Buch v

. d. ägypt. Myst._, Munich, 1858). The best accounts of Iamblichus are those of Zeller, _Phil. d. Griechen_, iii. 2, pp. 613 sq., 2nd ed.; E. Vacherot, _Hist. de l'école d'Alexandrie_ (1846), ii. 57 sq.; J. Simon, _Hist. de l'école d'Alexandrie_ (1845); A. E. Chaignet, _Histoire de la psychologie des Grecs_ (Paris, 1893) v. 67-108; T. Whittaker, _The Neo-Platonists_ (Cambridge, 1901). (W. R. So.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Besides the anonymous testimony prefixed to an ancient MS. of Proclus, _De Myst._ viii. 3 seems to be quoted by the latter as Iamblichus's. Cf. Meiners. "Judicium de libro qui de Myst. Aeg. inscribitur," in _Comment. Soc. Reg. Sci. Gott._, vol. iv., 1781, p. 77.

IAMBLICHUS, of Syria, the earliest of the Greek romance writers, flourished in the 2nd century A.D. He was the author of [Greek: Babylôniaka], the loves of Rhodanes and Sinonis, of which an epitome is preserved in Photius (cod. 94). Garmus, a legendary king of Babylon, forces Sinonis to marry him and throws Rhodanes into prison. The lovers manage to escape, and after many singular adventures, in which magic plays a considerable part, Garmus is overthrown by Rhodanes, who becomes king of Babylon. According to Suidas, Iamblichus was a freedman, and a scholiast's note on Photius further informs us that he was a native Syrian (not descended from Greek settlers); that he borrowed the material for his romance from a love story told him by his Babylonian tutor, and that he subsequently applied himself with great success to the study of Greek. A MS. of the original in the library of the Escorial is said to have been destroyed by fire in 1670. Only a few fragments have been preserved, in addition to Photius's epitome.

See _Scriptores erotici_, ed. A. Hirschig (1856) and R. Hercher (1858); A. Mai, _Scriptorum veterum nova collectio_, ii.; E. Rohde, _Der griechische Roman_ (1900).

IANNINA (i.e. "the city of St John"; Gr. _Ioannina_; Turk _Yaniá_; also written Janina, Jannina, and, according to its Albanian pronunciation, Yanina), the capital of the vilayet of Iannina, Albania, European Turkey. Pop. (1905) about 22,000. The largest ethnical groups in the population are the Albanian and Greek; the purest form of colloquial Greek is spoken here among the wealthy and highly educated merchant families. The position of Iannina is strikingly picturesque. At the foot of the grey limestone mass of Mount Mitzekeli (1500 ft.), which forms part of the fine range of hills running north from the Gulf of Arta, there lies a valley (the _Hellopia_ of antiquity) partly occupied by a lake; and the city is built on the slopes of a slight eminence, stretching down to the western shore. It has greatly declined from the state of barbaric prosperity which it enjoyed from 1788 to 1822, when it was the seat of Ali Pasha (q.v.), and was estimated to have from 30,000 to 50,000 inhabitants. The fortress--Demir Kule or Iron Castle, which, like the principal seraglio, was built on a promontory jutting into the lake--is now in ruins. But the city is the seat of a Greek archbishop, and still possesses many mosques and churches, besides synagogues, a Greek college (gymnasium), a library and a hospital. Sayades (opposite Corfu) and Arta are the places through which it receives its imports. The rich gold and silver embroidery for which the city has long been famous is still one of the notable articles in its bazaar; but the commercial importance of Iannina has notably declined since the cession of Arta and Thessaly to Greece in 1881. Iannina had previously been one of the chief centres of the Thessalian grain trade; it now exports little except cheese, hides, bitumen and sheepskins to the annual value of about £120,000; the imports, which supply only the local demand for provisions, textile goods, hardware, &c., are worth about double that sum.

The lake of Iannina (perhaps to be identified with the Pambotus or Pambotis of antiquity) is 6 m. long, and has an area of 24 sq.m., with an extreme depth of less than 35 ft. In time of flood it is united with the smaller lake of Labchistas to the north. There are no affluents of any considerable size, and the only outlets are underground passages or _katavothra_ extending for many miles through the calcareous rocks.

The theory supported by W. M. Leake (_Northern Greece_, London, 1835) that the citadel of Iannina is to be identified with Dodona, is now generally abandoned in favour of the claims of a more southern site. As Anna Comnena, in describing the capture of the town ([Greek: ta Ioannina]) by Bohemond in 1082, speaks of the walls as being dilapidated, it may be supposed that the place existed before the 11th century. It is mentioned from time to time in the Byzantine annals, and on the establishment of the lordship of Epirus by Michael Angelus Comnenus Ducas, it became his capital. In the middle ages it was successively attacked by Serbs, Macedonians and Albanians; but it was in possession of the successors of Michael when the forces of the Sultan Murad appeared before it in 1430 (cf. Hahn, _Alban. Studien_, Jena [1854], pp. 319-322). Since 1431 it has continued under Turkish rule.

Descriptions of Iannina will be found in Holland's _Travels_ (1815); Hughes, _Travels in Greece_, &c. (1830); H. F. Tozer, _Researches in the Highlands of Turkey_ (London, 1869). See also ALBANIA and the authorities there cited.

IAPETUS, in Greek mythology, son of Uranus and Gaea, one of the Titans, father of Atlas, Prometheus, Epimetheus and Menoetius, the personifications of certain human qualities (Hesiod, _Theog._ 507). As a punishment for having revolted against Zeus, he was imprisoned in Tartarus (Homer, _Iliad_, viii. 479) or underneath the island of Inarime off the coast of Campania (Silius Italicus xii. 148). Hyginus makes him the son of Tartarus and Gaea, and one of the giants. Iapetus was considered the original ancestor of the human race, as the father of Prometheus and grandfather of Deucalion. The name is probably identical with Japhet (Japheth), and the son of Noah in the Greek legend of the flood becomes the ancestor of (Noah) Deucalion. Iapetus as the representative of an obsolete order of things is described as warring against the new order under Zeus, and is naturally relegated to Tartarus.

See F. G. Welcker, _Griechische Götterlehre_, i. (1857); C. H. Völcker, _Die Mythologie des Iapetischen Geschlechtes_ (1824); M. Mayer, _Giganten und Titanen_ (1887).

IAPYDES, or IAPODES, one of the three chief peoples of Roman Illyria. They occupied the interior of the country on the north between the Arsia (Arsa) and Tedanius (perhaps the Zermanja), which separated them from the Liburnians. Their territory formed part of the modern Croatia. They are described by Strabo as a mixed race of Celts and Illyrians, who used Celtic weapons, tattooed themselves, and lived chiefly on spelt and millet. They were a warlike race, addicted to plundering expeditions. In 129 B.C. C. Sempronius Tuditanus celebrated a triumph over them, and in 34 B.C. they were finally crushed by Augustus. They appear to have had a _foedus_ with Rome, but subsequently rebelled.

See Strabo iv. 207, vii. 313-315; Dio Cassius xlix. 35; Appian, _Illyrica_, 10, 14, 16; Livy, _Epit._ lix. 131; Tibullus iv. 1. 108; Cicero, _Pro Balbo_, 14.

IATROCHEMISTRY (coined from Gr. [Greek: iatros], a physician, and "chemistry"), a stage in the history of chemistry, during which the object of this science was held to be "not to make gold but to prepare medicines." This doctrine dominated chemical thought during the 16th century, its foremost supporters being Paracelsus, van Helmont and de la Boë Sylvius. But it gave way to the new definition formulated by Boyle, viz. that the proper domain of chemistry was "to determine the composition of substances." (See CHEMISTRY: I. _History_; MEDICINE.)

IAZYGES, a tribe of Sarmatians first heard of on the Maeotis, where they were among the allies of Mithradates the Great. Moving westward across Scythia, and hence called Metanastae, they were on the lower Danube by the time of Ovid, and about A.D. 50 occupied the plains east of the Theiss. Here, under the general name of Sarmatae, they were a perpetual trouble to the Roman province of Dacia. They were divided into freemen and serfs (_Sarmatae Limigantes_), the latter of whom had a different manner of life and were probably an older settled population enslaved by nomad masters. They rose against them in A.D. 334, but were repressed by foreign aid. Nothing is heard of Iazyges or Sarmatae after the Hunnish invasions. Graves at Keszthely and elsewhere in the Theiss valley, shown by their contents to belong to nomads of the first centuries A.D., are referred to the Iazyges. (E. H. M.)

IBADAN, a town of British West Africa, in Yorubaland, Southern Nigeria, 123 m. by rail N.E. of Lagos, and about 50 m. N.E. of Abeokuta. Pop. 1910 estimated at 150,000. The town occupies the slope of a hill, and stretches into the valley through which the river Ona flows. It is enclosed by mud walls, which have a circuit of 18 m., and is encompassed by cultivated land 5 or 6 m. in breadth. The native houses are all low, thatched structures, enclosing a square court, and the only break in the mud wall is the door. There are numerous mosques, _orishas_ (idol-houses) and open spaces shaded with trees. There are a few buildings in the European style. Most of the inhabitants are engaged in agriculture; but a great variety of handicrafts is also carried on. Ibadan is the capital of one of the Yoruba states and enjoys a large measure of autonomy. Nominally the state is subject to the _alafin_ (ruler) of Oyo; but it is virtually independent. The administration is in the hands of two chiefs, a civil and a military, the _bale_ and the _balogun_; these together form the highest court of appeal. There is also an _iyaloda_ or mother of the town, to whom are submitted all the disputes of the women. Ibadan long had a feud with Abeokuta, but on the establishment of the British protectorate the intertribal wars were stopped. In 1862 the people of Ibadan destroyed Ijaya, a neighbouring town of 60,000 inhabitants. A British resident and a detachment of Hausa troops are stationed at Ibadan.

See also YORUBAS, ABEOKUTA and LAGOS.

IBAGUÉ, or SAN BONIFACIO DE IBAGUÉ, a city of Colombia, and capital of the department of Tolima, about 60 m. W. of Bogotá and 18 m. N.W. of the Nevado de Tolima. Pop. (1900, estimate) 13,000. Ibagué is built on a beautiful plain between the Chipalo and Combeima, small affluents of the Cuello, a western tributary of the Magdalena. Its elevation, 4300 ft. above the sea, gives it a mild, subtropical climate. The plain and the neighbouring valleys produce cacao, tobacco, rice and sugar-cane. There are two thermal springs in the vicinity, and undeveloped mines of sulphur and silver. The city has an endowed college. It is an important commercial centre, being on the road which crosses the Quindio pass, or _paramo_, into the Cauca valley. Ibagué was founded in 1550 and was the capital of the republic for a short time in 1854.

IBARRA, a city of Ecuador and capital of the province of Imbabura, about 50 m. N.N.E. of Quito, on a small fertile plain at the northern foot of Imbabura volcano, 7300 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1900, estimate) 5000. It stands on the left bank of the Tahuando, a small stream whose waters flow north and west to the Pacific through the Mira, and is separated from the higher plateau of Quito by an elevated transverse ridge of which the Imbabura and Mojanda volcanoes form a part. The surrounding country is mountainous, the valleys being very fertile. Ibarra itself has a mild, humid climate, and is set in the midst of orchards and gardens. It is the see of a bishop and has a large number of churches and convents, and many substantial residences. Ibarra has manufactures of cotton and woollen fabrics, hats, sandals (_alpargates_), sacks and rope from _cabulla_ fibre, laces, sugar and various kinds of distilled spirits and cordials made from the sugar-cane grown in the vicinity. Mules are bred for the Colombian markets of Pasto and Popayan. Ibarra was founded in 1597 by Alvaro de Ibarra, the president of Quito. It has suffered from the eruptions of Imbabura, and more severely from earthquakes, that of 1859 causing great damage to its public buildings, and the greater one of the 16th of August 1868 almost completely destroyed the town and killed a large number of its inhabitants. The village of Carranqui, 1¼ m. from Ibarra, is the birthplace of Atahualpa, the Inca sovereign executed by Pizarro, and close by is the small lake called Yaguarcocha where the army of Huaynacapac, the father of Atahualpa, inflicted a bloody defeat on the Carranquis. Another aboriginal battle-field is that of Hatuntaqui, near Ibarra, where Huaynacapac won a decisive victory and added the greater part of Ecuador to his realm. The whole region is full of _tolas_, or Indian burial mounds.

IBERIANS (Iberi, [Greek: Ibêres]), an ancient people inhabiting parts of the Spanish peninsula. Their ethnic affinities are not known, and our knowledge of their history is comparatively slight. It is almost impossible to make any statement in regard to them which will meet with general agreement. At the same time, the general lines of Iberian controversy are clear enough The principal sources of information about the Iberians are (1) historical, (2) numismatic, (3) linguistic, (4) anthropological.

1. _Historical._--The name seems to have been applied by the earlier Greek navigators to the peoples who inhabited the eastern coast of Spain; probably it originally meant those who dwelt by the river Iberus (mod. _Ebro_). It is possible (Boudard, _Études sur l'alphabet ibérien_ (Paris, 1852) that the river-name itself represents the Basque phrase _ibay-erri_ "the country of the river." On the other hand, even in older Greek usage (as in Thuc. vi. 1) the term Iberia is said to have embraced the country as far east as the Rhone (see Herodorus of Heraclea, _Fragm. Hist. Gr._ ii. 34), and by the time of Strabo it was the common Greek name for the Spanish peninsula. Iberians thus meant sometimes the population of the peninsula in general and sometimes, it would appear, the peoples of some definite race ([Greek: genos]) which formed one element in that population. Of the tribal distribution of this race, of its linguistic, social and political characteristics, and of the history of its relation to the other peoples of Spain, we have only the most general, fragmentary and contradictory accounts. On the whole, the historical evidence indicates that in Spain, when it first became known to the Greeks and Romans there existed many separate and variously civilized tribes connected by at least apparent identity of race, and by similarity (but not identity) of language, and sufficiently distinguished by their general characteristics from Phoenicians, Romans and Celts. The statement of Diodorus Siculus that the mingling of these Iberians with the immigrant Celts gave rise to the Celtiberians is in itself probable. Varro and Dionysius Afer proposed to identify the Iberians of Spain with the Iberians of the Caucasus, the one regarding the eastern, and other the western, settlements as the earlier.

2. _Numismatic._--Knowledge of ancient Iberian language and history is mainly derived from a variety of coins, found widely distributed in the peninsula,[1] and also in the neighbourhood of Narbonne. They are inscribed in an alphabet which has many points of similarity with the western Greek alphabets, and some with the Punic alphabet; but which seems to retain a few characters from an older script akin to those of Minoan Crete and Roman Libya.[2] The same Iberian alphabet is found also rarely in inscriptions. The coinage began before the Roman conquest was completed; the monetary system resembles that of the Roman republic, with values analogous to _denarii_ and _quinarii_. The coin inscriptions usually give only the name of the town, e.g. PLPLIS (Bilbilis), KLAQRIQS (Calagurris), SEQBRICS (Segobriga), TMANIAV (Dumania). The types show late Greek and perhaps also late Punic influence, but approximate later to Roman models. The commonest reverse type, a charging horseman, reappears on the Roman coins of Bilbilis, Osca, Segobriga and other places. Another common type is one man leading two horses or brandishing a sword or a bow. The obverse has usually a male head, sometimes inscribed with what appears to be a native name.

3. _Linguistic._--The survival of the non-Aryan language among the Basques around the west Pyrenees has suggested the attempt to interpret by its means a large class of similar-sounding place-names of ancient Spain, some of which are authenticated by their occurrence on the inscribed coins, and to link it with other traces of non-Aryan speech round the shores of the Western Mediterranean and on the Atlantic seaboard of Europe. This phase of Iberian theory opens with K. W. Humboldt (_Prüfung der Untersuchungen über die Urbewohner Hispaniens vermittelst der waskischen Sprache_, Berlin, 1821), who contended that there existed once a single great Iberian people, speaking a distinct language of their own; that an essentially "Iberian" population was to be found in Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, in southern France, and even in the British Isles; and that the Basques of the present day were remnants of this race, which had elsewhere been expelled or absorbed. This last was the central and the seminal idea of the work, and it has been the point round which the battle of scholarship has mainly raged. The principal evidence which Humboldt adduced in its support was the possibility of explaining a vast number of the ancient topographical names of Spain, and of other asserted Iberian districts, by the forms and significations of Basque. In reply, Graslin (_De l'Ibérie_, Paris, 1839), maintained that the name Iberia was nothing but a Greek misnomer of Spain, and that there was no proof that the Basque people had ever occupied a wider area than at present; and Bladé (_Origine des Basques_, Paris, 1869) took the same line of argument, holding that Iberia is a purely geographical term, that there was no proper Iberian race, that the Basques were always shut in by alien races, that their affinity is still to seek, and that the whole Basque-Iberian theory is a figment. His main contention has met with some acceptance,[3] but the great current of ethnographical speculation still flows in the direction indicated by Humboldt.

4. _Anthropological._--Humboldt's "Iberian theory" depended partly on linguistic comparisons, but partly on his observation of widespread similarity of physical type among the population of south-western Europe. Since his time the anthropological researches of Broca, Thurnam and Davis, Huxley, Busk, Beddoe, Virchow, Tubino and others have proved the existence in Europe, from Neolithic times, of a race, small of stature, with long or oval skulls, and accustomed to bury their dead in tombs. Their remains have been found in Belgium and France, in Britain, Germany and Denmark, as well as in Spain; and they bear a close resemblance to a type which is common among the Basques as well as all over the Iberian peninsula. This Neolithic race has consequently been nicknamed "Iberians," and it is now common to speak of the "Iberian" ancestry of the people of Britain, recognizing the racial characteristics of "Iberians" in the "small swarthy Welshman," the "small dark Highlander," and the "Black Celts to the west of the Shannon," as well as in the typical inhabitants of Aquitania and Brittany.[4] Later investigators went further. M. d'Arbois de Jubainville, for example (_Les Premiers habitants de l'Europe_, Paris, 1877), maintained that besides possessing Spain, Gaul, Italy and the British Isles, "Iberian" peoples penetrated into the Balkan peninsula, and occupied a part of northern Africa, Corsica and Sardinia; and it is now generally accepted that a race with fairly uniform characteristics was at one time in possession of the south of France (or at least of Aquitania), the whole of Spain from the Pyrenees to the straits, the Canary Islands (the Guanches) a part of northern Africa and Corsica. Whether this type is more conveniently designated by the word _Iberian_, or by some other name ("Eur-african," "Mediterranean," &c.) is a matter of comparative indifference, provided that there is no misunderstanding as to the steps by which the term _Iberian_ attained its meaning in modern anthropology.

AUTHORITIES.--K. W. von Humboldt, "Über die cantabrische oder baskische Sprache" in Adelung, _Mithridates_ iv. (1817), and _Prüfung d. Untersuchungen ü. die Urbewohner Hispaniens vermittelst der waskischen Sprache_ (Berlin, 1821); L. F. Graslin, _De l'Ibérie_ (Paris, 1838); T. B. G. M. Bory de St Vincent, _Essai géologique sur le genre humain_ (1838); G. Lagneau, "Sur l'ethnologie des peuples ibériens," in _Bull. soc. anthrop._ (1867), pp. 146-161; J. F. Bladé, _Études sur l'origine des Basques_ (Paris, 1869), _Défense des études_, &c. (Paris, 1870); Phillips, _Die Einwanderung der Iberer in die pyren. Halbinsel_ (Vienna, 1870), _Über das iberische Alphabet_ (Vienna, 1870); W. Boyd Dawkins, "The Northern Range of the Basques," in _Fortnightly Rev._ N.S. xvi. 323-337 (1874); W. T. van Eys, "La Langue ibérienne et la langue basque," in _Revue de linguistique_, pp. 3-15 (1874); W. Webster, "The Basque and the Kelt," in _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ v. 5-29 (1875); F. M. Tubino, _Los Aborigines ibericos o los Berberos en la peninsula_ (Madrid, 1876); A. Luchaire, _Les Origines linguistiques de l'Aquitaine_ (Paris, 1877); W. Boyd Dawkins, _Early Man in Britain_ (London, 1880); A. Castaing, "Les Origines des Aquitains," _Mém. Soc. Eth._ N.S. 1, pp. 183-328 (1884); G. C. C. Gerland, "Die Basken und die Iberer" in Gröber, _Grundriss d. roman. Philologie_, 1, pp. 313-334 (1888); M. H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, _Les Premiers habitants de l'Europe_ (1889-1894); J. F. Bladé, _Les Vascons avant leur établissement en Novempopulanie_, Agen. (1891); W. Webster, "The Celt-iberians," _Academy_ xl. 268-269 (and consequent correspondence) (1891); J. Rhys, "The Inscriptions and Language of the Northern Picts," _Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot._ xxvi. 263-351 (1892); F. Fita, "El Vascuence en las inscripciones ógmicas," _Bol. Real. Acad. Hist. Madrid_ (June 1893), xxii. 579-587; G. v. d. Gabelentz, "Baskisch u. Berberisch," _Sitz. k. preuss. Akad. Wiss._ 593-613 (Berlin, 1893), _Die Verwandtschaft der Baskischen mit der Berber-Sprache Nordafrikas nachgewiesen_ (Braunschweig, 1894); M. H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, "Les Celtes en Espagne," _Rev. celtique_, xiv. 357-395 (1894); G. Buschan, "Über die iberische Rasse," _Ausland_, lxvi. 342-344 (1894); F. Olóriz y Aguilera, _Distribucion geografica del indice cefalico en España_ (Madrid, 1894), "La Talla humana en España" in _Discursos R. Acad. Medicina_ xxxvi. 389 (Madrid, 1896); R. Collignon, "La Race basque," _L'Anthropologie_, v. 276-287 (1894); T. de Aranzadi, "Le Peuple basque, résumé" _Bull. soc. d'anth._ 510-520 (1894), "Consideraciones acerca de la raza basca" _Euskel-Erria_ xxxv. 33, 65, 97, 129 (1896); H. Schuchhardt, _Baskische Studien_, i. "Über die Entstehung der Bezugsformen des baskischen Zeitworts"; _Denkschriften der K. Akad. der Wiss._, Phil.-Hist., Classe, Bd. 42, Abh. 3. (Wien, 1893); Ph. Salmon, _Rev. mens. Éc. d'anthr._ v. 155-181, 214-220 (1895); R. Collignon, "Anthr. du S.-O. de la France," _Mém. Soc. Anthr._ § 3. 1. 4. p. 1-129 (1895), _Ann. de géogr._ v. 156-166 (1896), and with J. Deniker, "Les Maures de Sénégal," _L'Anthr._ vii. 57-69 (1897); G. Hervé, _Rev. mens. Éc. d'anthr._ vi. 97-109 (1896); G. Sergi, _Africa: Anthropologia della stirpe Camitica_ (Turin, 1897), _Arii ed Italici_ (1898); L. de Hoyos Sainz, "L'Anthropologie et la préhistorique en Espagne et en Portugal en 1897," _L'Anthropologie_, ix. 37-51 (1898); J. Deniker (see Collignon) "Les Races de l'Europe," _L'Anthropologie_, ix. 113-133 (1898); M. Gèze, "De quelques rapports entre les langues berbère et basque," _Mém. soc. arch. du Midi de la France_, xiii. See also the works quoted in the footnotes; and the bibliography under BASQUES. (J. L. M.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] For the prehistoric civilization of the peninsula as a whole see SPAIN.

[2] P. A. Boudard's _Études sur l'alphabet ibérien_ (Paris, 1852). and _Numismatique ibérienne_ (Béziers, 1859); Aloiss Heiss, _Notes sur les monnaies celtibériennes_ (Paris, 1865), and _Description générale des monnaies antiques de l'Espagne_ (Paris, 1870); Phillips, _Über das iberische Alphabet_ (Vienna, 1870), _Die Einwanderung der Iberer in die pyren. Halbinsel_ (Vienna, 1870); W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Journ. Anthr. Inst._ xxix. (1899) 204, and above all E. Hübner, _Monumenta linguae Ibericae_.

[3] W. van Eys, for example, "La Langue ibérienne et la langue basque," in _Revue de linguistique_, goes against Humboldt; but Prince Napoleon and to a considerable extent A. Luchaire maintain the justice of his method and the value of many of his results. See Luchaire, _Les Origines linguistiques de l'Aquitaine_ (Paris, 1877).

[4] Compare the interesting résumé of the whole question in Boyd Dawkins's _Early Man in Britain_ (London, 1880).

IBEX, one of the names of the Alpine wild goat, otherwise known as the steinbok and bouquetin, and scientifically as _Capra ibex_. Formerly the ibex was common on the mountain-ranges of Germany, Switzerland and Tirol, but is now confined to the Alps which separate Valais from Piedmont, and to the lofty peaks of Savoy, where its existence is mainly due to game-laws. The ibex is a handsome animal, measuring about 4½ ft. in length and standing about 40 in. at the shoulder. The skin is covered in summer with a short fur of an ashy-grey colour, and in winter with much longer yellowish-brown hair concealing a dense fur beneath. The horns of the male rise from the crest of the skull, and after bending gradually backwards terminate in smooth tips; the front surface of the remainder carrying bold transverse ridges or knots. About 1 yd. is the maximum recorded length of ibex-horns. The fact that the fore-legs are somewhat shorter than those behind enables the ibex to ascend mountain slopes with more facility than it can descend, while its hoofs are as hard as steel, rough underneath and when walking over a flat surface capable of being spread out. These, together with its powerful sinews, enable it to take prodigious leaps, to balance itself on the smallest foothold and to scale almost perpendicular rocks. Ibex live habitually at a greater height than chamois or any other Alpine mammals, their vertical limit being the line of perpetual snow. There they rest in sunny nooks during the day, descending at night to the highest woods to graze. Ibex are gregarious, feeding in herds of ten to fifteen individuals; but the old males generally live apart from, and usually at greater elevations than, the females and young. They utter a sharp whistling sound not unlike that of the chamois, but when greatly irritated or frightened make a peculiar snorting noise. The period of gestation in the female is ninety days, after which she produces--usually at the end of June--a single young one which is able at once to follow its mother. Kids when caught young and fed on goat's milk can be readily tamed; and in the 16th century young tamed ibex were frequently driven to the mountains along with the goats, in whose company they would afterwards return. Even wild ibex have been known to stray among the herds of goats, although they shun the society of chamois. Its flesh is said to resemble mutton, but has a flavour of game.

[Illustration: The Ibex (_Capra ibex_).]

By naturalists the name "ibex" has been extended to embrace all the kindred species of wild goats, while by sportsmen it is used in a still more elastic sense, to include not only the true wild goat (known in India as the Sind ibex) but even the short-horned _Hemitragus hylocrius_ of the Nilgiris. Dealing only with species zoologically known as ibex, the one nearest akin to the European kind is the Asiatic or Siberian ibex (_Capra sibirica_), which, with several local phases, extends from the northern side of Kashmir over an enormous area in Central Asia. These ibex, especially the race from the Thian Shan, are incomparably finer than the European species, their bold knotted horns sometimes attaining a length of close on 60 in. The Arabian, or Nubian, ibex (_C. nubiana_) is characterized by the more slender type of horn, in which the front edge is much narrower; while the Simien ibex (_C. vali_) of Central Abyssinia is a very large and dark-coloured animal, with the horns black instead of brownish, and bearing only slightly marked front ridges. The Caucasian ibex (_C. caucasica_), or tur, is a wholly fox-coloured animal, in which the horns are still flatter in front, and thus depart yet further from the ibex type. In the Spanish ibex (_C. pyrenaica_) the horns are flattened, with ill-defined knobs, and a spiral twist. (See GOAT.) (W. H. F.; R. L.*)

IBIS, one of the sacred birds of the ancient Egyptians. James Bruce identified this bird with the _Abu-Hannes_ or "Father John" of the Abyssinians, and in 1790 it received from Latham (_Index ornithologicus_, p. 706) the name of _Tantalus aethiopicus_. This determination was placed beyond question by Cuvier (_Ann. du Muséum_, iv. 116-135) and Savigny (_Hist. nat. et mythol. de l'ibis_) in 1805. They, however, removed it from the Linnaean genus _Tantalus_ and, Lacépède having some years before founded a genus _Ibis_, it was transferred thither, and is now generally known as _I. aethiopica_, though some speak of it as _I. religiosa_. No attempt can here be made to treat the ibis from a mythological or antiquarian point of view. Savigny's memoir contains a great deal of matter on the subject. Wilkinson (_Ancient Egyptians_, ser. 2, vol. ii. pp. 217-224) added some of the results of later research, and Renouf in his _Hibbert Lectures_ explains the origin of the myth.

The ibis is chiefly an inhabitant of the Nile basin from Dongola southward, as well as of Kordofan and Sennar; whence about midsummer it moves northwards to Egypt.[1] In Lower Egypt it bears the name of _Abu-mengel_, or "father of the sickle," from the form of its bill, but it does not stay long in that country, disappearing when the Nile has subsided. Hence most travellers have failed to meet with it there[2] (since their acquaintance with the birds of Egypt is limited to those which frequent the country in winter), and writers have denied generally to this species a place in its modern fauna (cf. Shelley, _Birds of Egypt_, p. 261). However, in 1864, von Heuglin (_Journ. für Ornithologie_, 1865, p. 100) saw a young bird which had been shot in the Delta, and E. C. Taylor (_Ibis_, 1878, p. 372) saw an adult which had been killed near Lake Menzal in 1877. The story told to Herodotus of its destroying snakes is, according to Savigny, devoid of truth, but Cuvier states that he discovered partly digested remains of a snake in the stomach of a mummied ibis.

The ibis is somewhat larger than a curlew, _Numenius arquata_, which bird it resembles, with a much stouter bill and stouter legs. The head and greater part of the neck are bare and black. The plumage is white, except the primaries, which are black, and a black plume, formed by the secondaries, tertials and lower scapulars, and richly glossed with bronze, blue and green, which curves gracefully over the hind-quarters. The bill and feet are also black. The young lack the ornamental plume, and in them the head and neck are clothed with short black feathers, while the bill is yellow. The nest is placed in bushes or high trees, the bird generally building in companies, and in the middle of August von Heuglin (_Orn. Nord-Ost-Afrikas_, p. 1138) found that it had from two to four young or much incubated eggs.[3] These are of a dingy white, splashed, spotted and speckled with reddish-brown.

Congeneric with the typical ibis are two or three other species, the _I. melanocephala_ of India, the _I. molucca_ or _I. strictipennis_, of Australia, and the _I. bernieri_ of Madagascar, all of which closely resemble _I. aethiopica_; while many other forms not very far removed from it, though placed by authors in distinct genera,[4] are known. Among these are several beautiful species such as the Japanese _Geronticus nippon_, the _Lophotibis cristata_ of Madagascar, and the scarlet ibis,[5] _Eudocimus ruber_, of America. The glossy ibis, _Plegadis falcinellus_, found throughout the West Indies, Central and the south-eastern part of North America, as well as in many parts of Europe (whence it not unfrequently strays to the British Islands), Africa, Asia and Australia. This bird, believed to be the second kind of ibis spoken of by Herodotus, is rather smaller than the sacred ibis, and mostly of a dark chestnut colour with brilliant green and purple reflections on the upper parts, exhibiting, however, when young none of the rufous hue. This species lays eggs of a deep sea-green colour, having wholly the character of heron's eggs, and it often breeds in company with herons, while the eggs of all other ibises whose eggs are known resemble those of the sacred ibis. Though ibises resemble the curlews externally, there is no affinity between them. The _Ibididae_ are more nearly related to the storks, _Ciconiidae_, and still more to the spoonbills, _Plataleidae_, with which latter many systematists consider them to form one group, the _Hemiglottides_ of Nitzsch. Together these groups form the sub-order _Ciconiae_ of the order _Ciconiiformes_. The true ibises are also to be clearly separated from the wood-ibises, _Tantalidae_, of which there are four or five species, by several not unimportant structural characters. Fossil remains of a true ibis, _I. pagana_, have been found in considerable numbers in the middle Tertiary beds of France.[6] (A. N.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] It has been said to occur occasionally in Europe (Greece and southern Russia).

[2] E. C. Taylor remarked (_Ibis_, 1859, p. 51), that the buff-backed heron, _Ardea bubulcus_, was made by the tourists' dragomans to do duty for the "sacred ibis," and this seems to be no novel practice, since by it, or something like it, Hasselqvist was misled, and through him Linnaeus.

[3] The ibis has more than once nested in the gardens of the Zoological Society in London, and even reared its young there.

[4] For some account of these may be consulted Dr Reichenow's paper in _Journ. für Ornithologie_ (1877), pp. 143-156; Elliot's in _Proc. Zool. Society_ (1877), pp. 477-510; and that of Oustalet in _Nouv. Arch. du Muséum_, ser. 2, vols. i. pp. 167-184.

[5] It is a popular error--especially among painters--that this bird was the sacred ibis of the Egyptians.

[6] The name "_Ibis_" was selected as the title of an ornithological magazine, frequently referred to in this and other articles, which made its first appearance in 1859.

IBLIS, or EBLIS, in Moslem mythology the counterpart of the Christian and Jewish devil. He figures oftener in the Koran under the name Shaitan, Iblis being mentioned 11 times, whereas Shaitan appears in 87 passages. He is chief of the spirits of evil, and his personality is adapted to that of his Jewish prototype. Iblis rebelled against Allah and was expelled from Paradise. The Koranic legend is that his fall was a punishment for his refusal to worship Adam. Condemned to death he was afterwards respited till the judgment day (Koran vii. 13).

See Gustav Weil, _The Bible, the Koran and the Talmud_ (London, 1846).

IBN 'ABD RABBIHI [Abu 'Umar Ahmad ibn Mahommed ibn 'Abd Rabbihi] (860-940), Arabian poet, was born in Cordova and descended from a freed slave of Hisham, the second Spanish Omayyad caliph. He enjoyed a great reputation for learning and eloquence. No diwan of his is extant, but many selections from his poems are given in the _Yatimat ud-Dahr_, i. 412-436 (Damascus, 1887). More widely known than his poetry is his great anthology, the _'Iqd ul-Farid_ ("The Precious Necklace"), a work divided into twenty-five sections, the thirteenth being named the middle jewel of the necklace, the chapters on either side of this being named after other jewels. It is an _adab_ book (see ARABIA: _Literature_, section "Belles Lettres") resembling Ibn Qutaiba's _'Uyun ul-Akhbar_, from which it borrows largely. It has been printed, several times in Cairo (1876, 1886, &c.). (G. W. T.)

IBN 'ARABI [Muhyiuddin Abu 'Abdallah ibn ul-'Arabi] (1165-1240), Moslem theologian and mystic, was born in Murcia and educated in Seville. When thirty-eight he travelled in Egypt, Arabia, Bagdad, Mosul and Asia Minor, after which he lived in Damascus for the rest of his life. In law he was a Zahirite, in theology a mystic of the extreme order, though professing orthodox Ash'arite theology and combating in many points the Indo-Persian mysticism (pantheism). He claims to have had conversations with all the prophets past and future, and reports conversations with God himself. Of his numerous works about 150 still exist. The most extensive is the twelve-volume _Futuhat ul-Makkiyat_ ("Meccan Revelations"), a general encyclopaedia of Sufic beliefs and doctrines. Numerous extracts from this work are contained in Sha'rani's (d. 1565) manual of Sufic dogma (_Yawaqit_) published several times in Cairo. A short account of these works is given in A. von Kremer's _Geschichte der herrschenden Ideen des Islams_, pp. 102-109 (Leipzig, 1868). Another characteristic and more accessible work of Ibn 'Arabi is the _Fusus ul-Hikam_, on the nature and importance of the twenty-seven chief prophets, written in 1230 (ed. Bulaq, 1837) and with the _Commentary_ (Cairo, 1891) of Qashani (d. 1350); cf. analysis by M. Schreiner in _Journal of German Oriental Society_, lii. 516-525.

Of some 289 works said to have been written by Ibn 'Arabi 150 are mentioned in C. Brockelmann's _Gesch. der arabischen Litteratur_, vol. i. (Weimar, 1898), pp. 441-448. See also R. A. Nicholson, _A Literary History of the Arabs_, pp. 399-404 (London, 1907). (G. W. T.)

IBN ATHIR, the family name of three brothers, all famous in Arabian literature, born at Jazirat ibn 'Umar in Kurdistan. The eldest brother, known as MAJD UD-DIN (1149-1210), was long in the service of the amir of Mosul, and was an earnest student of tradition and language. His dictionary of traditions (_Kitab un-Nihaya_) was published at Cairo (1893), and his dictionary of family names (_Kitab ul-Murassa'_) has been edited by Seybold (Weimar, 1896). The youngest brother, known as DIYA UD-DIN (1163-1239), served Saladin from 1191 on, then his son, al-Malik ul-Afdal, and was afterwards in Egypt, Samosata, Aleppo, Mosul and Bagdad. He was one of the most famous aesthetic and stylistic critics in Arabian literature. His _Kitab ul-Mathal_, published in Bulaq in 1865 (cf. _Journal of the German Oriental Society_, xxxv. 148, and Goldziher's _Abhandlungen_, i. 161 sqq.), contains some very independent criticism of ancient and modern Arabic verse. Some of his letters have been published by D. S. Margoliouth "On the Royal Correspondence of Diya ed-Din el-Jazari" in the _Actes du dixième congrès international des orientalistes_, sect. 3, pp. 7-21.

The brother best known by the simple name of Ibn Athir was ABU-L-HASAN 'IZZUDDIN MAHOMMED IBN UL-ATHIR (1160-1234), who devoted himself to the study of history and tradition. At the age of twenty-one he settled with his father in Mosul and continued his studies there. In the service of the amir for many years, he visited Bagdad and Jerusalem and later Aleppo and Damascus. He died in Mosul. His great history, the _Kamil_, extends to the year 1231; it has been edited by C. J. Tornberg, _Ibn al-Athiri Chronicon quod perfectissimum inscribitur_ (14 vols., Leiden, 1851-1876), and has been published in 12 vols. in Cairo (1873 and 1886). The first part of this work up to A.H. 310 (A.D. 923) is an abbreviation of the work of Tabari (q.v.) with additions. Ibn Athir also wrote a history of the Atabegs of Mosul, published in the _Recueil des historiens des croisades_ (vol. ii., Paris); a work (_Usd ul-Ghaba_), giving an account of 7500 companions of Mahomet (5 vols., Cairo, 1863), and a compendium (the _Lubab_) of Sam'ani's _Kitab ul-Ansab_ (cf. F. Wüstenfeld's _Specimen el-Lobabi_, Göttingen, 1835). (G. W. T.)

IBN BATUTA, i.e. ABU ABDULLAH MAHOMMED, surnamed IBN BATUTA (1304-1378), the greatest of Moslem travellers, was born at Tangier in 1304. He entered on his travels at twenty-one (1325) and closed them in 1355. He began by traversing the coast of the Mediterranean from Tangier to Alexandria, finding time to marry two wives on the road. After some stay at Cairo, then probably the greatest city in the world (excluding China), and an unsuccessful attempt to reach Mecca from Aidhab on the west coast of the Red Sea, he visited Palestine, Aleppo and Damascus. He then made the pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina, and visited the shrine of Ali at Mashhad-Ali, travelling thence to Basra, and across the mountains of Khuzistan to Isfahan, thence to Shiraz and back to Kufa and Bagdad. After an excursion to Mosul and Diarbekr, he made the _haj_ a second time, staying at Mecca three years. He next sailed down the Red Sea to Aden (then a place of great trade), the singular position of which he describes, noticing its dependence for water-supply upon the great cisterns restored in modern times. He continued his voyage down the African coast, visiting, among other places, Mombasa and Quiloa (Kilwa). Returning north he passed by the chief cities of Oman to New Ormuz (Hurmuz), which had about 15 years before, c. 1315, been transferred to its famous island-site from the mainland (Old Ormuz). After visiting other parts of the gulf he crossed the breadth of Arabia to Mecca, making the _haj_ for the third time. Crossing the Red Sea, he made a journey of great hardship to Syene, and thence along the Nile to Cairo. After this, travelling through Syria, he made a circuit among the petty Turkish states into which Asia Minor was divided after the fall of the kingdom of Rum (Iconium). He now crossed the Black Sea to Kaffa, then mainly occupied by the Genoese, and apparently the first Christian city he had seen, for he was much perturbed by the bell-ringing. He next travelled into Kipchak (the Mongol khanate of Russia), and joined the camp of the reigning khan Mahommed Uzbeg, from whom the great and heterogeneous _Uzbeg_ race is perhaps named. Among other places in this empire he travelled to Bolghar (54° 54´ N.) in order to witness the shortness of the summer night, and desired to continue his travels north into the "Land of Darkness" (in the extreme north of Russia), of which wonderful things were told, but was obliged to forego this. Returning to the khan's camp he joined the cortège of one of the Khatuns, who was a Greek princess by birth (probably illegitimate) and in her train travelled to Constantinople, where he had an interview with the emperor Andronikos III. the Younger (1328-1341). He tells how, as he passed the city gates, he heard the guards muttering _Sarakinu_. Returning to the court of Uzbeg, at Sarai on the Volga, he crossed the steppes to Khwarizm and Bokhara; thence through Khorasan and Kabul, and over the Hindu Kush (to which he gives that name, its first occurrence). He reached the Indus, on his own statement, in September, 1333. This closes the first part of his narrative.

From Sind, which he traversed to the sea and back again, he proceeded to Multan, and eventually, on the invitation of Mahommed Tughlak, the reigning sovereign, to Delhi. Mahommed was a singular character, full of pretence at least to many accomplishments and virtues, the founder of public charities, and a profuse patron of scholars, but a parricide, a fratricide, and as madly capricious, bloodthirsty and unjust as Caligula. "No day did his palace gate fail to witness the elevation of some abject to affluence and the torture and murder of some living soul." He appointed the traveller to be kazi of Delhi, with a present of 12,000 silver dinars (rupees), and an annual salary of the same amount, besides an assignment of village lands. In the sultan's service Ibn Batuta remained eight years; but his good fortune stimulated his natural extravagance, and his debts soon amounted to four or five times his salary. At last he fell into disfavour and retired from court, only to be summoned again on a congenial duty. The emperor of China, last of the Mongol dynasty, had sent a mission to Delhi, and the Moor was to accompany the return embassy (1342). The party travelled through central India to Cambay and thence sailed to Calicut, classed by the traveller with the neighbouring Kaulam (Quilon), Alexandria, Sudak in the Crimea, and Zayton (Amoy harbour) in China, as one of the greatest trading havens in the world--an interesting enumeration from one who had seen them all. The mission party was to embark in Chinese junks (the word used) and smaller vessels, but that carrying the other envoys and the presents, which started before Ibn Batuta was ready, was wrecked totally; the vessel that he had engaged went off with his property, and he was left on the beach of Calicut. Not daring to return to Delhi, he remained about Honore and other cities of the western coast, taking part in various adventures, among others the capture of Sindabur (Goa), and visiting the Maldive Islands, where he became kazi, and married four wives, and of which he has left the best medieval account, hardly surpassed by any modern. In August 1344 he left the Maldives for Ceylon; here he made the pilgrimage to the "Footmark of our Father Adam." Thence he betook himself to Maabar (the Coromandel coast), where he joined a Mussulman adventurer, residing at Madura, who had made himself master of much of that region. After once more visiting Malabar, Canara and the Maldives, he departed for Bengal, a voyage of forty-three days, landing at Sadkawan (Chittagong). In Bengal he visited the famous Moslem saint Shaykh Jalaluddin, whose shrine (_Shah Jalal_ at Silhet) is still maintained. Returning to the delta, he took ship at Sunarganw (near Dacca) on a junk bound for Java (i.e. _Java Minor_ of Marco Polo, or Sumatra). Touching the coast of Arakan or Burma, he reached Sumatra in forty days, and was provided with a junk for China by Malik al Dhahir, a zealous disciple of Islam, which had recently spread among the states on the northern coast of that island. Calling (apparently) at Cambodia on his way, Ibn Batuta reached China at Zayton (Amoy harbour), famous from Marco Polo; he also visited Sin Kalan or Canton, and professes to have been in Khansa (_Kinsay_ of Marco Polo, i.e. Hangchau), and Khanbalik (_Cambaluc_ or Peking). The truth of his visit to these two cities, and especially to the last, has been questioned. The traveller's history, not least in China, singularly illustrates the free masonry of Islam, and its power of carrying a Moslem doctor over the known world of Asia and Africa. On his way home he saw the great bird _Rukh_ (evidently, from his description, an island lifted by refraction); revisited Sumatra, Malabar, Oman, Persia, Bagdad, and crossed the great desert to Palmyra and Damascus, where he got his first news of home, and heard of his father's death fifteen years before. Diverging to Hamath and Aleppo, on his return to Damascus, he found the Black Death raging, so that two thousand four hundred died in one day. Revisiting Jerusalem and Cairo he made the _haj_ a fourth time, and finally reappeared at Fez (visiting Sardinia _en route_) on the 8th of November 1349, after twenty-four years' absence. Morocco, he felt, was, after all, the best of countries. "The _dirhems_ of the West are but little; but then you get more for them." After going home to Tangier, Ibn Batuta crossed into Spain and made the round of Andalusia, including Gibraltar, which had just then stood a siege from the "Roman tyrant Adfunus" (Alphonso XI. of Castile, 1312-1350). In 1352 the restless man started for Central Africa, passing by the oases of the Sahara (where the houses were built of rock-salt, as Herodotus tells, and roofed with camel skins) to Timbuktu and Gogo on the Niger, a river which he calls the Nile, believing it to flow down into Egypt, an opinion maintained by some up to the date of Lander's discovery. Being then recalled by his own king, he returned to Fez (early in 1354) via Takadda, Haggar and Tuat. Thus ended his twenty-eight years' wanderings which in their main lines alone exceeded 75,000 m. By royal order he dictated his narrative to Mahommed Ibn Juzai, who concludes the work, 13th of December 1355 (A.D.) with the declaration: "This Shaykh is the traveller of our age; and he who should call him the traveller of the whole body of Islam would not exceed the truth." Ibn Batuta died in 1378, aged seventy-three.

Ibn Batuta's travels have only been known in Europe during the 19th century; at first merely by Arabic abridgments in the Gotha and Cambridge libraries. Notices or extracts had been published by Seetzen (c. 1808), Kosegarten (1818), Apetz (1819), and Burckhardt (1819), when in 1829 Dr S. Lee published for the Oriental Translation Fund a version from the abridged MSS. at Cambridge, which attracted much interest. The French capture of Constantina afforded MSS. of the complete work, one of them the autograph of Ibn Juzai. And from these, after versions of fragments by various French scholars, was derived at last (1858-1859) the standard edition and translation of the whole by M. Défrémery and Dr Sanguinetti, in 4 vols. See also Sir Henry Yule, Cathay, ii. 397-526; C. Raymond Beazley, _Dawn of Modern Geography_, iii. 535-538. Though there are some singular chronological difficulties in the narrative, and a good many cursory inaccuracies and exaggerations, there is no part of it except, perhaps, certain portions of the journeys in north China, which is open to doubt. The accounts of the Maldive Islands, and of the Negro countries on the Niger, are replete with interesting and accurate particulars. The former agrees surprisingly with that given by the only other foreign resident we know of, Pyrard de la Val, two hundred and fifty years later. Ibn Batuta's statements and anecdotes regarding the showy virtues and solid vices of Sultan Muhammad Tughlak are in entire agreement with Indian historians, and add many fresh details. (H. Y.; C. R. B.)

IBN DURAID [Abu Bakr Mahommed ibn ul-Hasan ibn Duraid ul-Azdi] (837-934), Arabian poet and philologist, was born at Basra of south Arabian stock. At his native place he was trained under various teachers, but fled in 871 to Oman at the time Basra was attacked by the negroes, known as the Zanj, under Muhallabi. After living twelve years in Oman he went to Persia, and, under the protection of the governor, 'Abdallah ibn Mahommed ibn Mikal, and his son, Isma'il, wrote his chief works. In 920 he went to Bagdad, where he received a pension from the caliph Moqtadir.

The _Maqsura_, a poem in praise of Ibn Mikal and his son, has been edited by A. Haitsma (1773) E. Scheidius (1786) and N. Boyesen (1828). Various commentaries on the poem exist in MS. (cf. C. Brockelmann, _Gesch. der ar. Lit._, i. 211 ff., Weimar, 1898), The _Jamhara fi-l-Lugha_ is a large dictionary written in Persian but not printed. Another work is the _Kitab ul-Ishtiqaq_ ("Book of Etymology"), edited by F. Wüstenfeld (Göttingen, 1854); it was written in opposition to the anti-Arabian party to show the etymological connexion of the Arabian tribal names. (G. W. T.)

IBN FARADI [Abu-l-Walid 'Abdallah ibn ul-Faradi] (962-1012), Arabian historian, was born at Cordova and studied law and tradition. In 992 he made the pilgrimage and proceeded to Egypt and Kairawan, studying in these places. After his return in 1009 he became cadi in Valencia, and was killed at Cordova when the Berbers took the city.

His chief work is the _History of the Learned Men of Andalusia_, edited by F. Codera (Madrid, 1891-1892). He wrote also a history of the poets of Andalusia. (G. W. T.)

IBN FARID [Abu-l-Qasim 'Umar ibn ul-Farid] (1181-1235), Arabian poet, was born in Cairo, lived for some time in Mecca and died in Cairo. His poetry is entirely Sufic, and he was esteemed the greatest mystic poet of the Arabs. Some of his poems are said to have been written in ecstasies. His diwan has been published with commentary at Beirut, 1887, &c.; with the commentaries of Burini (d. 1615) and 'Abdul-Ghani (d. 1730) at Marseilles, 1853, and at Cairo; and with the commentary of Rushayyid Ghalib (19th century) at Cairo, 1893. One of the separate poems was edited by J. von Hammer Purgstall as _Das arabische hohe Lied der Liebe_ (Vienna, 1854).

See R. A. Nicholson, _A Literary History of the Arabs_ (London, 1907), pp. 394-398. (G. W. T.)

IBN GABIROL [SOLOMON BEN JUDAH], Jewish poet and philosopher, was born at Malaga, probably about 1021. The early part of his troublous life was spent at Saragossa, but few personal details of it are recorded. His parents died while he was a child and he was under the protection first of a certain Jekuthiel, who died in 1039, and afterwards of Samuel ha-Nagid, the well-known patron of learning. His passionate disposition, however, embittered no doubt by his misfortunes, involved him in frequent difficulties and led to his quarrelling with Samuel. It is generally agreed that he died young, although the date is uncertain. Al Harizi[1] says at the age of twenty-nine, and Moses b. Ezra[2] about thirty, but Abraham Zaccuto[3] states that he died (at Valencia) in 1070. M. Steinschneider[4] accepts the date 1058.

His literary activity began early. He is said to have composed poems at the age of sixteen, and elegies by him are extant on Hai Gaon (died in 1038) and Jekuthiel (died in 1039), each of which was written probably soon after the death of the person commemorated. About the same time he also wrote his _'Anaq_, a poem on grammar, of which only 97 lines out of 400 are preserved. Moses ben Ezra says of him that he imitated Moslem models, and was the first to open to Jewish poets the door of versification,[5] meaning that he first popularized the use of Arabic metres in Hebrew. It is as a poet that he has been known to the Jews to the present day, and admired for the youthful freshness and beauty of his work, in which he may be compared to the romantic school in France and England in the early 19th century. Besides his lyrical and satirical poems, he contributed many of the finest compositions to the liturgy (some of them with the acrostic "Shelomoh ha-qato"), which are widely different from the artificial manner of the earlier payyetanim. The best known of his longer liturgical compositions are the philosophical _Kether Malkuth_ (for the Day of Atonement) and the _Azharoth_, on the 613 precepts (for _Shebhu'oth_). Owing to his pure biblical style he had an abiding influence on subsequent liturgical writers.

Outside the Jewish community he was known as the philosopher Avicebron (Avencebrol, Avicebrol, &c.) The credit of identifying this name as a medieval corruption of Ibn Gabirol is due to S. Munk, who showed that selections made by Shem Tobh Palqera (or Falqera) from the Meqor Hayyim (the Hebrew translation of an Arabic original) by Ibn Gabirol, corresponded to the Latin _Fons Vitae_ of Avicebron. The Latin version, made by Johannes Hispalensis and Gundisalvi about one hundred years after the author's death, had at once become known among the Schoolmen of the 12th century and exerted a powerful influence upon them, although so little was known of the author that it was doubted whether he was a Christian or a Moslem. The teaching of the _Fons Vitae_ was entirely new to the country of its origin, and being drawn largely from Neoplatonic sources could not be expected to find favour with Jewish thinkers. Its distinctive doctrines are: (1) that all created beings, spiritual or corporeal, are composed of matter and form, the various species of matter being but varieties of the universal matter, and similarly all forms being contained in one universal form; (2) that between the primal One and the intellect (the [Greek: nous] of Plotinus) there is interposed the divine Will, which is itself divine and above the distinction of form and matter, but is the cause of their union in the being next to itself, the intellect, in which Avicebron holds that the distinction does exist. The doctrine that there is a material, as well as a formal, element in all created beings was explicitly adopted from Avicebron by Duns Scotus (as against the view of Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas), and perhaps his exaltation of the will above the intellect is due to the same influence. Avicebron develops his philosophical system throughout quite independently of his religious views--a practice wholly foreign to Jewish teachers, and one which could not be acceptable to them. Indeed, this charge is expressly brought against him by Abraham ben David of Toledo (died in 1180). It is doubtless this non-religious attitude which accounts for the small attention paid to the _Fons Vitae_ by the Jews, as compared with the wide influence of the philosophy of Maimonides.

The other important work of Ibn Gabirol is _Islah al-akhlaq_ (the improvement of character), a popular work in Arabic, translated into Hebrew (_Tiqqun middoth ha-nephesh_) by Judah ibn Tibbon. It is widely different in treatment from the _Fons_, being intended as a practical not a speculative work.

The collection of moral maxims, compiled in Arabic but best known (in the Hebrew translation of Judah ibn Tibbon) as _Mibhar ha-peninim_, is generally ascribed to Ibn Gabirol, though on less certain grounds.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Texts of the liturgical poems are to be found in the prayer-books: others in Dukes and Edelmann, _Treasures of Oxford_ (Oxford, 1850); Dukes, _Shire Shelomoh_ (Hanover, 1858); S. Sachs, _Shir ha-shirim asher li-Shelomoh_ (Paris, 1868, incomplete); Brody, _Die weltlichen Gedichte des ... Gabirol_ (Berlin, 1897, &c.).

"Avencebrolis Fons Vitae" (Latin text) in Clemens Bäumker's _Beiträge zur Gesch. d. Philosophie_, Bd. i. Hefte 2-4 (Münster, 1892); _The Improvement of the Moral Qualities_ [Arabic and English] ed. by S. S. Wise (New York, 1901); _A Choice of Pearls_ [Hebrew and English] ed. by Ascher (London, 1859).

On the philosophy in general: S. Munk, _Mélanges_ (quoted above); Guttmann, _Die Philosophie des Sal.-ibn Gabirol_ (Göttingen, 1889); D. Kaufmann, _Studien über Sal.-ibn Gabirol_ (Budapest, 1899); S. Horovitz, "Die Psychologie Ibn Gabirols," in the _Jahresbericht des jüd. theol. Seminars Fränckel'scher Stiftung_ (Breslau, 1900); Wittmann, "Zur Stellung Avencebrols ..." (in Bäumker's _Beiträge_, Bd. v. Heft 1, Münster, 1905). (A. Cy.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] _Jud. Har. Macamæ_, ed. Lagarde (Göttingen, 1883), p. 89, l. 61.

[2] See the passage quoted by Munk, _Mélanges de philosophie arabe et juive_ (Paris, 1859), pp. 264 and 517.

[3] _Liber Juchassin_, ed. Filipowski (London, 1857), p. 217.

[4] _Hebr. Übersetzungen_ (Berlin, 1893), § 219, note 70; cf. Kaufmann, _Studien über Sal.-ibn Gabirol_ (Budapest, 1899), p. 79, note 2.

[5] See Munk, _op. cit._ pp. 515-516, transl. on pp. 263-264. Metre had been already used by Dunash.

IBN HAUKAL, strictly IBN HAUQAL, a 10th century Arabian geographer. Nothing is known of his life. His work on geography, written in 977, is only a revision and extension of the _Masalik ul-Mamalik_ of al-Istakhri, who wrote in 951. This itself was a revised edition of the _Kitab ul-Ashkal_ or _Suwar ul-Aqalim_ of Abu Zaid ul-Balkhi, who wrote about 921. Ibn Haukal's work was published by M. J. de Goeje (Leiden, 1873). An anonymous epitome of the book was written in 1233.

See M. J. de Goeje, "Die Istahri-Balhi Frage," in the _Zeitschrift der deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft_, xxv. 42 sqq.

IBN HAZM [Abu Mahommed 'Ali ibn Ahmad ibn Hazm] (994-1064), Moslem theologian, was born in a suburb of Cordova. He studied history, law and theology, and became a vizier as his father had been before him, but was deposed for heresy, and spent the rest of his life quietly in the country. In legal matters he belonged first to the Shafi'ite school, but came to adopt the views of the Zahirites, who admitted only the external sense of the Koran and tradition, disallowing the use of analogy (_Qiyas_) and _Taqlid_ (appeal to the authority of an imam), and objecting altogether to the use of individual opinion (_Ra'y_). Every sentence of the Koran was to be interpreted in a general and universal sense; the special application to the circumstances of the time it was written was denied. Every word of the Koran was to be taken in a literal sense, but that sense was to be learned from other uses in the Koran itself, not from the meaning in other literature of the time. The special feature of Ibn Hazm's teaching was that he extended the application of these principles from the study of law to that of dogmatic theology. He thus found himself in opposition at one time to the Mo'tazilites, at another to the Ash'arites. He did not, however, succeed in forming a school. His chief work is the _Kitab ul-Milal wan-Nihal_, or "Book of Sects" (published in Cairo, 1899).

For his teaching cf. I. Goldziher, _Die Zahiriten_, pp. 116-172 (Leipzig, (1884), and M. Schreiner in the _Journal of the German Oriental Society_, lii. 464-486. For a list of his other works see C. Brockelmann's _Geschichte der arabischen Literatur_, vol. i. (Weimar, 1898), p. 400. (G. W. T.)

IBN HISHAM [Abu Mahommed 'Abdulmalik ibn Hisham ibn Ayyub ul-Himyari] (d. 834), Arabian biographer, studied in Kufa but lived afterwards in Fostat (old Cairo), where he gained a name as a grammarian and student of language and history. His chief work is his edition of Ibn Ishaq's (q.v.) _Life of the Apostle of God_, which has been edited by F. Wüstenfeld (Göttingen, 1858-1860). An abridged German translation has been made by G. Weil (Stuttgart, 1864; cf. P. Brönnle, _Die Commentatoren des Ibn Ishaq und ihre Scholien_, Halle, 1895). Ibn Hisham is said to have written a work explaining the difficult words which occur in poems on the life of the Apostle, and another on the genealogies of the Himyarites and their princes. (G. W. T.)

IBN ISHAQ [Mahommed ibn Ishaq Abu 'Abdallah] (d. 768), Arabic historian, lived in Medina, where he interested himself to such an extent in the details of the Prophet's life that he was attacked by those to whom his work seemed to have a rationalistic tendency. He consequently left Medina in 733, and went to Alexandria, then to Kufa and Hira, and finally to Bagdad, where the caliph Mansur provided him with the means of writing his great work. This was the _Life of the Apostle of God_, which is now lost and is known to us only in the recension of Ibn Hisham (q.v.). The work has been attacked by Arabian writers (as in the _Fihrist_) as untrustworthy, and it seems clear that he introduced forged verses (cf. _Journal of the German Oriental Society_, xiv. 288 sqq.). It remains, however, one of the most important works of the age. (G. W. T.)

IBN JUBAIR [Abu-l Husain Mahommed ibn Ahmad ibn Jubair] (1145-1217), Arabian geographer, was born in Valencia. At Granada he studied the Koran, tradition, law and literature, and later became secretary to the Mohad governor of that city. During this time he composed many poems. In 1183 he left the court and travelled to Alexandria, Jerusalem, Medina, Mecca, Damascus, Mosul and Bagdad, returning in 1185 by way of Sicily.

The _Travels of Ibn Jubair_ were edited by W. Wright (Leiden, 1852); and a new edition of this text, revised by M. J. de Goeje, was published by the Gibb Trustees (London, 1907). The part relating to Sicily was published, with French translation and notes, by M. Amari in the _Journal asiatique_ (1845-1846) and a French translation alone of the same part by G. Crolla in _Museon_, vi. 123-132. (G. W. T.)

IBN KHALDUN [Abu Zaid ibn Mahommed ibn Mahommed ibn Khaldun] (1332-1406), Arabic historian, was born at Tunis. He studied the various branches of Arabic learning with great success. In 1352 he obtained employment under the Marinid sultan Abu Inan (Faris I.) at Fez. In the beginning of 1356, his integrity having been suspected, he was thrown into prison until the death of Abu Inan in 1358, when the vizier al-Hasan ibn Omar set him at liberty and reinstated him in his rank and offices. He here continued to render great service to Abu Salem (Ibrahim III.), Abu Inan's successor, but, having offended the prime minister, he obtained permission to emigrate to Spain, where, at Granada, he was received with great cordiality by Ibn al Ahmar, who had been greatly indebted to his good offices when an exile at the court of Abu Salem. The favours he received from the sovereign excited the jealousy of the vizier, and he was driven back to Africa (1364), where he was received with great cordiality by the sultan of Bougie, Abu Abdallah, who had been formerly his companion in prison. On the fall of Abu Abdallah Ibn Khaldun raised a large force amongst the desert Arabs, and entered the service of the sultan of Tlemçen. A few years later he was taken prisoner by Abdalaziz ('Abd ul 'Aziz), who had defeated the sultan of Tlemçen and seized the throne. He then entered a monastic establishment, and occupied himself with scholastic duties, until in 1370 he was sent for to Tlemçen by the new sultan. After the death of 'Abd ul 'Aziz he resided at Fez, enjoying the patronage and confidence of the regent. After some further vicissitudes in 1378 he entered the service of the sultan of his native town of Tunis, where he devoted himself almost exclusively to his studies and wrote his history of the Berbers. Having received permission to make the pilgrimage to Mecca, he reached Cairo, where he was presented to the sultan, al-Malik udh-Dhahir Barkuk, who insisted on his remaining there, and in the year 1384 made him grand cadi of the Malikite rite for Cairo. This office he filled with great prudence and probity, removing many abuses in the administration of justice in Egypt. At this time the ship in which his wife and family, with all his property, were coming to join him, was wrecked, and every one on board lost. He endeavoured to find consolation in the completion of his history of the Arabs of Spain. At the same time he was removed from his office of cadi, which gave him more leisure for his work. Three years later he made the pilgrimage to Mecca, and on his return lived in retirement in the Fayum until 1399, when he was again called upon to resume his functions as cadi. He was removed and reinstated in the office no fewer than five times.

In 1400 he was sent to Damascus, in connexion with the expedition intended to oppose Timur or Tamerlane. When Timur had become master of the situation, Ibn Khaldun let himself down from the walls of the city by a rope, and presented himself before the conqueror, who permitted him to return to Egypt. Ibn Khaldun died on the 16th of March 1406, at the age of sixty-four.

The great work by which he is known is a "Universal History," but it deals more particularly with the history of the Arabs of Spain and Africa. Its Arabic title is _Kitab ul'Ibar, wa diwan el Mubtada wa'l Khabar, fi ayyam ul 'Arab wa'l'Ajam wa'l Berber_; that is, "The Book of Examples and the Collection of Origins and Information respecting the History of the Arabs, Foreigners and Berbers." It consists of three books, an introduction and an autobiography. Book i . treats of the influence of civilization upon man; book ii . of the history of the Arabs and other peoples from the remotest antiquity until the author's own times;