of considerable length, rather than hymns, though many hymns have been taken from them. They are, with few exceptions, subjective, and speak the language of individual experience. They occupy a middle ground between the masculine simplicity of the old Lutheran style and the highly wrought religious emotion of the later pietists, towards whom they on the whole incline. Being nearly all excellent, it is not easy to distinguish among the 123 those which are entitled to the highest praise. Two, which were written one during the war and the other after the conclusion of peace, "Zeuch ein zu deinen Thoren" ("Come to Thy temple here on earth"), and "Gottlob, nun ist erschollen" ("Thank God, it hath resounded"), are historically interesting. Of the rest, one is well known and highly appreciated in English through Wesley's translation, "Commit thou all thy ways"; and the evening and spring-tide hymns ("Now all the woods are sleeping" and "Go forth, my heart, and seek delight") show an exquisite feeling for nature; while nothing can be more tender and pathetic than "Du bist zwar mein und bleibest mein" ("Thou'rt mine, yes, still thou art mine own"), on the death of his son. Franck, who was burgomaster of Guben in Lusatia, has been considered by some second only to Gerhardt. If so, it is with a great distance between them. His approach to the later pietists is closer than that of Gerhardt. His hymns were published, under the title of _Geistliche und weltliche Gedichte_, in 1674, some of them being founded on Ambrosian and other Latin originals. Miss Winkworth gives them the praise of a condensed and polished style and fervid and impassioned thought. It was after his conversion to Roman Catholicism that Scheffler adopted the name of "Angelus Silesius," and published in 1657 his hymns, under a fantastic title, and with a still more fantastic preface. Their keynote is divine love; they are enthusiastic, intense, exuberant in their sweetness, like those of St Bernard among medieval poets. An adaptation of one of them, by Wesley, "Thee will I love, my Strength, my Tower," is familiar to English readers. Those for the first Sunday after Epiphany, for Sexagesima Sunday and for Trinity Sunday, in _Lyra Germanica_, are good examples of his excellences, with few of his defects. His hymns are generally so free from the expression, or even the indirect suggestion, of Roman Catholic doctrine, that it has been supposed they were written before his conversion, though published afterwards. The evangelical churches of Germany found no difficulty in admitting them to that prominent place in their services which they have ever since retained.

Pietists.

Towards the end of the 17th century, a new religious school arose, to which the name of "Pietists" was given, and of which Philipp Jakob Spener was esteemed the founder. He and his pupils and successors, August Hermann Francke and Anastasius Freylinghausen, all wrote hymns. Spener's hymns are not remarkable, and Francke's are not numerous. Freylinghausen was their chief singer; his rhythm is lively, his music florid; but, though his book attained extraordinary popularity, he was surpassed in solid merit by other less fertile writers of the same school. The "Auf hinauf zu deiner Freude" ("Up, yes, upward to thy gladness") of Schade may recall to an English reader a hymn by Seagrave, and more than one by Lyte; the "Malabarian hymn" (as it was called by Jacobi) of Johann Schütz, "All glory to the Sovereign Good," has been popular in England as well as Germany; and one of the most exquisite strains of pious resignation ever written is "Whate'er my God ordains is right," by Samuel Rodigast.

Neander.

Joachim Neander, a schoolmaster at Düsseldorf, and a friend of Spener and Schütz (who died before the full development of the "Pietistic" school), was the first man of eminence in the "Reformed" or Calvinistic Church who imitated Lutheran hymnody. This he did, while suffering persecution from the elders of his own church for some other religious practices, which he had also learnt from Spener's example. As a poet, he is sometimes deficient in art; but there is feeling, warmth and sweetness in many of his "Bundeslieder" or "Songs of the Covenant," and they obtained general favour, both in the Reformed and in Lutheran congregations. The Summer Hymn ("O Thou true God alone") and that on the glory of God in creation ("Lo, heaven and earth and sea and air") are instances of his best style.

Schmolke.

Dessler.

Hiller.

Arnold.

Tersteegen.

Zinzendorf.

With the "Pietists" may be classed Benjamin Schmolke and Dessler, representatives of the "Orthodox" division of Spener's school; Philipp Friedrich Hiller, their leading poet in South Germany; Gottfried Arnold and Gerhard Tersteegen, who were practically independent of ecclesiastical organization, though connected, one with the "Orthodox" and the other with the "Reformed" churches; and Nikolaus Ludwig, Graf von Zinzendorf. Schmolke, a pastor in Silesia, called the Silesian Rist (1672-1737), was perhaps the most voluminous of all German hymn-writers. He wrote 1188 religious poems and hymns, a large proportion of which do not rise above mediocrity. His style, if less refined, is also less subjective and more simple than that of most of his contemporaries. Among his best and most attractive works, which indeed, it would be difficult to praise too highly, are the "Hosianna David's Sohn," for Palm Sunday--much resembling a shorter hymn by Jeremy Taylor; and the Ascension, Whitsuntide and Sabbath hymns--"Heavenward doth our journey tend," "Come deck our feast to-day," and "Light of light, enlighten me." Dessler was a greater poet than Schmolke. Few hymns, of the subjective kind, are better than his "I will not let Thee go, Thou Help in time of need," "O Friend of souls, how well is me," and "Now, the pearly gates unfold." Hiller (1699-1769), was a pastor in Württemberg who, falling into ill-health during the latter part of his ministry, published a _Geistliche Liederhöstlein_ in a didactic vein, with more taste than power, but (as Miss Winkworth says) in a tone of "deep, thoughtful, practical piety." They were so well adapted to the wants of his people that to this day Hiller's Casket is prized, next to their Bibles, by the peasantry of Württemberg; and the numerous emigrants from that part of Germany to America and other foreign countries generally take it with them wherever they go. Arnold, a professor at Giessen, and afterwards a pastor in Brandenburg, was a man of strong will, uncompromising character and austere views of life, intolerant and controversial towards those whose doctrine or practice he disapproved, and more indifferent to separatism and sectarianism than the "orthodox" generally thought right. His hymns, like those of Augustus M. Toplady, whom in these respects he resembled, unite with considerable strength more gentleness and breadth of sympathy than might be expected from a man of such a character. Tersteegen (1697-1769), who never formally separated himself from the "Reformed" communion, in which he was brought up, but whose sympathies were with the Moravians and with Zinzendorf, was, of all the more copious German hymn-writers after Luther, perhaps the most remarkable man. Pietist, mystic and missionary, he was also a great religious poet. His 111 hymns were published In 1731, in a volume called _Geistlicher Blumengärtlein inniger_ Seelen. They are intensely individual, meditative and subjective. Wesley's adaptations of two--"Lo! God is here; let us adore," and "Thou hidden Love of God, whose source"--are well known. Among those translated by Miss Winkworth, "O God, O Spirit, Light of all that live," and "Come, brethren, let us go," are specimens which exhibit favourably his manner and power. Miss Cox speaks of him as "a gentle heaven-inspired soul, whose hymns are the reflection of a heavenly, happy life, his mind being full of a child-like simplicity"; and his own poem on the child-character, which Miss Winkworth has appropriately connected with Innocents' day ("Dear Soul, couldst thou become a child")--one of his best compositions, exquisitely conceived and expressed--shows that this was in truth the ideal which he sought to realize. The hymns of Zinzendorf are often disfigured by excess in the application of the language and imagery of human affections to divine objects; and this blemish is also found in many later Moravian hymns. But one hymn, at least, of Zinzendorf may be mentioned with unqualified praise, as uniting the merits of force, simplicity and brevity--"Jesu, geh voran" ("Jesus, lead the way"), which is taught to most children of religious parents in Germany. Wesley's "Jesus, Thy blood and righteousness" is a translation from Zinzendorf.

Gellert.

The transition from Tersteegen and Zinzendorf to Gellert and Klopstock marks strongly the reaction against Pietism which took place towards the middle of the 18th century. The _Geistlichen Oden und Lieder_ of Christian F. Gellert were published in 1757, and are said to have been received with an enthusiasm almost like that which "greeted Luther's hymns on their first appearance." It is a proof of the moderation both of the author and of his times that they were largely used, not only by Protestant congregations, but in those German Roman Catholic churches in which vernacular services had been established through the influence of the emperor Joseph II. They became the model which was followed by most succeeding hymn-writers, and exceeded all others in popularity till the close of the century, when a new wave of thought was generated by the movement which produced the French Revolution. Since that time they have been, perhaps, too much depreciated. They are, indeed, cold and didactic, as compared with Scheffler or Tersteegen; but there is nevertheless in them a spirit of genuine practical piety; and, if not marked by genius, they are pure in taste, and often terse, vigorous and graceful.

Klopstock.

Klopstock, the author of the _Messiah_, cannot be considered great as a hymn-writer, though his "Sabbath Hymn" (of which there is a version in _Hymns from the Land of Luther_) is simple and good. Generally his hymns (ten of which are translated in Sheppard's _Foreign Sacred Lyre_) are artificial and much too elaborate.

Fouqué.

Of the "romantic" school, which came in with the French Revolution, the two leading writers are Friedrich Leopold von Hardenberg, called "Novalis," and Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué, the celebrated author of _Undine_ and _Sintram_--both romance-writers, as well as poets. The genius of Novalis was early lost to the world; he died in 1801, not thirty years old. Some of his hymns are very beautiful; but even in such works as "Though all to Thee were faithless," and "If only He is mine," there is a feeling of insulation and of despondency as to good in the actual world, which was perhaps inseparable from his ecclesiastical idealism. Fouqué survived till 1843. In his hymns there is the same deep flow of feeling, richness of imagery and charm of expression which distinguishes his prose works. The two missionary hymns--"Thou, solemn Ocean, rollest to the strand," and "In our sails all soft and sweetly"--and the exquisite composition which finds its motive in the gospel narrative of blind Bartimeus, "Was du vor tausend Jahren" (finely translated both by Miss Winkworth and by Miss Cox), are among the best examples.

Spitta.

The later German hymn-writers of the 19th century belong, generally, to the revived "Pietistic" school. Some of the best, Johann Baptist von Albertini, Friedrich Adolf Krummacher, and especially Karl Johann Philipp Spitta (1801-1859) have produced works not unworthy of the fame of their nation. Mr Massie, the able translator of Spitta's _Psalter und Harfe_ (Leipzig, 1833), speaks of it as having "obtained for him in Germany a popularity only second to that of Paul Gerhardt." In Spitta's poems (for such they generally are, rather than hymns) the subjective and meditative tone is tempered, not ungracefully, with a didactic element; and they are not disfigured by exaggerated sentiment, or by a too florid and rhetorical style.

6. _British Hymnody._--After the Reformation, the development of hymnody was retarded, in both parts of Great Britain, by the example and influence of Geneva. Archbishop Cranmer appears at one time to have been disposed to follow Luther's course, and to present to the people, in an English dress, some at least of the hymns of the ancient church. In a letter to King Henry VIII. (October 7, 1544), among some new "processions" which he had himself translated, into English, he mentions the Easter hymn, "Salve, festa dies, toto memorabilis aevo" ("Hail, glad day, to be joyfully kept through all generations"), of Fortunatus. In the "Primer" of 1535 (by Marshall) and the one of 1539 (by Bishop Hilsey of Rochester, published by order of the vicar-general Cromwell) there had been several rude English hymns, none of them taken from ancient sources. King Henry's "Primer" of 1545 (commanded by his injunction of the 6th of May 1545 to be used throughout his dominions) was formed on the model of the daily offices of the Breviary; and it contains English metrical translations from some of the best-known Ambrosian and other early hymns. But in the succeeding reign different views prevailed. A new direction had been given to the taste of the "Reformed" congregations in France and Switzerland by the French metrical translation of the Old Testament Psalms, which appeared about 1540. This was the joint work of Clement Marot, valet or groom of the chamber to Francis I., and Theodore Beza, then a mere youth, fresh from his studies at Orleans.

Marot's Psalms.

Marot's psalms were dedicated to the French king and the ladies of France, and, being set to popular airs, became fashionable. They were sung by Francis himself, the queen, the princesses and the courtiers, upon all sorts of secular occasions, and also, more seriously and religiously, by the citizens and the common people. They were soon perceived to be a power on the side of the Reformation. Calvin, who had settled at Geneva in the year of Marot's return to Paris, was then organizing his ecclesiastical system. He rejected the hymnody of the breviaries and missals, and fell back upon the idea, anciently held by Paul of Samosata, and condemned by the fourth council of Toledo, that whatever was sung in churches ought to be taken out of the Scriptures. Marot's Psalter, appearing thus opportunely, was introduced into his new system of worship, and appended to his catechism. On the other hand, it was interdicted by the Roman Catholic priesthood. Thus it became a badge to the one party of the "reformed" profession, and to the other of heresy.

Sternhold and Hopkins.

The example thus set produced in England the translation commonly known as the "Old Version" of the Psalms. It was begun by Thomas Sternhold, whose position in the household of Henry VIII., and afterwards of Edward VI., was similar to that of Marot with Francis I., and whose services to the former of those kings were rewarded by a substantial legacy under his will. Sternhold published versions of nineteen Psalms, with a dedication to King Edward, and died soon afterwards. A second edition appeared in 1551, with eighteen more Psalms added, of Sternhold's translating, and seven others by John Hopkins, a Suffolk clergyman. The work was continued during Queen Mary's reign by British refugees at Geneva, the chief of whom were William Whittingham, afterwards dean of Durham, who succeeded John Knox as minister of the English congregation there, and William Kethe or Keith, said by Strype to have been a Scotsman. They published at Geneva in 1556 a service-book, containing fifty-one English metrical psalms, which number was increased, in later editions, to eighty-seven. On the accession of Queen Elizabeth, this Genevan Psalmody was at once brought into use in England--first (according to a letter of Bishop Jewell to Peter Martyr, dated 5th March 1560) in one London church, from which it quickly spread to others both in London and in other cities. Jewell describes the effect produced by large congregations, of as many as 6000 persons, young and old, women and children, singing it after the sermons at St Paul's Cross--adding, "Id sacrificos et diabolum aegre habet; vident enim sacras conciones hoc pacto profundius descendere in hominum animos." The first edition of the completed "Old Version" (containing forty Psalms by Sternhold, sixty-seven by Hopkins, fifteen by Whittingham, six by Kethe and the rest by Thomas Norton the dramatist, Robert Wisdom, John Marckant and Thomas Churchyard) appeared in 1562.

In the meantime, the Books of Common Prayer, of 1549, 1552 and 1559, had been successively established as law by the acts of uniformity of Edward VI. and Queen Elizabeth. In these no provision was made for the use of any metrical psalm or hymn on any occasion whatever, except at the consecration of bishops and the ordination of priests, in which offices (first added in 1552) an English version of "Veni Creator" (the longer of the two now in use) was appointed to be "said or sung." The canticles, "Te Deum," "Benedicite," the Nicene and Athanasian Creeds, the "Gloria in Excelsis," and some other parts of the communion and other special offices were also directed to be "said or sung"; and, by general rubrics, the chanting of the whole service was allowed.

The silence, however, of the rubrics in these books as to any other singing was not meant to exclude the use of psalms not expressly appointed, when they could be used without interfering with the prescribed order of any service. It was expressly provided by King Edward's first act of uniformity (by later acts made applicable to the later books) that it should be lawful "for all men, as well in churches, chapels, oratories or other places, to use openly any psalms or prayers taken out of the Bible, at any due time, not letting or omitting thereby the service, or any part thereof, mentioned in the book." And Queen Elizabeth, by one of the injunctions issued in the first year of her reign, declared her desire that the provision made, "in divers collegiate and also some parish churches, for singing in the church, so as to promote the laudable service of music," should continue. After allowing the use of "a modest and distinct song in all parts of the common prayers of the church, so that the same may be as plainly understanded as if it were read without singing," the injunction proceeded thus--"And yet, nevertheless, for the comforting of such that delight in music, it may be permitted that in the beginning or in the end of the Common Prayer, either at morning or evening, there may be sung an hymn, or such like song to the praise of Almighty God, in the best sort of melody and music that may be conveniently devised, having respect that the sentence" (i.e. sense) "of hymn may be understanded and perceived."

The "Old Version," when published (by John Daye, for the Stationers' Company, "cum gratia et privilegio Regiae Majestatis"), bore upon the face of it that it was "newly set forth, and allowed to be sung of the people in churches, before and after morning and evening prayer, as also before and after the sermon." The question of its authority has been at different times much debated, chiefly by Peter Heylyn and Thomas Warton on one side (both of whom disliked and disparaged it), and by William Beveridge, bishop of St Asaph, and the Rev. H. J. Todd on the other. Heylyn says, it was "permitted rather than allowed," which seems to be a distinction without much difference. "Allowance," which is all that the book claimed for itself, is authorization by way of permission, not of commandment. Its publication in that form could hardly have been licensed, nor could it have passed into use as it did without question, throughout the churches of England, unless it had been "allowed" by some authority then esteemed to be sufficient. Whether that authority was royal or ecclesiastical does not appear, nor (considering the proviso in King Edward's act of uniformity, and Queen Elizabeth's injunctions) is it very important. No inference can justly be drawn from the inability of inquirers, in Heylyn's time or since, to discover any public record bearing upon this subject, many public documents of that period having been lost.

In this book, as published in 1562, and for many years afterwards, there were (besides the versified Psalms) eleven metrical versions of the "Te Deum," canticles, Lord's Prayer (the best of which is that of the "Benedicite"); and also "Da pacem, Domine," a hymn suitable to the times, rendered into English from Luther; two original hymns of praise, to be sung before morning and evening prayer; two penitential hymns (one of them the "humble lamentation of a sinner"); and a hymn of faith, beginning, "Lord, in Thee is all my trust." In these respects, and also in the tunes which accompanied the words (stated by Dr Charles Burney, in his _History of Music_, to be German, and not French), there was a departure from the Genevan platform. Some of these hymns, and some of the psalms also (e.g. those by Robert Wisdom, being alternative versions), were omitted at a later period; and many alterations and supposed amendments were from time to time made by unknown hands in the psalms which remained, so that the text, as now printed, is in many places different from that of 1562.

Scotch Psalms.

In Scotland, the General Assembly of the kirk caused to be printed at Edinburgh in 1564, and enjoined the use of, a book entitled _The Form of Prayers and Ministry of the Sacraments used in the English Church at Geneva, approved and received by the Church of Scotland; whereto, besides that was in the former books, are also added sundry other prayers, with the whole Psalms of David in English metre_. This contained, from the "Old Version," translations of forty Psalms by Sternhold, fifteen by Whittingham, twenty-six by Kethe and thirty-five by Hopkins. Of the remainder two were by John Pulleyn (one of the Genevan refugees, who became archdeacon of Colchester); six by Robert Pont, Knox's son-in-law, who was a minister of the kirk, and also a lord of session; and fourteen signed with the initials I. C., supposed to be John Craig; one was anonymous, eight were attributed to N., two to M. and one to T. N. respectively.

So matters continued in both churches until the Civil War. During the interval, King James I. conceived the project of himself making a new version of the Psalms, and appears to have translated thirty-one of them--the correction of which, together with the translation of the rest, he entrusted to Sir William Alexander, afterwards earl of Stirling. Sir William having completed his task, King Charles I. had it examined and approved by several archbishops and bishops of England, Scotland and Ireland, and caused it to be printed in 1631 at the Oxford University Press, as the work of King James; and, by an order under the royal sign manual, recommended its use in all churches of his dominions. In 1634 he enjoined the Privy Council of Scotland not to suffer any other psalms, "of any edition whatever," to be printed in or imported into that kingdom. In 1636 it was republished, and was attached to the famous Scottish service-book, with which the troubles began in 1637. It need hardly be added that the king did not succeed in bringing this Psalter into use in either kingdom.

When the Long Parliament undertook, in 1642, the task of altering the liturgy, its attention was at the same time directed to psalmody. It had to judge between two rival translations of the Psalms--one by Francis Rouse, a member of the House of Commons, afterwards one of Cromwell's councillors and finally provost of Eton; the other by William Barton, a clergyman of Leicester. The House of Lords favoured Barton, the House of Commons Rouse, who had made much use of the labours of Sir William Alexander. Both versions were printed by order of parliament, and were referred for consideration to the Westminster Assembly. They decided in favour of Rouse. His version, as finally amended, was published in 1646, under an order of the House of Commons dated 14th November 1645. In the following year it was recommended by the parliament to the General Assembly at Edinburgh, who appointed a committee, with large powers, to prepare a revised Psalter, recommending to their consideration not only Rouse's book but that of 1564, and two other versions (by Zachary Boyd and Sir William Mure of Rowallan), then lately executed in Scotland. The result of the labours of this committee was the "Paraphrase" of the Psalms, which, in 1649-1650, by the concurrent authority of the General Assembly and the committee of estates, was ordered to be exclusively used throughout the church of Scotland. Some use was made in the preparation of this book of the versions to which the attention of the revisers had been directed, and also of Barton's; but its basis was that of Rouse. It was received in Scotland with great favour, which it has ever since retained; and it is fairly entitled to the praise of striking a tolerable medium between the rude homeliness of the "Old," and the artificial modernism of the "New" English versions--perhaps as great a success as was possible for such an undertaking. Sir Walter Scott is said to have dissuaded any attempt to alter it, and to have pronounced it, "with all its acknowledged occasional harshness, so beautiful, that any alterations must eventually prove only so many blemishes." No further step towards any authorized hymnody was taken by the kirk of Scotland till the following century.

In England, two changes bearing on church hymnody were made upon the revision of the prayer-book after the Restoration, in 1661-1662. One was the addition, in the offices for consecrating bishops and ordaining priests, of the shorter version of "Veni Creator" ("Come, Holy Ghost, our souls inspire"), as an alternative form. The other, and more important, was the insertion of the rubric after the third collect, at morning and evening prayer: "In quires and places where they sing, here followeth the anthem." By this rubric synodical and parliamentary authority was given for the interruption, at that point, of the prescribed order of the service by singing an anthem, the choice of which was left to the discretion of the minister. Those actually used, under this authority, were for some time only unmetrical passages of scripture, set to music by Blow, Purcell and other composers, of the same kind with the anthems still generally sung in cathedral and collegiate churches. But the word "anthem" had no technical signification which could be an obstacle to the use under this rubric of metrical hymns.

Tate and Brady.

The "New Version" of the Psalms, by Dr Nicholas Brady and the poet-laureate Nahum Tate (both Irishmen), appeared in 1696, under the sanction of an order in council of William III., "allowing and permitting" its use "in all such churches, chapels and congregations as should think fit to receive it." Dr Compton, bishop of London, recommended it to his diocese. No hymns were then appended to it; but the authors added a "supplement" in 1703, which received an exactly similar sanction from an order in council of Queen Anne. In that supplement there were several new versions of the canticles, and of the "Veni Creator"; a variation of the old "humble lamentation of a sinner"; six hymns for Christmas, Easter and Holy Communion (all versions or paraphrases of scripture), which are still usually printed at the end of the prayer-books containing the new version; and a hymn "on the divine use of music"--all accompanied by tunes. The authors also reprinted, with very good taste, the excellent version of the "Benedicite" which appeared in the book of 1562. Of the hymns in this "supplement," one ("While shepherds watched their flocks by night") greatly exceeded the rest in merit. It has been ascribed to Tate, but it has a character of simplicity unlike the rest of his works.

Old and new versions compared.

The relative merits of the "Old" and "New" versions have been very variously estimated. Competent judges have given the old the praise, which certainly cannot be accorded to the new, of fidelity to the Hebrew. In both, it must be admitted, that those parts which have poetical merit are few and far between; but a reverent taste is likely to be more offended by the frequent sacrifice, in the new, of depth of tone and accuracy of sense to a fluent commonplace correctness of versification and diction, than by any excessive homeliness in the old. In both, however, some psalms, or portions of psalms, are well enough rendered to entitle them to a permanent place in the hymn-books--especially the 8th, and parts of the 18th Psalm, by Sternhold; the 57th, 84th and 100th, by Hopkins; the 23rd, 34th and 36th, and part of the 148th, by Tate and Brady.

The judgment which a fastidious critic might be disposed to pass upon both these books may perhaps be considerably mitigated by comparing them with the works of other labourers in the same field, of whom Holland, in his interesting volumes entitled _Psalmists of Great Britain_, enumerates above 150. Some of them have been real poets--the celebrated earl of Surrey, Sir Philip Sidney and his sister the countess of Pembroke, George Sandys, George Wither, John Milton and John Keble. In their versions, as might be expected, there are occasional gleams of power and beauty, exceeding anything to be found in Sternhold and Hopkins, or Tate and Brady; but even in the best these are rare, and chiefly occur where the strict idea of translation has been most widely departed from. In all of them, as a rule, the life and spirit, which in prose versions of the psalms are so wonderfully preserved, have disappeared. The conclusion practically suggested by so many failures is that the difficulties of metrical translation, always great, are in this case insuperable; and that, while the psalms like other parts of scripture are abundantly suggestive of motive and material for hymnographers, it is by assimilation and adaptation, and not by any attempt to transform their exact sense into modern poetry, that they may be best used for this purpose.

The order in council of 1703 is the latest act of any public authority by which an express sanction has been given to the use of psalms or hymns in the Church of England. At the end, indeed, of many Prayer-books, till about the middle of the 19th century, there were commonly found, besides some of the hymns sanctioned by that order in council, or of those contained in the book of 1562, a sacramental and a Christmas hymn by Doddridge; a Christmas hymn (varied by Martin Madan) from Charles Wesley; an Easter hymn of the 18th century, beginning "Jesus Christ has risen to-day"; and abridgments Bishop Ken's Morning and Evening Hymns. These additions first began to be made in or about 1791, in London editions of the Prayer-book and Psalter, at the mere will and pleasure (so far as appears) of the printers. They had no sort of authority.

English congregational hymnody.

In the state of authority, opinion and practice disclosed by the preceding narrative may be found the true explanation of the fact that, in the country of Chaucer, Spenser, Shakespeare and Milton, and notwithstanding the example of Germany, no native congregational hymnody worthy of the name arose till after the commencement of the 18th century. Yet there was no want of appreciation of the power and value of congregational church music. Milton could write, before 1645:--

"There let the pealing organ blow To the full-voiced quire below In service high, and anthems clear, As may with sweetness through mine ear Dissolve me into ecstasies, And bring all Heaven before mine eyes."

Thomas Mace, in his _Music's Monument_ (1676), thus described the effect of psalm-singing before sermons by the congregation in York Minster on Sundays, during the siege of 1644: "When that vast concording unity of the whole congregational chorus came thundering in, even so as it made the very ground shake under us, oh, the unutterable ravishing soul's delight! in the which I was so transported and wrapt up in high contemplations that there was no room left in my whole man, body, soul and spirit, for anything below divine and heavenly raptures; nor could there possibly be anything to which that very singing might be truly compared, except the right apprehension or conceiving of that glorious and miraculous quire, recorded in the scriptures at the dedication of the temple." Nor was there any want of men well qualified, and by the turn of their minds predisposed, to shine in this branch of literature. Some (like Sandys, Boyd and Barton) devoted themselves altogether to paraphrases of other scriptures as well as the psalms. Others (like George Herbert, and Francis and John Quarles) moralized, meditated, soliloquized and allegorized in verse. Without reckoning these, there were a few, even before the Restoration, who came very near to the ideal of hymnody.

Wedderburn.

First in time is the Scottish poet John Wedderburn, who translated several of Luther's hymns, and in his _Compendious Book of Godly and Spiritual Songs_ added others of his own (or his brothers') composition. Some of these poems, published before 1560, are of uncommon excellence, uniting ease and melody of rhythm, and structural skill, with grace of expression, and simplicity, warmth and reality of religious feeling. Those entitled "Give me thy heart," "Go, heart," and "Leave me not," which will be found in a collection of 1860 called _Sacred Songs of Scotland_, require little, beyond the change of some archaisms of language, to adapt them for church or domestic use at the present day.

Dickson.

Next come the two hymns of "The new Jerusalem," by an English Roman Catholic priest signing himself F. B. P. (supposed to be "Francis Baker, Presbyter"), and by another Scottish poet, David Dickson, of which the history is given by Dr Bonar in his edition of Dickson's work. This (Dickson's), which begins "O mother dear, Jerusalem," and has long been popular in Scotland, is a variation and amplification by the addition of a large number of new stanzas of the English original, beginning "Jerusalem, my happy home," written in Queen Elizabeth's time, and printed (as appears by a copy in the British Museum) about 1616, when Dickson was still young. Both have an easy natural flow, and a simple happy rendering of the beautiful scriptural imagery upon the subject, with a spirit of primitive devotion uncorrupted by medieval peculiarities. The English hymn of which some stanzas are now often sung in churches is the true parent of the several shorter forms,--all of more than common merit,--which, in modern hymn-books, begin with the same first line, but afterwards deviate from the original. Kindred to these is the very fine and faithful translation, by Dickson's contemporary Drummond of Hawthornden of the ancient "Urbs beata Hierusalem" ("Jerusalem, that place divine"). Other ancient hymns (two of Thomas Aquinas, and the "Dies Irae") were also well translated, in 1646, by Richard Crashaw, after he had become a Roman Catholic and had been deprived by the parliament of his fellowship at Cambridge.

Wither.

Conspicuous among the sacred poets of the first two Stuart reigns in England was George Wither. His _Hymnes and Songs of the Church_ appeared in 1622-1623, under a patent of King James I., by which they were declared "worthy and profitable to be inserted, in convenient manner and due place, into every English Psalm-book to metre." His _Hallelujah_ (in which some of the former _Hymnes and Songs_ were repeated) followed in 1641. Some of the _Hymnes and Songs_ were set to music by Orlando Gibbons, and those in both books were written to be sung, though there is no evidence that the author contemplated the use of any of them in churches. They included hymns for every day in the week (founded, as those contributed nearly a century afterwards by Charles Coffin to the Parisian Breviary also were, upon the successive works of the days of creation); hymns for all the church seasons and festivals, including saints' days; hymns for various public occasions; and hymns of prayer, meditation and instruction, for all sorts and conditions of men, under a great variety of circumstances--being at once a "Christian Year" and a manual of practical piety. Many of them rise to a very high point of excellence,--particularly the "general invitation to praise God" ("Come, O come, in pious lays"), with which _Hallelujah_ opens; the thanksgivings for peace and for victory, the Coronation Hymn, a Christmas, an Epiphany, and an Easter Hymn, and one for St Bartholomew's day (Hymns 1, 74, 75, and 84 in part i ., and 26, 29, 36 and 54 in