Part 2

§ 67. DIVISION BETWEEN GREEK AND ROMAN CHURCHES AND ATTEMPTS AT UNION, A.D. 857-1453. (1) Foundation of the Schism, A.D. 867. (2) Leo VI., the Philosopher, A.D. 886-911. (3) Completion of the Schism, A.D. 1054. (4) Attempts at Reunion. (5) Andronicus III. Palæologus and Barlaam. (6) Council of Florence. (7) Decay of Byzantine Empire.

II. Developments in the Eastern Church without the Co-operation of the Western.

§ 68. THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE AND LITERATURE. (1) Revival of Classical Studies. (2) Aristotle and Plato. (3) Scholasticism and Mysticism. (4) The Branches of Theological Science. (5) Distinguished Theologians. (6) Barlaam and Josaphat.

§ 69. DOCTRINAL CONTROVERSIES IN THE 12TH-14TH CENTURIES. (1) Dogmatic Questions. (2) The Hesychast Controversy, A.D. 1341-1351.

§ 70. CONSTITUTION, WORSHIP AND LIFE. (1) The Arsenian Schism, A.D. 1262-1312. (2) Public Worship. (3) Monasticism. (4) Endeavours at Reformation.

§ 71. DUALISTIC HERETICS. (1) The Paulicians. (2) The Children of the Sun. (3) The Euchites. (4) The Bogomili.

§ 72. THE NESTORIAN AND MONOPHYSITE CHURCHES OF THE EAST. (1) The Persian Nestorians. (2) Monophysite Churches. (3) The Maronites. (4) The Legend of Prester John.

§ 73. THE SLAVONIC CHURCHES ADHERING TO THE ORTHODOX GREEK CONFESSION. (1) Slavs in the Greek Provinces. (2) The Chazari. (3) The Bulgarians. (4) The Russian Church. (5) Russian Sects. (6) Romish Efforts at Union.

SECOND DIVISION.

THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE GERMAN AND ROMAN CHURCH DURING THE MIDDLE AGES.

§ 74. CHARACTER AND DIVISIONS OF THIS PERIOD OF THE DEVELOPMENT. (1) The Character of Mediæval History. (2) Periods in the Church History of the German-Roman Middle Ages.

FIRST SECTION.

HISTORY OF THE GERMAN-ROMAN CHURCH FROM THE 4TH TO THE 9TH CENTURY (DOWN TO A.D. 911).

I. Founding, Spread, and Limitation of the German Church.

§ 75. CHRISTIANITY AND THE GERMANS. (1) The Predisposition of the Germans for Christianity. (2) Unopposed Adoption of Christianity. (3) Mode of Conversion in the Church of these Times.

§ 76. THE VICTORY OF CATHOLICISM OVER ARIANISM. (1) The Goths in the lands of the Danube. (2) The Visigoths in Gaul and Spain. (3) The Vandals in Africa. (4) The Suevi. (5) The Burgundians. (6) The Rugians. (7) The Ostrogoths. (8) The Longobards in Italy. (9) The Franks in Gaul.

§ 77. VICTORY OF THE ROMISH OVER THE OLD BRITISH CHURCH. (1) The Conversion of the Irish. (2) The Mission to Scotland. (3) The Peculiarities of the Celtic Church. (4) The Romish Mission to the Anglo-Saxons. (5) Celtic Missions among the Anglo-Saxons. (6) The Celtic Element Driven out of the Anglo-Saxon Church. (7) Spread and Overthrow of the British Church on the Continent. (8) Overthrow of the Old British System in the Iro-Scottish Church.

§ 78. THE CONVERSION AND ROMANIZING OF GERMANY. (1) South-Western Germany. (2) South-Eastern Germany. (3) North-Western Germany. (4) The Missionary Work of Boniface. (5) The Organization Effected by Boniface. (6) Heresies Confronted by Boniface. (7) The End of Boniface. (8) An Estimate of Boniface. (9) The Conversion of the Saxons.

§ 79. THE SLAVS IN GERMAN COUNTRIES. (1) The Carantanians and Avars. (2) The Moravian Church. (3) The Beginnings of Christianity in Bohemia.

§ 80. THE SCANDINAVIAN NATIONS. (1) Ansgar. (2) Ansgar’s Successor--Rimbert.

§ 81. CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM. (1) Islam in Spain. (2) Islam in Sicily.

II. THE HIERARCHY, THE CLERGY AND THE MONKS.

§ 82. THE PAPACY AND THE CAROLINGIANS. (1) The Period of the Founding of the States of the Church. (2) Stephen III., A.D. 768-772. Hadrian I., A.D. 772-795. (3) Charlemagne and Leo III., A.D. 795-816. (4) Louis the Pious and the Popes of his Time. (5) The Sons of Louis the Pious and the Popes of their Days. (6) The Legend of the Female Pope Joanna. (7) Nicholas I. and Hadrian II. (8) John VIII. and his Successors. (9) The Papacy and the Nationalities.

§ 83. THE RANK OF METROPOLITAN. (1) The Position of Metropolitans in General. (2) Hincmar of Rheims. (3) Metropolitans in other lands.

§ 84. THE CLERGY IN GENERAL. (1) The Superior Clergy. (2) The Inferior Clergy. (3) Compulsory Celibacy. (4) Canonical life.

§ 85. MONASTICISM. (1) Benedict of Nursia. (2) Benedict of Aniane. (3) Nunneries. (4) The Greater Monasteries. (5) Monastic Practices among the Clergy. (6) The Stylites.

§ 86: THE PROPERTY OF CHURCHES AND MONASTERIES. (1) The Revenues of Churches and Monasteries. (2) The Benefice System.

§ 87. ECCLESIASTICAL LEGISLATION. (1) Older Collections of Ecclesiastical Law. (2) The Collection of Decretals of the Pseudo-Isidore. (3) Details of the History of the Forgery. (4) The Edict and Donation of Constantine.

III. THE CHURCH AND THE PEOPLE.

§ 88. PUBLIC WORSHIP AND ART. (1) Liturgy and Preaching. (2) Church Music. (3) The Sacrifice of the Mass. (4) The Worship of Saints. (5) Times and Places for Public Worship. (6) Ecclesiastical Architecture and Painting.

§ 89. NATIONAL CUSTOMS, SOCIAL LIFE AND CHURCH DISCIPLINE. (1) Superstition. (2) Popular Education. (3) Christian Popular Poetry. (4) Social Condition. (5) Practice of Pubic Law. (6) Church Discipline and Penitential Exercises.

IV. THEOLOGY AND ITS BATTLES.

§ 90. SCHOLARSHIP AND THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE. (1) Rulers of the Carolingian Line. Charlemagne, A.D. 768-814. Louis the Pious, A.D. 814-840. Charles the Bald, A.D. 840-877. (2) The most distinguished Theologians of the Pre-Carolingian Age. 1. Merovingian France. 2. South of the Pyrenees. 3. England. (3) The most distinguished Theologians of the Age of Charlemagne. 1. Alcuin. 2. Paulus Diaconus. 3. Theodulf, Bishop of Orleans. 4. Paulinus, Patriarch of Aquileia and Bishop Leidrad of Lyons. 5. Hatto, Abbot of Reichenau. (4) The most distinguished Theologians of the Age of Louis the Pious. 1. Agobard of Lyons. 2. Claudius, Bishop of Turin. 3. Jonas of Orleans. 4. Amalarius of Metz. 5. Christian Druthmar. 6. Rabanus Magnentius Maurus. 7. Walafrid Strabo. (5) The Most Distinguished Theologians of the Age of Charles the Bald. 1. Hincmar of Rheims. 2. Paschasius Radbertus. 3. Ratramnus. 4. Florus Magister. 5. Haymo, Bishop of Halberstadt. 6. Servatus Lupus. 7. Remigius of Auxerre. 8. Regius of Prüm. (6) 9. Anastasius Bibliothecarius. 10. Eulogius of Cordova. (7) 11. Joannes Scotus Erigena. (8) The Monastic and Cathedral Schools. (9) Various Branches of Theological Science. 1. Exegesis. 2. Systematic Theology. 3. Practical Theology. 4. Historical Theology. (10) Anglo-Saxon Culture under Alfred the Great, A.D. 871-901.

§ 91. DOCTRINAL CONTROVERSIES. (1) The Adoptionist Controversy, A.D. 782-799. (2) Controversy about the Procession of the Holy Spirit. (3) The Eucharistic Controversy, A.D. 844. (4) Controversy about the Conception of the Virgin. (5) The Predestinarian Controversy A.D. 847-868. (6) The Trinitarian Controversy, A.D. 857.

§ 92. ENDEAVOURS AFTER REFORMATION. (1) The Carolingian Opposition to Image Worship, A.D. 790-825. (2) Agobard of Lyons and Claudius of Turin.

INTRODUCTION.

§ 1. IDEA AND TASK OF CHURCH HISTORY.

The Christian Church is to be defined as the one, many-branched communion, consisting of all those who confess that Jesus of Nazareth is the Christ who in the fulness of time appeared as the Saviour of the world. It is the Church’s special task to render the saving work of Christ increasingly fruitful for all nations and individuals, under all the varying conditions of life and stages of culture. It is the task of Church History to describe the course of development through which the Church as a whole, as well as its special departments and various institutions, has passed, from the time of its foundation down to our own day; to show what have been the Church’s advances and retrogressions, how it has been furthered and hindered; and to tell the story of its deterioration and renewal.

§ 2. DISTRIBUTION OF CHURCH HISTORY ACCORDING TO CONTENTS.

The treatment of Church History, on account of its manifold ramifications, demands a distribution of its material, on the one hand, according to definite periods, during which the end hitherto aimed at in the whole course of development has been practically attained, so that either entirely new phenomena gain prominence, or else the old go forth in an altogether different direction; on the other hand, according to the various phases of endeavour and development, which in respect of time are evolved alongside of one another. When this last-mentioned method of division is adopted, we may still choose between two different modes of treatment. First, we may deal with national churches, in so far as these are independent and have pursued some special direction; or with particular churches, which have originated from the splitting up of the church universal over some important difference in doctrine, worship, and constitution. Secondly, we may group our material according to the various departments of historical activity, which are essential to the intellectual and spiritual life of all national churches and denominations, and are thus common to all, although in different churches in characteristic ways and varying degrees. It follows however from the very idea of history, especially from that of the universal history of the church, that the distribution according to periods must be the leading feature of the entire exposition. At the same time, whatever may now and again, in accordance with the other principles of arrangement, be brought into prominence will be influenced materially by the course of the history and formally by the facility afforded for review by the mode of treatment pursued.

§ 2.1. =The Various Branches Included in a Complete Course of Church History.=--The Christian Church has undertaken the task of absorbing all peoples and tongues. Hence it is possessed of an eager desire to enlarge its borders by the conversion of all non-Christian races. The description of what helps or hinders this endeavour, the history of the spread and limitation of Christianity, is therefore an essential constituent of church history. Since, further, the church, in order to secure its continued existence and well-being, must strive after a legally determined position outwardly, as well as a firm, harmonious articulation, combination and order inwardly, it evidently also belongs to our science to give the history of the ecclesiastical constitution, both of the place which the church has in the state, and the relation it bears to the state; and also of its own internal arrangements by superordination, subordination, and co-ordination, and by church discipline and legislation. Not less essential, nay, even more important for the successful development of the church, is the construction and establishment of saving truth. In Holy Scripture the church indeed has possession of the fountain and standard, as well as the all-sufficient power and fulness, of all saving knowledge. But the words of Scripture are spirit and life, living seeds of knowledge, which, under the care of the same Spirit who sows them, may and shall be developed so as to yield a harvest which becomes ever more and more abundant; and therefore the fulness of the truth which dwells in them comes to be known more simply, clearly, fully, and becomes always more fruitful for all stages and forms of culture, for faith, for science, and for life. Hence church history is required to describe the construction of the doctrine and science of the church, to follow its course and the deviations from it into heresy, whenever these appear. The church is, further, in need of a form of public worship as a necessary expression of the feelings and emotions of believers toward their Lord and God, as a means of edification and instruction. The history of the worship of the church is therefore also an essential constituent of church history. It is also the duty of the church to introduce into the practical life and customs of the people that new spiritual energy of which she is possessor. And thus the history of the Christian life among the people comes to be included in church history as a further constituent of the science. Further, there is also included here, in consequence of the nature and aim of Christianity as a leaven (Matt. xiii. 33), an account of the effects produced upon it by the development of art (of which various branches, architecture, sculpture, painting, music, have a direct connexion with Christian worship), and likewise upon national literature, philosophy, and secular science generally; and also, conversely, an estimate of the influence of these forms of secular culture upon the condition of the church and religion must not be omitted. The order of succession in the historical treatment of these phases under which the life of the church is manifested, is not to be rigidly determined in the same way for all ages after an abstract logical scheme. For each period that order of succession should be adopted which will most suitably give prominence to those matters which have come to the front, and so call for early and detailed treatment in the history of that age.

§ 2.2. =The Separate Branches of Church History.=--The constituent parts of church history that have been already enumerated are of such importance that they might also be treated as independent sciences, and indeed for the most part they have often been so treated. In this way, not only is a more exact treatment of details rendered possible, but also, what is more important, the particular science so limited can be construed in a natural manner according to principles furnished by itself. The history of the spread and limitation of Christianity then assumes a separate form as the History of Missions. The separate history of the ecclesiastical constitution, worship, and customs is known by the name of Christian Archæology, which is indeed, in respect of title and contents, an undefined conglomeration of heterogeneous elements restricted in a purely arbitrary way to the early ages. The treatment of this department therefore requires that we should undertake the scientific task of distinguishing these heterogeneous elements, and arranging them apart for separate consideration; thus following the course of their development down to the present day, as the history of the constitution, of the worship, and of the culture of the church. The history of the development of doctrine falls into four divisions:

a. The History of Doctrines in the form of a regular historical sketch of the doctrinal development of the church.

b. Symbolics, which gives a systematic representation of the relatively final and concluded doctrine of the church as determined in the public ecclesiastical confessions or symbols for the church universal and for particular sects: these again being compared together in Comparative Symbolics.

c. Patristics, which deals with the subjective development of doctrine as carried out by the most distinguished teachers of the church, who are usually designated church Fathers, and confined to the first six or eight centuries.

d. And, finally, the History of Theology in general, or the History of the particular Theological Sciences, which treats of the scientific conception and treatment of theology and its separate branches according to its historical development; while the History of Theological Literature, which when restricted to the age of the Fathers is called Patrology, has to describe and estimate the whole literary

## activity of the church according to the persons, motives,

and tendencies that are present in it.

As the conclusion and result of church history at particular periods, we have the science of Ecclesiastical Statistics, which describes the condition of the church in respect of all its interests as it stands at some particular moment, “like a slice cut cross-wise out of its history.” The most important works in these departments are the following:

a. =History of Missions.=-- Brown, “Hist. of Propag. of Christ. among Heathen since Reformation.” 3rd Ed., 3 vols., Edin., 1854. Warneck, “Outlines of Hist. of Prot. Miss.” Edin., 1884. Smith, “Short Hist. of Christ. Miss.” Edin., 1884.

b. =History of the Papacy.=-- Ranke, “History of Papacy in 16th and 17th Cent.” 2 vols., Lond., 1855. Platina (Lib. of Vatican), “Lives of Popes.” (1481). Trans. by Rycaut, Lond., 1685. Bower, “Hist. of Popes.” 7 vols., Lond., 1750. Bryce, “Holy Rom. Empire.” Lond., 1866. Creighton, “Hist. of Papacy during the Reformation.” Vols. I.-IV., from A.D. 1378-1518, Lond., 1882-1886. Janus, “Pope and the Council.” Lond., 1869. Pennington, “Epochs of the Papacy.” Lond., 1882.

c. =History of Monasticism.=-- Hospinianus [Hospinian], “De Monachis.” Etc., Tigur., 1609. Maitland, “The Dark Ages.” Lond., 1844.

d. =History of Councils.=-- Hefele, “Hist. of Councils.” Vols. I.-III., to A.D. 451, Edin., 1871-1883. (Original German work brought down to the Council of Trent exclusive.)

e. =Church law.=-- Haddan and Stubbs, “Councils and Eccl. Documents illust. Eccl. Hist. of Gr. Brit. and Ireland.” 3 vols., Lond., 1869 ff. Phillimore, “Eccl. Law.” Lond., 1873.

f. =Archæology.=-- By Cath. Didron, “Christ. Iconography; or, Hist. of Christ. Art in M. A.” Lond., 1886. By Prot. Bingham, “Antiq. of Christ. Church.” 9 vols., Lond., 1845. “Dictionary of Christ. Antiquities.” Ed. by Smith & Cheetham, 2 vols., Lond., 1875 ff.

g. =History of Doctrines.=-- Neander, “Hist. of Christ. Doct.” 2 vols., Lond. Hagenbach, “Hist. of Christ. Doctrines.” 3 vols., Edin., 1880 f. Shedd, “Hist. of Christ. Doc.” 2 vols., Edin., 1869.

h. =Symbolics and Polemics.=-- Winer, “Confessions of Christendom.” Edin., 1873. Schaff, “Creeds of Christendom.” 3 vols., Edin., 1877 ff. Möhler, “Symbolism: an Expos. of the Doct. Differences between Catholics and Protestants.” 2 vols., Lond., 1843.

i. =Patrology and History of Theolog. Literature.=-- Dupin, “New History of Ecclesiastical Writers.” Lond., 1696. Cave, “Script. Eccl. Hist. Lit.” 2 vols., Lond., 1668. Fabricii, “Biblioth. Græca.” 14 vols., Hamb., 1705; “Biblioth. Mediæ et infinæ Latin.” 6 vols., Hamb., 1734. Teuffel, “Hist. of Rom. Lit.” 2 vols., Lond., 1873.

k. =History of the Theological Sciences.=-- Buddæus, “Isagoge Hist. Theol. ad Theol. Univ.” Lps., 1727. Räbiger, “Encyclopædia of Theology.” 2 vols., Edin., 1884. Dorner, “Hist. of Prot. Theol.” 2 vols., Edin., 1871.

=History of Exegesis.=-- Davidson, “Sacred Hermeneutics; including Hist. of Biblical Interpretation from earliest Fathers to Reformation.” Edin., 1843. Farrar, “Hist. of Interpretation.” Lond., 1886.

=History of Morals.=-- Wuttke’s “Christian Ethics.” Vol. I., “Hist. of Ethics.” Edin., 1873.

l. =Biographies.=-- “Acta Sanctorum.” 63 vols. fol., Ant., 1643 ff. Mabillon, “Acta Ss. ord. S. Bened.” 9 vols. fol., Par., 1666 ff. Flaccius [Flacius], “Catalog. Testium Veritatis.” 1555. Piper, “Lives of Leaders of Church Universal.” 2 vols., Edin. Smith and Wace, “Dict. of Chr. Biog.” etc., 4 vols., Lond., 1877 ff.

§ 3. DISTRIBUTION OF CHURCH HISTORY ACCORDING TO PERIODS.

In the history of the world’s culture three historical stages of universal development succeed each other: the Oriental, the Franco-German, and the Teutono-Romanic. The kingdom of God had to enter each of these and have in each a distinctive character, so that as comprehensive a development as possible might be secured. The history of the preparation for Christianity in the history of the Israelitish theocracy moves along the lines of Oriental culture. The history of the beginnings of Christianity embraces the history of the founding of the church by Christ and His Apostles. These two together constitute Biblical history, which, as an independent branch of study receiving separate treatment, need be here treated merely in a brief, introductory manner. This holds true also of the history of pagan culture alongside of and subsequent to the founding of the church. Church history, strictly so-called, the development of the already founded church, begins therefore, according to our conception, with the Post-Apostolic Age, and from that point pursues its course in three principal divisions. The ancient church completes its task by thoroughly assimilating the elements contributed by the Græco-Roman forms of civilization. In the Teutono-Romanic Church of the middle ages the appropriation and amalgamation of ancient classical modes of thought with modern tendencies awakened by its immediate surroundings were carried out and completed. On the other hand, the development of church history since the Reformation has its impulse given it by that Teutono-Christian culture which had maturity and an independent form secured to it by the Reformation. This distribution in accordance with the various forms of civilization seems to us so essential, that we propose to borrow from it our principle for the arrangement of our church history.

The chronological distribution of the material may be represented in the following outline:

I. =History of the Preparation for Christianity=: Preparation for Redemption during the Hebraic-Oriental stage of civilization, and the construction alongside of it in the universalism of classical culture of forms that prepared the way for the coming salvation.

II. =History of the Beginnings of Christianity=: a sketch of the redemption by Christ and the founding of the Church through the preaching of it by the Apostles.

III. =History of the Development of Christianity=, on the basis of the sketch of the redemption given in the history of the Beginnings:

A. =In the Græco-Roman and Græco-Byzantine Period, under Ancient Classical Forms of Civilization.= _First Section_, A.D. 70 to A.D. 323,--down to the final victory of Christianity over the Græco-Roman paganism; the Post-Apostolic and Old Catholic Ages. _Second Section_, from A.D. 323 to A.D. 692,--down to the final close of œcumenical development of doctrine in A.D. 680, and the appearance of what proved a lasting estrangement between the Eastern and the Western Churches in A.D. 692, which was soon followed by the alliance of the Papacy with the Frankish instead of the Byzantine empire; the Œcumenico-Catholic Church, or the Church of the Roman-Byzantine Empire. _Third Section_, from A.D. 692 to A.D. 1453,--down to the overthrow of Constantinople. Languishing and decay of the old church life in the Byzantine Empire; complete breach and futile attempts at union between East and West. The Church of the Byzantine Empire.

B. =In the Mediæval Period, under Teutono-Romanic Forms of Civilization.= _First Section_, 4-9th cent.--from the first beginnings of Teutonic church life down to the end of the Carlovingian Age, A.D. 911. The Teutonic Age. _Second Section_, 10-13th cent.--down to Boniface VIII., A.D. 1294; rise of mediæval institutions--the Papacy, Monasticism, Scholasticism; Germany in the foreground of the ecclesiastico-political movement. _Third Section_, the 14-15th cent.--down to the Reformation in A.D. 1517; deterioration and collapse of mediæval institutions; France in the foreground of the ecclesiastico-political movement.

C. =In the Modern Period, under the European Forms of Civilization.= _First Section_, the 16th cent. Age of Evangelical-Protestant Reformation and Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation. _Second Section_, the 17th cent. Age of Orthodoxy on the Protestant side and continued endeavours after restoration on the side of Catholicism. _Third Section_, the 18th cent. Age of advancing Illuminism in both churches,--Deism, Naturalism, Rationalism. _Fourth Section_, the 19th cent. Age of re-awakened Christian and Ecclesiastical life. Unionism, Confessionalism, and Liberalism in conflict with one another on the Protestant side; the revival of Ultramontanism in conflict with the civil power on the Catholic side. In opposition to both churches, widespread pantheistic, materialistic, and communistic tendencies.

§ 4. SOURCES AND AUXILIARIES OF CHURCH HISTORY.[1]