Part 11

The university, the famous Georgia Augusta, founded by George II. in 1734 and opened in 1737, rapidly attained a leading position, and in 1823 its students numbered 1547. Political disturbances, in which both professors and students were implicated, lowered the attendance to 860 in 1834. The expulsion in 1837 of the famous seven professors--_Die Gottinger Sieben_--viz. the Germanist, Wilhelm Eduard Albrecht (1800-1876); the historian, Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann (1785-1860); the orientalist, Georg Heinrich August Ewald (1803-1875); the historian, Georg Gottfried Gervinus (1805-1875); the physicist, Wilhelm Eduard Weber (1804-1891); and the philologists, the brothers Jacob Ludwig Karl Grimm (1785-1863), and Wilhelm Karl Grimm (1786-1859),--for protesting against the revocation by King Ernest Augustus of Hanover of the liberal constitution of 1833, further reduced the prosperity of the university. The events of 1848, on the other hand, told somewhat in its favour; and, since the annexation of Hanover in 1866, it has been carefully fostered by the Prussian government. In 1903 its teaching staff numbered 121 and its students 1529. The main university building lies on the Wilhelmsplatz, and, adjoining, is the famous library of 500,000 vols, and 5300 MSS., the richest collection of modern literature in Germany. There is a good chemical laboratory as well as adequate zoological, ethnographical and mineralogical collections, the most remarkable being Blumenbach's famous collection of skulls in the anatomical institute. There are also a celebrated observatory, long under the direction of Wilhelm Klinkerfues (1827-1884), a botanical garden, an agricultural institute and various hospitals, all connected with the university. Of the scientific societies the most noted is the Royal Society of Sciences (_Konigliche Sozietat der Wissenschaften_) founded by Albrecht von Haller, which is divided into three classes, the physical, the mathematical and the historical-philological. It numbers about 80 members and publishes the well-known _Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen_. There are monuments in the town to the mathematicians K. F. Gauss and W. E. Weber, and also to the poet G. A. Burger.

The earliest mention of a village of Goding or Gutingi occurs in documents of about 950 A.D. The place received municipal rights from the German king Otto IV. about 1210, and from 1286 to 1463 it was the seat of the princely house of Brunswick-Gottingen. During the 14th century it held a high place among the towns of the Hanseatic League. In 1531 it joined the Reformation movement, and in the following century it suffered considerably in the Thirty Years' War, being taken by Tilly in 1626, after a siege of 25 days, and recaptured by the Saxons in 1632. After a century of decay, it was anew brought into importance by the establishment of its university; and a marked increase in its industrial and commercial prosperity has again taken place in recent years. Towards the end of the 18th century Gottingen was the centre of a society of young poets of the _Sturm und Drang_ period of German literature, known as the _Gottingen Dichterbund_ or _Hainbund_ (see GERMANY: _Literature_).

See Freusdorff, _Gottingen in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart_ (Gottingen, 1887); the _Urkundenbuch der Stadt Gottingen_, edited by G. Schmidt, A. Hasselblatt and G. Kastner; Unger, _Gottingen und die Georgia Augusta_ (1861); and _Gottinger Professoren_ (Gotha, 1872); and O. Mejer, _Kulturgeschichtliche Bilder aus Gottingen_ (1889).

GOTTLING, CARL WILHELM (1793-1869), German classical scholar, was born at Jena on the 19th of January 1793. He studied at the universities of Jena and Berlin, took part in the war against France in 1814, and finally settled down in 1822 as professor at the university of his native town, where he continued to reside till his death on the 20th of January 1869. In his early years Gottling devoted himself to German literature, and published two works on the Nibelungen: _Uber das Geschichtliche im Nibelungenliede_ (1814) and _Nibelungen und Gibelinen_ (1817). The greater part of his life, however, was devoted to the study of classical literature, especially the elucidation of Greek authors. The contents of his _Gesammelte Abhandlungen aus dem klassischen Altertum_ (1851-1863) and _Opuscula Academica_ (published in 1869 after his death) sufficiently indicate the varied nature of his studies. He edited the [Greek: Techne] (grammatical manual) of Theodosius of Alexandria (1822), Aristotle's _Politics_ (1824), and _Economics_ (1830) and Hesiod (1831; 3rd ed. by J. Flach, 1878). Mention may also be made of his _Allgemeine Lehre vom Accent der griechischen Sprache_ (1835), enlarged from a smaller work, which was translated into English (1831) as the _Elements of Greek Accentuation_; and of his _Correspondence with Goethe_ (published 1880).

See memoirs by C. Nipperdey, his colleague at Jena (1869), G. Lothholz (Stargard, 1876), K. Fischer (preface to the _Opuscula Academica_), and C. Bursian in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, ix.

GOTTSCHALK [GODESCALUS, GOTTESCALE], (c. 808-867?), German theologian, was born near Mainz, and was devoted (_oblatus_) from infancy by his parents,--his father was a Saxon, Count Bern,--to the monastic life. He was trained at the monastery of Fulda, then under the abbot Hrabanus Maurus, and became the friend of Walafrid Strabo and Loup of Ferrieres. In June 829, at the synod of Mainz, on the pretext that he had been unduly constrained by his abbot, he sought and obtained his liberty, withdrew first to Corbie, where he met Ratramnus, and then to the monastery of Orbais in the diocese of Soissons. There he studied St Augustine, with the result that he became an enthusiastic believer in the doctrine of absolute predestination, in one point going beyond his master--Gottschalk believing in a predestination to condemnation as well as in a predestination to salvation, while Augustine had contented himself with the doctrine of preterition as complementary to the doctrine of election. Between 835 and 840 Gottschalk was ordained priest, without the knowledge of his bishop, by Rigbold, _chorepiscopus_ of Reims. Before 840, deserting his monastery, he went to Italy, preached there his doctrine of double predestination, and entered into relations with Notting, bishop of Verona, and Eberhard, count of Friuli. Driven from Italy through the influence of Hrabanus Maurus, now archbishop of Mainz, who wrote two violent letters to Notting and Eberhard, he travelled through Dalmatia, Pannonia and Norica, but continued preaching and writing. In October 848 he presented to the synod at Mainz a profession of faith and a refutation of the ideas expressed by Hrabanus Maurus in his letter to Notting. He was convicted, however, of heresy, beaten, obliged to swear that he would never again enter the territory of Louis the German, and handed over to Hincmar, archbishop of Reims, who sent him back to his monastery at Orbais. The next year at a provincial council at Quierzy, presided over by Charles the Bald, he attempted to justify his ideas, but was again condemned as a heretic and disturber of the public peace, was degraded from the priesthood, whipped, obliged to burn his declaration of faith, and shut up in the monastery of Hautvilliers. There Hincmar tried again to induce him to retract. Gottschalk however continued to defend his doctrine, writing to his friends and to the most eminent theologians of France and Germany. A great controversy resulted. Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, Wenilo of Sens, Ratramnus of Corbie, Loup of Ferrieres and Florus of Lyons wrote in his favour. Hincmar wrote _De praedestinatione_ and _De una non trina deitate_ against his views, but gained little aid from Johannes Scotus Erigena, whom he had called in as an authority. The question was discussed at the councils of Kiersy (853), of Valence (855) and of Savonnieres (859). Finally the pope Nicolas I. took up the case, and summoned Hincmar to the council of Metz (863). Hincmar either could not or would not appear, but declared that Gottschalk might go to defend himself before the pope. Nothing came of this, however, and when Hincmar learned that Gottschalk had fallen ill, he forbade him the sacraments or burial in consecrated ground unless he would recant. This Gottschalk refused to do. He died on the 30th of October between 866 and 870.

Gottschalk was a vigorous and original thinker, but also of a violent temperament, incapable of discipline or moderation in his ideas as in his conduct. He was less an innovator than a reactionary. Of his many works we have only the two professions of faith (cf. Migne, _Patrologia Latina_, cxxi. c. 347 et seq.), and some poems, edited by L. Traube in _Monumenta Germaniae historica: Poetae Latini aevi Carolini_ (t. iii. 707-738). Some fragments of his theological treatises have been preserved in the writings of Hincmar, Erigena, Ratramnus and Loup of Ferrieres.

From the 17th century, when the Jansenists exalted Gottschalk, much has been written on him. Mention may be made of two recent studies, F. Picavet, "Les Discussions sur la liberte au temps de Gottschalk, de Raban Maur, d'Hincmar, et de Jean Scot," in _Comptes rendus de l'acad. des sciences morales et politiques_ (Paris, 1896); and A. Freystedt, "Studien zu Gottschalks Leben und Lehre," in _Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte_ (1897), vol. xviii.

GOTTSCHALL, RUDOLF VON (1823-1909), German man of letters, was born at Breslau on the 30th of September 1823, the son of a Prussian artillery officer. He received his early education at the gymnasia in Mainz and Coburg, and subsequently at Rastenburg in East Prussia. In 1841 he entered the university of Konigsberg as a student of law, but, in consequence of his pronounced liberal opinions, was expelled. The academic authorities at Breslau and Leipzig were not more tolerant towards the young fire-eater, and it was only in Berlin that he eventually found himself free to prosecute his studies. During this period of unrest he issued _Lieder der Gegenwart_ (1842) and _Zensurfluchtlinge_ (1843)--the poetical fruits of his political enthusiasm. He completed his studies in Berlin, took the degree of _doctor juris_ in Konigsberg, and endeavoured to obtain there the _venia legendi_. His political views again stood in the way, and forsaking the legal career, Gottschall now devoted himself entirely to literature. He met with immediate success, and beginning as dramaturge in Konigsberg with _Der Blinde von Alcala_ (1846) and _Lord Byron in Italien_ (1847) proceeded to Hamburg where he occupied a similar position. In 1852 he married Marie, baroness von Seherr-Thoss, and for the next few years lived in Silesia. In 1862 he took over the editorship of a Posen newspaper, but in 1864 removed to Leipzig. Gottschall was raised, in 1877, by the king of Prussia to the hereditary nobility with the prefix "von," having been previously made a _Geheimer Hofrat_ by the grand duke of Weimar. Down to 1887 Gottschall edited the _Brockhaus'sche Blatter fur litterarische Unterhaltung_ and the monthly periodical _Unsere Zeit_. He died at Leipzig on the 21st of March 1909.

Gottschall's prolific literary productions cover the fields of poetry, novel-writing and literary criticism. Among his volumes of lyric poetry are _Sebastopol_ (1856), _Janus_ (1873), _Bunte Bluten_ (1891). Among his epics, _Carlo Zeno_ (1854), _Maja_ (1864), dealing with an episode in the Indian Mutiny, and _Merlins Wanderungen_ (1887). The comedy _Pitt und Fox_ (1854), first produced on the stage in Breslau, was never surpassed by the other lighter pieces of the author, among which may be mentioned _Die Welt des Schwindels_ and _Der Spion von Rheinsberg_. The tragedies, _Mazeppa_, _Catharine Howard_, _Amy Robsart_ and _Der Gotze von Venedig_, were very successful; and the historical novels, _Im Banne des schwarzen Adlers_ (1875; 4th ed., 1884), _Die Erbschaft des Blutes_ (1881), _Die Tochter Rubezahls_ (1889), and _Verkummerte Existenzen_ (1892), enjoyed a high degree of popularity. As a critic and historian of literature Gottschall has also done excellent work. His _Die deutsche Nationalliteratur des 19. Jahrhunderts_ (1855; 7th ed., 1901-1902), and _Poetik_ (1858; 6th ed., 1903) command the respect of all students of literature.

Gottschall's collected _Dramatische Werke_ appeared in 12 vols. in 1880 (2nd ed., 1884); he has also, in recent years, published many volumes of collected essays and criticisms. See his autobiography, _Aus meiner Jugend_ (1898).

GOTTSCHED, JOHANN CHRISTOPH (1700-1766), German author and critic, was born on the 2nd of February 1700, at Judithenkirch near Konigsberg, the son of a Lutheran clergyman. He studied philosophy and history at the university of his native town, but immediately on taking the degree of _Magister_ in 1723, fled to Leipzig in order to evade impressment in the Prussian military service. Here he enjoyed the protection of J. B. Mencke (1674-1732), who, under the name of "Philander von der Linde," was a well-known poet and also president of the _Deutschubende poetische Gesellschaft_ in Leipzig. Of this society Gottsched was elected "Senior" in 1726, and in the next year reorganized it under the title of the _Deutsche Gesellschaft_. In 1730 he was appointed extraordinary professor of poetry, and, in 1734, ordinary professor of logic and metaphysics in the university. He died at Leipzig on the 12th of December 1766.

Gottsched's chief work was his _Versuch einer kritischen Dichtkunst fur die Deutschen_ (1730), the first systematic treatise in German on the art of poetry from the standpoint of Boileau. His _Ausfuhrliche Redekunst_ (1728) and his _Grundlegung einer_ _deutschen Sprachkunst_ (1748) were of importance for the development of German style and the purification of the language. He wrote several plays, of which _Der sterbende Cato_ (1732), an adaptation of Addison's tragedy and a French play on the same theme, was long popular on the stage. In his _Deutsche Schaubuhne_ (6 vols., 1740-1745), which contained mainly translations from the French, he provided the German stage with a classical repertory, and his bibliography of the German drama, _Notiger Vorrat zur Geschichte der deutschen dramatischen Dichtkunst_ (1757-1765), is still valuable. He was also the editor of several journals devoted to literary criticism. As a critic, Gottsched insisted on German literature being subordinated to the laws of French classicism; he enunciated rules by which the playwright must be bound, and abolished bombast and buffoonery from the serious stage. While such reforms obviously afforded a healthy corrective to the extravagance and want of taste which were rampant in the German literature of the time, Gottsched went too far. In 1740 he came into conflict with the Swiss writers Johann Jakob Bodmer (q.v.) and Johann Jakob Breitinger (1701-1776), who, under the influence of Addison and contemporary Italian critics, demanded that the poetic imagination should not be hampered by artificial rules; they pointed to the great English poets, and especially to Milton. Gottsched, although not blind to the beauties of the English writers, clung the more tenaciously to his principle that poetry must be the product of rules, and, in the fierce controversy which for a time raged between Leipzig and Zurich, he was inevitably defeated. His influence speedily declined, and before his death his name became proverbial for pedantic folly.

His wife, Luise Adelgunde Victorie, nee Kulmus (1713-1762), in some respects her husband's intellectual superior, was an author of some reputation. She wrote several popular comedies, of which _Das Testament_ is the best, and translated the _Spectator_ (9 vols., 1730-1743), Pope's _Rape of the Lock_ (1744) and other English and French works. After her death her husband edited her _Samtliche kleinere Gedichte_ with a memoir (1763).

See T. W. Danzel, _Gottsched und seine Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1848); J. Cruger, Gottsched, _Bodmer, und Breitinger_ (with selections from their writings) (Stuttgart, 1884); F. Servaes, _Die Poetik Gottscheds und der Schweizer_ (Strassburg, 1887); E. Wolff, _Gottscheds Stellung im deutschen Bildungsleben_ (2 vols., Kiel, 1895-1897), and G. Waniek, _Gottsched und die deutsche Literatur seiner Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1897). On Frau Gottsched, see P. Schlenther, _Frau Gottsched und die burgerliche Komodie_ (Berlin, 1886).

GOTZ, JOHANN NIKOLAUS (1721-1781), German poet, was born at Worms on the 9th of July 1721. He studied theology at Halle (1739-1742), where he became intimate with the poets Johann W. L. Gleim and Johann Peter Uz, acted for some years as military chaplain, and afterwards filled various other ecclesiastical offices. He died at Winterburg on the 4th of November 1781. The writings of Gotz consist of a number of short lyrics and several translations, of which the best is a rendering of Anacreon. His original compositions are light, lively and sparkling, and are animated rather by French wit than by German depth of sentiment. The best known of his poems is _Die Madcheninsel_, an elegy which met with the warm approval of Frederick the Great.

Gotz's _Vermischte Gedichte_ were published with biography by K. W. Ramler (Mannheim, 1785; new ed., 1807), and a collection of his poems, dating from the years 1745-1765, has been edited by C. Schuddekopf in the _Deutsche Literaturdenkmale des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts_ (1893). See also _Briefe von und an J. N. Gotz_, edited by C. Schuddekopf (1893).

GOUACHE, a French word adapted from the Ital. _guazzo_ (probably in origin connected with "wash"), meaning literally a "ford," but used also for a method of painting in opaque water-colour. The colours are mixed with or painted in a vehicle of gum or honey, and whereas in true water-colours the high lights are obtained by leaving blank the surface of the paper or other material used, or by allowing it to show through a translucent wash in "gouache," these are obtained by white or other light colour. "Gouache" is frequently used in miniature painting.

GOUDA (or TER GOUWE), a town of Holland, in the province of South Holland, on the north side of the Gouwe at its confluence with the Ysel, and a junction station 12-1/2 m. by rail N.E. of Rotterdam. Pop. (1900) 22,303. Tramways connect it with Bodegraven (5-1/2m. N.) on the old Rhine and with Oudewater (8 m. E.) on the Ysel; and there is a regular steamboat service in various directions, Amsterdam being reached by the canalized Gouwe; Aar, Drecht and Amstel. The town of Gouda is laid out in a fine open manner and, like other Dutch towns, is intersected by numerous canals. On its outskirts pleasant walks and fine trees have replaced the old fortifications. The Groote Markt is the largest market-square in Holland. Among the numerous churches belonging to various denominations, the first place must be given to the Groote Kerk of St John. It was founded in 1485, but rebuilt after a fire in 1552, and is remarkable for its dimensions (345 ft. long and 150 ft. broad), for a large and celebrated organ, and a splendid series of over forty stained-glass windows presented by cities and princes and executed by various well-known artists, including the brothers Dirk (d. c. 1577) and Wouter (d. c. 1590) Crabeth, between the years 1555 and 1603 (see _Explanation of the Famous and Renowned Glass Works, &c._, Gouda, 1876, reprinted from an older volume, 1718). Other noteworthy buildings are the Gothic town hall, founded in 1449 and rebuilt in 1690, and the weigh-house, built by Pieter Post of Haarlem (1608-1669) and adorned with a fine relief by Barth. Eggers (d. c. 1690). The museum of antiquities (1874) contains an exquisite chalice of the year 1425 and some pictures and portraits by Wouter Crabeth the younger, Corn. Ketel (a native of Gouda, 1548-1616) and Ferdinand Bol (1616-1680). Other buildings are the orphanage, the hospital, a house of correction for women and a music hall.

In the time of the counts the wealth of Gouda was mainly derived from brewing and cloth-weaving; but at a later date the making of clay tobacco pipes became the staple trade, and, although this industry has somewhat declined, the churchwarden pipes of Gouda are still well known and largely manufactured. In winter-time it is considered a feat to skate hither from Rotterdam and elsewhere to buy such a pipe and return with it in one's mouth without its being broken. The mud from the Ysel furnishes the material for large brick-works and potteries; there are also a celebrated manufactory of stearine candles, a yarn factory, an oil refinery and cigar factories. The transit and shipping trade is considerable, and as one of the principal markets of South Holland, the round, white Gouda cheeses are known throughout Europe. Boskoop, 5 m. N. by W. of Gouda on the Gouwe, is famous for its nursery gardens; and the little old-world town of Oudewater as the birthplace of the famous theologian Arminius in 1560. The town hall (1588) of Oudewater contains a picture by Dirk Stoop (d. 1686), commemorating the capture of the town by the Spaniards in 1575 and the subsequent sack and massacre.

GOUDIMEL, CLAUDE, musical composer of the 16th century, was born about 1510. The French and the Belgians claim him as their countryman. In all probability he was born at Besancon, for in his edition of the songs of Arcadelt, as well as in the mass of 1554, he calls himself "natif de Besancon" and "Claudius Godimellus Vescontinus." This discountenances the theory of Ambros that he was born at Vaison near Avignon. As to his early education we know little or nothing, but the excellent Latin in which some of his letters were written proves that, in addition to his musical knowledge, he also acquired a good classical training. It is supposed that he was in Rome in 1540 at the head of a music-school, and that besides many other celebrated musicians, Palestrina was amongst his pupils. About the middle of the century he seems to have left Rome for Paris, where, in conjunction with Jean Duchemin, he published, in 1555, a musical setting of Horace's Odes. Infinitely more important is another collection of vocal pieces, a setting of the celebrated French version of the Psalms by Marot and Beza published in 1565. It is written in four parts, the melody being assigned to the tenor. The invention of the melodies was long ascribed to Goudimel, but they have now definitely been proved to have originated in popular tunes found in the collections of this period. Some of these tunes are still used by the French Protestant Church. Others were adopted by the German Lutherans, a German imitation of the French versions of the Psalms in the same metres having been published at an early date. Although the French version of the Psalms was at first used by Catholics as well as Protestants, there is little doubt that Goudimel had embraced the new faith. In Michel Brenet's Biographie (_Annales franc-cuntoises_, Besancon, 1898, P. Jacquin) it is established that in Metz, where he was living in 1565, Goudimel moved in Huguenot circles, and even figured as godfather to the daughter of the president of Senneton. Seven years later he fell a victim to religious fanaticism during the St Bartholomew massacres at Lyons from the 27th to the 28th of August 1572, his death, it is stated, being due to "les ennemis de la gloire de Dieu et quelques mechants envieux de l'honneur qu'il avait acquis." Masses and motets belonging to his Roman period are found in the Vatican library, and in the archives of various churches in Rome; others were published. Thus the work entitled _Missae tres a Claudio Goudimel praestantissimo musico auctore, nunc primum in lucem editae_, contains one mass by the learned editor himself, the other two being by Claudius Sermisy and Jean Maillard respectively. Another collection, _La Fleur des chansons des deux plus excellens musiciens de nostre temps_, consists of part songs by Goudimel and Orlando di Lasso. Burney gives in his history a motet of Goudimel's _Domine quid multiplicati sunt_.