Part 13

GOULBURN, HENRY (1784-1856), English statesman, was born in London on the 19th of March 1784 and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1808 he became member of parliament for Horsham; in 1810 he was appointed under-secretary for home affairs and two and a half years later he was made under-secretary for war and the colonies. Still retaining office in the Tory government he became a privy councillor in 1821, and just afterwards was appointed chief secretary to the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, a position which he held until April 1827. Here although frequently denounced as an Orangeman, his period of office was on the whole a successful one, and in 1823 he managed to pass the Irish Tithe Composition Bill. In January 1828 he was made chancellor of the exchequer under the duke of Wellington; like his leader he disliked Roman Catholic emancipation, which he voted against in 1828. In the domain of finance Goulburn's chief achievements were to reduce the rate of interest on part of the national debt, and to allow any one to sell beer upon payment of a small annual fee, a complete change of policy with regard to the drink traffic. Leaving office with Wellington in November 1830, Goulburn was home secretary under Sir Robert Peel for four months in 1835, and when this statesman returned to office in September 1841 he became chancellor of the exchequer for the second time. Although Peel himself did some of the chancellor's work, Goulburn was responsible for a further reduction in the rate of interest on the national debt, and he aided his chief in the struggle which ended in the repeal of the corn laws. With his colleagues he left office in June 1846. After representing Horsham in the House of Commons for over four years Goulburn was successively member for St Germans, for West Looe, and for the city of Armagh. In May 1831 he was elected for Cambridge University, and he retained this seat until his death on the 12th of January 1856 at Betchworth House, Dorking. Goulburn was one of Peel's firmest supporters and most intimate friends. His eldest son, Henry (1813-1843), was senior classic and second wrangler at Cambridge in 1835.

See S. Walpole, _History of England_ (1878-1886).

GOULBURN, a city of Argyle county, New South Wales, Australia, 134 m. S.W. of Sydney by the Great Southern railway. Pop. (1901) 10,618. It lies in a productive agricultural district, at an altitude of 2129 ft., and is a place of great importance, being the chief depot of the inland trade of the southern part of the state. There are Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals. Manufactures of boots and shoes, flour and beer, and tanning are important. The municipality was created in 1859; and Goulburn became a city in 1864.

GOULD, AUGUSTUS ADDISON (1805-1866), American conchologist, was born at New Ipswich, New Hampshire, on the 23rd of April 1805, graduated at Harvard College in 1825, and took his degree of doctor of medicine in 1830. Thrown from boyhood on his own exertions, it was only by industry, perseverance and self-denial that he obtained the means to pursue his studies. Establishing himself in Boston, he devoted himself to the practice of medicine, and finally rose to high professional rank and social position. He became president of the Massachusetts Medical Society, and was employed in editing the vital statistics of the state. As a conchologist his reputation is world-wide, and he was one of the pioneers of the science in America. His writings fill many pages of the publications of the Boston Society of Natural History (see vol. xi. p. 197 for a list) and other periodicals. He published with L. Agassiz the _Principles of Zoology_ (2nd ed. 1851); he edited the _Terrestrial and Air-breathing Mollusks_ (1851-1855) of Amos Binney (1803-1847); he translated Lamarck's _Genera of Shells_. The two most important monuments to his scientific work, however, are _Mollusca and Shells_ (vol. xii., 1852) of the United States exploring expedition (1838-1842) under Lieutenant Charles Wilkes (1833), published by the government, and the _Report on the Invertebrata_ published by order of the legislature of Massachusetts in 1841. A second edition of the latter work was authorized in 1865, and published in 1870 after the author's death, which took place at Boston on the 15th of September 1866. Gould was a corresponding member of all the prominent American scientific societies, and of many of those of Europe, including the London Royal Society.

GOULD, BENJAMIN APTHORP (1824-1896), American astronomer, a son of Benjamin Apthorp Gould (1787-1859), principal of the Boston Latin school, was born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the 27th of September 1824. Having graduated at Harvard College in 1844, he studied mathematics and astronomy under C. F. Gauss at Gottingen, and returned to America in 1848. From 1852 to 1867 he was in charge of the longitude department of the United States coast survey; he developed and organized the service, was one of the first to determine longitudes by telegraphic means, and employed the Atlantic cable in 1866 to establish longitude-relations between Europe and America. The _Astronomical Journal_ was founded by Gould in 1849; and its publication, suspended in 1861, was resumed by him in 1885. From 1855 to 1859 he acted as director of the Dudley observatory at Albany, New York; and published in 1859 a discussion of the places and proper motions of circumpolar stars to be used as standards by the United States coast survey. Appointed in 1862 actuary to the United States sanitary commission, he issued in 1869 an important volume of _Military and Anthropological Statistics_. He fitted up in 1864 a private observatory at Cambridge, Mass.; but undertook in 1868, on behalf of the Argentine republic, to organize a national observatory at Cordoba; began to observe there with four assistants in 1870, and completed in 1874 his _Uranometria Argentina_ (published 1879) for which he received in 1883 the gold medal of the Royal Astronomical Society. This was followed by a zone-catalogue of 73,160 stars (1884), and a general catalogue (1885) compiled from meridian observations of 32,448 stars. Gould's measurements of L. M. Rutherfurd's photographs of the Pleiades in 1866 entitle him to rank as a pioneer in the use of the camera as an instrument of precision; and he secured at Cordoba 1400 negatives of southern star-clusters, the reduction of which occupied the closing years of his life. He returned in 1885 to his home at Cambridge, where he died on the 26th of November 1896.

See _Astronomical Journal_, No. 389; _Observatory_, xx. 70 (same notice abridged); _Science_ (Dec. 18, 1896, S. C. Chandler); _Astrophysical Journal_, v. 50; _Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Society_, lvii. 218.

GOULD, SIR FRANCIS CARRUTHERS (1844- ), English caricaturist and politician, was born in Barnstaple on the 2nd of December 1844. Although in early youth he showed great love of drawing, he began life in a bank and then joined the London Stock Exchange, where he constantly sketched the members and illustrated important events in the financial world; many of these drawings were reproduced by lithography and published for private circulation. In 1879 he began the regular illustration of the Christmas numbers of _Truth_, and in 1887 he became a contributor to the _Pall Mall Gazette_, transferring his allegiance to the _Westminster Gazette_ on its foundation and subsequently acting as assistant editor. Among his independent publications are _Who killed Cock Robin?_ (1897), _Tales told in the Zoo_ (1900), two volumes of _Froissart's Modern Chronicles, told and pictured by F. C. Gould_ (1902 and 1903), and _Picture Politics_--a periodical reprint of his _Westminster Gazette_ cartoons, one of the most noteworthy implements of political warfare in the armoury of the Liberal party. Frequently grafting his ideas on to subjects taken freely from _Uncle Remus_, _Alice in Wonderland_, and the works of Dickens and Shakespeare, Sir F. C. Gould used these literary vehicles with extraordinary dexterity and point, but with a satire that was not unkind and with a vigour from which bitterness, virulence and cynicism were notably absent. He was knighted in 1906.

GOULD, JAY (1836-1892), American financier, was born in Roxbury, Delaware county, New York, on the 27th of May 1836. He was brought up on his father's farm, studied at Hobart Academy, and though he left school in his sixteenth year, devoted himself assiduously thereafter to private study, chiefly of mathematics and surveying, at the same time keeping books for a blacksmith for his board. For a short time he worked for his father in the hardware business; in 1852-1856 he worked as a surveyor in preparing maps of Ulster, Albany and Delaware counties in New York, of Lake and Geauga counties in Ohio, and of Oakland county in Michigan, and of a projected railway line between Newburgh and Syracuse, N.Y. An ardent anti-renter in his boyhood and youth, he wrote _A History of Delaware County and the Border Wars of New York, containing a Sketch of the Early Settlements in the County, and A History of the Late Anti-Rent Difficulties in Delaware_ (Roxbury, 1856). He then engaged in the lumber and tanning business in western New York, and in banking at Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania. In 1863 he married Miss Helen Day Miller, and through her father, Daniel S. Miller, he was appointed manager of the Rensselaer & Saratoga railway, which he bought up when it was in a very bad condition, and skilfully reorganized; in the same way he bought and reorganized the Rutland & Washington railway, from which he ultimately realized a large profit. In 1859 he removed to New York City, where he became a broker in railway stocks, and in 1868 he was elected president of the Erie railway, of which by shrewd strategy he and James Fisk, Jr. (q.v.), had gained control in July of that year. The management of the road under his control, and especially the sale of $5,000,000 of fraudulent stock in 1868-1870, led to litigation begun by English bondholders, and Gould was forced out of the company in March 1872 and compelled to restore securities valued at about $7,500,000. It was during his control of the Erie that he and Fisk entered into a league with the Tweed Ring, they admitted Tweed to the directorate of the Erie, and Tweed in turn arranged favourable legislation for them at Albany. With Tweed, Gould was cartooned by Nast in 1869. In October 1871 Gould was the chief bondsman of Tweed when the latter was held in $1,000,000 bail. With Fisk in August 1869 he began to buy gold in a daring attempt to "corner" the market, his hope being that, with the advance in price of gold, wheat would advance to such a price that western farmers would sell, and there would be a consequent great movement of breadstuffs from West to East, which would result in increased freight business for the Erie road. His speculations in gold, during which he attempted through President Grant's brother-in-law, A. H. Corbin, to influence the president and his secretary General Horace Porter, culminated in the panic of "Black Friday," on the 24th of September 1869, when the price of gold fell from 162 to 135.

Gould gained control of the Union Pacific, from which in 1883 he withdrew after realizing a large profit. Buying up the stock of the Missouri Pacific he built up, by means of consolidations, reorganizations, and the construction of branch lines, the "Gould System" of railways in the south-western states. In 1880 he was in virtual control of 10,000 miles of railway, about one-ninth of the railway mileage of the United States at that time. Besides, he obtained a controlling interest in the Western Union Telegraph Company, and after 1881 in the elevated railways in New York City, and was intimately connected with many of the largest railway financial operations in the United States for the twenty years following 1868. He died of consumption and of mental strain on the 2nd of December 1892, his fortune at that time being estimated at $72,000,000; all of this he left to his own family.

His eldest son, GEORGE JAY GOULD (b. 1864), was prominent also as an owner and manager of railways, and became president of the Little Rock & Fort Smith railway (1888), the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railway (1893), the International & Great Northern railway (1893), the Missouri Pacific railway (1893), the Texas & Pacific railway (1893), and the Manhattan Railway Company (1892); he was also vice-president and director of the Western Union Telegraph Company. It was under his control that the Wabash system became transcontinental and secured an Atlantic port at Baltimore; and it was he who brought about a friendly alliance between the Gould and the Rockefeller interests.

The eldest daughter, HELEN MILLER GOULD (b. 1868), became widely known as a philanthropist, and particularly for her generous gifts to American army hospitals in the war with Spain in 1898 and for her many contributions to New York University, to which she gave $250,000 for a library in 1895 and $100,000 for a Hall of Fame in 1900.

GOUNOD, CHARLES FRANCOIS (1818-1893), French composer, was born in Paris on the 17th of June 1818, the son of F. L. Gounod, a talented painter. He entered the Paris Conservatoire in 1836, studied under Reicha, Halevy and Lesueur, and won the "Grand Prix de Rome" in 1839. While residing in the Eternal City he devoted much of his time to the study of sacred music, notably to the works of Palestrina and Bach. In 1843 he went to Vienna, where a "requiem" of his composition was performed. On his return to Paris he tried in vain to find a publisher for some songs he had written in Rome. Having become organist to the chapel of the "Missions Etrangeres," he turned his thoughts and mind to religious music. At that time he even contemplated the idea of entering into holy orders. His thoughts were, however, turned to more mundane matters when, through the intervention of Madame Viardot, the celebrated singer, he received a commission to compose an opera on a text by Emile Augier for the Academie Nationale de Musique. _Sapho_, the work in question, was produced in 1851, and if its success was not very great, it at least sufficed to bring the composer's name to the fore. Some critics appeared to consider this work as evidence of a fresh departure in the style of dramatic music, and Adolphe Adam, the composer, who was also a musical critic, attributed to Gounod the wish to revive the system of musical declamation invented by Gluck. The fact was that _Sapho_ differed in some respects from the operatic works of the period, and was to a certain extent in advance of the times. When it was revived at the Paris Opera in 1884, several additions were made by the composer to the original score, not altogether to its advantage, and _Sapho_ once more failed to attract the public. Gounod's second dramatic attempt was again in connexion with a classical subject, and consisted in some choruses written for _Ulysse_, a tragedy by Ponsard, played at the Theatre Francais in 1852, when the orchestra was conducted by Offenbach. The composer's next opera, _La Nonne sanglante_, given at the Paris Opera in 1854, was a failure.

Goethe's _Faust_ had for years exercised a strong fascination over Gounod, and he at last determined to turn it to operatic account. The performance at a Paris theatre of a drama on the same subject delayed the production of his opera for a time. In the meanwhile he wrote in a few months the music for an operatic version of Moliere's comedy, _Le Medecin malgre lui_, which was produced at the Theatre Lyrique in 1858. Berlioz well described this charming little work when he wrote of it, "Everything is pretty, piquant, fluent, in this 'opera comique'; there is nothing superfluous and nothing wanting." The first performance of _Faust_ took place at the Theatre Lyrique on the 19th of March 1859. Goethe's masterpiece had already been utilized for operatic purposes by various composers, the most celebrated of whom was Spohr. The subject had also inspired Schumann, Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner, to mention only a few, and the enormous success of Gounod's opera did not deter Boito from writing his _Mefistofele_. _Faust_ is without doubt the most popular French opera of the second half of the 19th century. Its success has been universal, and nowhere has it achieved greater vogue than in the land of Goethe. For years it remained the recognized type of modern French opera. At the time of its production in Paris it was scarcely appreciated according to its merits. Its style was too novel, and its luscious harmonies did not altogether suit the palates of those dilettanti who still looked upon Rossini as the incarnation of music. Times have indeed changed, and French composers have followed the road opened by Gounod, and have further developed the form of the lyrical drama, adopting the theories of Wagner in a manner suitable to their national temperament. Although in its original version _Faust_ contained spoken dialogue, and was divided into set pieces according to custom, yet it differed greatly from the operas of the past. Gounod had not studied the works of German masters such as Mendelssohn and Schumann in vain, and although his own style is eminently Gallic, yet it cannot be denied that much of its charm emanates from a certain poetic sentimentality which seems to have a Teutonic origin. Certainly no music such as his had previously been produced by any French composer. Auber was a gay trifler, scattering his bright effusions with absolute _insouciance_, teeming with melodious ideas, but lacking depth. Berlioz, a musical Titan, wrestled against fate with a superhuman energy, and, Jove-like, subjugated his hearers with his thunderbolts. It was, however, reserved for Gounod to introduce _la note tendre_, to sing the tender passion in accents soft and languorous. The musical language employed in _Faust_ was new and fascinating, and it was soon to be adopted by many other French composers, certain of its idioms thereby becoming hackneyed. Gounod's opera was given in London in 1863, when its success, at first doubtful, became enormous, and it was heard concurrently at Covent Garden and Her Majesty's theatres. Since then it has never lost its popularity.

Although the success of _Faust_ in Paris was at first not so great as might have been expected, yet it gradually increased and set the seal on Gounod's fame. The fortunate composer now experienced no difficulty in finding an outlet for his works, and the succeeding decade is a specially important one in his career. The opera from his pen which came after Faust was _Philemon et Baucis_, a setting of the mythological tale in which the composer followed the traditions of the Opera Comique, employing spoken dialogue, while not abdicating the individuality of his own style. This work was produced at the Theatre Lyrique in 1860. It has repeatedly been heard in London. _La Reine de Saba_, a four-act opera, produced at the Grand Opera on the 28th of February 1862, was altogether a far more ambitious work. For some reason it did not meet with success, although the score contains some of Gounod's choicest inspirations, notably the well-known air, "Lend me your aid." _La Reine de Saba_ was adapted for the English stage under the name of _Irene_. The non-success of this work proved a great disappointment to Gounod, who, however, set to work again, and this time with better results, _Mireille_, the fruit of his labours, being given for the first time at the Theatre Lyrique on the 19th of March 1864. Founded upon the _Mireio_ of the Provencal poet Mistral, _Mireille_ contains much charming and characteristic music. The libretto seems to have militated against its success, and although several revivals have taken place and various modifications and alterations have been made in the score, yet _Mireille_ has never enjoyed a very great vogue. Certain portions of this opera have, however, been popularized in the concert-room. _La Colombe_, a little opera in two acts without pretension, deserves mention here. It was originally heard at Baden in 1860, and subsequently at the Opera Comique. A suavely melodious _entr'acte_ from this little work has survived and been repeatedly performed.

Animated with the desire to give a pendant to his _Faust_, Gounod now sought for inspiration from Shakespeare, and turned his attention to _Romeo and Juliet_. Here, indeed, was a subject particularly well calculated to appeal to a composer who had so eminently qualified himself to be considered the musician of the tender passion. The operatic version of the Shakespearean tragedy was produced at the Theatre Lyrique on the 27th of April 1867. It is generally considered as being the composer's second best opera. Some people have even placed it on the same level as _Faust_, but this verdict has not found general acceptance. Gounod himself is stated to have expressed his opinion of the relative value of the two operas enigmatically by saying, "_Faust_ is the oldest, but I was younger; _Romeo_ is the youngest, but I was older." The luscious strains wedded to the love scenes, if at times somewhat cloying, are generally in accord with the situations, often irresistibly fascinating, while always absolutely individual. The success of _Romeo_ in Paris was great from the outset, and eventually this work was transferred to the Grand Opera, after having for some time formed part of the repertoire of the Opera Comique. In London it was not until the part of Romeo was sung by Jean de Reszke that this opera obtained any real hold upon the English public.

After having so successfully sought for inspiration from Moliere, Goethe and Shakespeare, Gounod now turned to another famous dramatist, and selected Pierre Corneille's _Polyeucte_ as the subject of his next opera. Some years were, however, to elapse before this work was given to the public. The Franco-German War had broken out, and Gounod was compelled to take refuge in London, where he composed the "biblical elegy" _Gallia_ for the inauguration of the Royal Albert Hall. During his stay in London Gounod composed a great deal and wrote a number of songs to English words, many of which have attained an enduring popularity, such as "Maid of Athens," "There is a green hill far away," "Oh that we two were maying," "The fountain mingles with the river." His sojourn in London was not altogether pleasant, as he was embroiled in lawsuits with publishers. On Gounod's return to Paris he hurriedly set to music an operatic version of Alfred de Vigny's _Cinq-Mars_, which was given at the Opera Comique on the 5th of April 1877 (and in London in 1900), without obtaining much success. _Polyeucte_, his much-cherished work, appeared at the Grand Opera the following year on the 7th of October, and did not meet with a better fate. Neither was Gounod more fortunate with _Le Tribut de Zamora_, his last opera, which, given on the same stage in 1881, speedily vanished, never to reappear. In his later dramatic works he had, unfortunately, made no attempt to keep up with the times, preferring to revert to old-fashioned methods.

The genius of the great composer was, however, destined to assert itself in another field--that of sacred music. His friend Camille Saint-Saens, in a volume entitled _Portraits et Souvenirs_, writes:

Gounod did not cease all his life to write for the church, to accumulate masses and motetts; but it was at the commencement of his career, in the _Messe de Sainte Cecile_, and at the end, in the oratorios _The Redemption and Mors et vita_, that he rose highest.