part ii

. of _Hallelujah_).

Cosin.

John Cosin, afterwards bishop of Durham, published in 1627 a volume of "Private Devotions," for the canonical hours and other occasions. In this there are seven or eight hymns of considerable merit,--among them a very good version of the Ambrosian "Jam lucis orto sidere," and the shorter version of the "Veni Creator," which was introduced after the Restoration into the consecration and ordination services of the Church of England.

Milton.

The hymns of Milton (on the Nativity, Passion, Circumcision and "at a Solemn Music"), written about 1629, in his early manhood, were probably not intended for singing; but they are odes full of characteristic beauty and power.

Jeremy Taylor.

During the Commonwealth, in 1654, Jeremy Taylor published at the end of his _Golden Grove_, twenty-one hymns, described by himself as "celebrating the mysteries and chief festivals of the year, according to the manner of the ancient church, fitted to the fancy and devotion of the younger and pious persons, apt for memory, and to be joined, to their other prayers." Of these, his accomplished editor, Bishop Heber, justly says:--

"They are in themselves, and on their own account, very interesting compositions. Their metre, indeed, which is that species of spurious Pindaric which was fashionable with his contemporaries, is an obstacle, and must always have been one, to their introduction into public or private psalmody; and the mixture of that alloy of conceits and quibbles which was an equally frequent and still greater defilement of some of the finest poetry of the 17th century will materially diminish their effect as devotional or descriptive odes. Yet, with all these faults, they are powerful, affecting, and often harmonious; there are many passages of which Cowley need not have been ashamed, and some which remind us, not disadvantageously, of the corresponding productions of Milton."

He mentions particularly the advent hymn ("Lord, come away"), part of the hymn "On heaven," and (as "more regular in metre, and in words more applicable to public devotion") the "Prayer for Charity" ("Full of mercy, full of love").

Restoration period.

The epoch of the Restoration produced in 1664 Samuel Crossman's _Young Man's Calling_, with a few "Divine Meditations" in verse attached to it; in 1668 John Austin's _Devotions in the ancient way of offices, with psalms, hymns and prayers for every day in the week and every holyday in the year_; and in 1681 Richard Baxter's _Poetical Fragments_. In these books there are altogether seven or eight hymns, the whole or parts of which are extremely good: Crossman's "New Jerusalem" ("Sweet place, sweet place alone"), one of the best of that class, and "My life's a shade, my days"; Austin's "Hark, my soul, how everything," "Fain would my thoughts fly up to Thee," "Lord, now the time returns," "Wake all my hopes, lift up your eyes"; and Baxter's "My whole, though broken heart, O Lord," and "Ye holy angels bright." Austin's _Offices_ (he was a Roman Catholic) seem to have attracted much attention. Theophilus Dorrington, in 1686, published variations of them under the title of _Reformed_ _Devotions_; George Hickes, the non-juror, wrote one of his numerous recommendatory prefaces to S. Hopton's edition; and the Wesleys, in their earliest hymn-book, adopted hymns from them, with little alteration. These writers were followed by John Mason in 1683, and Thomas Shepherd in 1692,--the former, a country clergyman, much esteemed by Baxter and other Nonconformists; the latter himself a Nonconformist, who finally emigrated to America. Between these two men there was a close alliance, Shepherd's _Penitential Cries_ being published as an addition to the _Spiritual Songs_ of Mason. Their hymns came into early use in several Nonconformist congregations; but, with the exception of one by Mason ("There is a stream which issues forth"), they are not suitable for public singing. In those of Mason there is often a very fine vein of poetry; and later authors have, by extracts or centoes from different parts of his works (where they were not disfigured by his general quaintness), constructed several hymns of more than average excellence.

Three other eminent names of the 17th century remain to be mentioned, John Dryden, Bishop Ken and Bishop Simon Patrick; with which may be associated that of Addison, though he wrote in the 18th century.

Dryden, Ken.

Patrick

Addison.

Dryden's translation of "Veni Creator" a cold and laboured performance, is to be met with in many hymn-books. Abridgments of Ken's morning and evening hymns are in all. These, with the midnight hymn, which is not inferior to them, first appeared In 1697, appended to the third edition of the author's _Manual of Prayers for Winchester Scholars_. Between these and a large number of other hymns (on the attributes of God, and for the festivals of the church) published by Bishop Ken after 1703 the contrast is remarkable. The universal acceptance of the morning and evening hymns is due to their transparent simplicity, warm but not overstrained devotion, and extremely popular style. Those afterwards published have no such qualities. They are mystical, florid, stiff, didactic and seldom poetical, and deserve the neglect into which they have fallen. Bishop Patrick's hymns were chiefly translations from the Latin, most of them from Prudentius. The best is a version of "Alleluia dulce carmen." Of the five attributed to Addison, not more than three are adapted to public singing; one ("The spacious firmament on high") is a very perfect and finished composition, taking rank among the best hymns in the English language.[3]

From the preface to Simon Browne's hymns, published in 1720, we learn that down to the time of Dr Watts the only hymns known to be "in common use, either in private families or in Christian assemblies," were those of Barton, Mason and Shepherd, together with "an attempt to turn some of George Herbert's poems into common metre," and a few sacramental hymns by authors now forgotten, named Joseph Boyse (1660-1728) and Joseph Stennett. Of the 1410 authors of original British hymns enumerated in Daniel Sedgwick's catalogue, published in 1863, 1213 are of later date than 1707; and, if any correct enumeration could be made of the total number of hymns of all kinds published in Great Britain before and after that date, the proportion subsequent to 1707 would be very much larger.

The English Independents, as represented by Dr Isaac Watts, have a just claim to be considered the real founders of modern English hymnody. Watts was the first to understand the nature of the want, and, by the publication of his _Hymns_ in 1707-1709, and _Psalms_ (not translations, but hymns founded on psalms) in 1709, he led the way in providing for it. His immediate followers were Simon Browne and Philip Doddridge. Later in the 18th century, Joseph Hart, Thomas Gibbons, Miss Anne Steele, Samuel Medley, Samuel Stennett, John Ryland, Benjamin Beddome and Joseph Swain succeeded to them.

Watts.

Among these writers, most of whom produced some hymns of merit, and several are extremely voluminous, Isaac Watts and Philip Doddridge are pre-eminent. It has been the fashion with some to disparage Watts, as if he had never risen above the level of his _Hymns for Little Children_. No doubt his taste is often faulty, and his style very unequal, but, looking to the good, and disregarding the large quantity of inferior matter, it is probable that more hymns which approach to a very high standard of excellence, and are at the same time suitable for congregational use, may be found in his works than in those of any other English writer. Such are "When I survey the wondrous cross," "Jesus shall reign where'er the sun" (and also another adaptation of the same 72nd Psalm), "Before Jehovah's awful throne" (first line of which, however, is not his, but Wesley's), "Joy to the world, the Lord is come," "My soul, repeat His praise," "Why do we mourn departing friends," "There is a land of pure delight," "Our God, our help in ages past," "Up to the hills I lift mine eyes," and many more. It is true that in some of these cases dross is found in the original poems mixed with gold; but the process of separation, by selection without change, is not difficult. As long as pure nervous English, unaffected fervour, strong simplicity and liquid yet manly sweetness are admitted to be characteristics of a good hymn, works such as these must command admiration.

Doddridge.

Doddridge is, generally, much more laboured and artificial; but his place also as a hymn-writer ought to be determined, not by his failures, but by his successes, of which the number is not inconsiderable. In his better works he is distinguished by a graceful and pointed, sometimes even a noble style. His "Hark, the glad sound, the Saviour comes" (which is, indeed, his masterpiece), is as sweet, vigorous and perfect a composition as can anywhere be found. Two other hymns, "How gentle God's commands," and that which, in a form slightly varied, became the "O God of Bethel, by whose hand," of the Scottish "Paraphrases," well represent his softer manner.

Of the other followers in the school of Watts, Miss Anne Steele (1717-1778) is the most popular and perhaps the best. Her hymn beginning "Far from these narrow scenes of night" deserves high praise, even by the side of other good performances on the same subject.

The influence of Watts was felt in Scotland, and among the first whom it reached there was Ralph Erskine. This seems to have been after the publication of Erskine's _Gospel Sonnets_, which appeared in 1732, five years before he joined his brother Ebenezer in the Secession Church. The _Gospel Sonnets_ became, as some have said, a "people's classic"; but there is in them very little which belongs to the category of hymnody. More than nineteen-twentieths of this very curious book are occupied with what are, in fact, theological treatises and catechisms, mystical meditations on Christ as a bridegroom or husband, and spiritual enigmas, paradoxes, and antithetical conceits, versified, it is true, but of a quality of which such lines as--

"Faith's certain by fiducial arts, Sense by its evidential facts,"

may be taken as a sample. The grains of poetry scattered through this large mass of Calvinistic divinity are very few; yet in one short passage of seven stanzas ("O send me down a draught of love"), the fire burns with a brightness so remarkable as to justify a strong feeling of regret that the gift which this writer evidently had in him was not more often cultivated. Another passage, not so well sustained, but of considerable beauty (part of the last piece under the title "The believer's soliloquy"), became afterwards, in the hands of John Berridge, the foundation of a very striking hymn ("O happy saints, who walk in light").

After his secession, Ralph Erskine published two paraphrases of the "Song of Solomon," and a number of other "Scripture songs," paraphrased, in like manner, from the Old and New Testaments. In these the influence of Watts became very apparent, not only by a change in the writer's general style, but by the direct appropriation of no small quantity of matter from Dr Watts's hymns, with variations which were not always improvements. His paraphrases of I Cor. i. 24; Gal. vi. 14; Heb. vi. 17-19; Rev. v. 11, 12, vii. 10-17, and xii. 7-12 are little else than Watts transformed. One of these (Rev. vii. 10-17) is interesting as a variation and improvement, intermediate between the original and the form which it ultimately assumed as the 66th "Paraphrase" of the Church of Scotland, of Watts's "What happy men or angels these," and "These glorious minds, how bright they shine." No one can compare it with its ultimate product, "How bright these glorious spirits shine," without perceiving that William Cameron followed Erskine, and only added finish and grace to his work,--both excelling Watts, in this instance, in simplicity as well as in conciseness.

Scottish paraphrases.

Of the contributions to the authorized "Paraphrases" (with the settlement of which committees of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland were occupied from 1745, or earlier, till 1781), the most noteworthy, besides the two already mentioned, were those of John Morrison and those claimed for Michael Bruce. The obligations of these "Paraphrases" to English hymnody, already traced in some instances (to which may be added the adoption from Addison of three out of the five "hymns" appended to them), are perceptible in the vividness and force with which these writers, while adhering with a severe simplicity to the sense of the passages of Scripture which they undertook to render, fulfilled the conception of a good original hymn. Morrison's "The race that long in darkness pined" and "Come, let us to the Lord our God," and Bruce's "Where high the heavenly temple stands" (if this was really his), are well entitled to that praise. The advocates of Bruce in the controversy, not yet closed, as to the poems said to have been entrusted by him to John Logan, and published by Logan in his own name, also claim for him the credit of having varied the paraphrase "Behold, the mountain of the Lord," from its original form, as printed by the committee of the General Assembly in 1745, by some excellent touches.

Methodist hymns.

Attention must now be directed to the hymns produced by the "Methodist" movement, which began about 1738, and which afterwards became divided, between those esteemed Arminian, under John Wesley, those who adhered to the Moravians, when the original alliance between that body and the founders of Methodism was dissolved, and the Calvinists, of whom Whitfield was the leader, and Selina, countess of Huntingdon, the patroness. Each of these sections had its own hymn-writers, some of whom did, and others did not, secede from the Church of England. The Wesleyans had Charles Wesley, Robert Seagrave and Thomas Olivers; the Moravians, John Cennick, with whom, perhaps, may be classed John Byrom, who imbibed the mystical ideas of some of the German schools; the Calvinists, Augustus Montague Toplady, John Berridge, William Williams, Martin Madan, Thomas Haweis, Rowland Hill, John Newton and William Cowper.

Charles Wesley.

Among all these writers, the palm undoubtedly belongs to Charles Wesley. In the first volume of hymns published by the two brothers are several good translations from the German, believed to be by John Wesley, who, although he translated and adapted, is not supposed to have written any original hymns; and the influence of German hymnody, particularly of the works of Paul Gerhardt, Scheffler, Tersteegen and Zinzendorf, may be traced in a large proportion of Charles Wesley's works. He is more subjective and meditative than Watts and his school; there is a didactic turn, even in his most objective pieces, as, for example, in his Christmas and Easter hymns; most of his works are supplicatory, and his faults are connected with the same habit of mind. He is apt to repeat the same thoughts, and to lose force by redundancy--he runs sometimes even to a tedious length; his hymns are not always symmetrically constructed, or well balanced and finished off. But he has great truth, depth and variety of feeling; his diction is manly and always to the point; never florid, though sometimes passionate and not free from exaggeration; often vivid and picturesque. Of his spirited style there are few better examples than "O for a thousand tongues to sing," "Blow ye the trumpet, blow," "Rejoice, the Lord is King" and "Come, let us join our friends above"; of his more tender vein, "Happy soul, thy days are ended"; and of his fervid contemplative style (without going beyond hymns fit for general use), "O Thou who earnest from above," "Forth in Thy name, O Lord, I go" and "Eternal beam of light divine." With those whose taste is for hymns in which warm religious feelings are warmly and demonstratively expressed, "Jesus, lover of my soul," is as popular as any of these.

Olivers.

Of the other Wesleyan hymn-writers, Olivers, originally a Welsh shoemaker and afterwards a preacher, is the most remarkable. He is the author of only two works, both odes, in a stately metre, and from their length unfit for congregational singing, but one of them, "The God of Abraham praise," an ode of singular power and beauty.

Cennick, Hammond, Byrom.

The Moravian Methodists produced few hymns now available for general use. The best are Cennick's "Children of the heavenly King" and Hammond's "Awake and sing the song of Moses and the Lamb," the former of which (abridged), and the latter as varied by Madan, are found in many hymn-books, and are deservedly esteemed. John Byrom, whose name we have thought it convenient to connect with these, though he did not belong to the Moravian community, was the author of a Christmas hymn ("Christians awake, salute the happy morn") which enjoys great popularity; and also of a short subjective hymn, very fine both in feeling and in expression, "My spirit longeth for Thee within my troubled breast."

Toplady.

The contributions of the Calvinistic Methodists to English hymnody are of greater extent and value. Few writers of hymns had higher gifts than Toplady, author of "Rock of ages," by some esteemed the finest in the English language. He was a man of ardent temperament, enthusiastic zeal, strong convictions and great energy of character. "He had," says one of his biographers, "the courage of a lion, but his frame was brittle as glass." Between him and John Wesley there was a violent opposition of opinion, and much acrimonious controversy; but the same fervour and zeal which made him an intemperate theologian gave warmth, richness and spirituality to his hymns. In some of them, particularly those which, like "Deathless principle, arise," are meditations after the German manner, and not without direct obligation to German originals, the setting is somewhat too artificial; but his art is never inconsistent with a genuine flow of real feeling. Others (e.g. "When languor and disease invade" and "Your harps, ye trembling saints") fail to sustain to the end the beauty with which they began, and would have been better for abridgment. But in all these, and in most of his other works, there is great force and sweetness, both of thought and language, and an easy and harmonious versification.

Berridge, Williams and R. Hill.

Berridge, William Williams (1717-1791) and Rowland Hill, all men remarkable for eccentricity, activity and the devotion of their lives to the special work of missionary preaching, though not the authors of many good hymns, composed, or adapted from earlier compositions, some of great merit. One of Berridge, adapted from Erskine, has been already mentioned; another, adapted from Watts, is "Jesus, cast a look on me." Williams, a Welshman, who wrote "Guide me, O Thou great Jehovah," was especially an apostle of Calvinistic Methodism in his own country, and his hymns are still much used in the principality. Rowland Hill wrote the popular hymn beginning "Exalted high at God's right hand."

Cowper and Newton.

If, however, the number as well as the quality of good hymns available for general use is to be regarded, the authors of the _Olney Hymns_ are entitled to be placed at the head of all the writers of this Calvinistic school. The greater number of the _Olney Hymns_ are, no doubt, homely and didactic; but to the best of them, and they are no inconsiderable proportion, the tenderness of Cowper and the manliness of John Newton (1725-1807) give the interest of contrast, as well as that of sustained reality. If Newton carried to some excess the sound principle laid down by him, that "perspicuity, simplicity and ease should be chiefly attended to, and the imagery and colouring of poetry, if admitted at all, should be indulged very sparingly and with great judgment," if he is often dry and colloquial, he rises at other times into "soul-animating strains," such as "Glorious things of thee are spoken, Zion, city of our God"; and sometimes (as in "Approach, my soul, the mercy seat") rivals Cowper himself in depth of feeling. Cowper's hymns in this book are, almost without exception, worthy of his name. Among them are "Hark, my soul, it is the Lord," "There is a fountain filled with blood," "Far from the world, O Lord, I flee," "God moves in a mysterious way" and "Sometimes a light surprises." Some, perhaps, even of these, and others of equal excellence (such as "O for a closer walk with God"), speak the language of a special experience, which, in Cowper's case, was only too real, but which could not, without a degree of unreality not desirable in exercises of public worship, be applied to themselves by all ordinary Christians.

19th-century hymns.

R. Grant.

Bowdler.

During the first quarter of the 19th century there were not many indications of the tendency, which afterwards became manifest, to enlarge the boundaries of British hymnody. _The Remains of Henry Kirke White_, published by Southey in 1807, contained a series of hymns, some of which are still in use; and a few of Bishop Heber's hymns and those of Sir Robert Grant, which, though offending rather too much against John Newton's canon, are well known and popular, appeared between 1811 and 1816, in the _Christian Observer_. In John Bowdler's Remains, published soon after his death in 1815, there are a few more of the same, perhaps too scholarlike, character. But the chief hymn-writers of that period were two clergymen of the Established Church--one in Ireland, Thomas Kelly, and the other in England, William Hurn--who both became Nonconformists, and the Moravian poet, James Montgomery (1771-1854), a native of Scotland.

Kelly.

Kelly was the son of an Irish judge, and in 1804 published a small volume of ninety-six hymns, which grew in successive editions till, in the last before his death in 1854, they amounted to 765. There is, as might be expected, in this great number a large preponderance of the didactic and commonplace. But not a few very excellent hymns may be gathered from them. Simple and natural, without the vivacity and terseness of Watts or the severity of Newton, Kelly has some points in common with both those writers, and he is less subjective than most of the "Methodist" school. His hymns beginning "Lo! He comes, let all adore Him," and "Through the day Thy love hath spared us," have a rich, melodious movement; and another, "We sing the praise of Him who died," is distinguished by a calm, subdued power, rising gradually from a rather low to a very high key.

Hurn.

Hurn published in 1813 a volume of 370 hymns, which were afterwards increased to 420. There is little in them which deserves to be saved from oblivion; but one at least, "There is a river deep and broad," may bear comparison with the best of those which have been produced upon the same, and it is rather a favourite, theme.

Montgomery.

The _Psalms and Hymns_ of James Montgomery were published in 1822 and 1825, though written earlier. More cultivated and artistic than Kelly, he is less simple and natural. His "Hail to the Lord's Anointed," "Songs of praise the angels sang" and "Mercy alone can meet my case" are among his most successful efforts.

Collections of hymns.

During this period, the collections of miscellaneous hymns for congregational use, of which the example was set by the Wesleys, Whitfield, Toplady and Lady Huntingdon, had greatly multiplied; and with them the practice (for which, indeed, too many precedents existed in the history of Latin and German hymnody) of every collector altering the compositions of other men without scruple, to suit his own doctrine or taste; with the effect, too generally, of patching and disfiguring, spoiling and emasculating the works so altered, substituting neutral tints for natural colouring, and a dead for a living sense. In the Church of England the use of these collections had become frequent in churches and chapels, principally in cities and towns, where the sentiments of the clergy approximated to those of the Nonconformists. In rural parishes, when the clergy were not of the "Evangelical" school, they were generally held in disfavour; for which, even if doctrinal prepossessions had not entered into the question, the great want of taste and judgment often manifested in their compilation, and perhaps also the prevailing mediocrity of the bulk of the original compositions from which most of them were derived, would be enough to account. In addition to this, the idea that no hymns ought to be used in any services of the Church of England, except prose anthems after the third collect, without express royal or ecclesiastical authority, continued down to that time largely to prevail among high churchmen.

Heber, Milman, Keble.

Mant.

Newman.

Two publications, which appeared almost simultaneously in 1827--Bishop Heber's _Hymns_, with a few added by Dean Milman, and John Keble's _Christian Year_ (not a hymn-book, but one from which several admirable hymns have been taken, and the well-spring of many streams of thought and feeling by which good hymns have since been produced)--introduced a new epoch, breaking down the barrier as to hymnody which had till then existed between the different theological schools of the Church of England. In this movement Richard Mant, bishop of Down, was also one of the first to co-operate. It soon received a great additional impulse from the increased attention which, about the same time, began to be paid to ancient hymnody, and from the publication in 1833 of Bunsen's _Gesangbuch_. Among its earliest fruits was the _Lyra apostolica_, containing hymns, sonnets and other devotional poems, most of them originally contributed by some of the leading authors of the _Tracts for the Times_ to the _British Magazine_; the finest of which is the pathetic "Lead, kindly Light, amid th' encircling gloom," by Cardinal Newman--well known, and universally admired. From that time hymns and hymn-writers rapidly multiplied in the Church of England, and in Scotland also. Nearly 600 authors whose publications were later than 1827 are enumerated in Sedgwick's catalogue of 1863, and about half a million hymns are now in existence. Works, critical and historical, upon the subject of hymns, have also multiplied; and collections for church use have become innumerable--several of the various religious denominations, and many of the leading ecclesiastical and religious societies, having issued hymn-books of their own, in addition to those compiled for particular dioceses, churches and chapels, and to books (like _Hymns Ancient and Modern_, published 1861, supplemented 1889, revised edition, 1905) which have become popular without any sanction from authority. To mention all the authors of good hymns since the commencement of this new epoch would be impossible; but probably no names could be chosen more fairly representative of its characteristic merits, and perhaps also of some of its defects, than those of Josiah Conder and James Edmeston among English Nonconformists; Henry Francis Lyte and Charlotte Elliott among evangelicals in the Church of England; John Mason Neale and Christopher Wordsworth, bishop of Lincoln, among English churchmen of the higher school; Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, Edward H. Plumptre, Frances Ridley Havergal; and in Scotland, Dr Horatius Bonar, Dr Norman Macleod and Dr George Matheson. American hymn-writers belong to the same schools, and have been affected by the same influences. Some of them have enjoyed a just reputation on both sides of the Atlantic. Among those best known are John Greenleaf Whittier, Bishop Doane, Dr W. A. Muhlenberg and Thomas Hastings; and it is difficult to praise too highly such works as the Christmas hymn, "It came upon the midnight clear," by Edmund H. Sears; the Ascension hymn, "Thou, who didst stoop below," by Mrs S. E. Miles; two by Dr Ray Palmer, "My faith looks up to Thee, Thou Lamb of Calvary," and "Jesus, Thou joy of loving hearts," the latter of which is the best among several good English versions of "Jesu, dulcedo, cordium"; and "Lord of all being, throned afar," by Oliver Wendell Holmes.

The more modern "Moody and Sankey" hymns (see Moody, D. L.) popularized a new Evangelical type, and the Salvation Army has carried this still farther.

7. _Conclusion._--The object aimed at in this article has been to trace the general history of the principal schools of ancient and modern hymnody, and especially the history of its use in the Christian church. For this purpose it has not been thought necessary to give any account of the hymns of Racine, Madame Guyon and others, who can hardly be classed with any school, nor of the works of Caesar Malan of Geneva (1787-1864) and other quite modern hymn-writers of the Reformed churches in Switzerland and France.

On a general view of the whole subject, hymnody is seen to have been a not inconsiderable factor in religious worship. It has been sometimes employed to disseminate and popularize particular views, but its spirit and influence has been, on the whole, catholic. It has embodied the faith, trust and hope, and no small part of the inward experience, of generation after generation of men, in many different countries and climates, of many different nations, and in many varieties of circumstances and condition. Coloured, indeed, by these differences, and also by the various modes in which the same truths have been apprehended by different minds and sometimes reflecting partial and imperfect conceptions of them, and errors with which they have been associated in

## particular churches, times and places, its testimony is, nevertheless,

generally the same. It has upon it a stamp of genuineness which cannot be mistaken. It bears witness to the force of a central attraction more powerful than all causes of difference, which binds together times ancient and modern, nations of various race and language, churchmen and nonconformists, churches reformed and unreformed; to a true fundamental unity among good Christians; and to a substantial identity in their moral and spiritual experience. (S.)

The regular practice of hymnody in English musical history dates from the beginning of the 16th century. Luther's verses were adapted sometimes to ancient church melodies, sometimes to tunes of secular songs, and sometimes had music composed for them by himself and others. Many rhyming Latin hymns are of earlier date whose tunes are identified with them, some of which tunes, with the subject of their Latin text, are among the Reformer's appropriations; but it was he who put the words of praise and prayer into the popular mouth, associated with rhythmical music which aided to imprint the words upon the memory and to enforce their enunciation. In conjunction with his friend Johann Walther, Luther issued a collection of poems for choral singing in 1524, which was followed by many others in North Germany. The English versions of the Psalms by Sternhold and Hopkins and their predecessors, and the French version by Clement Marot and Theodore Beza, were written with the same purpose of fitting sacred minstrelsy to the voice of the multitude. Goudimel in 1566 and Claudin le Jeune in 1607 printed harmonizations of tunes that had then become standard for the Psalms, and in England several such publications appeared, culminating in Thomas Ravenscroft's famous collection, _The Whole Book of Psalms_ (1621); in all of these the arrangements of the tunes were by various masters. The English practice of hymn-singing was much strengthened on the return of the exiled reformers from Frankfort and Geneva, when it became so general that, according to Bishop Jewell, thousands of the populace who assembled at Paul's Cross to hear the preaching would join in the singing of psalms before and after the sermon.

The placing of the choral song of the church within the lips of the people had great religious and moral influence; it has had also its great effect upon art, shown in the productions of the North German musicians ever since the first days of the Reformation, which abound in exercises of scholarship and imagination wrought upon the tunes of established acceptance. Some of these are accompaniments to the tunes with interludes between the several strains, and some are compositions for the organ or for orchestral instruments that consist of such elaboration of the themes as is displayed in accompaniments to voices, but of far more complicated and extended character. A special art-form that was developed to a very high degree, but has passed into comparative disuse, was the structure of all varieties of counterpoint extemporaneously upon the known hymn-tunes (chorals), and several masters acquired great fame by success in its practice, of whom J. A. Reinken (1623-1722), Johann Pachelbel (1653-1706), Georg Boehm and the great J. S. Bach are specially memorable. The hymnody of North Germany has for artistic treatment a strong advantage which is unpossessed by that of England, in that for the most part the same verses are associated with the same tunes, so that, whenever the text or the music is heard, either prompts recollection of the other, whereas in England tunes were always and are now often composed to metres and not to poems; any tune in a given metre is available for every poem in the same, and hence there are various tunes to one poem, and various poems to one tune.[4] In England a tune is named generally after some place--as "York," "Windsor," "Dundee,"--or by some other unsignifying word; in North Germany a tune is mostly named by the initial words of the verses to which it is allied, and consequently, whenever it is heard, whether with words or without, it necessarily suggests to the hearer the whole subject of that hymn of which it is the musical moiety undivorceable from the literary half. Manifold as they are, knowledge of the choral tunes is included in the earliest schooling of every Lutheran and every Calvinist in Germany, which thus enables all to take part in performance of the tunes, and hence expressly the definition of "choral." Compositions grounded on the standard tune are then not merely school exercises, but works of art which link the sympathies of the writer and the listener, and aim at expressing the feeling prompted by the hymn under treatment.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: I. Ancient.--George Cassander, _Hymni ecclesiastici_ (Cologne, 1556); Georgius Fabricius, _Poëtarum veterum ecclesiasticorum_ (Frankfort, 1578); Cardinal J. M. Thomasius, _Hymnarium in Opera_, ii. 351 seq. (Rome, 1747); A. J. Rambach, _Anthologie christlicher Gesänge_ (Altona, 1817); H. A. Daniel, _Thesaurus hymnologicus_ (Leipzig, 5 vols., 1841-1856); J. M. Neale, _Hymni ecclesiae et sequentiae_ (London, 1851-1852); and _Hymns of the Eastern Church_ (1863). The dissertation prefixed to the second volume of the _Acta sanctorum_ of the Bollandists; Cardinal J. B. Pitra, _Hymnographie de l'église grecque_ (1867), _Analecta sacra_ (1876); W. Christ and M. Paranikas, _Anthologia Graeca carminum Christianorum_ (Leipzig, 1871); F. A. March, _Latin Hymns with English Notes_ (New York, 1875); R. C. Trench, _Sacred Latin Poetry_ (London, 4th ed., 1874); J. Pauly, _Hymni breviarii Romani_ (Aix-la-Chapelle, 3 vols., 1868-1870); Pimont, _Les Hymnes du bréviaire romain_ (vols. 1-3, 1874-1884, unfinished); A. W. F. Fischer, _Kirchenlieder-Lexicon_ (Gotha, 1878-1879); J. Kayser, _Beiträge zur Geschichte der ältesten Kirchenhymnen_ (1881); M. Manitius, _Geschichte der christlichen lateinischen Poesie_ (Stuttgart, 1891); John Julian, _Dictionary of Hymnology_ (1892, new ed. 1907). For criticisms of metre, see also Huemer, _Untersuchungen über die ältesten christlichen Rhythmen_ (1879); E. Bouvy, _Poètes et mélodes_ (Nîmes, 1886); C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur_ (Munich, 1897, p. 700 seq.); J. M. Neale, Latin dissertation prefixed to Daniel's _Thesaurus_, vol. 5; and D. J. Donahoe, _Early Christian Hymns_ (London, 1909).

II. Medieval.--Walafrid Strabo's treatise, ch. 25, _De hymnis, &c._; Radulph of Tongres, _De psaltario observando_ (14th century); Clichtavaens, _Elucidatorium ecclesiasticum_ (Paris, 1556); Faustinus Arevalus, _Hymnodia Hispanica_ (Rome, 1786); E. du Méril, _Poésies populaires latines antérieures au XIII^e siècle_ (Paris, 1843); J. Stevenson, _Latin Hymns of the Anglo-Saxon Church_ (Surtees Society, Durham, 1851); Norman, _Hymnarium Sarisburiense_ (London, 1851); J. D. Chambers, _Psalter, &c._, according to the Sarum use (1852); F. J. Mone, _Lateinische Hymnen des Mittelalters_ (Freiburg, 3 vols., 1853-1855); Ph. Wackernagel, _Das deutsche Kirchenlied von der ältesten Zeit bis zum Anfang des 17. Jahrhunderts_, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1864); E. Dümmler, _Poëtae latini aevi Carolini_ (1881-1890); the _Hymnologische Beiträge: Quellen und Forschungen zur Geschichte der lateinischen Hymnendichtung_, edited by C. Blume and G. M. Dreves (Leipzig, 1897); G. C. F. Mohnike, _Hymnologische Forschungen_; Klemming, _Hymni et sequentiae in regno Sueciae_ (Stockholm, 4 vols., 1885-1887); _Das katholische deutsche Kirchenlied_ (vol. i. by K. Severin Meister, 1862, vol. ii. by W. Baumker, 1883); the "Hymnodia Hiberica," _Spanische Hymnen des Mittelalters_, vol. xvi. (1894); the "Hymnodia Gotica," _Mozarabische Hymnen des altspanischen Ritus_, vol. xxvii. (1897); J. Dankó, _Vetus hymnarium ecclesiasticae Hungariae_ (Budapest, 1893); J. H. Bernard and R. Atkinson, _The Irish Liber Hymnorum_ (2 vols., London, 1898); C. A. J. Chevalier, _Poésie liturgique du moyen âge_ (Paris, 1893).

III. Modern.--J. C. Jacobi, _Psalmodia Germanica_ (1722-1725 and 1732, with supplement added by J. Haberkorn, 1765); F. A. Cunz, _Geschichte des deutschen Kirchenliedes_ (Leipzig, 1855); Baron von Bunsen, _Versuch eines allgemeinen Gesang- und Gebetbuches_ (1833) and _Allgemeines evangelisches Gesang- und Gebetbuch_ (1846); Catherine Winkworth, _Christian Singers of Germany_ (1869) and _Lyra Germanica_ (1855); Catherine H. Dunn, _Hymns from the German_ (1857); Frances E. Cox, _Sacred Hymns from the German_ (London, 1841); Massie, _Lyra domestica_ (1860); _Appendix on Scottish Psalmody_ in D. Laing's edition of Baillie's _Letters and Journals_ (1841-1842); J. and C. Wesley, _Collection of Psalms and Hymns_ (1741); Josiah Miller, _Our Hymns, their Authors and Origin_ (1866); John Gadsby, _Memoirs of the Principal Hymn-writers_ (3rd ed., 1861); L. C. Biggs, Annotations to _Hymns Ancient and Modern_ (1867); Daniel Sedgwick, _Comprehensive Index of Names of Original Authors of Hymns_ (2nd ed., 1863); R. E. Prothero, _The Psalms in Human Life_ (1907); C. J. Brandt and L. Helweg, _Den danske Psalmedigtning_ (Copenhagen, 1846-1847); J. N. Skaar, _Norsk Salmehistorie_ (Bergen, 1879-1880); H. Schück, _Svensk Literaturhistoria_ (Stockholm, 1890); Rudolf Wolkan, _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur in Böhmen_, 246-256, and _Das deutsche Kirchenlied der böhm. Brüder_ (Prague, 1891); Zahn, _Die geistlichen Lieder der Brüder in Böhmen, Mähren u. Polen_ (Nuremberg, 1875); and J. Müller, "Bohemian Brethren's Hymnody," in J. Julian's _Dictionary of Hymnology_.

For account of hymn-tunes, &c., see W. Cowan and James Love, _Music of the Church Hymnody and the Psalter in Metre_ (London, 1901); and Dickinson, _Music in the History of the Western Church_ (New York, 1902); S. Kümmerle, _Encyklopädie der evangelischen Kirchenmusik_ (4 vols., 1888-1895); Chr. Palmer, _Evangelische Hymnologie_ (Stuttgart, 1865); and P. Urto Kornmüller, _Lexikon der kirchlichen Tonkunst_ (1891).

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The history of the "hymn" naturally begins with Greece, but it may be found in some form much earlier; Assyria and Egypt have left specimens, while India has the Vedic hymns, and Confucius collected "praise songs" in China.

[2] See GREEK LITERATURE.

[3] The authorship of this and of one other, "When all thy mercies, O my God," has been made a subject of controversy,--being claimed for Andrew Marvell (who died in 1678), in the preface to Captain E. Thompson's edition (1776) of Marvell's _Works_. But this claim does not appear to be substantiated. The editor did not give his readers the means of judging as to the real age, character or value of a manuscript to which he referred; he did not say that these portions of it were in Marvell's handwriting; he did not even himself include them among Marvell's poems, as published in the body of his edition; and he advanced a like claim on like grounds to two other poems, in very different styles, which had been published as their own by Tickell and Mallet. It is certain that all the five hymns were first made public in 1712, in papers contributed by Addison to the _Spectator_ (Nos. 441, 453, 465, 489, 513), in which they were introduced in a way which might have been expected if they were by the hand which wrote those papers, but which would have been improbable, and unworthy of Addison, if they were unpublished works of a writer of so much genius, and such note in his day, as Marvell. They are all printed as Addison's in Dr Johnson's _British Poets_.

[4] The old tune for the 100th Psalm and Croft's tune for the 104th are almost the only exceptions, unless "God save the King" may be classed under "hymnody." In Scotland also the tune for the 124th Psalm is associated with its proper text.

HYPAETHROS (Gr. [Greek: hypaithros], beneath the sky, in the open air, [Greek: hypo], beneath, and [Greek: aithêr], air), the Greek term quoted by Vitruvius (iii. 2) for the opening in the middle of the roof of decastyle temples, of which "there was no example in Rome, but one in Athens in the temple of Jupiter Olympius, which is octastyle." But at the time he wrote (c. 25 B.C.) the cella of this temple was unroofed, because the columns which had been provided to carry, at all events, part of the ceiling and roof had been taken away by Sulla in 80 B.C. The decastyle temple of Apollo Didymaeus near Miletus was, according to Strabo (c. 50 B.C.), unroofed, on account of the vastness of its cella, in which precious groves of laurel bushes were planted. Apart from these two examples, the references in various writers to an opening of some kind in the roofs of temples dedicated to particular deities, and the statement of Vitruvius, which was doubtless based on the writings of Greek authors, that in decastyle or large temples the centre was open to the sky and without a roof (_medium autem sub divo est sine tecto_), render the existence of the hypaethros probable in some cases; and therefore C. R. Cockerell's discovery in the temple at Aegina of two fragments of a coping-stone, in which there were sinkings on one side to receive the tiles and covering tiles, has been of great importance in the discussion of this subject. In the conjectural restoration of the opaion or opening in the roof shown in Cockerell's drawing, it has been made needlessly large, having an area of about one quarter of the superficial area of the cella between the columns, and since in the Pantheon at Rome the relative proportions of the central opening in the dome and the area of the Rotunda are 1: 22, and the light there is ample, in the clearer atmosphere of Greece it might have been less. The larger the opening the more conspicuous would be the notch in the roof which is so greatly objected to; in this respect T. J. Hittorff would seem to be nearer the truth when, in his conjectural restoration of Temple R. at Selinus, he shows an opaion about half the relative size shown in Cockerell's of that at Aegina, the coping on the side elevation being much less noticeable. The problem was apparently solved in another way at Bassae, where, in the excavations of the temple of Apollo by Cockerell and Baron Haller von Hallerstein, three marble tiles were found with pierced openings in them about 18 in. by 10 in.; five of these pierced tiles on either side would have amply lighted the interior of the cella, and the amount of rain passing through (a serious element to be considered in a country where torrential rains occasionally fall) would not be very great or more than could be retained to dry up in the cella sunk pavement. In favour of both these methods of lighting the interior of the cella, the sarcophagus tomb at Cyrene, about 20 ft. long, carved in imitation of a temple, has been adduced, because, on the top of the roof and in its centre, there is a raised coping, and a similar feature is found on a tomb found near Delos; an example from Crete now in the British Museum shows a pierced tile on each side of the roof, and a large number of pierced tiles have been found in Pompeii, some of them surrounded with a rim identical with that of the marble tiles at Bassae. On the other hand, there are many authorities, among them Dr W. Dörpfeld, who have adhered to their original opinion that it was only through the open doorway that light was ever admitted into the cella, and with the clear atmosphere of Greece and the reflections from the marble pavement such lighting would be quite sufficient. There remains still another source of light to be considered, that passing through the Parian marble tiles of the roof; the superior translucency of Parian to any other marble may have suggested its employment for the roofs of temples, and if, in the framed ceilings carried over the cella, openings were left, some light from the Parian tile roof might have been obtained. It is possibly to this that Plutarch refers when describing the ceiling and roof of the temple of Demeter at Eleusis, where the columns in the interior of the temple carried a ceiling, probably constructed of timbers crossing one another at right angles, and one or more of the spaces was left open, which Xenocles surmounted by a roof formed of tiles.

James Fergusson put forward many years ago a conjectural restoration in which he adopted a clerestory above the superimposed columns inside the cella; in order to provide the light for these windows he indicated two trenches in the roof, one on each side, and pointed out that the great Hall of Columns at Karnak was lighted in this way with clerestory windows; but in the first place the light in the latter was obtained over the flat roofs covering lower portions of the hall, and in the second place, as it rarely rains in Thebes, there could be no difficulty about the drainage, while in Greece, with the torrential rains and snow, these trenches would be deluged with water, and with all the appliances of the present day it would be impossible to keep these clerestory windows watertight. There is, however, still another objection to Fergusson's theory; the water collecting in these trenches on the roof would have to be discharged, for which Fergusson's suggestions are quite inadequate, and the gargoyles shown in the cella wall would make the peristyle insupportable just at the time when it was required for shelter. No drainage otherwise of any kind has ever been found in any Greek temple, which is fatal to Fergusson's view. Nor is it in accordance with the definition "open to the sky." English cathedrals and churches are all lighted by clerestory windows, but no one has described them as open to the sky, and although Vitruvius's statements are sometimes confusing, his description is far too clear to leave any misunderstanding as to the lighting of temples (where it was necessary on account of great length) through an opening in the roof.

There is one other theory which has been put forward, but which can only apply to non-peristylar temples,--that light and air was admitted through the metopes, the apertures between the beams crossing the cella,--and it has been assumed that because Orestes was advised in one of the Greek plays to climb up and look through the metopes of the temple, these were left open; but if Orestes could look in, so could the birds, and the statue of the god would be defiled. The metopes were probably filled in with shutters of some kind which Orestes knew how to open. (R. P. S.)

HYPALLAGE (Gr. [Greek: hypallagê], interchange or exchange), a rhetorical figure, in which the proper relation between two words according to the rules of syntax are inverted. The stock instance is that in Virgil, _Aen._ iii. 61, where _dare classibus austros_, to give winds to the fleet, is put for _dare classes austris_, to give the fleet to the winds. The term is also loosely applied to figures of speech properly known as "metonymy" and, generally, to any striking turn of expression.

HYPATIA ([Greek: Hypatia]) (c. A.D. 370-415) mathematician and philosopher, born in Alexandria, was the daughter of Theon, also a mathematician and philosopher, author of scholia on Euclid and a commentary on the _Almagest_, in which it is suggested that he was assisted by Hypatia (on the 3rd book). After lecturing in her native city, Hypatia ultimately became the recognized head of the Neoplatonic school there (c. 400). Her great eloquence and rare modesty and beauty, combined with her remarkable intellectual gifts, attracted to her class-room a large number of pupils. Among these was Synesius, afterwards (c. 410) bishop of Ptolemaïs, several of whose letters to her, full of chivalrous admiration and reverence, are still extant. Suidas, misled by an incomplete excerpt in Photius from the life of Isidorus (the Neoplatonist) by Damascius, states that Hypatia was the wife of Isidorus; but this is chronologically impossible, since Isidorus could not have been born before 434 (see Hoche in _Philologus_). Shortly after the accession of Cyril to the patriarchate of Alexandria in 412, owing to her intimacy with Orestes, the pagan prefect of the city, Hypatia was barbarously murdered by the Nitrian monks and the fanatical Christian mob (March 415). Socrates has related how she was torn from her chariot, dragged to the Caesareum (then a Christian church), stripped naked, done to death with oyster-shells ([Greek: ostrakois aneilon,] perhaps "cut her throat") and finally burnt piecemeal. Most prominent among the actual perpetrators of the crime was one Peter, a reader; but there seems little reason to doubt Cyril's complicity (see CYRIL OF ALEXANDRIA).

Hypatia, according to Suidas, was the author of commentaries on the _Arithmetica_ of Diophantus of Alexandria, on the Conics of Apollonius of Perga and on the astronomical canon (of Ptolemy). These works are lost; but their titles, combined with expressions in the letters of Synesius, who consulted her about the construction of an astrolabe and a hydroscope, indicate that she devoted herself specially to astronomy and mathematics. Little is known of her philosophical opinions, but she appears to have embraced the intellectual rather than the mystical side of Neoplatonism, and to have been a follower of Plotinus rather than of Porphyry and Iamblichus. Zeller, however, in his _Outlines of Greek Philosophy_ (1886, Eng. trans. p. 347), states that "she appears to have taught the Neoplatonic doctrine in the form in which Iamblichus had stated it." A Latin letter to Cyril on behalf of Nestorius, printed in the _Collectio nova conciliorum_, i. (1623), by Stephanus Baluzius (Étienne Baluze, q.v.), and sometimes attributed to her, is undoubtedly spurious. The story of Hypatia appears in a considerably disguised yet still recognizable form in the legend of St Catherine as recorded in the Roman _Breviary_ (November 25), and still more fully in the _Martyrologies_ (see A. B. Jameson, _Sacred and Legendary Art_ (1867) ii. 467.)

The chief source for the little we know about Hypatia is the account given by Socrates (_Hist. ecclesiastica_, vii. 15). She is the subject of an epigram by Palladas in the Greek Anthology (ix. 400). See Fabricius, _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (ed. Harles), ix. 187; John Toland, _Tetradymus_ (1720); R. Hoche in _Philologus_ (1860), xv. 435; monographs by Stephan Wolf (Czernowitz, 1879), H. Ligier (Dijon, 1880) and W. A. Meyer (Heidelberg, 1885), who devotes attention to the relation of Hypatia to the chief representatives of Neoplatonism; J. B. Bury, _Hist. of the Later Roman Empire_ (1889), i. 208,317; A. Güldenpenning, _Geschichte des oströmischen Reiches unter Arcadius und Theodosius II._ (Halle, 1885), p. 230; Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_, vi. (1889), from a Catholic standpoint. The story of Hypatia also forms the basis of the well-known historical romance by Charles Kingsley (1853).

HYPERBATON (Gr. [Greek: huperbaton], a stepping over), the name of a figure of speech, consisting of a transposition of words from their natural order, such as the placing of the object before instead of after the verb. It is a common method of securing emphasis.

HYPERBOLA, a conic section, consisting of two open branches, each extending to infinity. It may be defined in several ways. The _in solido_ definition as the section of a cone by a plane at a less inclination to the axis than the generator brings out the existence of the two infinite branches if we imagine the cone to be double and to extend to infinity. The _in plano_ definition, i.e. as the conic having an eccentricity greater than unity, is a convenient starting-point for the Euclidian investigation. In projective geometry it may be defined as the conic which intersects the line at infinity in two real points, or to which it is possible to draw two real tangents from the centre. Analytically, it is defined by an equation of the second degree, of which the highest terms have real roots (see CONIC SECTION).

While resembling the parabola in extending to infinity, the curve has closest affinities to the ellipse. Thus it has a real centre, two foci, two directrices and two vertices; the transverse axis, joining the vertices, corresponds to the major axis of the ellipse, and the line through the centre and perpendicular to this axis is called the conjugate axis, and corresponds to the minor axis of the ellipse; about these axes the curve is symmetrical. The curve does not appear to intersect the conjugate axis, but the introduction of imaginaries permits us to regard it as cutting this axis in two unreal points. Calling the foci S, S´, the real vertices A, A´, the extremities of the conjugate axis B, B' and the centre C, the positions of B, B´ are given by AB = AB´ = CS. If a rectangle be constructed about AA´ and BB´, the diagonals of this figure are the "asymptotes" of the curve; they are the tangents from the centre, and hence touch the curve at infinity. These two lines may be pictured in the _in solido_ definition as the section of a cone by a plane through its vertex and parallel to the plane generating the hyperbola. If the asymptotes be perpendicular, or, in other words, the principal axes be equal, the curve is called the rectangular hyperbola. The hyperbola which has for its transverse and conjugate axes the transverse and conjugate axes of another hyperbola is said to be the conjugate hyperbola.

Some properties of the curve will be briefly stated: If PN be the ordinate of the point P on the curve, AA' the vertices, X the meet of the directrix and axis and C the centre, then PN²: AN·NA´: : SX²: AX·A´X, i.e. PN² is to AN·NA´ in a constant ratio. The circle on AA' as diameter is called the auxiliarly circle; obviously AN·NA' equals the square of the tangent to this circle from N, and hence the ratio of PN to the tangent to the auxiliarly circle from N equals the ratio of the conjugate axis to the transverse. We may observe that the asymptotes intersect this circle in the same points as the directrices. An important property is: the difference of the focal distances of any point on the curve equals the transverse axis. The tangent at any point bisects the angle between the focal distances of the point, and the normal is equally inclined to the focal distances. Also the auxiliarly circle is the locus of the feet of the perpendiculars from the foci on any tangent. Two tangents from any point are equally inclined to the focal distance of the point. If the tangent at P meet the conjugate axis in t, and the transverse in N, then Ct. PN = BC²; similarly if g and G be the corresponding intersections of the normal, PG : Pg : : BC² : AC². A diameter is a line through the centre and terminated by the curve: it bisects all chords parallel to the tangents at its extremities; the diameter parallel to these chords is its conjugate diameter. Any diameter is a mean proportional between the transverse axis and the focal chord parallel to the diameter. Any line cuts off equal distances between the curve and the asymptotes. If the tangent at P meets the asymptotes in R, R', then CR·CR´ = CS². The geometry of the rectangular hyperbola is simplified by the fact that its principal axes are equal.

Analytically the hyperbola is given by ax² + 2hxy + by² + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 wherein ab > h². Referred to the centre this becomes Ax² + 2Hxy + By² + C = 0; and if the axes of coordinates be the principal axes of the curve, the equation is further simplified to Ax² - By² = C, or if the semi-transverse axis be a, and the semi-conjugate b, x²/a² - y²/b² = 1. This is the most commonly used form. In the rectangular hyperbola a = b; hence its equation is x² - y² = 0. The equations to the asymptotes are x/a = ±y/b and x = ±y respectively. Referred to the asymptotes as axes the general equation becomes xy = k²; obviously the axes are oblique in the general hyperbola and rectangular in the rectangular hyperbola. The values of the constant k² are ½(a² + b²) and ½a² respectively. (See GEOMETRY: _Analytical_; _Projective_.)

HYPERBOLE (from Gr. [Greek: hyperballein], to throw beyond), a figure of rhetoric whereby the speaker expresses more than the truth, in order to produce a vivid impression; hence, an exaggeration.

HYPERBOREANS ([Greek: Hyperboreoi, Hyperboreioi]), a mythical people intimately connected with the worship of Apollo. Their name does not occur in the _Iliad_ or the _Odyssey_, but Herodotus (iv. 32) states that they were mentioned in Hesiod and in the _Epigoni_, an epic of the Theban cycle. According to Herodotus, two maidens, Opis and Arge, and later two others, Hyperoche and Laodice, escorted by five men, called by the Delians Perphereës, were sent by the Hyperboreans with certain offerings to Delos. Finding that their messengers did not return, the Hyperboreans adopted the plan of wrapping the offerings in wheat-straw and requested their neighbours to hand them on to the next nation, and so on, till they finally reached Delos. The theory of H. L. Ahrens, that Hyperboreans and Perphereës are identical, is now widely accepted. In some of the dialects of northern Greece (especially Macedonia and Delphi) [phi] had a tendency to become [beta]. The original form of [Greek: Perpherees] was [Greek: hyperpheretai] or [Greek: hyperphoroi] ("those who carry over"), which becoming [Greek: hyperboroi] gave rise to the popular derivation from [Greek: boreas] ("dwellers beyond the north wind"). The Hyperboreans were thus the bearers of the sacrificial gifts to Apollo over land and sea, irrespective of their home, the name being given to Delphians, Thessalians, Athenians and Delians. It is objected by O. Schröder that the form [Greek: Perpherees] requires a passive meaning, "those who are carried round the altar," perhaps dancers like the whirling dervishes; distinguishing them from the Hyperboreans, he explains the latter as those who live "above the mountains," that is, in heaven. Under the influence of the derivation from [Greek: boreas], the home of the Hyperboreans was placed in a region beyond the north wind, a paradise like the Elysian plains, inaccessible by land or sea, whither Apollo could remove those mortals who had lived a life of piety. It was a land of perpetual sunshine and great fertility; its inhabitants were free from disease and war. The duration of their life was 1000 years, but if any desired to shorten it, he decked himself with garlands and threw himself from a rock into the sea. The close connexion of the Hyperboreans with the cult of Apollo may be seen by comparing the Hyperborean myths, the characters of which by their names mostly recall Apollo or Artemis (Agyieus, Opis, Hecaergos, Loxo), with the ceremonial of the Apolline worship. No meat was eaten at the Pyanepsia; the Hyperboreans were vegetarians. At the festival of Apollo at Leucas a victim flung himself from a rock into the sea, like the Hyperborean who was tired of life. According to an Athenian decree (380 B.C.) asses were sacrificed to Apollo at Delphi, and Pindar (_Pythia_, x. 33) speaks of "hecatombs of asses" being offered to him by the Hyperboreans. As the latter conveyed sacrificial gifts to Delos hidden in wheat-straw, so at the Thargelia a sheaf of corn was carried round in procession, concealing a symbol of the god (for other resemblances see Crusius's article). Although the Hyperborean legends are mainly connected with Delphi and Delos, traces of them are found in Argos (the stories of Heracles, Perseus, Io), Attica, Macedonia, Thrace, Sicily and Italy (which Niebuhr indeed considers their original home). In modern times the name has been applied to a group of races, which includes the Chukchis, Koryaks, Yukaghirs, Ainus, Gilyaks and Kamchadales, inhabiting the arctic regions of Asia and America. But if ever ethnically one, the Asiatic and American branches are now as far apart from each other as they both are from the Mongolo-Tatar stock.

See O. Crusius in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_; O. Schröder in _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_ (1904), viii. 69; W. Mannhardt, _Wald- und Feldkulte_ (1905); L. R. Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_ (1907), iv. 100.

HYPEREIDES (c. 390-322 B.C.), one of the ten Attic orators, was the son of Glaucippus, of the deme of Collytus. Having studied under Isocrates, he began life as a writer of speeches for the courts, and in 360 he prosecuted Autocles, a general charged with treason in Thrace (frags. 55-65, Blass). At the time of the so-called "Social War" (358-355) he accused Aristophon, then one of the most influential men at Athens, of malpractices (frags. 40-44, Blass), and impeached Philocrates (343) for high treason. From the peace of 346 to 324 Hypereides supported Demosthenes in the struggle against Macedon; but in the affair of Harpalus he was one of the ten public prosecutors of Demosthenes, and on the exile of his former leader he became the head of the patriotic party (324). After the death of Alexander, he was the chief promoter of the Lamian war against Antipater and Craterus. After the decisive defeat at Crannon (322), Hypereides and the other orators, whose surrender was demanded by Antipater, were condemned to death by the Athenian partisans of Macedonia. Hypereides fled to Aegina, but Antipater's emissaries dragged him from the temple of Aeacus, where he had taken refuge, and put him to death; according to others, he was taken before Antipater at Athens or Cleonae. His body was afterwards removed to Athens for burial.

Hypereides was an ardent pursuer of "the beautiful," which in his time generally meant pleasure and luxury. His temper was easy-going and humorous; and hence, though in his development of the periodic sentence he followed Isocrates, the essential tendencies of his style are those of Lysias, whom he surpassed, however, in the richness of his vocabulary and in the variety of his powers. His diction was plain and forcible, though he occasionally indulged in long compound words probably borrowed from the Middle Comedy, with which, and with the everyday life of his time, he was in full sympathy. His composition was simple. He was specially distinguished for subtlety of expression, grace and wit, as well as for tact in approaching his case and handling his subject matter. Sir R. C. Jebb sums up the criticism of pseudo-Longinus (_De sublimitate_, 34) in the phrase--"Hypereides was the Sheridan of Athens."

Seventy-seven speeches were attributed to Hypereides, of which twenty-five were regarded as spurious even by ancient critics. It is said that a MS. of most of the speeches was in existence in the 16th century in the library of Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, at Ofen, but was destroyed at the capture of the city by the Turks in 1526. Only a few fragments were known until comparatively recent times. In 1847 large fragments of his speeches Against _Demosthenes_ (see above) and _For Lycophron_ (incidentally interesting as elucidating the order of marriage processions and other details of Athenian life, and the Athenian government of Lemnos), and the whole of the _For Euxenippus_ (c. 330, a _locus classicus_ on [Greek: eisangeliai] or state prosecutions), were found in a tomb at Thebes in Egypt, and in 1856 a considerable portion of a [Greek: logos epitaphios], a _Funeral Oration_ over Leosthenes and his comrades who had fallen in the Lamian war, the best extant specimen of epideictic oratory (see BABINGTON, CHURCHILL). Towards the end of the century further discoveries were made of the conclusion of the speech _Against Philippides_ (dealing with a [Greek: graphê paranomôn], or indictment for the proposal of an unconstitutional measure, arising out of the disputes of the Macedonian and anti-Macedonian parties at Athens), and of the whole of the _Against Athenogenes_ (a perfumer accused of fraud in the sale of his business). These have been edited by F. G. Kenyon (1893). An important speech that is lost is the _Deliacus_ (frags. 67-75, Blass) on the presidency of the Delian temple claimed by both Athens and Delos, which was adjudged by the Amphictyons to Athens.

On Hypereides generally see pseudo-Plutarch, _Decem oratorum vitae_; F. Blass, _Attische Beredsamkeit_, iii.; R. C. Jebb, _Attic Orators_, ii. 381. A full list of editions and articles is given in F. Blass, _Hyperidis orationes sex cum ceterarum fragmentis_ (1894, Teubner series), to which may be added I. Bassi, _Le Quattro Orazioni di Iperide_ (introduction and notes, 1888), and J. E. Sandys in _Classical Review_ (January 1895) (a review of the editions of Kenyon and Blass). For the discourse against Athenogenes see H. Weil, _Études sur l'antiquité grecque_ (1900).

HYPERION, in Greek mythology, one of the Titans, son of Uranus and Gaea and father of Helios, the sun-god (Hesiod, _Theog._ 134, 371; Apollodorus i. 1. 2). In the well-known passage in Shakespeare (_Hamlet_, i. 2: "Hyperion to a satyr," where as in other poets the vowel -_i_- though really long, is shortened for metrical reasons) Hyperion is used for Apollo as expressive of the idea of beauty. The name is often used as an epithet of Helios, who is himself sometimes called simply Hyperion. It is explained as (1) he who moves above ([Greek: hyper-iôn]), but the quantity of the vowel is against this; (2) he who is above ([Greek: hyperi-ôn]). Others take it to be a patronymic in form, like [Greek: Kroniôn, Moliôn].

HYPERSTHENE, a rock-forming mineral belonging to the group of orthorhombic pyroxenes. It differs from the other members (enstatite [q.v.] and bronzite) of this group in containing a considerable amount of iron replacing magnesium: the chemical formula is (Mg, Fe)SiO3. Distinctly developed crystals are rare, the mineral being usually found as foliated masses embedded in those igneous rocks--norite, hypersthene-andesite, &c.--of which it forms an essential constituent. The coarsely grained labradorite-hypersthene-rock (norite) of the island of St Paul off the coast of Labrador has furnished the most typical material; and for this reason the mineral has been known as "Labrador hornblende" or paulite. The colour is brownish-black, and the pleochrism strong; the hardness is 6, and the specific gravity 3.4-3.5. On certain surfaces it displays a brilliant copper-red metallic sheen or schiller, which has the same origin as the bronzy sheen of bronzite (q.v.), but is even more pronounced. Like bronzite, it is sometimes cut and polished for ornamental purposes. (L. J. S.)

HYPERTROPHY (Gr. [Greek: hyper], over, and [Greek: trophê], nourishment), a term in medicine employed to designate an abnormal increase in bulk of one or more of the organs or component tissues of the body (see PATHOLOGY). In its strict sense this term can only be applied where the increase affects the natural textures of a part, and is not applicable where the enlargement is due to the presence of some extraneous morbid formation. Hypertrophy of a part may manifest itself either by simply an increase in the size of its constituents, or by this combined with an increase in their number (hyperplasia). In many instances both are associated.

The conditions giving rise to hypertrophy are the reverse of those described as producing Atrophy (q.v.). They are concisely stated by Sir James Paget as being chiefly or only three, namely: (1) the increased exercise of a part in its healthy functions; (2) an increased accumulation in the blood of the particular materials which a part appropriates to its nutrition or in secretion; and (3) an increased afflux of healthy blood.

Illustrations are furnished of the first of these conditions by the high development of muscular tissue under habitual active exercise; of the second in the case of obesity, which is an hypertrophy of the fatty tissues, the elements of which are furnished by the blood; and of the third in the occasional overgrowth of hair in the neighbourhood of parts which are the seat of inflammation. Obviously therefore, in many instances, hypertrophy cannot be regarded as a deviation from health, but rather on the contrary as indicative of a high degree of nutrition and physical power. Even in those cases where it is found associated with disease, it is often produced as a salutary effort of nature to compensate for obstructions or other difficulties which have arisen in the system, and thus to ward off evil consequences. No better example of this can be seen than in the case of certain forms of heart disease, where from defect at some of the natural orifices of that organ the onward flow of the blood is interfered with, and would soon give rise to serious embarrassment to the circulation, were it not that behind the seat of obstruction the heart gradually becomes hypertrophied, and thus acquires greater propelling power to overcome the resistance in front. Again, it has been noticed, in the case of certain double organs such as the kidneys, that when one has been destroyed by disease the other has become hypertrophied to such a degree as enables it to discharge the functions of both.

Hypertrophy may, however, in certain circumstances constitute a disease, as in goitre and elephantiasis (q.v.), and also in the case of certain tumours and growths (such as cutaneous excrescences, fatty tumours, mucous polypi, &c.), which are simply enlargements of normal textures. Hypertrophy does not in all cases involve an increase in bulk; for, just as in atrophy there may be no diminution in the size of the affected organ, so in hypertrophy there may be no increase. This is apt to be the case where certain only of the elements of an organ undergo increase, while the others remain unaffected or are actually atrophied by the pressure of the hypertrophied tissue, as is seen in the disease known as cirrhosis of the liver.

A spurious hypertrophy is observed in the rare disease to which G. B. Duchenne applied the name of _pseudo-hypertrophic paralysis_. This ailment, which appears to be confined to children, consists essentially of a progressive loss of power accompanied with a remarkable enlargement of certain muscles or groups of muscles, more rarely of the whole muscular system. This increase of bulk is, however, not a true hypertrophy, but rather an excessive development of connective tissue in the substance of the muscles, the proper texture of which tends in consequence to undergo atrophy or degeneration. The appearance presented by a child suffering from this disease is striking. The attitude and gait are remarkably altered, the child standing with shoulders thrown back, small of the back deeply curved inwards, and legs wide apart, while walking is accompanied with a peculiar swinging or rocking movement. The calves of the legs, the buttocks, the muscles of the back, and occasionally other muscles, are seen to be unduly enlarged, and contrast strangely with the general feebleness. The progress of the disease is marked by increasing failure of locomotory power, and ultimately by complete paralysis of the limbs. The malady is little amenable to treatment, and, although often prolonged for years, generally proves fatal before the period of maturity.

HYPNOTISM, a term now in general use as covering all that pertains to the art of inducing the hypnotic state, or hypnosis, and to the study of that state, its conditions, peculiarities and effects. Hypnosis is a condition, allied to normal sleep (Gr. [Greek: hypnos]), which can be induced in a large majority of normal persons. Its most characteristic and constant symptom is the increased suggestibility of the subject (see SUGGESTION). Other symptoms are very varied and differ widely in different subjects and in the same subject at different times. There can be no doubt that the increased suggestibility and all the other symptoms of hypnosis imply some abnormal condition of the brain of a temporary and harmless nature. It would seem that in all ages and in almost all countries individuals have occasionally fallen into abnormal states of mind more or less closely resembling the hypnotic state, and have thereby excited the superstitious wonder of their fellows. In some cases the state has been deliberately induced, in others it has appeared spontaneously, generally under the influence of some emotional excitement. The most familiar of these allied states is the somnambulism or sleep-walking to which some persons seem to be hereditarily disposed. Of a rather different type are the states of ecstasy into which religious enthusiasts have occasionally fallen and which were especially frequent among the peoples of Europe during the middle ages. While in this condition individuals have appeared to be insensitive to all impressions made on their sense-organs, even to such as would excite acute pain in normal persons, have been capable of maintaining rigid postures for long periods of time, have experienced vivid hallucinations, and have produced, through the power of the imagination, extraordinary organic changes in the body, such as the bloody stigmata on the hands and feet in several well-attested instances. It has been proved in recent years that effects of all these kinds may be produced by hypnotic suggestion. Different again, but closely paralleled by some subjects in hypnosis, is the state of _latah_ into which a certain proportion of persons of the Malay race are liable to fall. These persons, if their attention is suddenly and forcibly drawn to any other person, will begin to imitate his every action and attitude, and may do so in spite of their best efforts to restrain their imitative movements. Among the half-bred French-Canadians of the forest regions of Canada occur individuals, known as "jumpers," who are liable to fall suddenly into a similar state of abject imitativeness, and the same peculiar behaviour has been observed among some of the remote tribes of Siberia.

The deliberate induction of states identical with, or closely allied to, hypnosis is practised by many barbarous and savage peoples, generally for ceremonial purposes. Thus, certain dervishes of Algiers are said to induce in themselves, by the aid of the sound of drums, monotonous songs and movements, a state in which they are insensitive to pain, and a similar practice of religious devotees is reported from Tibet. Perhaps the most marvellous achievement among well-attested cases of this sort is that of certain _yogis_ of Hindustan; by long training and practice they seem to acquire the power of arresting almost completely all their vital functions. An intense effort of abstraction from the impressions of the outer world, a prolonged fixation of the eyes upon the nose or in some other strained position and a power of greatly slowing the respiration, these seem to be important features of their procedure for the attainment of their abnormal states.

In spite of the wide distribution in time and space, and the not very infrequent occurrence, of these instances of states identical with or allied to hypnosis, some three centuries of enthusiastic investigation and of bitter controversy were required to establish the occurrence of the hypnotic state among the facts accepted by the world of European science. Scientific interest in them may be traced back at least as far as the end of the 16th century. Paracelsus had founded the "sympathetic system" of medicine, according to which the stars and other bodies, especially magnets, influence men by means of a subtle emanation or fluid that pervades all space. J. B. van Helmont, a distinguished man of science of the latter part of the 16th century, extended this doctrine by teaching that a similar magnetic fluid radiates from men, and that it can be guided by their wills to influence directly the minds and bodies of others. In the middle of the 17th century there appeared in England several persons who claimed to have the power of curing diseases by stroking with the hand. Notable amongst these was Valentine Greatrakes, of Affane, in the county of Waterford, Ireland, who was born in February 1628, and who attracted great attention in England by his supposed power of curing the king's evil, or scrofula. Many of the most distinguished scientific and theological men of the day, such as Robert Boyle and R. Cudworth, witnessed and attested the cures supposed to be effected by Greatrakes, and thousands of sufferers crowded to him from all parts of the kingdom. About the middle of the 18th century John Joseph Gassner, a Roman Catholic priest in Swabia, took up the notion that the majority of diseases arose from demoniacal possession, and could only be cured by exorcism. His method was undoubtedly similar to that afterwards followed by Mesmer and others, and he had an extraordinary influence over the nervous systems of his patients. Gassner, however, believed his power to be altogether supernatural.

But it was not until the latter part of the 18th century that the doctrine of a magnetic fluid excited great popular interest and became the subject of fierce controversy in the scientific world. F. A. Mesmer (q.v.), a physician of Vienna, was largely instrumental in bringing the doctrine into prominence. He developed it by postulating a specialized variety of magnetic fluid which he called _animal magnetism_; and he claimed to be able to cure many diseases by means of this animal magnetism, teaching, also, that it may be imparted to and stored up in inert objects, which are thereby rendered potent to cure disease.

It would seem that Mesmer himself was not acquainted with the artificial somnambulism which for nearly a century was called mesmeric or magnetic sleep, and which is now familiar as hypnosis of a well-marked degree. It was observed and described about the year 1780 by the marquis de Puységur, a disciple of Mesmer, who showed that, while subjects were in this state, not only could some of their diseases be cured, but also their movements could be controlled by the "magnetizer," and that they usually remembered nothing of the events of the period of sleep when restored to normal consciousness. These are three of the most important features of hypnosis, and the modern study of hypnotism may therefore be said to have been initiated at this date by Puységur. For, though it is probable that this state had often been induced by the earlier magnetists, they had not recognized that the peculiar behaviour of their patients resulted from their being plunged into this artificial sleep, but had attributed all the symptoms they observed to the direct physical

## action of external agents upon the patients.

The success of Mesmer and his disciples, especially great in the fashionable world, led to the appointment in Paris of a royal commission for the investigation of their claims. The commission, which included men of great eminence, notably A. L. Lavoisier and Benjamin Franklin, reported in the year 1784 that it could not accept the evidence for the existence of the magnetic fluid; but it did not express an opinion as to the reality of the cures said to be effected by its means, nor as to the nature of the magnetic sleep. This report and the social upheavals of the following years seem to have abolished the public interest in "animal magnetism" for the space of one generation; after which Alexandre Bertrand, a Parisian physician, revived it by his acute investigations and interpretations of the phenomena. Bertrand was the first to give an explanation of the facts of the kind that is now generally accepted. He exhibited the affinity of the "magnetic sleep" to ordinary somnambulism, and he taught that the peculiar effects are to be regarded as due to the suggestions of the operator working themselves out in the mind and body of the "magnetized" subject, i.e. he regarded the influence of the magnetizer as exerted in the first instance on the mind of the subject and only indirectly through the mind upon the body. Shortly after this revival of public interest, namely in the year 1831, a committee of the Academy of Medicine of Paris reported favourably upon "magnetism" as a therapeutic agency, and before many years had elapsed it was extensively practised by the physicians of all European countries, with few exceptions, of which England was the most notable. Most of the practitioners of this period adhered to the doctrine of the magnetic fluid emanating from the operator to his patient, and the acceptance of this doctrine was commonly combined with belief in phrenology, astrology and the influence of metals and magnets, externally applied, in curing disease and in producing a variety of strange sensations and other affections of the mind. These beliefs, claiming to rest upon carefully observed facts, were given a new elaboration and a more imposing claim to be scientifically established by the doctrine of _odylic force_ propounded by Baron Karl von Reichenbach. In this mass of ill-based assertion and belief the valuable truths of "animal magnetism" and the psychological explanations of them given by Bertrand were swamped and well-nigh lost sight of. For it was this seemingly inseparable association between the facts of hypnotism and these bizarre practices and baseless beliefs that blinded the larger and more sober part of the scientific world, and led them persistently to assert that all this group of alleged phenomena was a mass of quackery, fraud and superstition. And the fact that magnetism was practised for pecuniary gain, often in a shameless manner, by exponents who claimed to cure by its means every conceivable ill, rendered this attitude on the part of the medical profession inevitable and perhaps excusable, though not justifiable. It was owing to this baleful association that John Elliotson, one of the leading London physicians of that time, who became an ardent advocate of "magnetism" and who founded and edited the _Zoist_ in the interests of the subject, was driven out of the profession. This association may perhaps be held, also, to excuse the hostile attitude of the medical profession towards James Esdaile, a surgeon, who, practising in a government hospital in Calcutta among the natives of India, performed many major operations, such as the amputation of limbs, painlessly and with the most excellent results by aid of the "magnetic" sleep. For both Elliotson and Esdaile, though honourable practitioners, accepted the doctrine of the "magnetic" fluid and many of the erroneous beliefs that commonly were bound up with it.

In 1841 James Braid, a surgeon of Manchester, rediscovered independently Bertrand's physiological and psychological explanations of the facts, carried them further, and placed "hypnotism," as he named the study, on a sound basis. Braid showed that subjects in "magnetic" sleep, far from being in a profoundly insensitive condition, are often abnormally susceptible to impressions on the senses, and showed that many of the peculiarities of their behaviour were due to suggestions, made verbally or otherwise, but unintentionally, by the operator or by onlookers.

It seems, on looking back on the history of hypnotism, that at this time it was in a fair way to secure general recognition as a most interesting subject of psychological study and a valuable addition to the resources of the physician. But it was destined once more to be denied its rights by official science and to fall back into disrepute. This was due to the coincidence about the year 1848 of two events of some importance, namely--the discovery of the anaesthetic properties of chloroform and the sudden rise of modern spiritualism. The former afforded a very convenient substitute for the most obvious practical application of hypnotism, the production of anaesthesia during surgical operations; the latter involved it once more in a mass of fraud and superstition, and, for the popular mind, drove it back to the region of the marvellous, the supernatural and the dangerous, made it, in fact, once more a branch of the black art.

From this time onward there took place a gradual differentiation of the "animal magnetism" of the 18th century into two diverging branches, hypnotism and spiritualism, two branches which, however, are not yet entirely separated and, perhaps, never will be. At the same time the original system of "animal magnetism" has lived on in an enfeebled condition and is now very nearly, though not quite, extinct.

In the development of hypnotism since the time of Braid we may distinguish three lines, the physiological, the psychological and the pathological. The last may be dismissed in a few words. Its principal representative was J. M. Charcot, who taught at the Salpêtrière in Paris that hypnosis is essentially a symptom of a morbid condition of hysteria or hystero-epilepsy. This doctrine, which, owing to the great repute enjoyed by Charcot, has done much to retard the application of hypnotism, is now completely discredited. The workers of the physiological party attached special importance to the fixation of the eyes, or to other forms of long continued and monotonous, or violent, sensory stimulation in the induction of hypnosis. They believed that by

## acting on the senses in these ways they induced a peculiar condition of

the nervous system, which consisted in the temporary abolition of the cerebral functions and the consequent reduction of the subject to machine-like unconscious automatism. The leading exponent of this view was R. Heidenhain, professor of physiology at Breslau, whose experimental investigations played a large part in convincing the scientific world of the genuineness of the leading symptoms of hypnosis. The purely psychological doctrine of hypnosis puts aside all physical and physiological influences and effects as of but little or no importance, and seeks a psychological explanation of the induction of hypnosis and of all the phenomena. This dates from 1884, when H. Bernheim, professor of medicine at Nancy, published his work _De la Suggestion_ (republished in 1887 with a second part on the therapeutics of hypnotism). Bernheim was led to the study of hypnotism by A. A. Liébeault, who for twenty years had used it very largely and successfully in his general practice among the poor of Nancy. Liébeault rediscovered independently, and Bernheim made known to the world the truths, twice previously discovered and twice lost sight of, that expectation is a most important factor in the induction of hypnosis, that increased suggestibility is its essential symptom, and that in general the operator works upon his patient by mental influences. Although they went too far in the direction of ignoring the peculiarity of the state of the brain in hypnosis and the predisposing effect of monotonous sensory stimulation, and in seeking to identify hypnosis with normal sleep, the views of the Nancy investigators have prevailed, and are now in the main generally accepted. Their methods of verbal suggestion have been adopted by leading physicians in almost all civilized countries and have been proved to be efficacious in the relief of many disorders; and as a method of psychological investigation hypnotism has proved, especially in the hands of the late Ed. Gurney, of Dr Pierre Janet and of other investigators, capable of throwing much light on the constitution of the mind, has opened up a number of problems of the deepest interest, and has done more than any other of the many branches of modern psychology to show the limitations and comparative barrenness of the old psychology that relied on introspection alone and figured as a department of general philosophy. In England, "always the last to enter into the general movement of the European mind," the prejudice, incredulity and ignorant misrepresentation with which hypnotism has everywhere been received have resisted its progress more stubbornly than elsewhere; but even in England its reality and its value as a therapeutic agent have at last been officially recognized. In 1892, just fifty years after Braid clearly demonstrated the facts and published explanations of them almost identical with those now accepted, a committee of the British Medical Association reported favourably upon hypnotism after a searching investigation; it is now regularly employed by a number of physicians of high standing, and the formation in 1907 of "The Medical Society for the Study of Suggestive Therapeutics" shows that the footing it has gained is likely to be made good.

_Induction of Hypnosis._--It has now been abundantly proved that hypnosis can be induced in the great majority of normal persons, provided that they willingly submit themselves to the process. Several of the most experienced operators have succeeded in hypnotizing more than 90% of the cases they have attempted, and most of them are agreed that failure to induce hypnosis in any case is due either to lack of skill and tact on the part of the operator, or to some unfavourable mental condition of the subject. It has often been said that some races or peoples are by nature more readily hypnotizable than others; of the French people especially this has been maintained. But there is no sufficient ground for this statement. The differences that undoubtedly obtain between populations of different regions in respect to the ease or difficulty with which a large proportion of all persons can be hypnotized are sufficiently explained by the differences of the attitude of the public towards hypnotism; in France, e.g., and especially in Nancy, hypnotism has been made known to the public chiefly as a recognized auxiliary to the better known methods of medical treatment, whereas in England the medical profession has allowed the public to make acquaintance with hypnotism through the medium of disgusting stage-performances whose only object was to raise a laugh, and has, with few exceptions, joined in the general chorus of condemnation and mistrust. Hence in France patients submit themselves with confidence and goodwill to hypnotic treatment, whereas in England it is still necessary in most cases to remove an ill-based prejudice before the treatment can be undertaken with hope of success. For the confidence and goodwill of the patient are almost essential to success, and even after hypnosis has been induced on several occasions a patient may be so influenced by injudicious friends that he cannot again be hypnotized or, if hypnotized, is much less amenable to the power of suggestion. Various methods of hypnotization are current, but most practitioners combine the methods of Braid and of Bernheim. After asking the patient to resign himself passively into their hands, and after seating him in a comfortable arm-chair, they direct him to fix his eyes upon some small object held generally in such a position that some slight muscular strain is involved in maintaining the fixation; they then suggest to him verbally the idea or expectation of sleep and the sensations that normally accompany the oncoming of sleep, the heaviness of the eyes, the slackness of the limbs and so forth; and when the eyes show signs of fatigue, they either close them by gentle pressure or tell the subject to close them. Many also pass their hands slowly and regularly over the face, with or without contact. The old magnetizers attached great importance to such "passes," believing that by them the "magnetic fluid" was imparted to the patient; but it seems clear that, in so far as they contribute to induce hypnosis, it is in their character merely of gentle, monotonous, sensory stimulations. A well-disposed subject soon falls into a drowsy state and tends to pass into natural sleep; but by speech, by passes, or by manipulating his limbs the operator keeps in touch with him, keeps his waning attention open to the impressions he himself makes. Most subjects then find it difficult or impossible to open their eyes or to make any other movement which is forbidden or said to be impossible by the operator, although they may be fully conscious of all that goes on about them and may have the conviction that if they did but make an effort they could break the spell. This is a light stage of hypnosis beyond which some subjects can hardly be induced to pass and beyond which few pass at the first attempt. But on successive occasions, or even on the first occasion, a favourable subject passes into deeper stages of hypnosis. Many attempts have been made to distinguish clearly marked and constantly occurring stages. But it seems now clear that the complex of symptoms displayed varies in all cases with the idiosyncrasies of the subject and with the methods adopted by the operator. In many subjects a waxy rigidity of the limbs appears spontaneously or can be induced by suggestion; the limbs then retain for long periods without fatigue any position given them by the operator. The most susceptible subjects pass into the stage known as artificial somnambulism. In this condition they continue to respond to all suggestions made by the operator, but seem as insensitive to all other impressions as a person in profound sleep or in coma; and on awaking from this condition they are usually oblivious of all that they have heard, said or done during the somnambulistic period. When in this last condition patients are usually more profoundly influenced by suggestions, especially post-hypnotic suggestions, than when in the lighter stages; but the lighter stages suffice for the production of many therapeutic effects. When a patient is completely hypnotized, his movements, his senses, his ideas and, to some extent, even the organic processes over which he has no voluntary control become more or less completely subject to the suggestions of the operator; and usually he is responsive to the operator alone (_rapport_) unless he is instructed by the latter to respond also to the suggestions of other persons. If left to himself the hypnotized subject will usually awake to his normal state after a period which is longer in proportion to the depth of hypnosis; and the deeper stages seem to pass over into normal sleep. The subject can in almost every case be brought quickly back to the normal state by the verbal command of the operator.

_The Principal Effects produced by Suggestion during Hypnosis._--The subject may not only be rendered incapable of contracting any of the muscles of the voluntary system, but may also be made to use them with extraordinarily great or sustained force (though by no means in all cases). He can with difficulty refrain from performing any action commanded by the operator, and usually carries out any simple command without hesitation. Any one of the sense-organs, or any sensory region such as the skin or deep tissues of one limb may be rendered anaesthetic by verbal suggestion, aided perhaps by some gentle manipulation of the part. On this fact depends the surgical application of hypnotism. Sceptical observers are always inclined to doubt the genuineness of the anaesthesia produced by a mere word of command, but the number of surgical operations performed under hypnotic anaesthesia suffices to put its reality beyond all question. A convincing experiment may, however, be made on almost any good subject. Anaesthesia of one eye may be suggested and its reality tested in the following way. Anaesthesia of the left eye may be suggested, and the subject be instructed to fix his gaze on a distant point and to give some signal as soon as he sees the operator's finger in the peripheral field of view. The operator then brings his finger slowly from behind and to the right forwards towards the subject's line of sight. The subject signals as soon as it crosses the normal temporal boundary of the field of view of the right eye. The operator then brings his finger forward from a point behind and to the left of the subject's head. The subject allows it to cross the monocular field of the left eye and signals only when the finger enters the field of vision of the right eye across its nasal boundary. Since few persons, other than physiologists or medical men, are aware of the relations of the boundaries of the monocular and binocular fields of vision, the success of this experiment affords proof that the finger remains invisible to the subject during its passage across the monocular field of the left eye. The abolition of pain, especially of neuralgias, the pain of rheumatic and other inflammations, which is one of the most valuable applications of hypnotism, is an effect closely allied to the production of such anaesthesia.

It has often been stated that in hypnosis the senses may be rendered extraordinarily acute or hyperaesthetic, so that impressions too faint to affect the senses of the normal person may be perceived by the hypnotized subject; but in view of the fact that most observers are ignorant of the normal limits of sensitivity and discrimination, all such statements must be received with caution, until we have more convincing evidence than has yet been brought forward.

_Positive and Negative Hallucinations_ are among the most striking effects of hypnotic suggestion. A good subject may be made to experience an hallucinatory perception of almost any object, the more easily the less unusual and out of harmony with the surroundings is the suggested object. He may, e.g., be given a blank card and asked if he thinks it a good photograph of himself. He may then assent and describe the photograph in some detail, and, what is more astonishing, he may pick out the card as the one bearing the photograph, after it has been mixed with other similar blank cards. This seems to be due to the part played by _points de repère_, insignificant details of surface or texture, which serve as an objective basis around which the hallucinatory image is constructed by the pictorial imagination of the subject. A negative hallucination may be induced by telling the subject that a certain object or person is no longer present, when he ignores in every way that object or person. This is more puzzling than the positive hallucination and will be referred to again in discussing the theory of hypnosis. Both kinds of hallucination tend to be systematically and logically developed; if, e.g., the subject is told that a certain person is no longer visible, he may become insensitive to impressions made on any sense by that person.

_Delusions_, or false beliefs as to their present situation or past experiences may be induced in many subjects. On being assured that he is some other person, or that he is in some strange situation, the subject may accept the suggestion and adapt his behaviour with great histrionic skill to the induced delusion. It is probable that many, perhaps all, subjects are vaguely aware, as we sometimes are in dreams, that the delusions and hallucinations they experience are of an unreal nature. In the lighter stages of hypnosis a subject usually remembers the events of his waking life, but in the deeper stages he is apt, while remembering the events of previous hypnotic periods, to be incapable of recalling his normal life; but in this respect, as also in respect to the extent to which on awaking he remembers the events of the hypnotic period, the suggestions of the operator usually play a determining part.

Among the organic changes that have been produced by hypnotic suggestion are slowing or acceleration of the cardiac and respiratory rhythms; rise and fall of body-temperature through two or three degrees; local erythema and even inflammation of the skin with vesication or exudation of small drops of blood; evacuation of the bowel and vomiting; modifications of the secretory activity of glands, especially of the sweat-glands.

_Post-hypnotic Effects._--Most subjects in whom any appreciable degree of hypnosis can be induced show some susceptibility to post-hypnotic suggestion, i.e. they may continue to be influenced, when restored to the fully waking state, by suggestions made during hypnosis, more especially if the operator suggests that this shall be the case; as a rule, the deeper the stage of hypnosis reached, the more effective are post-hypnotic suggestions. The therapeutic applications of hypnotism depend in the main upon this post-hypnotic continuance of the working of suggestions. If a subject is told that on awaking, or on a certain signal, or after the lapse of a given interval of time from the moment of awaking, he will perform a certain action, he usually feels some inclination to carry out the suggestion at the appropriate moment. If he remembers that the action has been suggested to him he may refuse to perform it, and if it is one repugnant to his moral nature, or merely one that would make him appear ridiculous, he may persist in his refusal. But if the action is of a simple and ordinary nature he will usually perform it, remarking that he cannot be comfortable till it is done. If the subject was deeply hypnotized and remembers nothing of the hypnotic period, he will carry out the post-hypnotic suggestion in almost every case, no matter how complicated or absurd it may be, so long as it is not one from which his normal self would be extremely averse; and he will respond appropriately to the suggested signals, although he is not conscious of their having been named; he will often perform the action in a very natural way, and will, if questioned, give some more or less adequate reason for it. Such actions, determined by post-hypnotic suggestions of which no conscious memory remains, may be carried out even after the lapse of many weeks or even months. Inhibitions of movement, anaesthesia, positive and negative hallucinations, and delusions may also be made to persist for brief periods after the termination of hypnosis; and organic effects, such as the action of the bowels, the oncoming of sleep and the cessation of pain, may be determined by post-hypnotic suggestion. In short, it may be said that in a good subject all the kinds of suggestion which will take effect during hypnosis will also be effective if given as post-hypnotic suggestions.

_Theory of the Hypnotic State._--Very many so called theories of hypnosis have been propounded, but few of them demand serious consideration. One author ascribes all the symptoms to cerebral anaemia, another to cerebral congestion, a third to temporary suppression of the functions of the cerebrum, a fourth to abnormal cerebral excitability, a fifth to the independent functioning of one hemisphere. Another seeks to explain all the facts by saying that in hypnosis our normal consciousness disappears and is replaced by a dream-consciousness; and yet another by the assumption that every human organism comprises two mental selves or personalities, a normal one and one which only comes into activity during sleep and hypnosis. Most of these "theories" would, even if true, carry us but a little way towards a complete understanding of the facts. There is, however, one theory or principle of explanation which is now gradually taking shape under the hands of a number of the more penetrating workers in this field, and which does seem to render intelligible many of the principle facts. This is the theory of _mental dissociation_.

It is clear that a theory of hypnosis must attempt to give some account of the peculiar condition of the brain which is undoubtedly present as an essential feature of the state. It is therefore not enough to say with Bernheim that hypnosis is a state of abnormally increased suggestibility produced by suggestion; nor is it enough, though it is

## partially true, to say that it is a state of mono-ideism or one of

abnormally great concentration of attention. Any theory must be stated in terms of physiological psychology, it must take account of both the psychical and the nervous peculiarities of the hypnotic state; it must exhibit the physiological condition as in some degree similar to that obtaining in normal sleep; but principally it must account for that abnormally great receptivity for ideas, and that abnormally intense and effective operation of ideas so received, which constitute abnormally great suggestibility.

The theory of mental dissociation may be stated in purely mental terms, or primarily in terms of nervous structure and function, and the latter mode of statement is probably the more profitable at the present time. The increased effectiveness of ideas might be due to one of two conditions: (1) it might be that certain tracts of the brain or the whole brain were in a condition of abnormally great excitability; or (2) an idea might operate more effectively in the mind and on the body, not because it, or the underlying brain-process was more intense than normally, but because it worked out its effects free from the interference of contrary or irrelevant ideas that might weaken its force. It is along this second line that the theory of mental dissociation attempts to explain the increased suggestibility of hypnosis. To understand the theory we must bear in mind the nature of mental process in general and of its nervous concomitants. Mental process consists in the interplay, not merely of ideas, but rather of complex dispositions which are the more or less enduring conditions of the rise of ideas to consciousness. Each such disposition seems capable of remaining inactive or quiescent for long periods, and of being excited in various degrees, either by impressions made upon the sense-organs or by the spread of excitement from other dispositions. When its excitement rises above a certain pitch of intensity, the corresponding idea rises to the focus of consciousness. These dispositions are essential factors of all mental process, the essential conditions of all mental retention. They may be called simply mental dispositions, their nature being left undefined; but for our present purpose it is advantageous to regard them as neural dispositions, complex functional groups of nervous elements or neurones. The neurones of each such group must be conceived as being so intimately connected with one another that the excitement of any part of the group at once spreads through the whole group or disposition, so that it always functions as a unit. The whole cerebrum must be conceived as consisting of a great number of such dispositions, inextricably interwoven, but interconnected in orderly fashion with very various degrees of intimacy; groups of dispositions are very intimately connected to form neural systems, so that the excitement of any one member of such a system tends to spread in succession to all the other members. On the other hand, it is a peculiarity of the reciprocal relations of all such dispositions and systems that the excitement of any one to such a degree that the corresponding idea rises to consciousness prevents or inhibits the excitement of others, i.e. all of them are in relations of reciprocal inhibition with one another (see MUSCLE AND NERVE). The excitement of dispositions associated together to form a system tends towards some end which, either immediately or remotely, is an action, a bodily movement, in many cases a movement of the organs of speech only. Now we know from many exact experiments that the neural dispositions act and react upon one another to some extent, even when they are excited only in so feeble a degree that the corresponding ideas do not rise to consciousness. In the normal state of the brain, then, when any idea is present to consciousness, the corresponding neural disposition is in a state of dominant excitement, but the intensity of that excitement is moderated, depressed or partially inhibited by the sub-excitement of many rival or competing dispositions of other systems with which it is connected. Suppose now that all the nervous connexions between the multitudinous dispositions of the cerebrum are by some means rendered less effective, that the association-paths are partially blocked or functionally depressed; the result will be that, while the most intimate connexions, those between dispositions of any one system remain functional or permeable, the weaker less intimate connexions, those between dispositions belonging to different systems will be practically abolished for the time being; each system of dispositions will then function more or less as an isolated system, and its activity will no longer be subject to the depressing or inhibiting influence of other systems; therefore each system, on being excited in any way, will tend to its end with more than normal force, being freed from all interferences; that is to say, each idea or system of ideas will tend to work itself out and to realize itself in action immediately, without suffering the opposition of antagonistic ideas which, in the normal state of the brain, might altogether prevent its realization in action.

The theory of mental dissociation assumes that the abnormal state of the brain that obtains during hypnosis is of this kind, a temporary functional depression of all, or of many of the associations or nervous links between the neural dispositions; that is, it regards hypnosis as a state of _relative dissociation_. The lighter the stage of hypnosis the slighter is the degree of dissociation, the deeper the stage the more nearly complete is the dissociation.

It is not essential that the theory should explain in what change this stage of dissociation consists, but a view compatible with all that we know of the functions of the central nervous system may be suggested. The connexions between neural dispositions involve synapses or cell-junctions, and these seem to be the places of variable resistance which demarcate the dispositions and systems; and there is good reason to think that their resistances vary with the state of the neurones which they connect, being lowered when these are excited and raised when their excitement ebbs. Now, in the waking state, the varied stimuli, which constantly rain upon all the sense-organs, maintain the whole cerebrum in a state of sub-excitement, keep all the cerebral neurones

## partially charged with free nervous energy. When the subject lies down

to sleep or submits himself to the hypnotizer he arrests as far as possible the flow of his thoughts, and the sensory stimuli are diminished in number and intensity. Under these conditions the general cerebral activity tends to subside, the free energy with which the cerebral neurones are charged ebbs away, and the synaptic resistances rise proportionally; then the effect of sensory impressions tends to be confined to the lower nervous level, and the brain tends to come to rest. If this takes place the condition of normal sleep is realized. But in inducing hypnosis the operator, by means of his words and manipulations, keeps one system of ideas and the corresponding neural system in activity, namely, the ideas connected with himself; thus he keeps open one channel of entry to the brain and mind, and through this one open channel he can introduce whatever ideas he pleases; and the ideas so introduced then operate with abnormally great effect because they work in a free field, unchecked by rival ideas and tendencies.

This theory of relative dissociation has two great merits: in the first place it goes far towards enabling us to understand in some degree most of the phenomena of hypnosis; secondly, we have good evidence that dissociation really occurs in deep hypnosis and in some allied states. Any one may readily work out for himself the application of the theory to the explanation of the power of the operator's suggestions to control movement, to induce anaesthesia, hallucinations and delusions, and to exert on the organic processes an influence greater than can be exerted by mental processes in the normal state of the brain. But the positive evidence of the occurrence of dissociation is a matter of great psychological interest and its nature must be briefly indicated. The phenomena of automatic speech and writing afford the best evidence of cerebral dissociation. Many persons can, while in an apparently normal or but very slightly abnormal condition, produce automatic writing, i.e. intelligibly written sentences, in some cases long connected passages, of whose import they have no knowledge, their self-conscious intelligence being continuously directed to some other task. The carrying out of post-hypnotic suggestions affords in many cases similar evidence. Thus a subject may be told that after waking he will perform some action when a given signal, such as a cough, is repeated for the fifth time. In the post-hypnotic state he remains unaware of his instructions, is not conscious of noting the signals, and yet carries out the suggestion at the fifth signal, thereby proving that the signals have been in some sense noted and counted. Many interesting varieties of this experiment have been made, some of much greater complexity; but all agreeing in indicating that the suggested action is prepared for and determined by cerebral processes that do not affect the consciousness of the subject, but seem to occur as a system of processes detached from the main stream of cerebral activity; that is to say, they imply the operation of relatively dissociated neural systems.

Many authorities go further than this; they argue that, since actions of the kind described are determined by processes which involve operations, such as counting, that we are accustomed to regard as distinctly mental in character and that normally involve conscious activity, we must believe that in these cases also consciousness or psychical activity is involved, but that it remains as a separate system or stream of consciousness concurrent with the normal or personal consciousness.

In recent years the study of various abnormal mental states, especially the investigations by French physicians of severe forms of hysteria, have brought to light many facts which seem to justify this assumption of a secondary stream of consciousness, a co- or sub-consciousness coexistent with the personal consciousness; although, from the nature of the case, an absolute proof of such co-consciousness can hardly be obtained. The co-consciousness seems to vary in degree of complexity and coherence from a mere succession of fragmentary sensations to an organized stream of mental activity, which may rival in all respects the primary consciousness; and in cases of the latter type it is usual to speak of the presence of a secondary personality. The co-consciousness seems in the simpler cases, e.g. in cases of hysterical or hypnotic anaesthesia, to consist of elements split off from the normal primary consciousness, which remains correspondingly poorer; and the assumption is usually made that such a stream of co-consciousness is the psychical correlate of groups and systems of neurones dissociated from the main mass of cerebral neurones. If, in spite of serious objections, we entertain this conception, we find that it helps us to give some account of various hypnotic phenomena that otherwise remain quite inexplicable; some such conception seems to be required more particularly by the facts of negative hallucination and the execution of post-hypnotic suggestions involving such operations as counting and exact discrimination without primary consciousness.

_Supernormal Hypnotic Phenomena._--The facts hitherto considered, strange and perplexing as many of them are, do not seem to demand for their explanation any principles of action fundamentally different from those operative in the normal human mind. But much of the interest that has centred in hypnotism in recent years has been due to the fact that some of its manifestations seem to go beyond all such principles of explanation, and to suggest the reality of modes of influence and action that science has not hitherto recognized. Of these by far the best attested are the post-hypnotic unconscious reckoning of time and telepathy or "thought-transference" (for the latter see TELEPATHY). The post-hypnotic reckoning and noting of the lapse of time seems in some instances to have been carried out, in the absence of all extraneous aids and with complete unconsciousness on the part of the normal personality, with such extreme precision that the achievement cannot be accounted for by any intensification of any faculty that we at present recognize or understand. Thus, Dr Milne Bramwell has reported the case of a patient who, when commanded in hypnosis to perform some simple

## action after the lapse of many thousands of minutes, would carry out the

suggestion punctually to the minute, without any means of knowing the exact time of day at which the suggestion was given or the time of day at the moment its performance fell due; more recently a similar case, even more striking in some respects, has been carefully observed and described by Dr T. W. Mitchell. Other reported phenomena, such as telaesthesia or clairvoyance, and telekinesia, are hardly sufficiently well attested to demand serious consideration in this place.

_Medical Applications of Hypnotism._--The study and practice of hypnotism is not yet, and probably never will be, regarded as a normal part of the work of the general practitioner. Its successful application demands so much time, tact, and special experience, that it will probably remain, as it is now, and as it is perhaps desirable that it should remain, a specialized branch of medical practice. In England it is only in recent years that it has been possible for a medical man to apply it in his practice without incurring professional odium and some risk of loss of reputation. That, in certain classes of cases, it may effect a cure or bring relief when all other modes of treatment are of no avail is now rapidly becoming recognized; but it is less generally recognized that it may be used with great advantage as a supplement to other modes of treatment in relieving symptoms that are accentuated by nervous irritability or mental disturbance. A third wide field of usefulness lies before it in the cure of undesirable habits of many kinds. Under the first heading may be put insomnia, neuralgia, neurasthenia, hysteria in almost all its many forms; under the second, inflammations such as that of chronic rheumatism, contractures and paralyses resulting from gross lesion of the brain, epilepsy, dyspepsia, menstrual irregularities, sea-sickness; under the third, inebriety, the morphia and other drug habits, nail-biting, _enuresis nocturna_, masturbation, constipation, facial and other twitchings. In pronounced mental diseases hypnotism seems to be almost useless; for in general terms it may be said that it can be applied most effectively where the brain, the instrument through which it works, is sound and vigorous. The widespread prejudice against the use of hypnotism is no doubt largely due to the marvellous and (to most minds) mysterious character of the effects producible by its means; and this prejudice may be expected to diminish as our insight into the mode of its operation deepens. The more purely bodily results achieved by hypnotic suggestion become in some degree intelligible if we regard it as a powerful means of diverting nervous energy from one channel or organ to others, so as to give physiological rest to an overworked organ or tissue, or so as to lead to the atrophy of one nervous habit and the replacement of it by a more desirable habit. And in the cure of those disorders which involve a large mental element the essential part played by it is to drive out some habitually recurrent idea and to replace it by some idea, expectation or conviction of healthy tendency.

It seems clear that the various systems of "mind-curing" in the hands of persons lacking all medical training, which are now so frequently the cause of distressing and needless disasters, owe their rapid spread to the fact that the medical profession has hitherto neglected to attach sufficient importance to the mental factor in the causation and cure of disease; and it seems clear, too, that a more general and more intelligent appreciation of the possibilities of hypnotic treatment would constitute the best means at the disposal of the profession for combating this growing evil.

_The Dangers of Hypnotism._--Much has been written on this head of late years, and some of the enthusiastic advocates of hypnotic treatment have done harm to their cause by ignoring or denying in a too thoroughgoing manner the possibility of undesirable results of the spread of the knowledge and practice of hypnotism. Like all powerful agencies, chloroform or morphia, dynamite or strong electric currents, hypnotic suggestion can only be safely used by those who have special knowledge and experience, and, like them, it is liable to abuse. There is little doubt that, if a subject is repeatedly hypnotized and made to entertain all kinds of absurd delusions and to carry out very frequently post-hypnotic suggestions, he may be liable to some ill-defined harm; also, that an unprincipled hypnotizer might secure an undue influence over a naturally weak subject.

But there is no ground for the belief that hypnotic treatment, applied with good intentions and reasonable care and judgment, does or can produce deleterious effects, such as weakening of the will or liability to fall spontaneously into hypnosis. All physicians of large experience in hypnotic practice are in agreement in respect to this point. But some difference of opinion exists as to the possibility of deliberately inducing a subject to commit improper or criminal actions during hypnosis or by post-hypnotic suggestion. There is, however, no doubt that subjects retain even in deep hypnosis a very considerable power of resistance to any suggestion that is repugnant to their moral nature; and it has been shown that, on some cases in which a subject in hypnosis is made to perform some ostensibly criminal action, such as firing an unloaded pistol at a bystander or putting poison into a cup for him to drink, he is aware, however obscurely, of the unreal nature of the situation. Nevertheless it must be admitted that a person lacking in moral sentiments might be induced to commit actions from which in the normal state he would abstain, if only from fear of punishment; and it is probable that a skilful and evil-intentioned operator could in some cases so deceive a well-disposed subject as to lead him into wrong-doing. The proper precaution against such dangers is legislative regulation of the practice of hypnotism such as is already enforced in some countries.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature of hypnotism has increased in volume at a rapid rate during recent years. Of recent writings the following may be mentioned as among the most important:--_Treatment by Hypnotism and Suggestion_ by C. Lloyd Tuckey, M.D. (5th ed., London, 1907); _Hypnotism, its History, Practice and Theory_, by J. Milne Bramwell, M.B. (2nd ed., London, 1906); _Hypnotism_, by Albert Moll (5th ed., London, 1901). All these three books give good general accounts of hypnotism, the first being the most strictly medical, the last the most general in its treatment. See also _Hypnotism: or Suggestion in Psycho-Therapy_, by August Forel (translated from the 5th German ed. by G. H. W. Armit, London, 1906); a number of papers by Ed. Gurney, and by Ed. Gurney and F. W. H. Myers in _Proc. of the Soc. for Psychical Research_, especially "The Stages of Hypnotism," in vol. ii.; also some more recent papers in the same journal by other hands; chapter on Hypnotism in _Human Personality and its Survival of bodily Death_, by F. W. H. Myers (London, 1903); _The Psychology of Suggestion_, by Boris Sidis, Ph.D. (New York, 1898); "Zur Psychologie der Suggestion," by Prof. Th. Lipp, and other papers in the _Zeitschrift für Hypnotismus_. Of special historical interest are the following:--_Étude sur le zoomagnétisme_, par A. A. Liébeault (Paris, 1883); _Hypnotisme, suggestion, psycho-thérapie_, par Prof. Bernheim (Paris, 1891); _Braid on Hypnotism_ (a new issue of James Braid's _Neurypnology_), edited by A. E. Waite (London, 1899); _Traité du somnambulisme_, by A. Bertrand (Paris, 1826). A full bibliography is appended to Dr Milne Bramwell's _Hypnotism_. (W. McD.)

HYPOCAUST (Gr. [Greek: hypokauston: hypo], beneath, and [Greek: kauein], to burn), the term given to the chamber formed under the floors of the Roman baths, through which the hot air from the furnace passed, sometimes to a single flue, as in the case of the _tepidarium_, but in the _calidarium_ and sweating-room to a series of flues placed side by side forming the lining of the walls. The floor of the hot-air chamber consisted of tiles, 2 ft. square, laid on a bed of concrete; on this a series of dwarf piers 2 ft. high were built of 8-in. square tiles placed about 16 in. apart, which carried the floor of the hall or room; this floor was formed of a bed of concrete covered with layers of pounded bricks and marble cement, on which the marble pavement in slabs or tesserae was laid. In colder countries, as for instance in Germany and England, the living rooms were all heated in a similar way, and round Trèves (Trier) both systems have been found in two or three Roman villas, with the one flue for the ordinary rooms and several wall flues for the hot baths. In England these hypocausts are found in every Roman settlement, and the chief interest in these is centred in the magnificent mosaic pavements with which the principal rooms were laid. Many of the pavements found in London and elsewhere have been preserved in the British or the Guildhall museums; and in some of the provincial towns, such as Leicester and Lincoln, they remain _in situ_ many feet below the present level of the town.

HYPOCHONDRIASIS (synonyms--"the spleen," "the vapours"), a medical term (from [Greek: to hypochondrion, ta hypochondria], the soft part of the body immediately under the [Greek: chondros] or cartilage of the breast-bone) given by the ancients, and indeed by physicians down to the time of William Cullen, to diseases or derangements of one or more of the abdominal viscera. Cullen (_Clinical Lectures,_ 1777) classified it amongst nervous diseases, and Jean Pierre Falret (1794-1870) more fully described it as a morbid condition of the nervous system characterized by depression of feeling and false beliefs as to an impaired state of the health. The subjects of hypochondriasis are for the most part members of families in which hereditary predisposition to degradation of the nervous system is strong, or those who have suffered from morbid influences affecting this system during the earlier years of life. It may be dependent on depressing disease affecting the general system, but under such circumstances it is generally so complicated with the symptoms of hysteria as to render differentiation difficult (see HYSTERIA). Hypochondriasis is often handed down from one generation to another in its individual form, but it is also not unfrequently to be met with in an individual as the sole manifestation in him of a family tendency to insanity. In its most common form it is manifested by simple false belief as to the state of the health, the intellect being otherwise unaffected. We may instance the "vapourish" woman or the "splenetic" as terms society has applied to its milder manifestations. Such persons are constantly asserting a weak state of health although no palpable cause can be discovered. In its more definite phases pain or uneasy sensations are referred by the patient to some particular region, generally the abdomen, the heart or the head. That these are subjective is apparent from the fact that the general health is good: all the functions of the various systems are duly performed; the patient eats and sleeps well; and, when any circumstance temporarily overrides the false belief, he is happy and comfortable. No appeal to the reason is of any avail, and the hypochondriac idea so dominates his existence as to render him unable to perform the ordinary duties of life. In its most aggravated form hypochondriasis amounts to actual insanity, delusions arising as to the existence of living creatures in the intestines or brain, or to the effect that the body is materially changed; e.g. into glass, wood, &c. The symptoms of this condition may be remittent; they may even disappear for years, and only return on the advent of some exciting cause. Suicide is occasionally committed in order to escape from the constant misery. Recovery can only be looked for by placing the patient under such morally hygienic conditions as may help to turn his mind to other matters. (See also NEUROPATHOLOGY.)

HYPOCRISY, pretence, or false assumption of a high character, especially in regard to religious belief or practice. The Greek [Greek: hypokrisis], from which the word is derived through the Old French, meant primarily the acting of a part on the stage, from [Greek: hypokrinesthai], to give an answer, to speak dialogue, play a part on the stage, hence to practice dissimulation.

HYPOSTASIS, in theology, a term frequently occurring in the Trinitarian controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries. According to Irenaeus (i. 5, 4) it was introduced into theology by Gnostic writers, and in earliest ecclesiastical usage appears, as among the Stoics, to have been synonymous with [Greek: ousia]. Thus Dionysius of Rome (cf. Routh, _Rel. Sacr._ iii. 373) condemns the attempt to sever the Godhead into three separate _hypostases_ and three deities, and the Nicene Creed in the anathemas speaks of [Greek: ex heteras hypostaseôs ê ousias]. Alongside, however, of this persistent interchange there was a desire to distinguish between the terms, and to confine [Greek: hypostasis] to the Divine _persons_. This tendency arose in Alexandria, and its progress may be seen in comparing the early and later writings of Athanasius. That writer, in view of the Arian trouble, felt that it was better to speak of [Greek: ousia] as "the common undifferentiated substance of Deity," and [Greek: hypostasis] as "Deity existing in a personal mode, the substance of Deity with certain special properties" ([Greek: ousia meta tinôn idiômatôn]). At the council of Alexandria in 362 the phrase [Greek: treis hypostaseis] was permitted, and the work of this council was supplemented by Basil, Gregory of Nazianzus and Gregory of Nyssa in the formula [Greek: mia ousia, treis hypostaseis] or [Greek: mia ousia en trisin hypostasesin].

The results arrived at by these Cappadocian fathers were stated in a later age by John of Damascus (_De orth. fid._ iii. 6), quoted in R. L. Ottley, _The Doctrine of the Incarnation_, ii. 257.

HYPOSTYLE, in architecture, the term applied to a hall, the flat ceiling of which is supported by columns, as in the Hall of Columns at Karnak. In this case the columns flanking the central avenue are of greater height than those of the side aisles, and this admits of openings in the wall above the smaller columns, through which light is admitted over the aisle roof, through clerestory windows.

HYPOSULPHITE OF SODA, the name originally given to the substance known in chemistry as sodium thiosulphate, Na2S2O3; the earlier name is still commonly used, especially by photographers, who employ this chemical as a fixer. In systematic chemistry, sodium hyposulphite is a salt of hyposulphurous acid, to which Schutzenberger gave the formula H2SO2, but which Bernthsen showed to be H2S2O4. (See SULPHUR.)

HYPOTHEC (Lat. _hypotheca_, Gr. [Greek: hypothêkê]), in Roman law, the most advanced form of the contract of pledge. A specific thing may be given absolutely to a creditor on the understanding that it is to be given back when the creditor's debt is paid; or the property in the thing may be assigned to the creditor while the debtor is allowed to remain in possession, the creditor as owner being able to take possession if his debt is not discharged. Here we have the kind of security known as pledge and mortgage respectively. In the _hypotheca_, the property does not pass to the creditor, nor does he get possession, but he acquires a preferential right to have his debt paid out of the hypothecated property; that is, he can sell it and pay himself out of the proceeds, or in default of a purchaser he can become the owner himself. The name and the principle have passed into the law of Scotland, which distinguishes between conventional hypothecs, as _bottomry_ and _respondentia_, and tacit hypothecs established by law. Of the latter the most important is the landlord's hypothec for rent (corresponding to distress in the law of England), which extends over the produce of the land and the cattle and sheep fed on it, and over stock and horses used in husbandry. The law of agricultural hypothec long caused much discontent in Scotland; its operation was restricted by the Hypothec Amendment (Scotland) Act 1867, and finally by the Hypothec Abolition (Scotland) Act 1880 it was enacted that the "landlord's right of hypothec for the rent of land, including the rent of any buildings thereon, exceeding two acres in extent, let for agriculture or pasture, shall cease and determine." By the same act and by the Agricultural Holdings (Scotland) Act 1883 other rights and remedies for rent, where the right of hypothec had ceased, were given to the landlord.

HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. [Greek: hypotithenai], to put under; cf. Lat. _suppositio_, from _sub-ponere_), in ordinary language, an explanation, supposition or assumption, which is put forward in the absence of ascertained facts or causes. Both in ordinary life and in the acquisition of scientific knowledge hypothesis is all-important. A detective's work consists largely in forming and testing hypothesis. If an astronomer is confronted by some phenomenon which has no obvious explanation he may postulate some set of conditions which from his general knowledge of the subject would or might give rise to the phenomenon in question; he then tests his hypothesis until he discovers whether it does or does not conflict with the facts. An example of this process is that of the discovery of the planet Neptune: certain perturbations of the orbit of Uranus had been observed, and it was seen that these could be explained on the hypothesis of the existence of a then unknown planet, and this hypothesis was verified by actual observation. The progress of inductive knowledge is by the formation of successive hypotheses, and it frequently happens that the demolition of one or even many hypotheses is the direct road to a new and accurate hypothesis, i.e. to fresh knowledge. A hypothesis may, therefore, turn out to be entirely wrong, yet it may be of the greatest practical use.

The recognition of the importance of hypotheses has led to various attempts at drawing up exact rules for their formation, but logicians are generally agreed that only very elementary principles can be laid down. Thus a hypothesis must contain nothing which is at variance with known facts or principles: it should not postulate conditions which cannot be verified empirically. J. S. Mill (_Logic_ III. xiv. 4) laid down the principle that a hypothesis is not "genuinely scientific" if it is "destined always to remain a hypothesis": it must "be of such a nature as to be either proved or disproved by comparison with observed facts": in the same spirit Bacon said that in searching for causes in nature "Deum semper excipimus." Mill's principle, though sound in the abstract, has, except in a few cases, little practical value in determining the admissibility of hypotheses, and in practice any rule which tends to discourage hypothesis is in general undesirable. The most satisfactory check on hypothesis is expert knowledge in the particular field of research by which rigorous tests may be applied. This test is roughly of two kinds, first by the ultimate principles or presuppositions on which a particular branch of knowledge rests, and second by the comparison of correlative facts. Useful light is shed on this distinction by Lotze, who contrasts (_Logic_, § 273) _postulates_ ("absolutely necessary assumptions without which the content of the observation with which we are dealing would contradict the laws of our thought") with _hypotheses_, which he defines as conjectures, which seek "to fill up the postulate thus abstractly stated by specifying the concrete causes, forces or processes, out of which the given phenomenon really arose in this particular case, while in other cases maybe the same postulate is to be satisfied by utterly different though equivalent combinations of forces or active elements." Thus a hypothesis may be ruled out by principles or postulates without any reference to the concrete facts which belong to that division of the subject to explain which the hypothesis is formulated. A true hypothesis, therefore, seeks not merely to connect or colligate two separate facts, but to do this in the light of and subject to certain fundamental principles. Various attempts have been made to classify hypotheses and to distinguish "hypothesis" from a "theory" or a mere "conjecture": none of these have any great practical importance, the differences being only in degree, not in kind.

The adjective "hypothetical" is used, in the same sense, both loosely in contradistinction to "real" or "actual," and technically in the phrases "hypothetical judgment" and "hypothetical syllogism." (See LOGIC and SYLLOGISM.)

See Naville, _La Logique de l'hypothèse_ (1880), and textbooks of logic, e.g. those of Jevons, Bosanquet, Joseph; Liebmann, _Der Klimax d. Theorien_.

HYPOTRACHELIUM (Gr. [Greek: hypotrachêlion], the lower part of the neck, [Greek: trachêlos]), in classical architecture, the space between the annulet of the echinus and the upper bed of the shafts, including, according to C. R. Cockerell, the three grooves or sinkings found in some of the older examples, as in the temple of Neptune at Paestum and the temple of Aphaea at Aegina; there being only one groove in the Parthenon, the Theseum and later examples. In the temple of Ceres and the so-called Basilica at Paestum the hypotrachelium consists of a concave sinking carved with vertical lines suggestive of leaves, the tops of which project forward. A similar decoration is found in the capital of the columns flanking the tomb of Agamemnon at Mycenae, but here the hypotrachelium projects forward with a cavetto moulding, and is carved with triple leaves like the buds of a rose. In the Roman Doric Order the term was sometimes applied to that which is generally known as the "necking," the space between the fillet and the annulet.

HYPSOMETER (Gr. [Greek: hypsos], height, [Greek: metron], a measure), an instrument for measuring heights which employs the principles that the boiling-point of a liquid is lowered by diminishing the pressure, and that the barometric pressure varies with the height of the point of observation. The instrument consists of a cylindrical vessel in which the liquid, usually water, is boiled, surmounted by a jacketed column, in the outer partitions of which the vapour circulates, while in the central one a thermometer is placed. To deduce the height of the station from the observed boiling-point, it is necessary to know the relation existing between the boiling-point and pressure, and also between the pressure and height of the atmosphere.

HYRACOIDEA, a suborder of ungulate mammals represented at the present day only by the Syrian hyrax (_Procavia syriaca_), the "coney" of the Bible, and its numerous African relatives, all of which may be included in the single genus _Procavia_ (or _Hyrax_), and consequently in the family _Procaviidae_. These creatures have no proper English name, and are generally known as hyraxes, from the scientific term (_Hyrax_) by which they were for many years designated--a term which has unfortunately had to give place to the earlier _Procavia_. In size these animals may be compared roughly to rabbits and hares; and they have rodent-like habits, hunching up their backs after the fashion of some foreign members of the hare-family, more especially the Liu-Kiu rabbit. In the matter of nomenclature these animals have been singularly unfortunate. In the title "hyrax" they have, for instance, usurped the Greek name for the shrew-mouse; while in the Bible they have been given the old English name for the rabbit. Perhaps rock-rabbit would be the best name. At the Cape they are known to the Dutch as dass (badger), which has been anglicized into "dassie."

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The Cape Hyrax (_Procavia capensis_).]

As regards the recent forms, the dentition in the fully adult animal consists only of incisors and cheek-teeth, the formula being _i._ ½, _c._ 0/0, _p._ 4/4 _m._ 3/3. There is, however, a minute upper canine developed at first, which is early shed; and in extinct forms this tooth was functional and molar-like. The upper incisors have persistent pulps, and are curved longitudinally, forming a semicircle as in rodents; they are, however, not flattened from before backwards as in that order, but prismatic, with an antero-external, an antero-internal and a posterior surface, the first two only being covered with enamel; their tips are consequently not chisel-shaped, but sharp-pointed. They are preceded by functional, rooted milk-teeth. The lower incisors have long tapering roots, but not of persistent growth; and are straight, directed somewhat forwards, with awl-shaped, tri-lobed crowns. Behind the incisors is a considerable gap, followed by the cheek-teeth, which are all contiguous, and formed almost exactly on the pattern of some of the perissodactyle ungulates. The milk-dentition includes three pairs of incisors and one of canines in each jaw. The hyoid arch is unlike that of any known mammal. The dorsal and lumbar vertebrae are very numerous, 28 to 30, of which 21 or 22 bear ribs. The tail is extremely short. There are no clavicles. In the fore foot, the three middle toes are subequally developed, the fifth is present, but smaller, and the first is rudimentary, although, in one species at least, all its normal bones are present. The terminal phalanges of the four outer digits are small, somewhat conical and flattened in form. The carpus has a distinct os centrale. There is a slight ridge on the femur in the place of a third trochanter. The fibula is complete, thickest at its upper end, where it generally unites with the tibia. The articulation between the tibia and astragalus is more complex than in other mammals, the end of the malleolus entering into it. The hind-foot is very like that of a rhinoceros, having three well-developed toes. There is no trace of a first toe, and the fifth meta-tarsal is represented by a small nodule. The terminal phalange of the inner (or second) digit is deeply cleft, and has a peculiar long curved claw, the others having short broad nails. The stomach is formed upon much the same principle as that of the horse or rhinoceros, but is more elongated transversely and divided by a constriction into two cavities--a large left _cul de sac_, lined by a very dense white epithelium, and a right pyloric cavity, with a thick, soft, vascular lining. The intestinal canal is long, and has, in addition to the ordinary short, but capacious and sacculated caecum at the commencement of the colon, lower down, a pair of large, conical, pointed caeca. The liver is much subdivided, and there is no gall-bladder. The brain resembles that of typical ungulates far more than that of rodents. The testes are permanently abdominal. The ureters open into the fundus of the bladder as in some Rodents. The female has six teats, of which four are inguinal and two axillary, and the placenta is zonary and deciduous. There is a gland on the back.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Skull and Dentition of Tree-Hyrax (_Procavia dorsalis_).]

The more typical members of the genus are terrestrial in their habits, and their cheek-teeth have nearly the same pattern as in rhinoceroses; while the interval between the upper incisors is less than the width of the teeth; and the lower incisors are only slightly notched at the cutting edge. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 22, L. 8, S. 6, C. 6. Of this form the earliest known species, _P. capensis_, is the type; but there are many other species, as _P. syriaca_, and _P. brucei_ from Syria and eastern Africa. They inhabit mountainous and rocky regions, and live on the ground. In a second section the molar teeth have the same pattern as in _Palaeotherium_ (except that the third lower molar has but two lobes); the interval between the upper incisors exceeds the width of the teeth; and the lower incisors have distinctly tri-lobed crowns. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 21, L. 7, S. 5, C. 10. The members of this section frequent the trunks and large branches of trees, sleeping in holes. There are several species from Western and South Africa, as _P. arboreus_ and _P. dorsalis_. The members of both groups appear to have a power like that possessed by geckos of clinging to vertical surfaces of rocks and trees by the soles of their feet.

_Extinct Hyracoids._--For many years extinct representatives of the Hyracoidea were unknown, partly owing to the fact that certain fossils were not recognized as really belonging to that group. The longest known of these was originally named _Leptodon graecus_, but, on account of the preoccupation of the generic title, the designation has been changed to _Pliohyrax graecus_. This animal, whose remains occur in the Lower Pliocene of both Attica and Samos, was about the size of a donkey, and possessed three pairs of upper incisor teeth, of which the innermost were large and trihedral, recalling those of the existing genus. On the other hand, the two outer pairs of incisors were in contact with one another and with the canines, so as to form on each side a series continuous with the cheek-teeth.

The next representatives of the group occur in the Upper Eocene beds of the Fayum district of Egypt, where the genera _Saghatherium_ and _Megalohyrax_ occur. These are regarded as representing a distinct family, the _Saghatheriidae_, characterized by the possession of the full series of twenty-two teeth in the upper jaw, among which the first pair of incisors was modified to form trihedral rootless tusks, while the two remaining pairs were separated from one another and from the teeth in front by gaps. The canine was like a premolar, and in contact with the first tooth of that series; and the cheek-teeth were short-crowned, with the premolar simpler than the molars, and a third lobe to the last lower tooth of the latter series. The members of this genus were small or medium-sized ungulates with single-rooted incisors. On the other hand, the representatives of the contemporary genus _Megalohyrax_ were approximately as large as _Pliohyrax_, and in some instances had double roots to the second and third incisors.

It is now possible to define the suborder Hyracoidea as including ungulates with a centrale in the carpus, plantigrade feet, in which the first and fifth toes are reduced in greater or less degree, and clavicles and a foramen in the lower end of the humerus are absent. The femur has a small third trochanter, the radius and ulna and tibia and fibula are respectively separate, at least in the young, and the fibula articulates with the astragalus. The earlier forms had the full series of 44 teeth, with the premolars simpler than the molars; but in the later types the canines and some of the incisors disappear, and at least the hinder premolars become molar-like. In all cases the first upper incisors are large and rootless.

That the group originated in Africa there can be no reasonable doubt; and it is remarkable that so early as the Upper Eocene the types in existence differed comparatively little in structure from the modern forms. In fact the hyraxes were then almost as distinct from other mammals as they are at the present day.

See also C. W. Andrews, _Descriptive Catalogue of the Tertiary Vertebrata of the Fayum_, British Museum (1906). (R. L.*)

HYRCANIA. (1) An ancient district of Asia, south of the Caspian Sea, and bounded on the E. by the river Oxus, called _Virkana_, or "Wolf's Land," in Old Persian. It was a wide and indefinite tract. Its chief city is called Tape by Strabo, Zadracarta by Arrian (probably the modern Astarabad). The latter is evidently the same as Carta, mentioned by Strabo as an important city. Little is known of the history of the country. Xenophon says it was subdued by the Assyrians; Curtius that 6000 Hyrcanians were in the army of Darius III. (2) Two towns named Hyrcania are mentioned, one in Hyrcania, the other in Lydia. The latter is said to have derived its name from a colony of Hyrcanians, transported thither by the Persians.

HYRCANUS ([Greek: Hykanos]), a Greek surname, of unknown origin, borne by several Jews of the Maccabaean period.

JOHN HYRCANUS I., high priest of the Jews from 135 to 105 B.C., was the youngest son of Simon Maccabaeus. In 137 B.C. he, along with his brother Judas, commanded the force which repelled the invasion of Judaea led by Cendebeus, the general of Antiochus VII. _Sidetes_. On the assassination of his father and two elder brothers by Ptolemy, governor of Jericho, his brother-in-law, in February 135, he succeeded to the high priesthood and the supreme authority in Judaea. While still engaged in the struggle with Ptolemy, he was attacked by Antiochus with a large army (134), and compelled to shut himself up in Jerusalem; after a severe siege peace was at last secured only on condition of a Jewish disarmament, and the payment of an indemnity and an annual tribute, for which hostages were taken. In 129 he accompanied Antiochus as a vassal prince on his ill-fated Parthian expedition; returning, however, to Judaea before winter, he escaped the final disaster. By the judicious mission of an embassy to Rome he now obtained confirmation of the alliance which his father had previously made with the growing western power; at the same time he availed himself of the weakened state of the Syrian monarchy under Demetrius II. to overrun Samaria, and also to invade Idumaea, which he completely subdued, compelling its inhabitants to receive circumcision and accept the Jewish faith. After a long period of rest he directed his arms against the town of Samaria, which, in spite of the intervention of Antiochus, his sons Antigonus and Aristobulus ultimately took, and by his orders razed to the ground (c. 100 B.C.). He died in 105, and was succeeded by Aristobulus, the eldest of his five sons. The external policy of Hyrcanus was marked by considerable energy and tact, and, aided as it was by favouring circumstances, was so successful as to leave the Jewish nation in a position of independence and of influence such as it had not known since the days of Solomon. During its later years his reign was much disturbed, however, by the contentions for ascendancy which arose between the Pharisees and Sadducees, the two rival sects or parties which then for the first time (under those names at least) came into prominence. Josephus has related the curious circumstances under which he ultimately transferred his personal support from the former to the latter.

JOHN HYRCANUS II., high priest from 78 to 40 B.C., was the eldest son of Alexander Jannaeus by his wife Alexandra, and was thus a grandson of the preceding. When his father died in 78, he was by his mother forthwith appointed high priest, and on her death in 69 he claimed the succession to the supreme civil authority also; but, after a brief and troubled reign of three months, he was compelled to abdicate both kingly and priestly dignities in favour of his more energetic and ambitious younger brother Aristobulus II. In 63 it suited the policy of Pompey that he should be restored to the high priesthood, with some semblance of supreme command, but of much of this semblance even he was soon again deprived by the arrangement of the pro-consul Gabinius, according to which Palestine was in 57 B.C. divided into five separate circles ([Greek: synodoi, synedria]). For services rendered to Caesar after the battle of Pharsalia, he was again rewarded with the sovereignty ([Greek: prostasia tou ethnous], Jos. _Ant._ xx. 10) in 47 B.C., Antipater of Idumaea, however, being at the same time made procurator of Judaea. In 41 B.C. he was practically superseded by Antony's appointment of Herod and Phasael to be tetrarchs of Judaea; and in the following year he was taken prisoner by the Parthians, deprived of his ears that he might be permanently disqualified for priestly office, and carried to Babylon. He was permitted in 33 B.C. to return to Jerusalem, where on a charge of treasonable correspondence with Malchus, king of Arabia, he was put to death in 30 B.C.

See Josephus (_Ant._ xiii. 8-10; xiv. 5-13; _Bell. Jud._ i. 2; i. 8-13). Also MACCABEES, _History_. (J. H. A. H.)

HYSSOP (_Hyssopus officinalis_), a garden herb belonging to the natural order _Labiatae_, formerly cultivated for use in domestic medicine. It is a small perennial plant about 2 ft. high, with slender, quadrangular, woody stems; narrowly elliptical, pointed, entire, dotted leaves, about 1 in. long and 1/3 in. wide, growing in pairs on the stem; and long terminal, erect, half-whorled, leafy spikes of small violet-blue flowers, which are in blossom from June to September. Varieties of the plant occur in gardens with red and white flowers, also one having variegated leaves. The leaves have a warm, aromatic, bitter taste, and are believed to owe their properties to a volatile oil which is present in the proportion of ¼ to ½%. Hyssop is a native of the south of Europe, its range extending eastward to central Asia. A strong tea made of the leaves, and sweetened with honey, was formerly used in pulmonary and catarrhal affections, and externally as an application to bruises and indolent swellings.

The hedge hyssop (_Gratiola officinalis_) belongs to the natural order _Scrophulariaceae_, and is a native of marshy lands in the south of Europe, whence it was introduced into Britain more than 300 years ago. Like _Hyssopus officinalis_, it has smooth opposite entire leaves, but the stems are cylindrical, the leaves twice the size, and the flowers solitary in the axils of the leaves and having a yellowish-red veined tube and bluish-white limb, while the capsules are oval and many-seeded. The herb has a bitter, nauseous taste, but is almost odourless. In small quantities it acts as a purgative, diuretic and emetic when taken internally. It was formerly official in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, being esteemed as a remedy for dropsy. It is said to have formed the basis of a celebrated nostrum for gout, called _Eau médicinale_, and in former times was called _Gratia Dei_. When growing in abundance, as it does in some damp pastures in Switzerland, it becomes dangerous to cattle. G. _peruviana_ is known to possess similar properties.

The hyssop (_'ezob_) of Scripture (Ex. xii. 22; Lev. xiv. 4, 6; Numb. xix. 6, 18; 1 Kings v. 13 (iv. 33); Ps. li. 9 (7); John xix. 29), a wall-growing plant adapted for sprinkling purposes, has long been the subject of learned disputation, the only point on which all have agreed being that it is not to be identified with the _Hyssopus officinalis_, which is not a native of Palestine. No fewer than eighteen plants have been supposed by various authors to answer the conditions, and Celsius has devoted more than forty pages to the discussion of their several claims. By Tristram (_Oxford Bible for Teachers_, 1880) and others the caper plant (_Capparis spinosa_) is supposed to be meant; but, apart from other difficulties, this identification is open to the objection that the caper seems to be, at least in one passage (Eccl. xii. 5), otherwise designated (_'abiy-yônah_). Thenius (on 1 Kings v. 13) suggests _Orthotrichum saxatile_. The most probable opinion would seem to be that found in Maimonides and many later writers, according to which the Hebrew _'ezob_ is to be identified with the Arabic _sa'atar_, now understood to be _Satureja Thymus_, a plant of very frequent occurrence in Syria and Palestine, with which _Thymus Serpyllum_, or wild thyme, and _Satureja Thymbra_ are closely allied. Its smell, taste and medicinal properties are similar to those of _H. officinalis_. In Morocco the _sa'atar_ of the Arabs is _Origanum compactum_; and it appears probable that several plants of the genera _Thymus_, _Origanum_ and others nearly allied in form and habit, and found in similar localities, were used under the name of hyssop.

HYSTASPES (the Greek form of the Persian _Vishtaspa_). (1) A semi-legendary king (_kava_), praised by Zoroaster as his protector and a true believer, son of Aurvataspa (Lohrasp). The later tradition and the Shahname of Firdousi makes him (in the modern form Kai Gushtasp) king of Iran. As Zoroaster probably preached his religion in eastern Iran, Vishtaspa must have been a dynast in Bactria or Sogdiana. The Zoroastrian religion was already dominant in Media in the time of the Assyrian king Sargon (c. 715 B.C.), and had been propagated here probably in much earlier times (cf. PERSIA); the time of Zoroaster and Vishtaspa may therefore be put at c. 1000 B.C. (2) A Persian, father of Darius I., under whose reign he was governor of Parthia, as Darius himself mentions in the Behistun inscription (2. 65). By Ammianus Marcellinus, xxiii. 6. 32, and by many modern authors he has been identified with the protector of Zoroaster, which is equally impossible for chronological and historical reasons, and from the evidence of the development of Zoroastrianism itself (see PERSIA: _Ancient History_). (Ed. M.)

HYSTERESIS (Gr. [Greek: hysterêsis], from [Greek: hysterein], to lag behind), a term added to the vocabulary of physical science by J. A. Ewing, who defines it as follows: When there are two qualities M and N such that cyclic variations of N cause cyclic variations of M, then if the changes of M lag behind those of N, we may say that there is hysteresis in the relation of M to N (_Phil. Trans._, 1885, 176, p. 524). The phenomenon is best known in connexion with magnetism. If an iron bar is subjected to a magnetic force which is first gradually increased to a maximum and then gradually diminished, the resulting magnetization of the bar for any given value of the magnetic force will be greater when the force is decreasing than when it is increasing; the iron always tends to retain the magnetic condition which it has previously acquired, and changes of its magnetization consequently lag behind changes of the magnetic force. Thus there is hysteresis in the relation of magnetization to magnetic force. In consequence of hysteresis the process of magnetizing a piece of iron to a certain intensity and then restoring it to its original condition, or of effecting a double reversal of its magnetization, involves the expenditure of energy, which is dissipated as heat in the iron. Electrical generators and transformers often contain pieces of iron the magnetization of which is reversed many times in a second, and in order to economize power and to avoid undue heating it is essential that hysteresis should in such cases be as small as possible. Iron and mild steels showing remarkably little hysteresis are now specially manufactured for use in the construction of electrical machinery. (See MAGNETISM.)

HYSTERIA, a term applied to an affection which may manifest itself by a variety of symptoms, and which depends upon a disordered condition of the highest nervous centres. It is characterized by psychical peculiarities, while in addition there is often derangement of the functions subserved by the lower cerebral and spinal centres. Histological examination of the nervous system has failed to disclose associated structural alterations.

By the ancients and by modern physicians down to the time of Sydenham the symptoms of hysteria were supposed to be directly due to disturbances of the uterus (Gr. [Greek: hystera], whence the name). This view is now universally recognized to be erroneous. The term "functional" is often used by English neurologists as synonymous with hysterical, a nomenclature which is tentatively advantageous since it is at least non-committal. P. J. Möbius has defined hysteria as "a state in which ideas control the body and produce morbid changes in its functions." P. Janet, who has done much to popularize the psychical origin of the affection, holds that there is "a limitation of the field of consciousness" comparable to the contraction of the visual fields met with in the disease. The hysterical subject, according to this view, is incapable of taking into the field of consciousness all the impressions of which the normal individual is conscious. Strong momentary impressions are no longer controlled so efficiently because of the defective simultaneous impressions of previous memories. Hence the readiness with which the impulse of the moment is obeyed, the loss of emotional control and the increased susceptibility to external suggestion, which are so characteristic. A secondary subconscious mental state is engendered by the relegation of less prominent impressions to a lower sphere. The dual personality which is typically exemplified in somnambulism and in the hypnotic state is thus induced. The explanation of hysterical symptoms which are independent of the will, and of the existence of which the individual may be unaware, is to be found in a relative preponderance of this secondary subconscious state as compared with the primary conscious personality. An elaboration of this theory affords an explanation of hysterical symptoms dependent upon a "fixed idea." The following definition of hysteria has recently been advanced by J. F. F. Babinski: "Hysteria is a psychical condition manifesting itself principally by signs that may be termed primary, and in an accessory sense others that we may call secondary. The characteristic of the primary signs is that they may be exactly reproduced in certain subjects by suggestion and dispelled by persuasion. The characteristic of the secondary signs is that they are closely related to the primary phenomena."

The causes of hysteria may be divided into (a) the predisposing, such as hereditary predisposition to nervous disease, sex, age and national idiosyncrasy; and (b) the immediate, such as mental and physical exhaustion, fright and other emotional influences, pregnancy, the puerperal condition, diseases of the uterus and its appendages, and the depressing influence of injury or general disease. Perhaps, taken over all, hereditary predisposition to nerve-instability may be asserted as the most prolific cause. There is frequently direct inheritance, and cases of epilepsy and insanity or other form of nervous disease are rarely wanting when the family history is carefully enquired into. As regards age, the condition is apt to appear at the evolution periods of life--puberty, pregnancy and the climacteric--without any further assignable cause except that first spoken of. It is rare in young children, but very frequent in girls between the ages of fifteen and twenty-five, while it sometimes manifests itself in women at the menopause. It is much more common in the female than in the male--in the proportion of 20 to 1. Certain races are more liable to the disease than others; thus the Latin races are much more prone to hysteria than are those who come of a Teutonic stock, and in more aggravated and complex forms. In England it has been asserted that an undue proportion of cases occur among Jews. Occupation, or be it rather said want of occupation, is a prolific cause. This is noticeable more especially in the higher classes of society.

An hysterical attack may occur as an immediate sequel to an epileptic fit. If the patient suffers only from _petit mal_ (see EPILEPSY), unaccompanied by true epileptic fits, the significance of the hysterical seizure, which is really a post-epileptic phenomenon, may remain unrecognized.

It is convenient to group the very varied symptoms of hysteria into paroxysmal and chronic. The popular term "hysterics" is applied to an explosion of emotionalism, generally the result of mental excitement, on which convulsive fits may supervene. The characters of these vary, and may closely resemble epilepsy. The hysterical fit is generally preceded by an aura or warning. This sometimes takes the form of a sensation as of a lump in the throat (_globus hystericus_). The patient may fall, but very rarely is injured in so doing. The eyes are often tightly closed, the body and limbs become rigid, and the back may become so arched that the patient rests on her heels and head (_opisthotonos_). This stage is usually followed by violent struggling movements. There is no loss of consciousness. The attack may last for half-an-hour or even longer. Hysterical fits in their fully-developed form are rarely seen in England, though common in France. In the chronic condition we find an extraordinary complexity of symptoms, both physical and mental. The physical symptoms are extremely diverse. There may be a paralysis of one or more limbs associated with rigidity, which may persist for weeks, months or years. In some cases, the patient is unable to walk; in others there are peculiarities of the gait quite unlike anything met with in organic disease. Perversions of sensation are usually present; a common instance is the sensation of a nail being driven through the vertex of the head (_clavus hystericus_). The region of the spine is a very frequent seat of hysterical pain. Loss of sensation (_anaesthesia_), of which the patient may be unaware, is of common occurrence. Very often this sensory loss is limited exactly to one-half of the body, including the leg, arm and face on that side (_hemianaesthesia_). Sensation to touch, pain, heat and cold, and electrical stimuli may have completely disappeared in the anaesthetic region. In other cases, the anaesthesia is relative or it may be partial, certain forms of sensation remaining intact. Anaesthesia is almost always accompanied by an inability to recognize the exact position of the affected limb when the eyes are closed. When hemianaesthesia is present, sight, hearing, taste and smell are usually impaired on that side of the body. Often there is loss of voice (hysterical aphonia). It is to such cases of hysterical paralysis and sensory disturbance that the wonderful cures effected by quacks and charlatans may be referred. The mental symptoms have not the same tendency to pass away suddenly. They may be spoken of as inter-paroxysmal and paroxysmal. The chief characteristics of the former are extreme emotionalism combined with obstructiveness, a desire to be an object of interest and a constant craving for sympathy which is often procured at an immense sacrifice of personal comfort. Obstructiveness is the invariable symptom. Hysteria may pass into absolute insanity.

The treatment of hysteria demands great tact and firmness on the part of the physician. The affection is a definite entity and has to be clearly distinguished from malingering, with which it is so often erroneously regarded as synonymous. Drugs are of little value. The moral treatment is all-important. In severe cases, removal from home surroundings and isolation, either in a hospital ward or nursing home, are essential, in order that full benefit may be derived from psychotherapeutic measures.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Charcot, _Leçons sur les maladies du système nerveuse_ (1877); S. Weir Mitchell, _Lectures on Diseases of the Nervous System especially in Women_ (1885); Buzzard, _Simulation of Hysteria by Organic Nervous Disease_ (1891); Pitres, _Leçons cliniques sur l'hystérie et l'hypnotisme_ (1891); Richer, _Études cliniques sur la grande hystérie_ (1891); Gilles de la Tourette, _Traité clinique et thérapeutique de l'hystérie_ (1891); Bastian, _Hysterical or Functional Paralysis_ (1893); Ormerod, Art. "Hysteria," in Clifford Allbutt's _System of Medicine_ (1899); Camus and Pagnez, _Isolement et Psychotherapie_ (1904). (J. B. T.; E. Bra.)

HYSTERON-PROTERON (Gr. [Greek: hysteron], latter, and [Greek: proteron], former), a figure of speech, in which the order of words or phrases is inverted, and that which should logically or naturally come last is put first, to secure emphasis for the principal idea; the classical example is Virgil's "_moriamur et in media arma ruamus,_" "let us die and charge into the thick of the fight" (Aen. ii. 358). The term is also applied to any inversion in order of events, arguments, &c.

HYTHE, a market town and watering-place, one of the Cinque Ports, and a municipal and parliamentary borough of Kent, England, 67 m. S.E. by E. of London on a branch of the South Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 5557. It is beautifully situated at the foot of a steep hill near the eastern extremity of Romney Marsh, about half a mile from the sea, and consists principally of one long street running parallel with the shore, with which it is connected by a straight avenue of wych elms. On account of its fine situation and picturesque and interesting neighbourhood, it is a favourite watering-place. A sea-wall and parade extend eastward to Sandgate, a distance of 3 m. There is communication with Sandgate by means of a tramway along the front. On the slope of the hill above the town stands the fine church of St Leonard, partly Late Norman, with a very beautiful Early English chancel. The tower was rebuilt about 1750. In a vault under the chancel there is a collection of human skulls and bones supposed to be the remains of men killed in a battle near Hythe in 456. Lionel Lukin (1742-1834), inventor of the life-boat, is buried in the churchyard. Hythe possesses a guildhall founded in 1794 and two hospitals, that of St Bartholomew founded by Haimo, bishop of Rochester, in 1336, and that of St John (rebuilt in 1802), of still greater antiquity but unknown date, founded originally for the reception of lepers. A government school of musketry, in which instructors for the army are trained, was established in 1854, and has been extended since, and the Shorncliffe military camp is within 2½ m. of the town.

Lympne, which is now 3 m. inland, is thought to have been the original harbour which gave Hythe a place among the Cinque Ports. The course of the ancient estuary may be distinctly traced from here along the road to Hythe, the sea-sand lying on the surface and colouring the soil. Here are remains of a Roman fortress, and excavations have brought to light many remains of the Roman _Portus Lemanis_. Large portions of the fortress walls are standing. At the south-west corner is one of the circular towers which occurred along the line of wall. The site is now occupied by the fine old castellated mansion of Studfall castle, formerly a residence of the archdeacons of Canterbury. The name denotes a fallen place, and is not infrequently thus applied to ancient remains. The church at Lympne is Early English, with a Norman tower built by Archbishop Lanfranc, and Roman material may be traced in the walls. A short distance east is Shipway or Shepway Cross, where some of the great assemblies relating to the Cinque Ports were held. A mile north from Hythe is Saltwood Castle, of very ancient origin, but rebuilt in the time of Richard II. The castle was granted to the see of Canterbury in 1026, but escheated to the crown in the time of Henry II., when the murder of Thomas à Beckett is said to have been concerted here, and having been restored to the archbishops by King John remained a residence of theirs until the time of Henry VIII. It was restored as a residence in 1882. About 2 m. N.W. of Saltwood are remains of the fortified 14th-century manor-house of Westenhanger. It is quadrangular and surrounded by a moat, and of the nine towers (alternately square and round) by which the walls were defended, three remain.

The parliamentary borough of Hythe, which includes Folkestone, Sandgate and a number of neighbouring villages, returns one member. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area 2617 acres.

Hythe (Heda, Heya, Hethe, Hithe, _i.e._ landing-place) was known as a port in Saxon times, and was granted by Halfden, a Saxon thegn, to Christ Church, Canterbury. In the Domesday Survey the borough is entered among the archbishop's lands as appurtenant to his manor of Saltwood, and the bailiff of the town was appointed by the archbishop. Hythe was evidently a Cinque Port before the Conquest, as King John in 1205 confirmed the liberties, viz. freedom from toll, the right to be impleaded only at the Shepway court, &c., which the townsmen had under Edward the Confessor. The liberties of the Cinque Ports were confirmed in Magna Carta and later by Edward I. in a general charter, which was confirmed, often with additions, by subsequent kings down to James II. John's charter to Hythe was confirmed by Henry IV., Henry V. and Henry VI. These charters were granted to the Cinque Ports in return for the fifty-seven ships which they supplied for the royal service, of which five were contributed by Hythe. The ports were first represented in the parliament of 1365, to which they each sent four members.

Hythe was governed by twelve jurats until 1574, when it was incorporated by Elizabeth under the title of the mayor, jurats and commonalty of Hythe; a fair for the sale of fish, &c., was also granted, to be held on the feast of St Peter and St Paul. As the sea gradually retreated from Hythe and the harbour became choked up with sand, the town suffered the fate of other places near it, and lost its old importance.

I the ninth letter of the English and Latin alphabet, the tenth in the Greek and Phoenician, because in these the symbol Teth (the Greek [theta]) preceded it. Teth was not included in the Latin alphabet because that language had no sound corresponding to the Greek [theta], but the symbol was metamorphosed and utilized as the numeral C = 100, which took this form through the influence of the initial letter of the Latin _centum_. The name of I in the Phoenician alphabet was _Yod_. Though in form it seems the simplest of letters it was originally much more complex. In Phoenician it takes the form [symbol], which is found also in the earliest Syriac and Palestinian inscriptions with little modification. Ultimately in Hebrew it became reduced to a very small symbol, whence comes its use as a term of contempt for things of no importance as in "not one _jot_ or tittle" (Matthew v. 18). The name passed from Phoenician to Greek, and thence to the Latin of the vulgate as _iota_, and from the Latin the English word is derived. Amongst the Greeks of Asia it appears only as the simple upright I, but in some of the oldest alphabets elsewhere, as Crete, Thera, Attica, Achaia and its colonies in lower Italy, it takes the form [symbol] or S, while at Corinth and Corcyra it appears first in a form closely resembling the later Greek _sigma_ [Sigma]. It had originally no cross-stroke at top and bottom. I being not _i_ but _z_. The Phoenician alphabet having no vowel symbols, the value of _yod_ was that of the English _y_. In Greek, where the consonant sound had disappeared or been converted into _h_, I is regularly used as a vowel. Occasionally, as in Pamphylian, it is used dialectically as a glide between _i_ and another vowel, as in the proper name [Greek: Damatriius]. In Latin I was used alike for both vowel and consonant, as in _iugum_ (yoke). The sound represented by it was approximately that still assigned to _i_ on the continent. Neither Greek nor Latin made any distinction in writing between short and long _i_, though in the Latin of the Empire the long sound was occasionally represented by a longer form of the symbol I. The dot over the _i_ begins in the 5th or 6th century A.D. In pronunciation the English short _i_ is a more open sound than that of most languages, and does not correspond to the Greek and Latin sound. Nor are the English short and long _i_ of the same quality. The short _i_ in Sweet's terminology is a high-front-wide vowel, the long _i_, in English often spelt _ee_ in words like _seed_, is diphthonged, beginning like the short vowel but becoming higher as it proceeds. The Latin short _i_, however, in final syllables was open and ultimately became _e_, e.g. in the neuter of _i_-stems as _utile_ from _utili-s_. Medially both the short and the long sounds are very common in syllables which were originally unaccented, because in such positions many other sounds passed into _i_: _officio_ but _facio_, _redimo_ but _emo_, _quidlibet_ but _lubet_ (_libet_ is later); _collido_ but _laedo_, _fido_ from an older _feido_, _istis_ (dative plural) from an earlier _istois_. (P. Gi.)

IAMBIC, the term employed in prosody to denote a succession of verses, each consisting of a foot or metre called an iambus ([Greek: iambos]), formed of two syllables, of which the first is short and the second long (u --). After the dactylic hexameter, the iambic trimeter was the most popular metre of ancient Greece. Archilochus is said to have been the inventor of this iambic verse, the [Greek: trimetros] consisting of three iambic fed. In the Greek tragedians an iambic line is formed of six feet arranged in obedience to the following scheme:--

u -- | u -- | u -- | u -- | u -- | u -- | u u u | u u u | u u u | u u u | u u u | | -- -- | | -- -- | | -- -- | | -- u u | | -- u u | | | | u u -- | | | | | |

Much of the beauty of the verse depends on the caesura, which is usually In the middle of the third foot, and far less frequently in the middle of the fourth. The English language runs more naturally in the iambic metre than in any other. The normal blank verse in English is founded upon an iambic basis, and Milton's line--

And swims | or sinks | or wades | or creeps | or flies | --

exhibits it in its primitive form. The ordinary alexandrine of French literature is a hexapod iambic, but in all questions of quantity in modern prosody great care has to be exercised to recollect that all ascriptions of classic names to modern forms of rhymed or blank verse are merely approximate. The octosyllabic, or four-foot iambic metre, has found great favour in English verse founded on old romances. Decasyllabic iambic lines rhyming together form an "heroic" metre.

IAMBLICHUS (d. c. A.D. 330), the chief representative of Syrian Neoplatonism, is only imperfectly known to us in the events of his life and the details of his creed. We learn, however, from Suidas, and from his biographer Eunapius, that he was born at Chalcis in Coele-Syria, the scion of a rich and illustrious family, that he studied under Anatolius and afterwards under Porphyry, the pupil of Plotinus, that he himself gathered together a large number of disciples of different nations with whom he lived on terms of genial friendship, that he wrote "various philosophical books," and that he died during the reign of Constantine,--according to Fabricius, before A.D. 333. His residence (probably) at his native town of Chalcis was varied by a yearly visit with his pupils to the baths of Gadara. Of the books referred to by Suidas only a fraction has been preserved. His commentaries on Plato and Aristotle, and works on the Chaldaean theology and on the soul, are lost. For our knowledge of his system we are indebted partly to the fragments of these writings preserved by Stobaeus and others, and to the notices of his successors, especially Proclus, partly to his five extant books, the sections of a great work on the Pythagorean philosophy. Besides these, Proclus (412-485) seems to have ascribed to him[1] the authorship of the celebrated book _On the Egyptian Mysteries_ (so-called), and although its differences in style and in some points of doctrine from the writings just mentioned make it improbable that the work was by Iamblichus himself, it certainly emanated from his school, and in its systematic attempt to give a speculative justification of the polytheistic cultus of the day, marks the turning-point in the history of thought at which Iamblichus stood.

As a speculative theory Neoplatonism (q.v.) had received its highest development from Plotinus. The modifications introduced by Iamblichus were the elaboration in greater detail of its formal divisions, the more systematic application of the Pythagorean number-symbolism, and chiefly, under the influence of Oriental systems, the thorough-going mythic interpretation of what the previous philosophy had still regarded as notional. It is on the last account, probably, that Iamblichus was looked upon with such extravagant veneration. As a philosopher he had learning indeed, but little originality. His aim was to give a philosophical rendering of the popular religion. By his contemporaries he was accredited with miraculous powers (which he, however, disclaimed), and by his followers in the decline of Greek philosophy, and his admirers on its revival in the 15th and 16th centuries, his name was scarcely mentioned without the epithet "divine" or "most divine," while, not content with the more modest eulogy of Eunapius that he was inferior to Porphyry only in style, the emperor Julian regarded him as not even second to Plato, and said that he would give all the gold of Lydia for one epistle of Iamblichus.

Theoretically, the philosophy of Plotinus was an attempt to harmonize the principles of the various Greek schools. At the head of his system he placed the transcendent incommunicable one ([Greek: hen amethekton]), whose first-begotten is intellect ([Greek: nous]), from which proceeds soul ([Greek: psychê]), which in turn gives birth to [Greek: physis], the realm of nature. Immediately after the absolute one, Iamblichus introduced a second superexistent unity to stand between it and the many as the producer of intellect, and made the three succeeding moments of the development (intellect, soul and nature) undergo various modifications. He speaks of them as intellectual ([Greek: theoi noeroi]), supramundane ([Greek: hyperkosmioi]), and mundane gods ([Greek: egkosmioi]). The first of these--which Plotinus represented under the three stages of (objective) being ([Greek: on]), (subjective) life ([Greek: zôê]), and (realized) intellect ([Greek: nous])--is distinguished by him into spheres of intelligible gods ([Greek: theoi noêtoi]) and of intellectual gods ([Greek: theoi noeroi]), each subdivided into triads, the latter sphere being the place of ideas, the former of the archetypes of these ideas. Between these two worlds, at once separating and uniting them, some scholars think there was inserted by Iamblichus, as afterwards by Proclus, a third sphere partaking of the nature of both ([Greek: theoi noêtoi kai noeroi]). But this supposition depends on a merely conjectural emendation of the text. We read, however, that "in the intellectual hebdomad he assigned the third rank among the fathers to the Demiurge." The Demiurge, Zeus, or world-creating potency, is thus identified with the perfected [Greek: nous], the intellectual triad being increased to a hebdomad, probably (as Zeller supposes) through the subdivision of its first two members. As in Plotinus [Greek: nous] produced nature by mediation of [Greek: psychê], so here the intelligible gods are followed by a triad of psychic gods. The first of these is incommunicable and supramundane, while the other two seem to be mundane though rational. In the third class, or mundane gods ([Greek: theoi egkosmioi]), there is a still greater wealth of divinities, of various local position, function, and rank. We read of gods, angels, demons and heroes, of twelve heavenly gods whose number is increased to thirty-six or three hundred and sixty, and of seventy-two other gods proceeding from them, of twenty-one chiefs ([Greek: hegemones]) and forty-two nature-gods ([Greek: theoi genesiourgoi]), besides guardian divinities, of particular individuals and nations. The world is thus peopled by a crowd of superhuman beings influencing natural events, possessing and communicating knowledge of the future, and not inaccessible to prayers and offerings.

The whole of this complex theory is ruled by a mathematical formulism of triad, hebdomad, &c., while the first principle is identified with the monad, [Greek: nous] with the dyad, and [Greek: psychê] with the triad, symbolic meanings being also assigned to the other numbers. "The theorems of mathematics," he says, "apply absolutely to all things," from things divine to original matter ([Greek: hylê]). But though he thus subjects all things to number, he holds elsewhere that numbers are independent existences, and occupy a middle place between the limited and unlimited.

Another difficulty of the system is the account given of nature. It is said to be "bound by the indissoluble chains of necessity which men call fate," as distinguished from divine things which are not subject to fate. Yet, being itself the result of higher powers becoming corporeal, a continual stream of elevating influence flows from them to it, interfering with its necessary laws and turning to good ends the imperfect and evil. Of evil no satisfactory account is given; it is said to have been generated accidentally.

In his doctrine of man Iamblichus retains for the soul the middle place between intellect and nature which it occupies in the universal order. He rejects the passionless and purely intellectual character ascribed to the human soul by Plotinus, distinguishing it sharply both from those above and those below it. He maintains that it moves between the higher and lower spheres, that it descends by a necessary law (not solely for trial or punishment) into the body, and, passing perhaps from one human body to another, returns again to the supersensible. This return is effected by the virtuous activities which the soul performs through its own power of free will, and by the assistance of the gods. These virtues were classified by Porphyry as political, purifying ([Greek: kathartikai]), theoretical, and paradigmatic; and to these Iamblichus adds a fifth class of priestly virtues ([Greek: hieratikai aretai]), in which the divinest part of the soul raises itself above intellect to absolute being.

Iamblichus does not seem ever to have attained to that ecstatic communion with and absorption in deity which was the aim of earlier Neoplatonism, and which Plotinus enjoyed four times in his life, Porphyry once. Indeed his tendency was not so much to raise man to God as to bring the gods down to men--a tendency shown still more plainly in the "Answer of Abamon the master to Porphyry's letter to Anebo and solutions of the doubts therein expressed," afterwards entitled the _Liber de mysteriis_, and ascribed to Iamblichus.

In answer to questions raised and doubts expressed by Porphyry, the writer of this treatise appeals to the innate idea all men have of the gods as testifying to the existence of divinities countless in number and various in rank (to the correct arrangement of which he, like Iamblichus, attaches the greatest importance). He holds with the latter that above all principles of being and intelligence stands the absolute one, from whom the first god and king spontaneously proceeds; while after these follow the ethereal, empyrean, and heavenly gods, and the various orders of archangels, angels, demons, and heroes distinguished in nature, power, and activity, and in greater profusion than even the imagination of Iamblichus had conceived. He says that all the gods are good (though he in another place admits the existence of evil demons who must be propitiated), and traces the source of evil to matter; rebuts the objection that their answering prayer implies passivity on the part of gods or demons; defends divination, soothsaying, and theurgic practices as manifestations of the divine activity; describes the appearances of the different sorts of divinities; discusses the various kinds of sacrifice, which he says must be suitable to the different natures of the gods, material and immaterial, and to the double condition of the sacrificer as bound to the body or free from it (differing thus in his psychology from Iamblichus); and, in conclusion, states that the only way to happiness is through knowledge of and union with the gods, and that theurgic practices alone prepare the mind for this union--again going beyond his master, who held assiduous contemplation of divine things to be sufficient. It is the passionless nature of the soul which permits it to be thus united to divine beings,--knowledge of this mystic union and of the worship associated with it having been derived from the Egyptian priests, who learnt it from Hermes.

On one point only does the author of the _De mysteriis_ seem not to go so far as Iamblichus in thus making philosophy subservient to priestcraft. He condemns as folly and impiety the worship of images of the gods, though his master held that these _simulacra_ were filled with divine power, whether made by the hand of man or (as he believed) fallen from heaven. But images could easily be dispensed with from the point of view of the writer, who not only held that all things were full of gods ([Greek: panta plêrê theôn], as Thales said), but thought that each man had a special divinity of his own--an [Greek: idios daimôn]--as his guard and companion.

The following are the extant works of Iamblichus: (1) _On the Pythagorean_ (_Life_ [Greek: Peri tou Pythagorikou biou]), ed. T. Kiessling (1815), A. Nauck (St Petersburg, 1884); for a discussion of the authorities used see E. Rohde in _Rheinisches Museum_, xxvi., xxvii. (1871, 1872); Eng. trans. by Thomas Taylor (1818), (2) The _Exhortation to Philosophy_ ([Greek: Logos protreptikos eis philosophian]), ed. T. Kiessling (1813); H. Piselli (1888). (3) The treatise _On the General Science of Mathematics_ ([Greek: Peri tês koinês mathêmatkês epistêmês]), ed. J. G. Friis (Copenhagen, 1790), N. Festa (Leipzig, 1891). (4) The book _On the Arithmetic of Nicomachus_ ([Greek: Peri tês Nikomachou arithmêtikês eisagôgês]), along with fragments on fate ([Greek: Peri heimarmenês]) and prayer ([Greek: Peri euchês]), ed. S. Tennulius (1688), the _Arithmetic_ by H. Pistelli (1894). (5) The _Theological Principles of Arithmetic_ ([Greek: Theologoumena tês arithmêtikês])--the seventh book of the series--by F. Ast (Leipzig, 1817). Two lost books, treating of the physical and ethical signification of numbers, stood fifth and sixth, while books on music, geometry and astronomy followed. The emperor Julian had a great admiration for Iamblichus, whom he considered "intellectually not inferior to Plato"; but the _Letters to Iamblicus the Philosopher_ which bear his name are now generally considered spurious.

The so-called _Liber de mysteriis_ was first edited, with Latin translation and notes, by T. Gale (Oxford, 1678), and more recently by C. Parthey (Berlin, 1857); Eng. trans. by Thomas Taylor (1821).

There is a monograph on Iamblichus by G. E. Hebenstreit (_De Iamblichi, philosophi Syri, doctrina_, Leipzig, 1764), and one of the _De myst._ by Harless (_Das